DOCUMENT EESURE.

ED 171 960 CE 021 5417

AUTHOR Hugh Rdth P..; And Oth_irs 4

,TITLE The P nning Papers on ConsuweF and HomemakingEducation Programs. Vocational Education Study,Publication .No. 2.

INSTITUTION National Inst.'of Education (IAEV), Washington,D.C.

PUB DATE Apr 79-

COgTRACT . 400-77-0076NOTE 310p.; For a related document see CE 021 546/AVAILABLE FROM Superintendent/or Documants. U.S. Governme,nt Printing

Office, Washington, DtC. ,2p4a2

EDRS PRICE MFO 1 /PC 13 Plus Postage..,DESCRIPTORS *Consumer Education; Curt'cpru Development;

*Curriculum Evaluati6n; du iOnal Planning;*Federal Legislation; * omemaking Educatiqn; *ProgramEffectiveness; *Prow.' Evaluation; *ProgramPlanning /-

IDENTIFIERS Education'AmendmentS 1966

ABS1RACTThree papers focusing upon the beliefs and issues

confronting professtionals concerned with 'cpnsume,r and homemakingeducation programs are presented. The first paper "COnsumer andHom7,making Educatio'n Today" (R. HUgh4s), examinesLt.he questions cfContent and audience from a curriculjum levelopment .view. The statuscf programs using\vidence'of program effectiveness from existingdata is discussed.'Suggesting research needed And possible, approacAsfTr studies, the paper concludes with implications for programs,funding allocations, and legislationThe second paper, "Assessmentof Conaumer and Homemaking Education" (A.. Cr6ss), discusses criteriafor determining the effectivenss of curriculum in consumer" andhamemakingeducation. Two major criteria are uggested:.mseting needsof the various groups targeted by legislation And the 'competenciesessential for the homemaker. Types of studies 'needed when evaluatingA program- are suggested. The papir concludes with a rationale- forconsumer and homemaking education as a part of. vocational education.Th third .paper,- ,!Legislation for Consumer-. and Hobemakig Education:Social Implication" (7. Simpson),. examines the role of consumer and

. homemaking education in the Education Amendments of 1966, aVd.selected characteristics of the American family and relevanNsocial'issues having implication for home economics. and for related-legislatio* The purposes of home economicsand the'role of suchprograms in vocational and general.educatLon are also presented. Thepaper concludes with a discussion of futue alternatives. (JH)

********************************************************************* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are'the bast that can be made. ** from the original locument.*****************-******************************************************

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THE PLANNING PAPERSON

CONSUMER AND HOMEMAKING 'EDUCATION PROGRAMS. e °

April, 1979

U.S. Department of Health, Edueation,.and WelfareJoseph A. Califano, Jr i:, Secretary

Mary F. Berry, Assistant Secretary for Education

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONPatricia Albjerg Graham, Director

Educational Policy and Organization GroupMarc S. Tucker, Associate Director

Vocational Education StudyHenry David, Project Director

Washington, D.C. 20208. U S. WENT OF HEALTH,

EDUCATION L WNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO-DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN-',TING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE-SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

Vocational Education Study Publication: No. 2-9

Woe MI by the Superintattent oc Doonotants, U.S. Ointment Printing Olio% Washington. D.C. 20402

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These papers'were prepared under'Contract #400-77-0076 from theNational Institute of Education,U.S. Depaitment of Health, Eauca-tion' and Welfaie. The opinionsexpressed in hese papers do notnecessarily reflect the positionpr policy-of the VocationalEducation Study Staff, the

Institute of Education,or the U.S. Department of Health,-Education and Welfare.

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FOREWORD

It is the intention of:the VocationalEducation Study Project to 'publi h,papers;accounts of inquiries, andresu t ,of selecte4,research projects emerging,fr it wor Thepublications will, be in addition t the Iand Final reports which the Edubat on Amendmeof 1916 (P.L. 94-482). require. the National Imto o Education to teansmit'to the Presidenta d the Congress on its study and_evaluation ofocationedudakion programs.

These publications will have been judged.to 'contain 'information viewpoints of utility toa wide-range of-aegislators,officials, admini-strators, and practitioners eoncernbd. with voca-tional education pglicies and peograms and'theirimplementation and consequences. ,T9 the extentthat they do, in fact,,prov.e us:!71, they mayserve torepay in small part th large debtowed by the Stu4 Prpject to_ the vocationaleducation community for its(sympathetic under-standing of the purposet and substance of .theinquiry and for the assistance its membera.havegiven the National Institute of Education infacilitating its conduct.

Henry DavidStudy Project Director

/

Gerry HendrickdonStudy ProjectAssistant Directbr

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PREFACE

ve,

This collection of papers focuses upon thebeliefs and issues confronting professionalsl,con-cerned with-consumer and homemaking educationprograms. Like their companion volume, The 4Planning Papers for the Vocational Educafr5m.Study,tthese papers were commissioned by the Natibnal.'Institute of Educationi,to provitle".knowledgepertinent to the review and evalUation of consumerand homemaking education which the NationalInstitute of Education is charged with conductingas part of the large-scale Study of vocationaleducation that the Education Amendments of 1976(Title V, Section 523(b)) direct it-to undertake.

In preparing the plan, the Vocational EducationStudy staff sought advice from a variety of organi-iations and individuals. The three papert in this

,yplume,not only oflor advice on the issues theVocational Educatkon Study should investigate butalso.present rich information on,coniumer and hompking education from leaders in the field. Thepvers- were initially intended to assist theNdtional Institute of Education in developing "Afilar 'for the Study of Vocational Education," whichwas.transmitted to the Congress December 30, 1977,but-it quickly became apparent that they met a needfor current information about the status and char-acter of consumer and homemaking education.

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The papers provide an analysis of Consumer and:homemaking' edification prograris as Terceived"by theindividual authors. They treat consumer and home-,making education programs and their relationship tohome,economics and vocational education; the bases.for curriculum development; the research on programeffectiveness; the,criteria for determining effec-tiveness; and ftiture directions for the field. Asa result, they throw light on.many questions that,have been debated, including the following:

Are consumer and homemakingeducation programs up to date?Are such programs responsiveto the needs of young men andwomen? Howdoes one identifyan 9bsolete program?

What are the short-term.andlong-term indicators of effec-tiveness? What arethe out-comes and consequences ofpresent consumer and homemakingprogxams?'

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on.

How do consumer and homemakingprograms relate to vocationaleducation? What are the implkcations of this relationshipfor future programming in con-7sumer and homemaking education?

In the first of these papers, Ruth Husheiexamines the questidns of' content and audience from

ofa curriculumyelopment view, using.an adaptationf Ralph model. She discusses the status

of programs using evidence of program effectivenessfrom existing data. Suggesting research needed andpossible approaches for studies,.the paper concludeswith implications for.programs, funding allodations,and legislation.

Criteria for determining the effectiveness ofcurricula in consumer and homemaking education arediscussed by. Aleene,Cross. The two major' criteriasuggested are meeting needs ,of the various groupstargeted by the legislation and the competenciesessential for the homemaker thought to be most`essential in terms of current socio-economicconditions. Crowsuggests the types, of studiesneeded when evaluating a program. ,-The paper con-

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cludes with a iationale for consumer and home-taking -education as a part of voc4ionaleducation.

'The paper,;by Elizabeth S. pson expresses XI

.a belief in tAe power of,tem ,conomies torespond to both content and chLanging familyconditions and needs, and td eddbate indTVidualsfor.their.family roles,andireiponsitliliLes,Simpson examines till. role ofconsumer andhomemakingeeducatiori in,theEducation Amend-ments of 1966, and selected cheracteristips"of the American family and relevant socialissues having implicatipn for home economicsand .for related legislation. The purPosesof home economics-and the role of such programin vocational and general education are pre-.sented. The paper concludes with a discussionof future. alternatives.

The staff of the Vocational EducationStudy wishes to acknowledge Diane Fassett andGladys Vaughn who also prepared commissionedpapers used in-the preparation of the StudyPlan. The views'expressed.in the papers arethose of the authors and do not represent theopinions of either the Vocational EducationStudy staff or the National Institute ofEducation.

t

Marion E. MinotVocational Education

StudyAugust I, 1978

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CONTENTS

Page

ForewordPreface V

I. CONSUMER AND HOMEMAKING EDUCATION TODAY:AN ANALYSIS

Ruth P. Hughes . 1

II. ASSESSMENT OF CONSUMER AND HOMEMAKINGEDUCATION:,

Aleene A. Cron . 113

1

III. LEGISLATION. FOR CONSUMER AND HOMEMAKINGEDUCATION: SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS

Elizapeth Jane Simpson . . . . 163

CONSUMER AND HOMEMAKING.

EDUCATION TODAY:

ti AN 1ANALYbIS

Ruth P. Hughes .

PREFACE

4.

The examination of a field of studymay be prompted by major changes in thecontent of the field, perception ofincreasing (or decreasing) need for thecontent itself, external forces which'af-fect the field, or some combination ofthese and other fatctdri.. Two illustrationsof factors which have prompted re-evalua-tion are the impact of space exporationon science and mathematics studies and theconsequences.of a declining enrolment inforeign languages. Another illustrationis the effect on, selected fields of com-pensatory education programs for disadvan-taged learners, recently'evapated underCongressional mandate.

), Some may argue that mandates are notneeded since the various fields or programareas are expected to be responsible for

. their own review. 'Whatever the meritsof that argument, a legislative mandateleaves. novhbice, but:it also provides,anincentive to initiate evaluation and,obtainthe resources o carry it out.

The 'prese t analysis is a very smallpart of an effort to respond to the direc-tive of the Congress thatZpe(National,Institute of Educatibn un rtake a studyand evaluation of Consumer and homemakingeducation.. In preparation for formalprogram review and studies, input Was

I.

Ruth P. ughes is currently professor and headof Home Economics Education at Iowa tidy University.

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sou tit to answer basic qucontent, audience, and po

As the title implieshomemaking education is fwho are or will be homemafield of Study can be "alpeople.". The mission, ifconsumer and homemaking ebe derived from responsesquestions.

The questions of conre looked at from a curr

pent standpoint, using anTylbr's model. The modelquestions about both conters, and provides a basissto,the questions: Who arWhat are their needs? Wh

' which needs ,appear to bepriority?

stions abouticy.

, consumer andr all peopleers. Yet no.things 'to allyou willofucationshouldto the basic

ent-and audience

culum develop-adaptationAofaccommodatesnt and learn-for respondingthe learners?ch,learndth andf highest t

In order to determin= the status ofprograms, evidence of efeectiv9nesS of&programs or program compo ents was sought'from -existing data. Beca se the datawere sparse and because t ey did not include a variety of design for policy de-cisions, suggestions for inds of data ,

and for studies thymselve are included.

