chemical composition of portuguese dinheiros
TRANSCRIPT
l'--
coins, which, most probably, correspond to different issues. Thus, an attemptwâs made to identify homogeneous populations, which led to theindividualization of those indicated in Appendix 2 with the corresponding
averuge concentrations of the elements considered.
TABTE II
NUMBER OF ANALYSEDSPECIMENS
ESÏMATE OF EXTANTSPECIMENS
ABCDEF
GHIJKaKbIALbMNPRa
PRblPRb2
PRc
DNaDNbDNcDNdDNe
I
,3
tr1)2
7
,2
6
o
r)1
10
18
t210
6
10
6
1
1
23
3029
t2ll,38
<10> 100
<10< 100
<20> 100
> 200<20
> 100
<20> 1,000> 1,000
< 300< 200< r00
Silaer contenls
The task of interpreting the analytical results can logically be begun byinserting them into a chronological frame, and seeing how they fit with theassumed seriation. Thus, considering that the attributions of the coin types ofthe dinlteiro series to the different reigns which was proposed by Ferraro Vaz"in 1960 have been endorsed by most Portuguese numismatists, it was decided
348
I
b r€ePt provisionally those attributions, and ro plot the silver conrents of theqrm€ns representing the different typorogical;r"p; r;inst the periods ofproduction to which th.v *"r. ascribéà.byi...io i^r-(F;g 3 and, 4),. cursory glanceat Fig. j and 4 indicates ,trt, ttrorgfiour the period ofocarly wo and
" h{ centuries during which the dinheifo series was issued,the corresponding coins were progresiively debased froÀ ,bo.rt 2) per centsih'er.rovirtually pure copper. È,rrih.r,
" .ior. inspection oi the graphs crearlyreveals rhat the broad evoiution of the process of debasemenr was uûeven, asüey presenr rwo major negative dàections, ;il1,--;;".ate the coinsanributed to Afonso. rr .(rin-23) from ttor. ,*rlt,rËa ,o sancho II(.1223'48), and the coins issued by pedro l olll-àii iÀ,' rnor. irr,r.J ufFernando r (1367-83.). The first nrlo, a.urr.-."i ur."gllrr. fineness from
*y, 17 per cenr silver ro about g p., ..rr, silver; *i,r, ,rr.'r..oîîi"..'"1 udinbeiro, which was until then being minted in bi,on ".-r;;;; **'#: Iwas transformed in a copper coin. '-^ --^'- ^"^" I
on the other hand, rhe separate consideration of the data concerning thesilver contents of the coins usuiily aftribured to each ,.ig, ,;ppties additionarinformation, which can be sumÀarized as follows:
a) The concenrrations of silver which were found for one. specimen ofttPe A and two specimens. of type E, that ir r o1Àï À. .oi.r, usua,yattributed to Afonso .Henriques"'*hi.i, were analysed, cluster in a ratherlimited range of variation 1r$ 5, à,-Ara marter of fact, if calculated for therhree coins as " ,*h,ol1, aî" ,r.rrg. concentration of silver and thecorresponding standard deviation are, respecrively, 22.5 and 2.6 per cent,which indicates a small dispersion. Ho*.r.., it is obvious that no definiteconclusions can be drawn from such a small sample .
b) +t regards thc silver contenrs, the dara obtained from the coins whichare usually attributed to. Sancho I eypes !:-..g: *i ,l r*g. ,frrorgh a verywide scale of concenrrations @rg. ),"'bl. whilst ,t. ,p..rrri*s belonging totypes F and G have silver co.nrenit .r.,gi.,g from 2r. es ; il. ,î per cenr, rhoseof type Fr cluster tr.,y^o distinct g.""pr: of which th. ,au..1onrenrs range,respectively' from lr'43 to 9.25 per.à.rt, and from 3.7j to o.24per cenr.
c) on the contrar-y, the coins usualry attributed to Afonso rr (types I andf seem to have conformed to.,a singrÉ fineness rrr.rir.J-o., ar reasr, rostandards which were nor very differerrlfro- each other (Fig. 5, c). rnfact,ifcalculated for both types as a whole, the average concentrarion of silver andthe.corresponding standard deviation.., r.rp..,ively, 17 and. t.4l per cenr,which is a rather smarl range of deviation from the cenrral value .
t
t
d) Vlith the coins usually attributed to Sancho II (types K to PR), the
range of variation is somewhat wiàer (Fig. 5 , d) , Even if we put aside a coin ofrype Lb with virtually no silver - which may be a contemporary forgery -the silver contents range from 9.34to 4.04 pu cent, with no definite pattefns
discernible for the different types involved. However, the bimodalconfiguration of the histogram suggests the possibility that two basic fineness
standards, of about 8 and nearly 5 per cent silver, may have been used.
a) The coins issued from the reign of Afonso iII to the reign of Pedro Iinclusive (types DNa to DNd) seem to have been minted according to a single
fineness standard (Fig. 5, e-/t). Although significant differences in silver
contents between individual .specimens issued during each reign strongly
suggest that quality control \Mas rather loose, the aYerage values which were
calculated (Tabte III) prove that the legal fineness, which is known fromwritten soufces, was obeyed from 1260 (the date of the first issue of Afonso
III) to 1367 (the date of Pedro I's death).
TABLE III
REIGNi TYPE LEGAL FINENESSoh Ag (a)
o/o AgMEAN+S. D. (/)
ÿI
Afonso III/DNaDinis/DNbAfonrc IV/DNcPedro I/DNd
8.338.338.318.13
8.13 + 1.148.11+ 1.01
8.44+r.9'8.17 *1.20
As calculated from information suppüed by written sources.
As calculated from the experimental data.
l) During the reign of Fernaodo I, silver seems to have virtually vanished
from the Portuguese dinlteiros (Fig. ), i), for the mean concentlation of thatmetal and the corresponding staûdard deviation, as calculated for six
specimens analysed, ate , respectively, 0.17 and 0.06 per cent. The actual silver
contents stand, therefore, at much lower levels than the 2.78per cent, whichis indicated by the chronicler Fernâo Lopes as being the fineness of the
Fernando l' s dinbeiros.
(a)(b)
350
-\ir-rrrdr aferarccs
l[ç srrmismatic inferences to be drawn from the data which were§rypücd br the chemical analyses of the 122 dinlteiros can be conveniently
'ti.',§cd uoder the headings (a) fineness standards, (b) attrrbutions, (c)dcnominations, and ({ issues.
la) Hneness standards. As stated above, a caqeful consideration of*zrLticallv significant differences in composition led to the separation ofsom€ t.ypologically identical coins into a series of chemically distinct groups, ofshich the characteristics are indicated in Appendix 2, and the data concerningsilver contents are those summarized in Tab/e IV.
Because the main purpose of that task was the identification of differentbzues - or, less probably, batches .- bearing the same types, and eventuallyconforming to thesame fineness standard, it is obvious that it had to be basednot only on the concentrations of silver but also on the concentrations of theother constituents of the alloys, in particular on those of zinc. That is therezrson why some groups which appe r as individualized entitie s in Table 2,
besides being identical from a typological point of view, are also identical as
regards silver contents.
TABLE IV
GROUP NUMBEROF COINS
o/o Ag GROUPNUMBER
OF COINSo/o Ag
AE
F.1F.2GH.1H.2H.1H.4I
JKbLbMNPRa
22.8022.2921 .181r.10rr.7410. 30
3.r71.11
0.24r7 .27
15.59
7.81ô.ô /
7.927.0'7 .18
PR b.1PR b.2.1PR b.2.2PRcDN a.1DN a.2DN b.lDN b.2DN c.1DN c.2DN c.3DN d.1DN d.2DN e.1
DNe.2DNe.1
1 .t38.464.907 .08
t0.667.82
t1.327.92
14.rr8.12
5.929.337.630.210.110.20
I2
1
2
3
11
5
1
3)
7
2
2
6
6
2
5
8
1
2
8
It7
1
10
1
,,2
))
351
- The interpretation of the silver contents of the anarysed coins in terms oftrneness standards to which th. urrio.r, issues confor-.d prou.s difficurt oreven impossibre for some groupr, .rrt., u..rrr.-,rr.'.'Jrî"rponding sampresare smail or because there i-s a reratively *ia. à6p..;;;;i individuar values.Nevertheless, bv articurating the àrir.o...rning some groups, which, even ifdiffering in pariicurarr ,r. i"Jor-Jüly connecled b";;-i;- the typologicar
trilh'fiîï:],îal points oi-ui''i, it seemed ,;;;'to worË'out-the
L The coins belonging to types A ?!d E,that is ro say, representing twoout of five tvpes usually atlriu"iéa ,.-aiàr; ffird.r','l;.- to have beenstruck in a,oys having's,ver concentrations not far ir"À ,n average, whichstands,ar neaily zz'5 §rr-.rrnt *r"r, .àlsidering rrr* iÀi, rrgure is equivarentto the rather awkward fineness "r;;;ri;;- à.ïr.ïr'Ji" iT grrinr, ir seemsreasonabre ro assume rhar, even ir "., irrirrr"rri"ï;Ë,:lh. t.g"t finenesswhich was defined for the .";;.;rJng issues may we, have been threedeniers' unfortunatetv, it *r. n"i"o;i.,;;ïri;rJ rlr'i, the exceedingryrare specimens of the th.ree other type, attrib.rr.J;;;Ë;r-. u,r*. However,the fact remains that, for tt. f,or'r'ti..re, experimentrt.uid.rrce is availabreproving rhat some 9f the irru., oiafo.rro Hàriques (*à ;i those for whichevidence is availabre) were minreaïil'nr,.r,.;;;i;#il,iî.. a"ni.rs or, arleast, well above that of two d.ri.rr. 1,.r. ;";;;;;; * believe thatthe other issues were struck at the finenes.of one denier, which, with nosupporting evidence, has been ,aurr..à for the ai""-Ë."riques, din/teirosrn numismatic writings.
2. In contrast with the types artrrbu_ted to Afonso Henriques thoseusually a*ribured to Sancho I'(rrp; 'F,^9,^:d
Afîipf", an impressivevariety of s,ver conrenrs, rangini'from .2r.3g n5, ...,. [.r'rhe singre coinrepresenting group F..1.) to o.zZ pé, cent (in
:h,: ,,,,gËr'"i,_.n representinggroup H.4).Intermediate figurei are those of tr_rOl ro, i,'^ra i.3 per cent,which were catculated for, Ërp..riuJyl1n. ,p".i_î !.;";f ;*res F.2 and. G,H, t, H.2, and H.3. Conreqr.ntty, .'r...p, ihe attributirî;i all these coinsto Sancho I imolies ,.."pùrrg ,'.rr.J. àr a"urr.*;;;;;r_g his reign,which is difficuri to ...ori,. îirr, *rrr, ,eems ro h"u. b..,
" long period ofpolitical and social stability.