Among the data repor ed, especiallyon program effectivenes, the writer re-lied on'fairly readily av ilable datafrom Iowa. These are pre ented as illUs-trative of similar data a ailable inother states,.and the wri ei,urges thatthey be viewed in that co text..4

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Consumer and homemaking progiAms are'also :studied in terms of tAe.issues af-fecting.'them. That-dimenSion,oiplus ref-erences to enrollment patterns,!comprises'the first section. The paper concludeswith .a delineation ofJpolicy implications'of the various presentations.

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INTRODUCTION

Consumer and homemaking secondaryprograms as they are found today rangefrom the traditional comprehensive class-es where students study the several sub-ject areas of home economics to family,life trainingfor young adults in an al-ternative school whereits.flexibleclasses and counseling services provide aroute to high school credit and a, careeropportunity. Such program diversity is aconsequence of 'the derivations of con-sumer and homemaki-K6 education and -.of thefor.ces affecting it today.,

CONSUMER .AND HOMEMAKING EDUCATION, IN CONTEXT

The consumer and homemaking pr6gramhas its roots dn,three distinct move-ments: the rise of home, economics as a-field of study beginning in the mid 19thcentury; legislation in support of voca-tionaleducation, beginning with Smith-Hughes: aft the rise and fall of a varie-ty of fads'end trends in education gener-,ally.'

The stability and the validity, ofvocational home economics exists becauseits subject matter stems-from a fieldwhich has long had academic respectabili-ty; that is, the cplleges of home eco-nomics at the various public and private

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colleges and universities. The problemsof vocational home economics arise inpart because its place in vocational edu-cation is continually challenged and inpart because it is Vulnerable to the vag-aries and capriCes of educational plan-ners. Some among us attribute the latterto its being a field dominated by womenand subject to the attendant discrimina-tion. Others attribute it to failureamong those responsible for leadership tohave delineated dimensions of ,the fieldappropriate to non-professionals. What-ever the reasons, any study of issues af-fecting consumer and homemaking educationtoday must include references to the im-pact of home economics, of trends in edu-cation, and of vocational education spe-cifically.

Issues Affecting Vocational Home-Economics

Separation of home economic in thepublic schools into that whiCh is general,home economics and that which is' voca-'tional.consumer and homemaking is tradi-tional but perhaps not desirable. .Cri-teria which make a consumer and homemak-ing program vocationally supportable arecriteria by which to judge any home eco-nomics offering. Whether the'variousstate departments of vocational educationelect to support all secondary progkamsin their state is not as important asthat they serve all programs. Permittingoperation of poorly developed programs byteachers who do not meet vocational cri-teria weakens secondary home economics

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programs. 'The vocational programs areclosely monitored, as is appropriate; thegeneral programs may be served eitherroutinely or only on a request basis.

One reason for the separation hasbeen. splintering of program personnel atthe state and national levels., Anotherfacet is the philosophy of the localschool district. Some prefer greaterlocal autonomy and do not want he super-vision which attends a vocational pro-gram.. In other instances the local dis-trict, may-pkefer not to commit resourcesnecessary for an approved program.

Because home economics is an appliedarea subject to encroachment byother content areas; In the secondaryprograms, health education, business edu-catiOn, social studies, biology, and to alesser extent att are closely relatedtocontent in home economics and it is easyfor the integrity of home economics to becompromised.- ,For example, topics likethe welfare system, public housing, andissues surrounding national fiscal. policyare in the social studies curriculum.Aspects'apkopriatp to home economics areselection,of housing for families and in-

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dividuals, spending patterns, at different'"income levels including welfare recipi-ents/ and the effect of different kindsof tax returns'onone's personal budget- 4

,ing system: In other instances the lineis not clear and .some kind of team ap-proach is appropriate. But there aredifferences, and confusion may exist be-

cause priorities for home economics arenot consistent across schools and may notbe kniown- In other words, course contentis not 'well enough in place. The problemcannot be overemphasized, particularlysince the reasons why it is presently soacutiz-is the lack of sufficient programleadership.

Another reason for the'problems inhome economics is that as people begin.torealize the importance of the family andthe importance of the-development of in-dividuals either singly or as parts offamilies, the subject matter of home eco-nomics is "discovered" as relevant fortoday. Program planners recognize thatthis information ought to be available toall students, but they fail to suggestthat whatever thecourte is--nutrition,family life, consumer education--it should betaught by the home economics teacheri(or-by'a team headed by the home eco-nomics teacher) and made available toall students.

The incursion is ari-issue becatisesome persons advance the argument thateveryone does not take home economics andtherefore home economics is not an ap-propriate place for a required course.The argument makes no sense. Whether itis the biology teacher,pr the home eco-nomics teacher. or' the business teacher,if content appropriate to all students'isin those areas then those teachers shouldbe responsible for it. Again, many ad-ministrators do not understand the dimen-

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sions of home economics, a situation forwhich we as home. economists must assume*pome responsibility. do

The women's movement generally,Title IX of the Education Amendmentshof197\(P.L. 92-318), and the mandates ofTitlelI of the 1976 legislation (P.L.94-482 for elimination of sex stereo-typing may not be a serious issue forconsumer and homemaking but it is-seesi-tive. The issues are at least three:the role of the consumer and homemairig

iteacher in the women's movement;.the ef-fe,Ets of sex discrimination rulings onenrollments, particularly secondary; andthe effects of the more recent legisla-tiommanclating reduction of sex stereo-typing in vocational education.. ,

There is no inconsistency betweenhome economics and the women "s movement.In fact, both had their genesis at aboutthe'same time and for the same reasons

.4 (Hilton, 1972) yet some see the women'smovement as threatening to home econom-lkics. As Hflton suggests, the Problemrises because some interpret home eco-

nomicg too narrowly. and thus feel. threat- .

eried by pressures for financial inde-pendence, foi control of functions ofone's own body,' and for a greater politi-cal and social awareness. NeW does thebroblem lie in dimensions of home eco-nomics as proposed by its founders(Bivens et al., 1975) .but rather in anarrowing of the.field.in the 50's and60's. The fo nders never intended that

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home economics would be limited to plan,ping the furnishings for a single familydwelling ip a rural community inhabitddby a fathe*, a-mother and two childvn.For reasons not clear at the moment, thisis an image begun in the 50's and con-tinued into the O's._ Those-who envisionhome economics as concerned with procure-\,ment bf goods and services for individu-als and families, as helping to improvethe quality of life for people, and asworking with people- to make the best useof resources available are completely ,inSympathy with the goals of the'women'smovement (Bivens etal., 1975). But it

.' would be dangerfts not Ito recognize theproblems caused, to and by those with thenarrower view.

elm

Implementat on of mandates againstcrimix- on appears to cause no

serious ems except the logisticalones resulting from fluctuation in en-rollment. The fluctuation results from a,mandate or, rarely, some form of quota,system which prevent a course from beingoffered unless a par icularopercentage ofMales.(in a traditi nally female course)or femaless(in a t ditionally male -

course) are enroll d., One hopes that intime single sex c asses will be permittedwhere justifiedand that efforts will beused to obtain enrollment of both sexesin those classes/and programs clearly de-signed to serve/both. It may be that ifenough home economics is taught to bothsexes in the junior high there will notbe the need for single sex classes insenior high! /

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Just such a grouping as offered byFarquhar and Mohlman an s illustrativeof'trends ilV6theilDrograms. The modulesor units are foods (including nutrition),fabrics, basip repairs around the home,money managemnt, personal rebittkyns, andcare ofjiving things (Farquhar andMohlman, 1973, p.. 519). That four of thesix are home econdhics content is illus-trative of the importance ofAlhe learn-

.° ing for youth. A furthe&point of the'authors is that the previously.sex-segre-

, gated clas4es at grade seven or eight mayhave servedto "introduce this officialsex-role asaigning into the curriculum'just //when the students are at the age ofnadent puberty" (Farquhar and Mohlman,/973, p. 517);

Concern for families below the pov-.erty level, care of young children

,

ofmothers who must work outside the home, andlow pay in occupations traditionally oc-cupied by women and a general concern ./

with the quality of life are items ofpublic concern which affect home economicsgenerally although they are by no meansexclusively the problem of home economics.In any consideration of the consumer andhomemaking program, aspecteof thosepublic problems should be addressed and, "?

as appropriate; made a part of the curric4ulum. A few such data are presented inPart.II as bases for curriclar decisions,

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Home Economics In Today's Schools

- 0-Enrollment data which are completelyvalid and reliable are nbt available for

.,home economics, for consumer and homemakr., ing, or for any other vocational area.

Enrollment data for consumer and homemak-ing,specificallli, may be even less 'relia-ble than data for the_ occupational areas,given the problem of duplication of

t count. This problem may or may not be offset byfailure to report the many home economics.students in classes which'do not rebeivevocational reimbursement.. The problem isexacerbated in figuresifor adult educa-tiop in which reporting-is exceedinglydifficult and complicated by what is andwhat is not reimbursable. It appearsthat the best one can do is encourage' abetter reporting sy,stem in the futurebut, for the present,---u -se the data asthey are presented.

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In terms of number".of students servedand in terms of the percentage of thetotal, errollment in consumer and home-making classesiin the secondary schoolshas increased. Since the total numbersenrolled are fairly large, the percent ofincrease from one year to another is hot.marked. (See Table 1.)

Enrollments show that there has been'a steady increase in the number of malestudents served in home economics classes.Thelmore telling 'data will be thoseof the current and succeeding years, asyet not available, but enrollment figuresfor males in secondary programs in Iowa

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Table 14

Vocational Home Economics Na*n&l tnrollmentDatali

Consumer and

Homemaking.

TOAL

condarr',

Post-Secondary

Total males

FY1969

,1,629,808 .1,805,417 N/A

'2,334,302 21932,382 3,164,292

FY 1971( 'I( .FY 1973

0

667,767 589,391 N/A 695,581

2,671 26,707 N /A:

105,930 197;503 248,636

1S. Office of Education:

FY 1975

3,283,8,7

2,562 0

fw

25,970

926,241

2 1

ft

\in 1968 and 1975 show the extent of ,change.'In 1968; of a total of 20,403 students dnpecondaiy consumer and homemaking, 254 or

,,k,' slightly over 1% were male. In '1975, the'---percentage,of males increased 'to 17%, In

the1976-77 school year, males comprised /

23% of the enrollment (Grabe, Ngte 1).

In Iowa,'there are no consumer andIlomemakiareig progiats for' the students inthe area vocational schools and communitycolleges, whoSe preparatory programsserve students largely in grades 13 and14., Adult. educatioriiprograms in home ,.economics, are heavily enrolled, repre-senting about 4d% of the total°consumerand homemaking enrollment in'Iowa in

.1975-76.'(See Table 2.) Adult programsare usually for short periods of time,.nd although the numbers represent pro-gram offerings to many people, they arenot diirectly comparable to the full-time,secondary offerings.'