Ir happens that Tlpe'H appears as an odd crearion, which does not fitwell in any srage of ih. ,ypoio'gi."r àirrio.r.of the portuguese dinheiros.But, considering the "br.r.è "r - i"iiiricross in th. obu.rr.'Lg.na and thequarrering of the reverse.leq_end, tlpe Èn, t.tt.r;;^rh*. types whichwere undoubtedly issued uyt"".r,o ir, *ii.r, disp6 ia""riï"î.r,aracreristics,
352
;ot:OT
rles
les.
oukaithe
EO
]enic I:en:
II:CSS
ree
gler
ble
ich
a:
1at
no7cs
-j-: ;,:-t ::--.: e':ich seem reailv to have been produced during the reign of:;---r, - -: l.:j. s\-sremaricalll , an initial cross in the obverse legend, and
-r--.::::-:::: :e'.erse legends. Besides, the relative abundance of extant
=.--=-.,,, ::.'.es rhar r1pe,F1 coins were produced in large quantities, as is':-. -: ::. .--ins of Sancho II, but not of rhose attributable to Sancho I, nor of--.: -.ii-:s :f hi-s successor Afonso IL Finally, the evidence from finds, even if.-r:. rgrees berrer wirh the attribution of type H to Sancho IL
I::ere are . therefore, some good reasons for the attribution of type H to:.:.-:.-. il. and rhe fact is that, by accepting it, the task of interpreting the::.,,:.::a:r evolution during the reign of Sancho I becomes much easier: thisr-:ri *.uid have started his coinage withtype f minted at approximately rhe,-::-r ineness as that which had been adopted during the preceding reign;,.:: F 1;: rhen, even if keeping the same type, he would have decided to:::-.e rhe fineness to about 15-16 per cent (group F.2); andfinally, he would:-'-,ç i55uscl a new type (rype G), but keeping the fineness standard ar the'.::e level as in the intermediate period. If this was acrually the case, sancho- , coinage started by conforming to an official fineness of 3 or 2 z/q deniers,.:j then to an official standard of, probably, 2 deniers.
J. The coins usually attributed to Afonso II(tÿes I and) seem to have:;e n minted at the same fineness as those of the last period of the preceding:::Ên. that is to say, in compliance with an official standard of two deniers.
4. As rcgards the coins of Sancho II, it is importanr ro remember rhar
'--,me of them bear the king's name in the nominative forms Sancius or:;nciu, whereas others bear that name in the genitive form Sancii, This led to:re hvpothesis that the first (types K, L, M, and N) were issued during theperiod of Sancho's effective government (1223-46), whereas those bearing therame in genitive form would have been issued, from 1246 to L248, by hiscrother Afonso, count of Boulogne by marriage, in his capacity of procurator'egni (tlpes PR a, PR b, andPR c), Besides, the above considerationsonrypeH rmply that it has to be included in a discussion of the Sancho II's coinage .
Interestingly, among the groups to be considered, those represenringl,pe H include the coins with highest (10.3 per cent) and the lowest (0.24percent) concentrations of silver. And, even if discarding the last figure, whicht'as found in a single specimen (group H,4), one still has to deal with coinshaving silver contents which vary from 10.3 per cent(groap H,1, 5 specimens)to 1.3 per cert (group H.3, 5 specimens). On the other hand, theconcentrations of silver of the types which were cerrainly issued during theSancho II's reign vary from about 8.) per cent to nearly 6.5 per cent, with thesole exception of group PR b,2,2, which is nearly I per cent. This is an
)se
n'e
rinngtt.G,
JIS
p.of
fit)J,
he
chL§.
23
-
extremely complex medley of data, which cannot be convincingly
disentaniled at present, but fits with a period of bewildering anarchy, Yhi.!.or..rpoid, ,o , lrrg. part of Sancho IIls reign, followed by another of civil
*rr, ïh.., the king -was
considered unable to rule, and his brother's
,.r'thority, imposed Ëy the pope, was not peacefully accepted all over the
kingdom."Nerertheless, always assuming that Type.Ë1 was created and exclusively
used by Sancho II, the anzlytical data suggest that this sovereign may have
U.gr,'hi, .oi.r"g. with that iype, which seems to have been originally issued
atî fineness oflbort l rtq, d,iniers (group H.1, with silver contents of 10.3
per cent on averâge). when ,s6io,-political, and certainly also economic
iroblems "ror., Sri.Éo II will have been compelled to debase the currency,
Ly lowering the fineness to about one denier (groups K b, M, and N) or even
iéu krou{l b). The same llneness of about one denier was probably adopted
by the piocurator regni ina first period of his regency (groups PR a, PR b.1,
*a pi< b.2.1), As "the
civil war dragged on, new debasements may have
proved ,r...rr*ry, and so the count of Boulogne may have issued the coins of
g.o"p PR b.2.2, which seem to have been minted at the standard of half a
â.rri.r, as rhe silver conrents of the representing specimens is_4.9 per cent on
zy..jfage. And, remembering that CoiÀbra, which was a traditional minting
plr..l stood as the last bltion of those who refused accept the count's
authority, it seems reasonable to admit that sancho's suppoftefs may have
kept thé minr ar work, to supply with_ money the zones they controlled.
Aà.rg with this line of thoughi,-comes the idea that they may have returned
;rh; old, type H of good -é-ory, and this would explain the appearance of
debased coins bearin[ this type (groups H,2 ar,d H,3, with, respectively, 3.2
and 1.3 per cenr silvér on auerage), and even of similar coins of almost pure
.opp.r- (group H.4) which *o.rld leplesent a sott of obsidional coinage ,
-i.rt.d ii , .i y which was besieged for a rather long period.
These ,.., bf course, ,ro ,notè than reasonable guesses, and one can only
frop. Àæ, some day, a fortunate series of finds -carefully
studied from the
g.âg.rplri."l, archaéological, typological, and metrological points of view --ry UË used to reconsrrict, o., ,àrrrÀ.t gtounds, the complex evolution of the
Sancho II's coinage.
J. From the reign of Afonso III onwards' documentary and narrative
sources supply ,o-à i.rformation on the metrology of the Portuguese
dinbeiros . T-h. u.ty first data are those supplie d by a royal decree , dated t Z6 t ,
and concern the legal fineness and weight of the dinlteiro noao (new denier),
which had been created in l260.In that document, the king promises that
the fineness of one denier and the weight of t6 grains would be kept in future
354
I
:i§-a :r:': :.-; :'. :.:::sfl- bur a.lso bv his successors. The extant evidence:r--= :;.: :r:i:: i:,: ::i:n,-r differences in weight, that promise was to hold-i:-- ::.: ::_i-_ :: ?:::: ] rnclusir.e.
r-: :-i::- ::r'.'e ,.et Suter contents, e), the analytical data which were'-': -:: -: ::-: s:'.;i'.' no*'reporred also confirmed that notion, as the average
"-' :: ::,.-:=:! ani'h s'ere calculated for the dinbeiro: noaos issued byAfonso
-:'-::: .:-i::iarJ ot one denier. It is true that the silver contents of a few- :- -: :-.h reign proved significantly different from the corresponding
i' ::r:: '.;--:e. bur. taking into account the low frequencies of such deviations,: i::=*r s-i.e ro admit that they reflect poor quality control rarher than--i:.:ï :a .:andard.
: §-irh Fernando I t.he dinbeiro was drastically debased, ro rhe point of-.- -::r:ns. rirtuallv. a copper coin. Conrrary ro what happened with the series;:-,.iei bv Gomes Marques and Carter, the series now examined did not:-'---:lt anv specimens with concentrations of silver close to a fineness of g
::, ::. l.-8 per cent silver), which is indicated by the chronicler Fernâo Lopes:.: Fernando I's din/tez'ros. Thus, it seems safe to assume that the issues::.::rced in compliance with, or close to that fineness were very small. An::;:cting detail of Fernando I's dinlteiro.i is their high zinc contents, which:-iiest the use of brass in the prepararion of the corresponding alloys,::,:ablv with the purpose of giving a better appearance to the coins.
i, -lttibutions, The chemical compositions of the coins are generally of-::ie help in deciding on attributions. However, by drawing attenrion to3âreements with metrological data supplied by written sources, or by:roviding evidence that the fineness of a given issue does not fit well with thelatural' evolution of the coinage to which it belongs, analytical studies may--ccasionally contribute to decide on controversial attributions, particularlyehile hoard evidence is scarce or even utterly lacking.
As regards the coin types so far analysed, no reasons were found, excepr-c the case of type H, to reject yhe attributions that, following Ferraro Yaztt,have usually been accepted for the Portuguese dinlteiro.r. As a matrer of fact,:he concentrations of silver revealed by the different groups of coins of that:i-pe do not agree with the usual attribution to Sancho I, as they srand at:nuch lower levels than those of the other types which seem to have beenssued by Sancho I, and also than those of the coins which were issued duringborh the preceding and the following reign. Besides, as stared above, thedifferences in fineness between those groups indicate an evolution dominated
by a series of severe debasements, which is difficult to reconcile with the
stability which seems to have characterized the socio-political climate of the
Sancho I's reign. Thus, there are good reasons to attribute fype H to Sancho
II, which means a feturn to an attribution that, even if only tentatively, was
already proposed by Teixeira de Aragâol for these controversial coins.
(c) Denominations, The billon coins produced in conformity with the
typological pattefn adopted by Afonso III in 1260 wefe named dinbeiros
nàaos (new deniers), in order to differentiate them from the coins ofpreviousissues, which were kept in circulation, and began then to be known by the
name of dinheiros aelltos (old deniers). But, whilst the dinbeiros noaos, withsimilar ayreragr- weights and diameters, form a quite uniform population, the
extant coins of previous issues display considerable differences in weight and
diameter from type to type, and it seems reasonable to admit that they mightrepresent two different denominations, some of the types being true
dinlteiros, whereas other types might well be mealbas (half-deniers).
However, because of the wide weight variation within each type, the less
important but still pfesent diameter variation, and also, until very recently,
our almost complete ignorance of the finenesses, numismatists have
experienced the greatest difficulties in identifying two denominations.