Enrollment in the consumer and home-making ubject,

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making programs by home dcOpo40k also need knterpretatioh. For xam-ple, in die state, Iowa, the number inconsumer education at the secopdary levelappears low. Yet consumer education isemphasized in- all courses and is fre-quently an integral part of family liv-ing, comprehensive and "other" classes.

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lAs reported in the Stake of IowaAnnual Report for 1976, secondary stu-dents in consumer education numbered 444TheHtotal enrollment in consumer andhomemaking was 84,042.

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Voaotionat Home Economics Enrollment DatalIowa010

0

Consumer andpomemaking FY 1965 FY 1970 FY 1971 FY 1973 FY 1975 FY 1976

IN.

TOTAL '181102 32,710 19,691 41,086 t69,236 84,042

1

Secondary N/A*

Adult

25,617 27,956 32,266 44,976 47,132

N/A 7,093 11,735 8,820 24,260 36,910

Post,

Secondary N/A 0 0 0 0

Total Males N/A N /A. N/A N/A. 1 10,2652 13,0 42

'State of Iowa Annual Reports for Career Education,Fiscal Years 1965, 1970, 1971, 1973, 1975, 1976

2most secondary

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STAilarly,-pareht education, Managementof the home, and preparation for_combin.-ing the occupation. of homemaker and wage -'earner may' be included'Ear more of tenkhan one can discern frpm tradional

sre-

% , -04.port,.

The presence of special needs students inhome economics classes suggests another kind 'ofinformation needed in assessing programs.

.

A project at Iowa State University(Kohlmann, 1977) dealt' with instructionalstrategics and used enrollment data only '

in verifying the need ,aid establishingthe sample. A more defjnitjve study ofspecial needs students in home economicsprograms for the. State of Minnesota was a1976 survey by Whiteford. ,In her sample,of the females in°secondary home,economiOsprograms, 8.7% were special needs studensi ofthe males, 14,5% were special needs stu70dentS. -Needs identified most frequentlyin the programs were'reading problems,slow learning, matheMatics'problems, aridbehay..ior -problems among males in juniorhigh'school programs (Whiteford, 1976kp. 19"

Overall, enrollment data currently,*available show &consistent increase-in

, overall enrollment in consumer and home-158grams, an increase in males

especially at the'secondary,level, largenumbers of adults served, small numbers inpost-secondary programs. Data frOm.therespective states which show enrollmentbysubject area may not represent content in ,

critical areas because of the titles

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used. Enrollment of target gioups such as ,

those'with special needs have program implica-tions but, again, one needs to know Morethan numbers for program decisijons.

Determining Curriculum

Consum r and:homemakingeducation asit'is to y can be described in terms ofissues ich affect the various curriculaand in erms of enrollment. .Although4thesetopics et a' patterh or wstage, they alone,do not ovide basis for deter-mining riculum. That is to.say, insome inst ces they describe the'situa-tion and conditions which exist bat, pro-'vide neither logical nor empirical bases'for decisions. The, step between basesfor decisions and data on which to makethose decisions is the justification forselection of bases thgmselves.

In the realm of curriculum theoryand practice lie answers to the question:Oh what bases will the curriculum be_ de-cided? Eisner and Vallance in their bookConflicting Conceptions of Curriculum(1974) present discussions of five common

'orientations. 'One, development cf cogni-tive processes,-emphasizes the develop-ment of intellectual skiils,with par-ticular attention to how_children learn.Another process approach is the techno- '-logical, with more emphasis on the systemthan the person in it. Lased on-the mostsystematic of approaches, it Is commonlyused'in occupational preparation courses.The self-actualization.approach is simil-lar to what many. refer to as the humanis-

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\tic, with emphasis on the individual andhis or her needs for growth.and fulfill-

.ment.

Of considerable interest in- voca-tional education would be the fourth,which Eisner and Valiance (1974) callsocial reconstruction-relevance, with itsemphasis on educaltioa of the larger soci-ety. In that thiS apprbach takes par--tioular note of the social issues of theday, it is appropriate for consumer andhomemaking education'. In fact, someamong:the-group would expect students insuch curricula to be able to perform aschange agents in the society generally.The academic rationalists, or tradition-alists, emphasize the.established disci-plines. Their approach is almost anti-thetical to vocational education.

Obviously, nbne of those is com-pletely appropriate-for apprdirching aconsumer and homemaking program, yet allhave elements.which should be addressed:the process by which students learn, thesociety in which the program is offered,some system for organizing the materials,recognition of the traditions of a cul-ture, and attention to the individual.A more eclectic approach is that ofTyler (1949). In part or in total, hismodel, as adapted to time and circum-stance, has been used for curricular de-cisions at various stages by those re-sponsible bothfor curriculum in'voca-trional education and'for national cur-ricular efforts.

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w. . .Tyler's (1949) model emphasizes,identification.of appkopriate objedtiv0

,

structlire'of learning 'opportunities by''::.::-'' which students can attai'nthoSe objed.- ''''

,;tiVet,.and evaluation'of student achieve_.the'nt. ,.HOwever, the. portion of the Tylermodel appropriate, t0 this discussion isthat haying' to do with the baSis on whichthe primary objectives are derived.,

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First in Tyler's model are studiesof the ..earners themselves. As Tylersays, "The study' of the learners therriSelves would seek'to identify needed.changes in .behaVior patterns ofthe stu-dents .. '." (Tyler, 1949, p. 6).. Anoth-e way bf_lookingAt'needs-Of learnerS,iS,to think about whSt"the'given learnersou4ht to know and what they in fact doknow. The basis. for the objective thenbecordes the gap etween where they areand where they o ght to be. Studieswhich identify n eds of learners in con-surder and 4binemaking programs can providean empirical base for such judgments.

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yl ,Tyleri.s (1949) original model used' rsecond, the'term "studies of-contemporary

life oitside the schoo." A more perti-, nent terd might-be,"stbdies of society"and that adaptation .is made in thispaper- Data'from etudies,of families

k today;' employment patterns; and governmentpolioies affbcting Welfare reform, day

', 'care, ,and care of the. elderly are appro-priateAn aiding understanding of societytoday, Much of 'this data is also'appro-priate, in determining. the relevance, ofdimensiOni of the consumer .homemak

..prdgram--perhapsof.the total grog

4.

19

28

Recommendations of subject matter'specialists,are rarely questioned as abasis for curricular decisions. This,TD.er's (1949) third dimension, pointsspeCifically to needs in areas of homeeconomics which are pertinent in identi-fication of competencies which the con-sumer and homemaking prograM might be,ex-pected to help students dev'elop.

The three components - learne,rs,society, and subject matter form bases fotcurricular decisions. The three will-bediscussed later with specific referenceto curriculardecisions in consumer andhomemaking programs.

Summary

The context in which consumer andhomemaking education exists accounts forthe major controversies which surroundthe program. The genesis of the contro-versies is the origin of vocational homeeconomics: from the field of home eco-nomics, from its status as one of thevocational education areas, and .from the'issues and pressures which surround allof education today. For a variety ofreasons, people in high positions do notunderstand the depth and breadth of homeeconomics and as a consequence permitother subject'areas to usurp its cbntentand Its students. The issues in consumerand ghomemakinq education are complicatedby the women's movement, by Title IX, 4ndby, mandates for reduction of sex stereo-typing in'education.

20

27

In the long run consumer and home-making programs should. rosper; neverthe-less, there are short run concerns.

Enrollment in.consumer and,amemak-ing programs is at an acceptable levelfor females but includes far .too few malestudents. Consumer and homemaking pro-grams serve'large numbers of disadvan-taged and handicapped and:the limited en-rollment data available suggest that thispractice is appropriate and probably should besupported further.

In'order tp assess present day con-sumer and homemaking curricula, one needsa theoretical base upon which to makejudgments. The portion of Tyler's (1949)model which suggests bases for identifi-cation of objectives is suggested. In-cluded are studies of learners, societal

,

conditions and recommendations of'subjeatmatter specialists.

BASES FOR CURRICULAR DECISIONS

Needs of learners, conditions insociety, and recommendations of, subjectmatter specialists are valid bases forcurricular decisions in vocational homeeconomics as well as in other educationalareas. However, Selection of bases dependsupon the educational philosophy of theschool and state in which the program'isr,located.

In an earlier review of research inhome economics educationiNelson (1970)

21

reported relevant research through 1968.She noted that needs of learners were aninterest of researchers and reportedstudies justifying the,need for moneymanagement and other aspects of the home-maker role. At that time there appearedalso to he a need for a more broadlybased program of preparation for thehomemaking role.

The following studies_do not dupli-\)cate Nelson's (1970) review. They repre-

ent instead the kinds of data availablerOm studies which, although not directedto the consumer and homemaking programs,have,implications for their content.

, .

Studies of Learners

Among studies learners, none aremore revealing than ose on nutrition.For exipplg, in spite of the generalavailability-of adequate diet, studiesindicate that nutritional needs of manypeople are'not met. One 'group of par-ticular concern is adolescent girls,especially if pregnant. In reporting astudy of the association of dietary andobstetrical factors, Seiler and Fox saidthat ,the nutritional status and dietaryhabits of adolescent girls were usuallyconsidered suboptimal and such conditionscould influenae the outcome of pregnancy(Seiler and Fox, 1973, p. 189).

In addition to nutritional statusand obstretical performance, Seiler andFox (1973) considered nutrition knowledge,emotional adjustment, and 'personality

22

29

traits'. Their subjects were 30 pregnantteenagers 16 years of age or under and acontrol group of 32 girls,aged 14 to 16years.

Of releVance to this review is therelationship found between selected person-ality factors and diet. Valuing healthin selection of food, psychological ad-justment, desire to maintain a desirableweight, and nutrition knowledge were as-sociated with dietary status of bothgrdups (Seiler and Fox, 19/3).

Johnson and Nitzke (1975) conducted-another'study-to determine the relation-

4 ship of diet to nutrition knowledge and 6ther factors.Nutrient intakes of a selected group oflow income homemakers were evaluated andenvironmental factors ,that might affectdiet adequacy were identified. Subjectswere women in the Expanded Food and Nu-trition Education Program (EFNEP) inWisconsin, 66 program assistants and 169

. homemakers.

Diets the women were good forsome nutri,e s but poor fok others;diets df the. program assistants-tended tobe better: Given that the program assis-tants' knOwledge and experienceis greaterthan that of the homemakerb, one couldinfer that information makes a difference.With respect to environmental variables,those of significance for'Oucational pro-grams were the superiority of rural over urbandiets (possibly because of gardens) and a

23

,

need for educational assistanbp by thoseinterested in weight reduction {Johnsonand:Ilitzke, 1975).