Nevertheless, on the basis of the average weights and diameters, some
authors (Teixeira de Aragâor, Ferraro Vaz") have proposed classifications ofthe coins of the din/teiro series into dinbeiros and mealhas, but they never
explained why their supposed mealltas weigh mofe than a half of the
contemporary din/teiros. Commenting on this topic at the II Symposium on
Problems of Medieval Coinage in the Iberian Area, one of the authors of the
present paper (Costa Magro6) suggested that the solution for such discrepancy
would probably be offered by chemical analyses, revealing that the rnealbas
were struck in alloys pooref than those used for minting dinheiros. However,
the data obtained do not confirm that idea, as the silver concentrations of the
coins supposed to be meal/tas proved identical to those of the presumably
conremporary dinlteiros. A typicd example is that of the coins of !l!e n,
r.rpporêd to be rnealltas, and of 4pe â, which are undoubtedly dinlteiros
issued during the same reign.Even if the small numbers of specimens which can be compared do not
authorize definite conclusions, the truth is that the data now available pointto alternative explanations, such as that of a devaluation, performed, duringAfonso Henriques' reign, by reducing the weight of the dinlteiro. Such a
hypothesis implies that ljtpe â, represented by extant specimens weighing0.86 g on average (based on the weights of 5 coins) would be earlier than Type
356
1
. r:{,-- :s :r:rsenied bv extant sPecimens weighing 0.i9g on average
r:ès:r -c ::.e reiÊjr;: of li coins). Admitting that both types are dinlteiros,
':Ê :ri'L-i::n-.n r-ould haçe been made by reducing the average weight by
:r.g-.'; :.î ::::i -{nd. remembering that the coins issued by Sancho I (types: ;c, G le,;e average weights which stand at the same level as tbose of type; ,: i- .:,r: rhar rhi_iking would have begun his coinage by issuing dinlteiros
à- ::-t :;,:e .tandards of weight and fineness as those of the later issues of his
:t':.t: a-tt! F.1r. During a second phase, without èhanging the type,
i;:,---,: i oould have devalued the denomination by reducing the fineness by
i--.- -: i :\ud'group F.21, and finally, in a third phase, without changing the
-r---r-,ârtâ.I standards. he would have issued dinlteiros bearing a new type
,.,.r, G ,crill developing the hypothesis, one is led to admit that Afonso IIÿ__-: har.e issued, exclusively, the basic denomination, that is to say,
. r,.::?.i, *hich would have been minted at the same standards of fineness
i:.: oerght as those produced during the second and third phases of the
:.i:::ro I's coinage. It is obvious that the logical development of a reasoning
:;..:i on the premise of the occurrence of a first devaluation during Afonso
It:.i:ques' reign also implies a reformulation of our ideas about Sancho II's.,-r-"gà. However, our presenr knowledge of this puzzling coinage is still too
.-xrficial to advance suggestions on the matter.
Besides, we should like to underline that the considerations above are no
:1.,re then working hypotheses, and that, in the light of our present
..-,,-B-ledge, the exislence of nzealltas cannor be definitively denied.
:' I:sues. A careful consideration of typological particulars, weight statistics,
;.::,i differences in chemical composition firày eventually le ad to the
::entfication of distinct issues of coins bearing the same basic typological
:alterns, and apparently conforming to similar metrological standards. That
ias the *rit p.ripose of a statistical study of the chemical compositions of the
P:,rruguese dinlriiros, which was part of the work now reported, and which
rd tà the identification of the relatively homogeneous groups listed in
.!-ipendix 2.However, the meaning of the gfoups which were identified seems to be
'.erv different in different cases. In the cases of fypes F (attributed to Sancho I),
,{ (which we attribute to Sancho II), and PR.b.2 (attributed to the period
i::ring which the count of Boulogne acted in the capacity of procurator..gnù, the differences between the groups which were identified within each
:i'pe are important enough to make one believe that those groups represent
.uccessive issues produ..à in compliance with different fineness standards.
.ind, as there ii no extant evidence contradicting such a possibility, the
I
357
hypothesis seems to be acceptable . On the contrary, differences of similarmagnitude which were found for the dinbeiros noaos (rypes DN a, DN b,
DN c, and DN d) arc difficult to accept as having the same meaning, becausethe extant written evidence indicates that throughout the long period duringwhich those types were issued, that is to say, from the reign of Afonso III tothat of Pedro I inclusive, the fineness of the dinheiro noÿowas always kept atthe initial standard of one denier. Even if it is possible to admit concealed
debasements as an explanation for the case of those groups havingconcentrations of silver under one denier, it seems highly improbable thatimprovements of the coinage would have been implemented with no formalannouncement, or that they would have been ignored by laudatorychroniclers.
Remembering that the above mentioned differences concern not only the'unimportant' elements, but also the silver contents, the hypothesis that oneis dealing with issues or batches of coins struck in alloys of differentprovenances but not intended to have different intrinsic values - which fitswell with the case of the three groups of type DN e, basically individualizedon account of the corresponding nickel contents- cannot be advanced as aplausible explanation for the case of those chemically distinct populationswhich were individu)ized within the types DN a, DN b, DN c, and DN d.
Consequently, alternative hypotheses have to be consideted, namely that ofasymmetrical distributions of silver, resulting from metallurgical techniques,
and also that of enrichments in silver resulting from extensive corrosion.The first hypothesis is based on the fact that, during the process of
cooling, the different elements of the metallic alloys do not fall in exactlyuniform distributions throughout the ingots. There is, therefore , thepossibility that small flans, such as those used in the production of thedinlteiros, may have significant differences in composition depending on thepart of the ingot from which they were cut. On the other hand, thehypothesis that enrichments in silver may explain the existence of some
specimens having silver contents well above that corresponding to the finenessof one denier seems quite acceptable if one remembers that the dinheiros are
very thin, and so that, in some casest the processes of oxidization andcorrosion may involve not only the superficial layers but the entire mass of thecoin. This means that some high silver contents may be occasionally found,and that, even if a neutron activation method is used, the analytical resultsmây not indicate the original composition of the alloys.
358
REFERENCES
Il Âr4io. Â. C. Teixeira de - Descrÿao geral e ltistôùa das moedasaàd,ts crn norc ùs reis, regentes e goaernadores de Por'tuga/. Znded - Forto. 1966.