A recent research project in theNorth Central region focused on sociolog-ical factors affecting food behavior ofindividuals or families inr,the partici-pating states (NC'146,.Note 2). Sinceeducational programs had resulted in anincrease in knowltdge but often failed toimprove. eatng behavior, the researcherssought to.identify effective.approachesbased on the personal and social factorsidentified as important.

One researcher developed a theoreti-cal model for food-behavior,from a socialpsychological framework. From the.modelshe identified variablis of importancefor intervention pro rams. The-three variableswere ignorance, inalai ity because'ofsituational and ecAoMic reasons, andunwillingnessdue to personal reasons.The last is of considerable interest becausethe researcher found that''husbandp may ad-versely Affect the home' food situationthus making it difficult for wives to usenutrition knoWledge,in influencing fOodbehavior of.themselVes and family mem-bers"' (Yetley, 1974, pp.-262-263).

Another research project which developed andtested a computer-assisted nutritioneducation unit found that the unit was well-likedand increased nutrition knowledge butbrought about little change in food in-take. The junior high school students inthe study reported that they assembled.

24

31

4

their own mea]s at home from the'foods.available. Thft,seseaiChers noted that theeducation of the children should besupplemented with education on,the role offoOdpurchaser. In another state,re-searchers workedThwith 'children in an ele-mentary school experience type of learAngas a joint effort of elementary teachersandeschool. food service'personnel: Inthat study, children increased consumption of unfamiliar foods (NC 146, Note2) .

Other findings were similar in,thatalthough alotanges occvrred,.they werelimited and-did not proVide general di-rections for nutrition education of allage groups. On the other hand, findingsfrom the regional study, from the popularEFNEP programs, and from those concernedwith teenage girls indicate that nutri-tion education should continue. Withinthe programs educators need-td attend notonly to the technical content, but to en-vironmental and personal factors affeCt-ing food intake decision4.

Inferences concerning content in the areaof management may be made from studies ofyoung adults whether married or single.The two reported here address manage-ment problems, one of single young women'and the other of young married women.Steidl's data were reported in 1975 butgathered in 1967, as were. Christmann's.The latter's sample was,fb.Iowa, butstatewide; the former's, interviewed inperson, was of necessity in and aroundIthaca, New York. Thusr both have limita-

-,f

25

tions but are considered useful becauseot the conceptualizations on which thedata,collectiong were based.

. Several studies in the mid-sixtiesidentified prob4ems of young women in theyekks, following their graduation from,high. school. Following a review of'thoge, ChristMann (1967) designed a studytq find problems of single girls in Iowawho enteked the work world followingtheir graduation frTaff high school. Inaddition.to identifying the problems, shelooked at place of residence .andsemesters enrolled in home economics,

Data were collectedin a two-stageprocedure in which an initial questionnaire'was gent to obtain personal data; re-spondents meeting the criteria for thestudy received a-second questionnaire.Of the 738 girls to whom questionnaires,were mailed in the first stage, usable'data were obtained from,491 by the endof the second stage.

The young women who responded indi-cated problems which they had in obtain-ing and keeping their jobs as well as intheir life at home.as related to work.The employment problems stated were as follows:difficulty in finding desirable employ-ment in their home towns, finding a goodpaying job, and deciding on the type ofwork (Christmann, 1967, p. 62). Otherkinds of problems included money manage-ment, food management, acceptanct byfamily mempers of the newly acquiredwork role, finding suitable living

26

arrangeMents (for those who were notliving with_parents), finding,the rightroommate and sharing housekeeping duties,with her, interpersonal' relationshipson and of the job, and problems re-lated to lack of nutritional knowledge.With regard to the relationshipbetween problems and courses inhome economics, those who had' had thegre-ater number of semesters of home eco-nomics .had less difficulty in food,prepa-ration and,in purchasb and care of clothing.

(It should be noted that items to!which the young'women responded were notof a sensitive nature; that is, the itemsdealt with straightforward management ofwork and home roles and did not delveinto love relationships, drugs, or physi-cal safety.)

Chri tmann believed that the studyhad impli ations for curriculum buildingin home economics, and suggested the in-tegration of money management and othermanagerial principles in all areas ofhome economics. She propoSed the use ofweight control, social adjustmentfame°clothing selection as motivating factorsto help create interest in the study ofnutrition. An evaluation of the presentcurriculum to determine the extent ofemphasis being placed on food preparationand clothing courses at the expense ofother educational needs was a furthersuggestion, as Well as the ing4usion in occu-pational preparation programslof a unit onadjuStment to the world of work (Christ-mann, 1967, pp. 64-65). .

27

34

'In her study of young Marriedhome-makers, Steidl postulated that, %althoughthe heavy physical tasks of homemakinghave declined'over the'yearsethere isneed to'look at non-physical aspectS ofwork.' This is consistent with the ideathat. the problem does not lie in knowingliow, to do a particular. task of. homeMak-ingl rather, the probleM'lies in gettinga series of tasks accomplished. AsSteidl notes, "the effect of accomplish-ment,of household work frees the home-maker for choice in her use of time and '

effort" (Steidl, 1975, p,_224) and thusthey study concentrates:onstch managementaspects as-attention, judgment, and plan-ning in relation to the.Complexity of thetasks of homemaking.

.

Steidl's (1975) sample was composedof '208 homemakers ranging in age from 18to 30.. Nearly half were employed; 61thoke employecrnearly half had 1 or 2children. Data were collected in inter-views averaging about an hour and a halfin leng0. Among the conditions whichmade homemaking tasks complicated for therespondents were inadequate time,-lack ofplanning or organizing, amount of work in.thetask, unexpected conditions, andfinding ways to fit tasks t gether.

The study of what homemakers per-ceiVed as making) homemaking tasks compli-cated and the relation of those to otherfactors led Steidl to suggest that "-ifpersons wished to improve control of taskerformance then they need to learn more

timing and organizing, more about

28

35

4

JfJ

making. judgments of-quantity and quality,how to go about tasks, and the'Conse-quences of:their. decisions" (Steidl,1975, p.. 240). She then goes.on to .notethat directions for educational programsare implickt in'her findings.

Steidl (1975) and ChriStmann (1967)addressed management generally, ratherthan with reference to any one particulararea.' Management of financial resources.4is probably given priority in existingconsumer and homemaking programs becausefinancial problems. are recognized as acommon soce of Stress-among individualsand families and are therefore-seen asimportant.

. Williams and others (1976) reportedfinancial problems of urban families intwo industrial areas designated as pover-ty tracts by the-Bureau of the Census.- 0Although the study was confinedto areas in Indiana and Ohio, the studywaspart of an agriculture .

experiment station proj ct, "factors. af-fecting' patterns of ,living of disadvan-taged families."' Investigators looked atproblems which families Of .varying incomelevels had and relatectthoSe problems toperceived adequacy income. and stage of,-the family life cyolt. Data reportedsuggest that a somewhat different ap-proach to financial management might beappropriate. The authors oted that:

. . . in management,',items of per-cei'ved'importance because of theirconsequences are probably taken care

'43

29

36

Kb

of before others and perhaps not ex-perienced as actual problems as muchas others . . . the most urgent andnecessary obligations are paidfirst, with an attempt to satisfyitems of lesser consequence next,frequently after money has run out. . . in other words, a person mayonly consider thOse areas to be fi-

, nancial problems for which he hastrouble finding money.

. Saving occurred as a problemmost frequently, followed by thingsthat children wanted, new clothing;money for medical expenses, meeting:large bills, enough food until pay-day . . . (Williams et al., 1976, p.196).

Implications of data like these pre-'sented by Williams and others (1976) sug-#gest that managerial concepts such as'seeking alternatives and,looking at Con-sequences-may well be applied tomanagement of money as well a otherkinds-of management practic by fami-lies. The financial probl: s noted aboveare of low income famil- , the groupmost likely to have se' ous financial

/ problems. Any famil' s.and individualsbeginn gof their earning

period--or n.retirement income-7--are also likely to have these kinds ofproblems.

Althbugh money and other mana-gerial, problems have implications for.-consumer and homemaking programs, in no

30

37

areas are the needs so compelling as inthose related to aspects of parenting.

In recent years, there has been in-creased awareness of the needs of today'syouth fort information relating to familyplanning and parenting.. Parenting is acommon term, but-the_concept of familyplanning, in its broadest context, maywell be addressed as a component offor a.

prerequisite to, education for parenting.

In an extensive review of the liter-ature on family planning in relation toteenagers, Schultz and Allen (Note 3) be-gan.by noting that "in the U.S.-althoughthe birthrates for the population atlarge have fallen, there has been a dra-matic increase in illegitimate concep-tions among teenage girls." They notedthat the problem of pregnant adolescentsrequires attention and that the effectsof early pregnancy are felt by the in-fants, the girl herself, and society ingeneral. They cited several authors (forexample, Allen Guttmacher Institute,1976; Zelnick and Kantner,,1977;. andNational Center for Health Statistics,1976) in noting the serious health andsocial difficulties' faced by ike pregnantteenager, the danger to the baby ofprematurity and infant mortality, and thefrequent lack of adequate prenatal care.nut, as they pointed out, the concern isnot addressed py a simple unit in "sex,education."

The problem involves values,knoWledge of the effects on the system of

31

38

nutritional status, and knowledge of the. needs of children'for shelter,guidance,

'education. The fact that teenage child-bearing is more likely to be associatedwith lower:income and increased povertyieally compounds the problemfas does thewish of these young women to keep theirchildren once they have been born .

(Schultz and Allen,:,Note 3). With re--spect to the topics addressed in familyplanning, decision making and managementgenerally are core or key "threads" whichunderlie study of the area. In fact, theemphasis on decisions to make before be-coming a parent may be the major contri-bution of family planning education.

Lind (1976) surveyed sex knowledge,birth control, and marital attitudes ofrelatively affluent and well educatedrural Montanans. Although has study wasnot designed as a basis-for.planning edu-cationarprograms, several of his find-ings have. such implications.

For example, "despite the generallyfavorable attitudes toward birth control. . . there were many who appeared not tounderstand its meaning" (Lind, 1976, p.52). That is, they :viewed it as repres-sion ratr than a planning aid. Needfor infoimation about aapects of'humensexual physiology was also cited.. In.fact, Lind stated that althoqgh' programsfor his sample "would not-have to startat ground level, it is appareht that areal need exists for more extensi9eknowledge in these areas" (Lind, 1976, p./W).

32

39a

Whereas suitabiliti amily plan-ii

ning education heedgig apreeiltation, none

!.appear to question sul. ability of educa-tion for parenting. .ki t necessarilycalled "parent education," curricula inconsumer and homemaking education.havetraditionally included care of children,and the courses often pi ded laboratoryelcperiences as well as s ject matter.Recent studies support an increasing needfor this material by young men and womenwho are or will be parentp. The need,readily inferred from the review by Schultzand Allan (Note 3), is explicit in studiessuch as those of Hawkins and Anderson whichwill be discussed below. Further, parenteducation has general support from concernedgroups, on of which,the Education COm-mission of the States, is cited below.

In order to determine whether urbanfathers are interested in learning aboutchild rearing and whether the fatherswould be willing to participate in pro-grams designed to.provide needed informa--tion, Hawkins studied 108 fathers in

, Raleigh, North Carolina. We reportedthat:

As a whole the subject fathers had'ahigh degree,of, child rearing learn-

. ing interest and a willingness toparticipate in child rearing learn-ing opportunities. . . (althoughthey ,ere) . . .aefinitely more in-terested in Some Tontent areas thanothers (Hawkins-, 1974, p. 197).

.

33

40

tt-

4

4'The areas of interest reported byHawkins.were those related to the childltindependence, the child's relationshipswith others, guidance and discipline and,in genera], just knowing what to expect(Hawkins, 1974, p. 196). Because thefathers r /ported not knoWing sources ofinformation, HawkEns suggested that childrearing become a regular part of educa-tional programs.

ti

In a 1976 study, Anderson comparedperceived real and ideal parenting stylesof rural fathers of. children. Her sample.of 281 fathers from 14 randomly selected,counties in Iowa respo014.primarily toquestions regarding thOrpOle,with theirpreschool children, but, ;#0.11ts provideda data base for suggestions for educationprogiams.. For example, since fathers'real behavior was different from theirperceived ideal, Anderson suggested that"programs could be developed with empha-sis on creating_an environment for thechild that fosters autonomy, creativity,and shared decision making" (Anderson,1976, p. 103). She further noted theneed to provide parents With informationabout the development of children.

In,Imaking suggestions for providingthe needed programs for fathers, Anderson(1976) dealt with the possibilities forograms directed at the fathers at the

ti they were parents, whereas Hawkins(1974) did not specify any particulartiming. Both noted, however, a need forcontent dealing with specific aspects ofthe child's development as a person,. in

N),

34y"

.contrast to the more ordinary ."playschools" 'toy selection, and snack prep-aration found in some classes,

Reinforcement.from a negative ap-proach comes from Concern with childabuse. PublicationS.by groups s c asthe EducatiOn Commission of the tates:tend to emphasize detection and.treat-

Nit do not neglect prevent na 1976 publication (Report No. 85) theimportance of primary prevention is-notein their suggestion that education°groups:

. . . offer course4 for both second-ary students and adults on appropri-ate parenting behaviors . . . and-. . . include information in the. .0. curricula pm child develop-ment, fardily life; discipline andaggreSsion, and other topicsipoten-tiallyOuseful to parents (EducationCommist;on of the States, 1976, p.5) .

Sudh references to topics needed byparents are not unusual. Studies cite&have documented repeatedly, the needs oflearners for their adult roles. Anothr/kind of evidence is that from studies ofthe society in which the learners muet''function.

Studies of Society

mort recently, studies at the na-tional level have provided inforMationthdt,has direct relevance for home eco-

o

35

nomics as well as other, educational prob-lems in the school. Such studies asthose by General Mills, National Assess-ment, and the Northcutt Study (1975) arewell known, ,and certain findings may beculled for implications for the consumerand homemaking program.'

and its money for General Mills,first in a series of commissioned re-search reportson the American. family.Although its emphasis was on the impact of moneyand economics on American life, it hasimplications not only for the family eco-nomics aspect of homemaking but for othercontent. In the summary, the authors;pointed out that although families have asense of economic insecurity and althoughthey question the moral direction of thiscountry, the American family is seen ashaving great strength and adaptive capa-.bilities.

In. 1975 Yankelovich, Skell andWhite did.a study of the American ly

The suggestions of the differentways in which the American family, needshelp are heavily oriented toward finan-cial problems, as would be expected.

r

'Budgeting, saving, credit, debt manage-ment, finding ways to talk comfortablyabout money, and.sharing in financial de-c5,sion making were included in the sug-gestions (Yankelovich et al., 1975, p.27) ., But also pointed out was the need,for instruction in repair of household

.36

43

products and time savers of all kindsfor working wiyos.

Two other findings bear comment.One is what the authors called the psy-chology of entitlement," the belief ofhalf the respondents that governmenthas the obligation to provide each familywith work and a good standard of living(Yankelovich et,a1., 1975, p. 17 and p.40). The.other is the role of the womanin!dec,ision making. Among the familiessurveyed, 39% believed that the manshould be the main provider and decisionmolter. Among those,,families with, morepreSsing money problems, the number shar-ing that view increases to 46% (Yankelo-vich et al., 1975, p. 26).

Although not related, these last two'points merit the attention of curriculumbuilders. Whether the government is seenby so many people as being responsiblefor-their economic well being because thegovernment is the employer of last resortCT, as appears to be theaase, becausethe. government is rekponsible for itspeople, is a major shift from the f'enterprise philosophy. The point abutdecision making is in sharp contrast tothe middle class ethic that family deci-sions are joint. Regardless of-howteachers handle the situation, they maywish to find out what the situation is intheir community.

Yankelovich and others just releasedthe second in the series of family stud-ies for General Mills, Raising.Childrenin a Changing Society: The study lookea

37

fr

at ways parents'cope with the problems ofraising_ children in a period of rapid so-tial change. Its focus waa,thefamilyunit, and respondents inclxided parentsand their Children. The study examinedtoday's social enviropment and itschanging lifestyle, traditionalvalues of child-rearing, and thedevelopment ofliew...Values such as greater.sexual freedom, blurting of male/female',roles, and self-fulfillment (YankeloVichet al., 1977,T.

The authors reported that, there seemto be two kinds, of parents which theycalled' the "new breed" and'the tradition-.alists," with marked differences in values.For example, the traditionalistssupport the traditional homemaker rolefor the mother and believe that parentsshould stay together. The hew breed aremore relaxed about separatiop of parents,.blurring of roles, and acceptance of dif-ferences among.,people.

The authors reported some specificproblems and made suggestigns for thekinds of help which are needed by theparents. The problems are those of mi-nority parents, who place their hopes andaspirations on their children and experience theattendant pressures; of tingle parents,who have a .greater sense of inadequacyand insecurity, and whose children seemto have more social problems than 'dotheir peers; and of working mothers, whoas a group are competent enough but aretroubled about their roles as parehts,especially about the time they are able to

38

spend with their children (Yankelovichet al., 1977, p. 26).

Yankelovich and others (1977) indi-cated that two kinds'of"help are needed bytoday's parents. One is f9rapecifickinds of information which'parents wouldlike through classes or study groups; theother is for the kinds of sk. s whichthey need in order to be eff e par-ents.. The topic listed m often wasdealing with drug usage ong children; aclose second was an understanding of newclassroom teaching. methods. Other topicswere more traditional: parenting, teach-ing children about sex, discipline, deal-ing with medical problems, feeding chil-dren nutritiously, and balancing the budget.The kinds of skills for dealing withchildren are those related to communica-tion, knowing where to get advice, oppor-tunities to discuss problems with otherparents, and simply knowing whereto gfor activities which would be free(Yankelovich et al., 1977, p. 28).

The,:findings of this study on rais-ing children are very similar to thosecited earlier with reference to studiesof parenting and certain aspects of fami-ly planning. But since' this is a nati6n-al sample, it calls greater attention tothe need, while it provides more general-izability to the local and regional stud-ies.

Pglother national study which re-ceived publicity was the Northcutt studyof'adult functional competency. The ob-jec.tives of the study were to assess the

39

competence of adults for'meeting the re"-quirements'of adult living such as .-..

survival literacy and coping skills(Northcutt, 1975, p.. 1). This contro-versial study assessed several ,areas;,of interest to this review is the area of.consumer economics in which respondentshad an opportunity to read, write, speak,compute, solve. problems, and indicate howthd would interact with other.people.The ample was kepresentative of adultsfrom 11 50 states'and involved responsesat several different stages of the study.The competencies in the consumer econom-ics area were those in whichbthe greatestdifficulty appeared for all adults, privi-leged as well as disadvantaged. In otherwords,'at the 100.7est level of competency,only 30% were, able to °function, and thenwith difficulty'. That group includedthose whose income and education were in-adequate and who were either unemployed Or.in occupations of low job. status. 'irherewere a third in the middle ievel.and fewerthan 40% of those were judged as profi-cient: MostJwho. were proficient had highincome and. educational level and jobswith.high status (Northcutt, 1975, pp.5-,6). Again, the 'national study verifiedand permitted greater generalizability.ofthe local studies cited pearlier. Thatis, maRagementof resources and abilityto cope\are problems in this\country.Consumer and homemaking programs will notsolve the social problems which underlysome of these deficiencies, but they doontain the subject matter which has

been documented, as needed. by our,,,

40

47

society, most particularly by those who,are -less -advantaged,- -

The National Assessment of EducationProgress (NAEP) was designed to,surveyeducational attainment of selected "age.z,

groups in a variety of learling areas.ti..Of interest to this report was the as-

sessment of career and occupational de-velopment, carried out in 1973-74 and re-ported Wthe National Center for Educa-tional Statistics in 1976. Certain as-pects of the initial report dealt withrespondents' knowledge of different kindsof jcaps, possession of bdsic skills forgetting and 'keeping a job, and generalfamiliarity with the world of work. The

, finding related to career decisidn skillsand knowledge has implications for voca-tional'education including consummAandhomemaking,,since states includeareercomponent within the various subleiptiareas of home economics, not onld attthejunior high level, but also in theatoe-cialized semester courses.

Other kinds of differencp,$yekre-ported by Ahmann (1977a) in'anactiele'dealing more specifically mitft `data4'job aspirations of 17-ye0-o1ds.two percent of the ma3.0g01,40.-,females named a profess,.choice, yet fewer than 25%'are in that category. MaAle

'

14.0

thedrY,it 'jobs

. .differed in their choice Of!'"'Otaftitian":-(16% male,lesg than 1% female) and rieriiIicie,14-4ep'less than 1%, females 8%)i,7%AgSiv.their.,choices did not mirrorGOILSOOrtuOltiss.-

41

Consumer and homemaking programplanners will find considerable cause forconcern in'that, for this national sam-ple, barely 3% of the females and none ofthe males gave homemaker/housewife astheir first career choice (Ahmann, 1977b).Inasmuch as about half of today's womenin families with husbands present elect .

not to work outside the home, the lack ofinterest in an occupation as a full timehomemaker suggests a greater emphasisthan is presently.the case on those skillsneeded to operate a home-while workingin an outside job.