It Bczuchcsne. F.. Barrandon,J. N., Alves, L., Gil, F. B. and Guerra, M.F- - rloo beam analysis of copper and copper alloy coinsr>, Arcltaeornetryj0 rf,t: l8--9;. 1988.
il fzrà- \1. kverim de - Notic.ias de porrugal,2nd ed., Lisboa, 1740.{l Fcrreira. G. P. and Gil, F. B. - «Elemental analysis of copper and copper
dl6s'. Anbæornetry, 23 (2): Lgg-97, I9gt.tl Iæ. P. F. - uEquivalência relativa das moedas correnres na l.^ e 2.^
Elinustirs' Namismâtica 12: 17-20, t979.6l U4rc. F. A. Costa - uConsiderations for working hypotheses on the
bilbn coins of the first four kings of Portugal», in M. Gomes Marquesand M. crusafont i sabater (eds.), Problerns of Medietol coinage in tbeIbaian Areo-2, Avilês, 1986, pp. 2tr-37.
-) Marques, M. Gomes - «Dinheiros de D. Afonso IYr>, NuruismâTica (22):9-1r. 1981
8) Marques, M. Gomes - «Politica monetâria de D. Afonso III. A rentativade saneamento de t26O>>, Filarelia. NurrzisnzâTica FN (7): 2g, (g): 27,1981
9) Marques, M. Gomes and Carter, G. F. .- <.On the metrology andchemical compositions of Portuguese dinheiros,>, in M. Gomes Marquesand M. crusafont i sabater (eds.), Problenzs of Medieoal coinage in ilteIberian Area-2, Avilés, 1986.
10) sousa, A. caetano de .- Histôria Genealôgica da caso Real porîuguesa,T. IV, 2nd ed. , Coimbra, t947.
11) Vaz, J. Ferraro - Numâ.ria medieaa/ portuguesa, Lisboa, 1960.12) Yaz, J. Ferraro .- Liaro das Moedas de Portugal, editions of tg69-lO,
1984-5, and t9g7-9.
359
CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF PORTUGUESE DINHEIROS
24.86 71.9719.72 78.49
.r9 .75 .08
.13 t.2t .07
.08
.06
.08
4F,6
2r.38 77 .3917.69 81.40t2.r0 86.63
.69 .08
.48 .06
.42 ,02
o10t09
.T4
.10
.01
.21
.18,(
7
8
9
G .t1.02.03
070906
.20
.20
.18
16.r0 82.29t6.42 82.4914.)0 84.6t
.68 .07
.76 .02
.79 .03
.06
10
11
L2
rj14
1't617
18
19
20
2l22
H 9.80 89.12
9.25 89.9r10.8' 88.6710.18 89.23tt.43 86.792.r8 96.523.7
' 9r.29
1.19 96.27r.20 98.00r.7 3 97 .4rt.19 97.681..16 97 .47.24 93.r2
.07
.07
.08
.02
.03
.03
.04
.0,
.02
.04
.01
.01
.81
.02
.02
.0t
.02
.02
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.17
.t7
.t4,21
.22
.22
.28
.26
.02
.28
.26
.19
.61
.19
.22
.ti
.19
.zq
.38
.t0
.71
.4 t-
.41
.48
..i8
.1i
.40 .03
.43 .01.0t
.r1 .02
.24 1.03 High Au
.26
.t4
.48 t.03 Zn
.28
.t2
.35
.46
.79 3.96 Zn
23
24
2'
.14
.01
.02
.11
.18
.t2
.07
.02
.02
19 .0t 79.7216.44 82.7716.32 82.98
.72 .0'
.13 .03
.13 .0
'
.t4
.20
.16
26
27
.r3
.03
.16
.11
.06
.03.21
.2116.12 82.9411.01 84.04
11 .07
49 .04
28
29
10
3r32
33
)4
.03
.01
.06
.07
.03
.03
.02
.02
.02
.10
.()4
.02
.42
.02
.2t
.23
.1t
.2t
.22
.20
.20
Kb 7.30 91.808.26 90.867.26 91.717.66 91.437.88 91.168.63 90.347.70 91.11
.27 .02
.2r .03
.13 .01
.2' .01
.22 .02
.28 .02
.18 .01
.1'
.36
.32
.33
.45
.48
36
360
PbSbNiCuL TTE -rg
,843 .02
tbl,t
06 %9t6 6- 92.t1
.03
.01.2t4/ .02
r32t
Forgery?