Data on employment of women lendother' insights. into program needs. Forexample, recent data indicate that of- thetotal work force, 41% are women. Ofwomen of working age, 48% are in thework force (U.S. News and Worid Report,1977). Of those working women, 37 %'har'children under three'. Even more reveal--ing are the data which show that one outof eight women are head 'of households;fi..those heads of households, 54% were ifie,labor force in 1975 (McEaddy, 1976) .

R-.,frmaket\ ts.:cri, ore urgent the development of

ecagnitin that these include Apc mothers

pi744501aimed at the very realprb4letht4-1440twothen face.

government policies onlOnly recently received at-_

Congress. One realizesthe action is in the social

ok'xograms broadly defiped,particu-e welfare system," but occasion-

thatwei6

42

6

ally one finds reference to specific as-pects of that program, such as day care.

The Carnegie Quarterly reported twostudies related to the effects of daycare, one study on infant day care in NewYork City 'and the otObr on gamily day,

*care, also carried out in. New York City(Carnegie Quarterly, 1977, pp.*5,7). Themore unusual aspects of the first studywere that it was a large sample and thatit looked at infant day care programsjudged-from excellent to poor. Infantsreceived extensive tests from the timethey entered day care, between 2 and 22months, until they had reached 36 months...They were then compared with three-year-olds reared at home. Preliminary resultssuggested that infant day care is not harm-ful to low income youngsters, and originalmisgivings may have been unfounded. Inaddition, the authors suggested there may beother advantages which will become evi-dent as researchers determine which com-ponents of infant dal', care are mosteffective.

The other study dealt with effec-tiveness of home.day care (Carnegie -

Quarterly, 1977). Typically, parents aremore likely to leave their children insome form of home day care rather than inan institutional setting, and thus train-ing of women for day care becomes increasinglyimportant; The training program tookplace in .a storefront and an evaluationsuggests that similar programs might wellbe implemented in other places.

,-/

Implications from such findings arethat consumer and homemaking programs mayvery well be-directed toward adults whooperate family day care homes. The poli-cy aspect is the alLocation of sums forsuch programs as well as for the moretraditional day care centers. There alsoneeds to be some provtsidn for the costof a delivery system for the day careparents who may or may not be able tocome to a center for instrUction.

Home ebonomists have been concernedwith the effects on the family of legis-lation at all levels, but until the last

,

few years the attention was not as focusednor as much a part of the activities ofaffected professional organizations suchas the American Home E6enomics Associa-tion. The day care study cited above andthe guaranteed income study described beloware illustrative of the kinds of actionwhich not only'affect but may be affectedby consumer and homemaking programs.

Berger (1975), in discussing aguaranteed income experiment in NewJersey, called attention to some of theshortcomings of the present welfare sys-tem. Among the kinds of things to whichBerger called attention is Aid to Familieswith Dependent Children (AFDC). She notedthAt when the'program began in the 1930'sabout-75.% of he fathers wei severelydisabled or dead as compared with only14% in 1971. In 1971, 75% of the fathers

bwere alive but absent from home eitherbecause they were not married to themother or because they were separatedwithout a decree.

44

0

The presence of antiquated ocial'welfare systems in a societii fetingsharply from that which existed at thetime of the legislation is cited as onecaule of the problem. Berger (1975) sug-gested that another cause is failure atthe time of the initial legislation toconsider impact on faitilies. A well-known instance of this is the food stampprogram, intended to improve the diets oflow income people but often failing tomeet.that goal, either because potentialrecipients do not receive the food stampsor because they do not know how to usethed to improve their nutritional status.

A progtam not now in effect butwhich Berger predicted is some form ofguaranteed annual income (Berger, 1975, s

p. 21), . In that as in other socialwelfare legislation, the role,of the pro-10fessional home'economist is reasonablycleat, both in designing and carrying outprograms. Impact on the vocational con-sumer and homemaking program is lessclear.

For example, we do not know from theliterature whether donated commodities(in the years they were available) anduse of fbod stamps were generally in-cluded in lessons on meal management.Another question_ is implicit in studyabout employment of homemakers; thisquestign involves.comparison of the con-,tributton a young mother 'could make ifshe were to remain home with small children andadd 'to her real income through home production,with the contribution she would make by

1. 45

working outside the home and paying the:added cost of household operation.

The report'by Ahmann (1977b) sug-, mgests that today's. young women may be/re-

jecting the' full -time homemaker role.'Findings in earlier study by Hughes(1969) suggest that possible advantages .

ofcthat role were not considered, Oneaspect of the study i,ncluded use of cur-.ricular materials for considering whatwas then called the "dual role"-of home-maker-wage earner. The sample includedmore than 600 11th and 12th grade highschool homp economics students in 32classes in 26 New York State schools in-cluding the largest cities, small cities,and rural schools. In interviews of arandom 4ample of 64 students, 2 from eachof the participating classes, students-indicated that previclusly they had notgiven much thought to the money and timeassociated with having the homemakerwork outside the home.

Whereas today's youth appear to ac-cept careers for both women and men, theymay be unrealistic iff!their expectations.Those characteristics, combined with thedocumented problems of working mothers,the expectation of governmpht subsidies,inability to cope, and sometimes dysfunc-tional social welfare programs, all haveimplications for-curriculum.

Recommendations of Subject Matter .

Specialists

Studies of learners and the societyii which they function are bases fbr

46

selecting conteht.of consumer and home-making programs; another base is recom-mendationS of subject matter specialists.Their input may be from studies in coop-

, eration with teachers, from direct re-search of their own, or from their inputon curriculum guides.

Suggestions of subject matter spe-cialists are implicien several of thereports included in studies of learners.and will not be .repeated. Illustrationsare the nutrition studie's of ,Seiler andFox (1973) and'Johnson and Nitzke "(1975).In other instances, subject matter spe-cialists worked with others to identifycontent appropriate to selected groups ofpeople or for selected purposes. A fewsuch studies will be presented, some of whichwere used in development of curriculumguides. Not surprisingly content fre-quently is identified as "competencies,"the currently popular format.

The poiirularity'of task analysis as abasis for identification of competencieshas led to its 'use in a substantial num-ber of studies. In other instances work-ers were observed'and questioned to de-

competencies ..needed to accomplishtheir jobs. In still'other instances,persons in one of their roles, for exam-ple consumers, were asked what compe-tencies they thOught they needed to be. effective as consumers or whatever. .

Sometimes their responses were comparedwith experts' opinions-, as in Metzen's1967 study.

47

o- 1

Metzen (1967) compared competencieswhich young women considered to beimpor-tant for performance of their consumertoles with competencies whic4 experts inthe field belieyed itportant;for them.

spondents were. 1,092 young women whowe .e eit among those...in $tudy groupsin E erasion Division of'the Uniyer-sity o Ilpsouri or among'qraduates fromthe Asso 'ate in Arts degree from Stephens

'College. The latter part of the sample,631, were drawn from 44 states and theDistrict of Columbia. The experts were 20persons ill the field of consumereduca-tion,all of whom had been active in sOTephase of consumer education and all ofwhom had written in.the field.'

Metzen found differences in the pat-tern of ratings by the young women and bythe experts, with the young women givinghigher priority to competencies whichwould have immediate application and theexperts rating more highly. thoSe compe-tendies which involved general principles -

and had broad applications (Metzen, 1967,p. 75). .He concluded that although thbrewas value in providing the immediatelyuseful informatiOncited by the respond-,

. ,ents, it was clear that consumers needed`'`'to be educated for their role. He sug-gested therefore that teachers of'consumer.education courses "need to bear in 'mindthe basid digyerences which seem to existbetween the attitudes towards the con-AOsumer role held by laymen and experts inthe field. Students should not be as- 4:

sumedto.have a sophisticatedvattitudetoward consumption . (and) 'broadening

48

55

students' perspectived'on 'consumption. . . will require effective motivationin teaching" (Metzen, 1967, p. 78). Hewent on to sugget that the opinions ofexperts .be used .in structuring thecotirsebut that the teacher provide for specific.competencies of immediate importance,tathe group for whom the course is beingplanned.

Identi ing dpecific competencies'froMMetzen's list is not reasonablesince it contains 114 items. It should benoted, however, that in addition to suchtopics as consumer frauds, the 'consumerand the law, credit, and insuranbeL, thelist also included consumer competencieswith regard to 'food', clothing,.housingand such. Items which the young womenrated as important: involved decisions onwhether to ,buy, rent or'build housing,knowingswhat constitutes a balanced diet,judging quality of fredh foods, reconcil-ing a bank balance. Items which the ex-1perts rated highly were evaluating goalsand values as an aid to consumer choicemaking, knowing how to plan a program offinancial security for an i dividualfamily, an4 noting some gen rel buyingprinciples that could be"ap lied to thebuying of most'prOducts.(Me zen, 1967). ,

A curriculum guide-for teachingmanageMent'and consumer education de-veloped for use in Iowkin 1977 is ittrative of guides developed as Metzesuggested. The .guide is based on a Setof management competencies and a set ofcompetencies for consumer educationb both.

49

56

3

a

4

. 4!

d

T.

Pia 11.:(*.

0'

developed by subjectmatt4r experts.,'those were the basisoof the wide, butpupil develbpmentliof thote63mpetencies

4 was percthvpd.as occiprAng through learn-3419 oppoctdhitiesowhich woubd incorporatethe kinds of pkactica ilkformation citedby the rebfbndento in the. Matzen spUdy(Iowa MePartvent of Public: Instruction,'19774,4npUt into `Mate guides is often.

4.` the re Set of similar collaborationfbe-tween subject matter ex0ertsAnd class-room teachers,and guides in ffrVariety of.subject areas from many other states arevaluable determinants of, coursedontent.'

. For many years the 1)01i:cation "Con-cepts and Generalizations: Their 'Placein the Secondary Schodl. Curgculde (AHEA,1967) has been used as a framework, notonly fdr the secondary curriculum, but forteacher education. In orcler to, Have ma-terial which was more current,-home e -nomics teacher:educators in,1977 worwith specialists to identify subject mat-ter competencies needed by beginning home

,economics teachers. ;The 1967 publicationwas used :as starting.point for the ac-tivity assubject matter .specialists'Validated theoriginai.material- Theirresponses formed the basis for the wok'k'of the teacher educators.in developing alist of subject matte 'ompetencies for kbeginning home.ecotionTJ, -tea'dhers (IowaState University Pres97.8).

.-6-That list .of competepcies,.although

for use by teScher education institutions,as a bavis.for curricular decision, isalso suited to use'n reviewing consumer

A.

4 **

50'

' 7 A

and homemaking programs. The publication,which lists home economics teacher educa-tors as its author, covers five sub-

, ject areas.: clothing/apparel and textile .

products, consumer education and manage-ment, housing and living environment,human development and family, nutrition..and food management. -The competencieslisted within each area can be used inidentifying those aspects which are ofgreatest importance.

The difference between use of thecompetency statements in a college cur-riculum and'a secondary or adult programlies in the depth and breadth of thecoverage given. For example, one ofthe housing and living environmentcompetencies listed relates toassess-ing housing alsternatives available toindividuals and families and includessuch content as analysis of housing al7ternatives in terms of needs and life-styles of individuals and families andanalysis,of local, state, and federalpolicies as they .influence housingchoices. The teacher would need thedepth to understand the ramifications ofthe topics but the ideas implicit in thecompetencies statement would be suited tosome of the most pressing needs of peoplein the procurement.of housing and thestudy of governrient policies which af-fect,it.

- Three studieS done in departments.ofhome economics education with substantial

-input from subject matter specialists'''compred knowledge (oi competencies)

3.

5

58

needed by homemakers with competenciesneed%d by workers employed in the same,home economics areas. irhe studies, werein the fields of child development, tex-tiles and Clothing, and housing and design, The first one in child developmentwas done by WhitmafSh in 1966 at the Uni-versity of Illinois. The second study,also at Illinoi, was that of Davis(1968) in clothing and textiles: Thethird, which also followed the WliitmarchdesigniWas done "by Skaff at west VirginiaUniversity in 1971.in the area of housingand deign. For curriculum purposes, theimportance of the three studies lies in'the similarityof the competencies neededby homemakers and those needed in occupa-tions.

/ What Skaff (1973) found is illustra-tive of the type of findings in the othertwo studies. That is, most of the knowl-edge items in housing and design wereneeded by both homemakers and workers inoccUpations in housing and design. per-'tain items were judged more important byone grdup or the. other but only, sa fewwere needed by homemakers or workersonly. The extent of,overlap led Skaff tosuggest that in curriculum planning those'items which were needed by both groupsought to be the core of a course taken byall students, those needed by hom6akerswould be a portion of a more in-depth.course, and those needed for occupationsonly would be obtained by studentp seek-ing occupational preparation. As wouldbe expected, competencies needed espe-cially by homemakers were related to

52r.

selection and care of furnishings, andthose needed by workers related more tobeing able to present suggestions tocustomers and to knowing about the world,..of work (Skaff, 1973).

The three studies above document,thatthe extensive overlap in subject areaswarrants interchanging curricular materials.

Another curriculuia effort developedinitially for use in home economics oc-cupations-has potential for use in con-sumer and homemaking programs. In thisrecent effort, funded by the U.S. Ofceof Education, a set of ten instilictiofi4al,modules was developed by personnel at nineuniversities in cooperation with theAmerican Home Economics Association whichadministered the project.

In addition to the module SecuringEmployment (for use with any of the subjectareas); modules include materials forteaching Care and. Independent Living Ser-vites for Aging, Catering Services, ClothingAlterations, Consumer Services, Fabricsand Textiles, Mfrchandising, Fast FoodServices, Furnishing and Housing Mainte-nance Services, and Window Treatment.Services (Occupational Home EconomicsEducation Series, 1977).

Appropriateness of content for prep-aration for the various-occupations wasassured through verification by'workersand subject matter specialists. Afterinitial develo011ent of instructionalmaterials, the modules were field tested

4

53,

so

with 75 teachers and their learners. Theteachers represented a variety of geo-graphical-areas and experiential back-grounds; they had a-diversity of learnersin their classes. 'The modules weze ef-fbctive in increasing learners' competen-cie , including achlevement scores onpr /post cognitive tests. In addition,teactilers judged the modules to, be usable

;,ind effective:(Occupational HOme,Economics;-:Nducation Series: ,Securing Employment,

1977, pp. 9-13) . ,

' A1 '

The modules were "intended 'to beksedi S.C12riCIlla -:in occupationaland apOopriately sh.÷, at is in implementingcurricular decision's 'i'*.Selpting.instructionalstrategies that the modules wiit be us4fulin consumer and homemaking prograks'.- Forexample, the module on securing employmenthas a section on the place of workin oursociety. Iiti the teacher has deterdined thatsuch a topic belongg in a particularcoirse, then the module would be helpfulin designing instrudtion. The modules areuseful also in the study of careers. Each

---Imiddule-has sections which explain careersir' and career progression, already documented

as belonging in a consumer and homemakingprogram.

Summary

Studies of learners and society re-inforce the importance of the content anddesignated audiences for consumer andhomemaking educatif4n as specified in the

6

54

'.'1968 and 1976 laws. Obtaining and' faith,,,cating resources, becoming converdantwith the government agencies which: affect'.families most direitly, combinin94be,management of a home with outsidwOrkcoping in today's society, raisi*jf401:=dren: these and more are refleCted-44.:reports which represent the counttY;;'

The most serious problehaVe-theit;,genesis and their solutions inf'pOli'cle.g.'''and procedures not only beyond ,grie,:schoOlsubject but beyondAhe school:systed,self. Nevertheless, 4ecause:Ok,ItC.O.rect concern wit the..family,.c A.,',Ohtlimer.

And homemaking p ogram can'i

,acicnbwledgheproblems and wor to ease therd:::,;Baed'on.'.the previous review; the,foll014hgapPea'r..most critical:,,,,

. .

EduCatiOn.for'riarenthOodOgili:hot,:eliiinat teenage..pregn ie$ i:bgt'it canbe one effort inaly'arenes . .: Certainly 4tcan be a factor,,Th'reduct., T.0,f::alatie andin improvecr.cOgnitive, sooialand'physi-cal development of the child:,

,,Preparation for 'managing= the workof

the home/And'outtide empthyment-dan beaddres§ed'Very specificaiiy';' fibivthd-de-cision to assume both Oroles;,.t: tech--;niques for Combirangthem'stioceasT1111.5rand evaluating consequences:

,

il,Roles and iesponsibitips of coh,4

timers are recurring,areas'of:concern.,Included are not only 'tlie":traditional as-pects of resource AllocAtIon but an adVo-

\ cacy role,.. as well:

Impact of socidi lfareiVtcies onfamilies belongs in the curriculum as,acoping skill, as an advocacy position, orboth. .Day. care centers,.welfae pay-

. ments, hiaalth care delivery,arAschoollunch programs are illustrative of poll-

: ciesfor study and action,4

Nutrition edUcatiOn'has componentsas diverseas'det6rmination of acliquacyof diet and anglysis'Of TV "messages". onchildren"s programs, Since evidence sug-gests that it may not berVheL#atritionfacts as much as attitUde'bhatjaguireattention of experientiallearning may be effebtive.

Audiences for whom suggested contentig appropriate include all people; there-fore one must ask: For:whom is the in-formatiOhmost criticalOne.group isthat 4togeSt to parentkipad;:thatthose who are preseritly, Parents arhosesoon to be. Another is the-wotan'or manwho is or who will be single andheadbf4 family.. Another is the young woman,often with poor education, who must cora-bine,her role as homemaker with that-of

v`**1. wage earner.

At any age, the more disadvantagedthe persqn, the more critical the`.need.*.'-qMinorities,-the unemployed or underem-ployed, 4nd..the poorly. educated are ingreatest need of consumer and homemaking,programs, as they are of any educationalor social welfare programs.i

63

56

ce-

Nonetheless, the evidence does notsuggest that all other groups beignored.

"The advantaged and the "average were in.rcluded in studies documentIng the needfor nutrition, management skills, parent,education, and consumer,skills. +.4

The extentto.which the content de-lineated is available in consumer andhomemeiing programs and how effective itis in meeting students' needs is less wellknown. Suggestions for determiningfectiveness and some existing evidenceof program effectiveness are presented infollowing sections.

PROGRAM LFFZCTIVERESS

Program effectiveness.includes kindsof data needed, evidence presently avail-able, and studies to be done, Kinds ofdata needed include those yet to be col-lected and those existing but not general-ly used in evaluation-Of c9nsumer and.homemaking education; the former is thefocus of the -first section. Presented inthe second section is evidence of pfogrameffectiveness from selected studies. Thelast section is a suggested list of stud-

,

,ies which,

Should-be done.

Program Evaluation for Policy Decisions

Program evaluation on which ,policydecisions are to be made should involve,comparisons among and between alternativeforms of instruction as contrasted to noinstruction. Further, these data need to

57

64

be collected in various settings andshould not be locally oriented.

A general methodology by which theassessment could be made is discussed asthese kinds of studies have not been com-pleted. Potential subjects*, instruction-al content, and criterion measures aresuggested.

General Methodology

A. Potential Subjects

7

High school graduates,two to=-five years after graduation.

,Select target populations forwhich information is most'needed.

o For example, state departments-of ,

education can identify countieswith high unemployment, low income, ihigh participation' in ADC and/or'foster care programs,'and highdropout rates. ..Researchers couldrandomly select areas to study andhence randomly select subjects.

B. Instructional Content

Varying exposure.to specificconsumer and homemaking content'areas asell as no exposure. Im-portant areas to study early'wouldbe parent education and nutritioneducation.

Obtain detailed 'info nation onlearning opportunities.of subjectsin the sample from "block plans" or

o

is

*58

C

her similar records of the teachet.Identify the competencies developed,length of time in Vhstruction, aswell as the number and, kind of:ex-perience-based learning opportuni-ties.

These kinds of data involve ,

more detailed information .than cur-rentily exists In. a delineation f

brodd content areas in teacherports' to state departments, b -areimperative if compar.isons are to be

4.

AL

C. Criterjon Measures

Appropriate measures of p*-formance relative to the content..area studied. In the area of-par-ent education criterion-measurescould deal with the establishedphysical and emotional health of the "4

child -a's well as his cognitive develop-ment. -Evidence of physical healthcould be.based onestablished.Clini-cal prOcedures, emotional health on'observation of Oarent7Child'inter-actionand'absence of child abuse,and cognitive development, fromstandardized test scores.

Impact of nutrition educationcould,be assessed by adequacy offood intake of, family members. Ob-servations of food purchased byfamilies could be studied for foodquality and choice available.

59

co

4

Items are merely illustrativeand need to be e)Tanded withiri thetwo areas as well asothers. Physical aspects of .they.

home, suitability and appearance ofclothing, and perhaps housekeepingprocedures are fairly easy to dis-

-. cern. Management of time and ef-fort or marital communication aremore difficult both to attain and .to'assess,-4put nonetheless criteriaand evidence in these areas need tobe delineated and assessed.

Additional Major Studies/1.

Comparison of effectiveness of con-sumer and homemaking with other pro-grams purporting to provide..t6e sameknowledge ana-skills. The obviousfirst step concerns learner perfor-ance and the above methodology can

applied. Beyond that one duststudy as a minimum: resources re-quired, accessibility, and credibility anddelivery systems for the programs inquestion.

Evidence of Program Effectiveness

Studies selected for review attestto the worth of consumer and homemakingeducation. The older studies Snd'a fewSelected Ibwa reports are incled notonly bedause they evaluated efrectivenessbut because they represent promisingmethodology for implementing and/orevaluating curricular changes (Scruggs,1959; Hughes, 1969; Yungschlager, Note. 4).