îII
--iE 91.188.J5 X.6;
.41 .02
.20 .01.01.01
14
4t.02 22
)A
f4§d"t:{{_i+t
-.qr 91.126. j0 92.r4,.{9 91.456.21 91.868.12 90.548.0, 91.08
.01
.02
.03
,02
.02
.01
.02
.04
.01
.04
.04
.01
.21
.22
.20
.98
.22
.22
.14
.>4
.)1
.)oao
.19
.32 .02
.32 .02
.24 .01
.3r .02
.41 .02
.18 .02
{: PR2.hr-{è{'i:
:.10 9t.639.)4 89.007.68 90.788.26 90.446.41 92.186.68 92.19
.06
.01
.03
.o4
.03
.01
.4/
.64
.65to
.66
.41
,t.01
.01
.01
.01
.r6
.24
.24,t9.1,7
.22
.57 .01
.72 .02
.60 .01
.4, .02
.52
.42 .02
-< : PRb I ) .77 8g .96
:: 8.49 90.67
.03
.03.65
.tt01
03
.40
.1978 .01 2.39 Zn24 , .03
.40
.11
.81
.r2
.76
.44
.44
.)4
.4/
.80
.57
.61
.6t
t_:
1{-\t,r,-5E
,ié,o
6,1
6:6j6'ro)
PRb2 8.r2 90.738.69 90.018.41 88.998.31 90.428.77 89.82
,.24 %.624.60 94.004.r4 94.194.04' 93.t81 .21 91.16).19 93.225.44 92.86, .33 93.00
.04
.0to1
.04
.01,04.0i.03.0t.06.06.03.01
.02
.01
.01
.01
.02
.01
.01
.01
.02
.02
.01
.23
.42
.2)
.32,(
.31
.18
.14
.26
.3850
.40
.44
.44
.46
.16
.)2
.4r
.16
.t0
.14
.4955
.t1
.t9
.02
.06
.02 L.04 Zn
.02
.0,
.01
.02
.01
.01 1.76 Zn
.01
.01
.01
.03
.03 .97 Fe971r03.34« PRc 7.08 90.22 0i
361
Sb
.07
.ro4)
.56
.34
.)7
.29
.38
.24
.30
SnAs
.07
.91
.44
.39
.3410
.6/7)
.48
.62
No. TYPE Ag Cu
67
68
69
70
7l72
71
/47t/()
Pb Au NOTE§
DNa 11.31 88.3010.02 81.r97.67 90.767 .26 90.618.06 91.1'8.76 90.177 .42 91.r47.88 91.337.92 90.997 .r9 89.40
.08
.0i
.0,
.04
.0,
.0i
.04
.0t
.01
.04
.02
.04
.02
.02
.01
.01
.01
.02
.02
.01
.t21.40.72
1.10
.03
.01
.02
.02
.03
.03
.03
.02
.02
.03 1.17 2.0
77
78
79
8081
82
83
848'86
87
8889
909r92
91
94
DNb .0t.04
. .06.04.0t.04.03
.02
.03
.02
.02
.03
.0,
.02
.03
.01
.03
.01
50
.42
.5)
.r41.11
.34
.35
.82
.t3
.)6
.66
.49
.4)
.99
.52
.)r
.71
1.06
.01
.01
.03
.01
,0i.02
01
0318(rô
.60
.r0
.46
.44
.87
.36
.)o
.52
.26
.2'
.27
.36
.38
.18
.19
.21
.40
.30
1.6t.r5
1.66t.r9
.04
.ot
.89
.70
.69
.39
.301.18.,,.32
.24
.44t.20.72
t\ .32 8' .7 6
8.40 90.047.40 89.808.61 88.718.06 89.837 .r9 90.966.91 9r.2)8.70 89.198.67 88.616.r4 92.177 .37 91.347 .56 90.137.70 90.838.96 89.407.99 90.987.74 9t.127 .81 89.9r7.68 90.16
.02
.01
.02
10
02r301
01
.02
.04
.06
.02
.03
.02
.02
.02
.03
.01
.02
.02
.02
.03
.03
.02
.03
.02
9' DNC
96
97
9899
100
101
t02103
10410t106
14.tt 84.r,7.38 90.087.94 88.677.8t s9.898.68 89.317.9r 90.087 .90 89.828.11 90.5'9.02 88.938.22 90.178. 19 90.815.92 9r.62
.26 .44
.3r 1.00
.r7 .76
.52 r.t4
.41 1.03,49 .87.t6 .99.2t .72.53 .94.44 .64.37 .r3.61 1.01
.11
.02 2.26 Zn
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
.03
.01
.04
.04
.02
.03
.03
.02
.04
.0,
.06
.07
.01
.06
.0,
.0,
.07
.42
1. 1'.14.r3.u. )(r.63
.24
.48
.42
.37
./4
.08
.03
.02
.01
.02
.01
.01
.03
.01
.02
.02
.01
362
"Try
t,:--t{ Sn Au NOTES
rIIG..u
Àc i :* i': ::::!i ia-t
-: :É s: -.i i: i': -<É
! -: i': :e- _i; :: :i- i: i, É:r- +: -.-'16
-1 -'<' t)
- i: .-.:.+l
ûj.900, .96Cr) ï.21oJ .16
0'1 .7,.u) .44.0, 1.11.0i .77.0i .37
.01 .86
.10 . t0 .03
.)0 .r7 .03
.87 .79 .03
.37 .81 .04
.33 .4, .02
.1' .57 .02
.36 .89 .01
.41 t.02 .02
.45 .44 .0418 .01
.08
.07
.02
.02
.01
.02
.01
.01
.02
.01
.01
.03
a
-:
l'-\< :/i.81./6.11
ÿ-. --9t.; i9-.4i98.16
.46 .01
.30
.22
.43 r.r455
.14 .02
.r4 1.0,
.44 .66
.2' .26
.21 1.11
.t1 .81
.18 .55
2.91 Zn2.28 znr.11Zn1.21 Zn
.01
APPENDIX 2
GROUPS OF RELATIVELY HOMOGENEOUS COINS
a= GF.OL Ag AuSbSnAsNi
22.80 7 6.17 0 .02 0. 1 1 0.08 0.12 0.19 0. I 1
COINS
1
22.29 7t .23 0.12 0.13 0.18 0.16 0.98 0.08 2-1
21.38 77 39 0.03 0.08 0.r415 . 10 84.02 0.06 0.07 0.06
0.2r 0.69 0.08 4
0.22 0.45 0.04 5-6
.1 1).74 83.13 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.19 0.74 0.04 7-9
.1
.2
.1
.4
i0,30 88.76 0.0, 0.20 0.03
3 .17 95 .91 o.o4 0 .44
1.31 97.17 0.03 0.t1 0.01
0 .24 91 .t2 0.8 1 0.47
0.18 0.24 0.23 10-14
0.25 0.20 r1-t60.20 0.14 17-21
0.61 0.79 22
71 .27 81.82 0.06 0.14 0.04 0.17 0.46 0.04 23-2'
0.2r 0.40 0.06 26-27ri.59 83.49 0.08 0.14 0.0'
363
TYPE GROUP Ag SbSnAsNiCu Pb Au COINS
.lKb 7 .8r 9r.26 0.04+ 0, r0 + 0.12 + 0.02
0.l8 0.01 0.20 0.25 0.02 28-14+0.06 +0.03 +0.03 +0.01 +0.01
tb 0,476.67 92,r' 0,03 0.02 0.2r 0.43 0.02 )6
M 7.92 9t.t3 0.03 0.38 0.01 0.23 0.31 0.02 37 -38
N 7.0, 9r.77 o.o3 0.46 o.ol+1.19 +1.08 +0,00' +0,10 +0.01
0.14 0.30 0.02 19-44+0.31 +0.09 +0,004
PRa .1 7.r8 9t.04 0.04 0.57+ 1.09 + 1.23 + 0.01 +0.10
0,01 0.20 0,r,+0.04 +0. 11
0,01 4r-r0+ 0.01
PRb.1 .1 7.11 90,12 0.03 0.49 0.02 0.30 0.r1 0.02 51-52
PRb.2 8.46 90.20 0.044.90 93.67 0.04
+1.16 +0.77 +0.01
o.t6 o.o1 0.29 0.400. i6 0.01 0.33 0.47
+0.12 +0.00, +0.10 + 0.t4
0.03 ,3-t70.02 58-6'
+ 0.01
PRC 7.08 90.22 0.0i 0.14 0.03 0.31 0,97 0.03 66
DNa .1
.2
t0.66 87.74 0.067.82 90.77 0.04
+ 0.46 + 0.67 + 0.01
a.49 0.03 0.220.46 0.02 0.35
+0.13 +0.01 +0.10
0.7 6 0.03 67 -68
0.68 0.02 69-76+0.31 +0.00,
DNb .1
.2
tr.12 8' .7 6 0.0,7.92 90.27 0.03
+0.77 +0.98 +0.01
0.r9 0.01 0.60 1.6, 0.02 770.61 0.04 0.18 0.7r 0.02 78-94
+ 0.25 + 0.0, + 0. 17 + 0.46 + 0.01
DNc I2
.1
1.4.t1 84.51 0.03 0.428.t2 89.84 0.0i 0.10
+0.46 +0,68 +0.01 +0.27
1.92 9t.62 0.07 0.74
0.08 0.26 0.44 0.110.02 0.40 0.82 0.03
+0.01 +0.13 + 0.29 +0.01
0.0 i 0.61 1.01 0.02
9t96-10'
106
DNd .1
.29.31 88.66 0.0' 0.847,63 90.61 0.0' 0.71
0.41 0.62 0.01 107-1110.11 0.73 0.02 tt2-tt6
0.040.02
DNe .1
.2
.3
0.2r 91.460.11 96.76 0.020.20 97.82
0.38 0.490.13 0.r7 0.230.3, 0.01 0.1,
0.860.700.69
117-118Ll9-t20t2t-t22
364
PRaffiffi
PR b.1
@ffiPRc
@@PR b.2
@D
@ffiDNe
@ffiDNb
DNc
l?g. 1 (continued) - Typology of the Portuguese dinheiros series. Types PR and DN
Fig' 2 - Electron-probe micro-analvsis scan of a section of a Portuguese dinbeiro with silveredappearance (the horizontal coin axis is in the verrical plane of the illustration). The silver isdistributed in the form of precipitates (white spots) dispened through the coin mass (left), butalso in the form of a superficial layer, 1 to 2 pm thick.
367
t+III
1100 Ænl PF
HS, 3 - Silver contents in each one of the analysed coins. Tbc eurihrtin er fu proposedby Ferraro Yaz and generally endorsed by the Portuguese o,mimti<r-
o
368
IIIII
AfH Sl Af ll Aflll D Aflv PF
FiS. 4 - Group values (mean + s.d.) for silver contents. The attributions are those proposedby Ferrato Yaz anà generally endorsed by the Portuguese aumismatists.
24 369
5
4
3
2
1
0
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
o 2 4 6 8101214 16
Ag
18 20 22 24 26 28 30
o 2 4 6 I 10 12 14 16 18 20 2224262830Ag
10 12 14 16 18202224262830Ag
(a)
(b)
(c)
5
4
3
2
1
0
Fis. ) - Histograms of the silver conrenrs of portuguese dinlteiros: (a) rypes  and E; (b) rypesF, G, and H; (c) types I and J.
370
I
14
12
10
8
b
4
z
0
(d)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 18 20 22 24 26 28 3014 16
Ag
7
6
4
J
z
1
0
(e)
(0
10
8
b
4.
2
ô
0 2 4 6 I 10 12 18 20 22 24 26 28 go14 16
A9
0 2 4 6 I 10121416182022'242628soAg
ÈgPR
) (continued) --Histograms of the silver conrenrs of portuguese dinbeiros:(d) types K to(e) tvpe DN a; (f) rype DN b.
371
G)
6
q
4
3
2
1
0
5
4
3
2
1
0
7
b
5
4
3
2
1
0
I I10 12 14 16 18202224262830
Ag
1012 14 16 18202224262830Ag
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30Ag
Eg. ) (continued) - Histograms of the silver contenrs of portuguese dinbeiros: (g) type DN c;(h) type DN d; (i) type DN e.
372