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60

The study in Illinois by IBEX (1974 -75)', and the reports by Nelson and Jacoby'(1973), Dalrymple, Lowei, and Nelson(1971), Williams (1976), Kohlmann andothers (1977), ,and. two of the Iowa teach-er reports,Jor4a1 (Note 5) and Kelley.(Note 6), are studies directed-at audienceswith most critical needS.

Followup data' to assess cto4ram ef-fectiveness were not generally available.but two with different approaches wereidentified: Cross and others (1971), andSciuggsand others (1968) of. which:Pearson(.1971) and Kundel (1969) were a part.

:The.Waicis (1976) study was an effortto document differences in prograMs as aconsequence of funding; it also suggests amethodology for continued study of:policyalternatives. The report of Lazar and'colleagues11977) also has policy impli-cations. For that reason and for theapplicability Of ,its methodology, it wasincluded even though,it'is the only onerep9rted 1hich was not directed at programs fundedas a part of consumer and homemaking edu-catibn.. '

Spruggs (1959), as patt of a seriof studies directed-toward assessment ofteacher effectiveness, determined progressof pupils in classes. The sampleo, re-strixted.because of resources, included30 teachers and the pupils in theit'Home-making, I. and HomeMaking II classesThose,

- comprehensive homemaking classes hadi,aprescribed curriculum that included childdevelopment, family relationships;,housing, clothing, and foods. 0

,,:.,

61

6 2 .

In addition to achievement tests,attitude tests were given to assess atti-tude toward children and toward use offamily income. The achievement test wasdesigned to measurepupils' ability toapply generalizations; items incluOecLSelecting the correct response to 4 mul7,tiple choice item and then indicat4ng thereason for-the choice, providing fortesting beyond memorizatioh. Class manswere used to.determine differences betweenpre;-tests sad post-tetts. In all but oneclass post-test scores were higher thanpre-test scores; in all but two pupilsgained on attitude. tests from the time ofthe pre-test to the post-test. Overall,pupils in the selected classes.of the 30teachers improved in knowledge and atti-tude as a result of instruction. Un-.fortunately, for this report,., Scruggs(1959) -related her findings to effective-ness of teachers rather than to effective-ness ofprogram and the suggestions whichshe made as a result of her research re-flect that directioh. -However, the pro-cedures whiCh she used for assessing pupilgain in' classrooms are appropriate as one ..dimension in assessing of activeness of"consumer anclhomemakihgl5r6grams and thestudyserves.as.a starting point.

The most definitive study of secondary.consumer andhomemaking education programs(published to date).was conductedin 1974-75 for the Illinois Office ofEducation by IBEX, a consulting firm inVirginia. The study was commissioned tolook particularly at the'effediliveness ofthe consumer education component within

69

62

.44d.

1

f,

the consumer and homemakihg program.Conducted in districts identified as eco-nomically depressed and-1.44:th high unem-ployment areas, .'pit incjudeir128 schools

,

which had' contracted for appxoval of fund-ing in consumer and homeMaking education-programs. Thus schools in the study were,representative of areas which net atleast one of the Illinois criteria for-qualifying as disadVantaged, i.e., high unem-'ployment or large numbers on assistanceprograms (Illinois Office of education,1975, p. In each district instu-,,ments developed for the study were ad-ministered to at, least one full dlassAofstudents currently inl''Cons*Mer and",home-making education and a group of'15stu-dents who had not had or were not takingconsumer and homemaking education.

The report ,was extensive and looked i

a variety of dimensions achievement ofstudents in specific content areas ofconsumer education within the consumer andhomemaking program, data on teacher

.S11

salaries and other instructional costb,data on students' present activities andfuture plans, teacher data includingpreparation and number.of years teaching,dimensions' of student self-concep,t,and comparatiVe effectiveness of7variousinstructional'strategies. On the firstform of the test, experimental studentsout-performed' control students,-14ith dif-ferences between experimental and controlstudents on the achievement tests highlysignificant. On the second more difficultform of the test, differences between theexperim#ntal andcontrol groups favored the

63

)'

Y.

40.

, 0tb

41

11194

CI

S!

M

4 mexperimental1' grouR04'notAll diffew.endeson s'ubs'ets of the telt. we* significant. *Although the design included' 1st -test only,t* researchers believed thaflithe differ-ences were due to ainsiruction an of toprevious knowi.edge. 4

f 4.Inprder to studydifferentialref-

lects of programs, classes Were0gAiviledinto high achieving 4rand lovOichieving students.W.scriminant function tedhnique was usedto identify program characteristics whichpredicted classroom Orformape: lengthof course, number 9f-units,and selected 0

instructidfial approaches.,0

0

-With respectllength4pf,time inclass,*the hlghttac eying getup receivedan average of 30%, moie.ingtructinal timet1ian did- the low achi=eving" group.,. In'other words, the lengehtof time sp4pt-in:lass was one major Oetertilinant of opt-coigh. The number of4iNits of study de-velopeewas inversely:relatedtd studAtiachievement. That is, as t1+te mherun400increased, the aphievement of stu-100deriTS dectekaped; thus: at max well 4be tfiat

Pit is gualily of units, oat -number &pie-ment.ed; that predicts performance'. Thedinding isconsistent with4the importanw 16f fpcus-mting course content on a few well deplopedunits rather than whole series Rf cursoryexplorations. The j.pstructionA strate'4.1gies found most efeviti4 were rescircepersons, debates, team teaching, student "demonstrations, field trips, and multi-14media *_

:

d)

7 1

64

,Pek.

s.

4,,

10.

° Among the variableS'whiCh were notSignificant predictors were number ofmales in the class, amount of teacher ex-perience, whether the course was elective.or required, and amount'budgeted. for in-structional materials., Intetestingly,cOntracts,in schools which had the high7est achieVement used an average of $6,.22.per student for instructional materialsand the-average of those which produce&thedoweist was $22.77 st nt. In

'fact, the contract whi h had the highestteas score spent'$1.03 for instr ctionalMateriaA.

A large portion of the report(Illinois Report 1974-75) was devo ed tothe importance of the affective di ensionof education ins general and two stmerand homemaking program in ,particular. Indiscussing'the'relation,between,achieve7;ment and interest the 'authors suggestedthat the action-oriented Apoach typicalof the better consumer and homemaking pro-'grams may very well be responsible forthe student interest because the active4participation facilitated learning and

1,

the learning increase&.nterest, ratherthan the reverse. ThUs they suggested thatprograms emphasize action-drienteA activi-tie6 tb peomote student learning and letinterest become the byproduct (IllinoisOffice of EdUdatioqw,1575,.p. 74).

.1,Another finding of the Illinois Re-4ort (1974-75,) waak'the importance of ap-tivity and of sucdessful experiences tothe low achieving, low self-concept stu-dent. The researchers noted'this is an

65

72

Q.

important component of the Consumer andhoMemaking education:prOgO'mancl:stiggeSted,that th6 dimeneion'be'reihforCed, .1heynoted. further thattheS6,kinASPofiatti-',Otes do not deVe.TQP:ih-a short oftime and.that:,*h9:ktud?'t44'hotad be exposed tothe pxperiOncW,Dvei: a long periodof,

of successful experiences to,:stUden*s,en'eerin4:thework force immediately' afterhigh school was expressed as a particular

-,, concern since the group with low self-concept and low. .achievement is the group.'most to immediately enter the workforce ois Office of Education, 1975,

5.6-

Another state -wide study more limitedin its dimensions was that'ofWaicis (1976).The purpose of her study was to evaluatethe effectiveness of the Vocational Educa-tion Amendments of 1968, Part F, in irtirprovj.ng consumer education in home econom-ics . Since 'Waicis belieNied that factualknowledge has limited value to consumers,the study was designed to,identify pro-grams which emphasized choice and deci-.sion making, sometimes called process ob-jectives. In addition to looking at ef-fectiveness of consumer education general-ly, phe compared funded and non- funded-programs. Respondents 'in the stratifi'edsample included 50 teachers from fundedprograms and Al from non-funded programs.

Waicis did not test students' knowl-edge directly but asked teachers to re-spond according to the objectives whichthey included in .their courses. Teachers,vindicated which objectives were included

66

at a given; grade level in their courses and'whether they had separate consumer educa-tion courses. She found selected differ-ences between the emphasis on consumereducation in non-funded and funded pro-grams, but consumer education conceptsand topics were included in all Pennsyl-vania homeeconomics curricula whetherfunded brhon-funded.

One difference was that the fundedprograms were more likely to have aseparate home economics/consumer educa-.tion course but she pointed out that"whpther this practic&ls praiseworthydepends upon whether students not servedotherwise. were reached" (Waicis, 1976,p. 82). Another difference was that inthe upper grade levels, consumer educa-tion received more emphasis in t,he,funded

programs. Waicis noted that factualknowledge and decision making stills wereemphasized in these programs and con-sidered this combinationdesirable.

Waicis (19.76),,recommended that herstudy be followed by studies of what stu-dents actually know. That is'whq was .

done in the Illinois study but agOalently:the Studies were occurring at about, thesame time. Both the Pennsylvania.and theIllinois study. cited and used the.consumeeducation test developed by McCall (19/)at Pennsylvania State University.

, .. ..

Studies of effectiveness of second-.ary programs carried out when programs .

are ongoing yield 'the_ kind of data just.., .

,

6,

0:.67

.1

./

presented but it. not be possIble'todetermine the extent to which the knOW1-.edge and skills learned in school areused in the student's life at thatOne advantage of adult programs is thatone may determine not only what the'stu-dent knows but the Use be or she makes:ofthe information 'jai his or her own home-..,One study which looked at knowledgeiand2practice among adult students wag done byWilliams in 1976.

Subjects in Williams' study (1976).:.were 376 homemakers from three low incomeareas of the state. They were enroiledin the University of Illinois CooperativeExtension Service, Consumer and Homemaking'.Education Progrant -(CHEP). Also included Y-were the 47 program assistants who ad- -

Ilinistered assessment instruments follow-c..'ing training by the researcher. The first.'instrument included a test of knowledgeof nutrition which was administered by theprogram assistants by way of intervieWs'and.

.

covered various aspects of food purchasing V

knowledge related to cost, nutrition,preference. In the second instrument;'the program assistants resRonded,to.achecklist which identified actual be-,haviors.Oi. the hOMemakers with whom theyworked. This was a unique opportunitefor research since it was possibledicate the food behavior of the,stub-'jects within regular programaatiVitie

(Before findings from Williams',study are cited, it ouldlie'noted that'in 1973 CHEP was e ,an

9 ,'1' r' ".q, +

. 1

. 4 e

Ofik e

concern: No ieference is made to, thatstudy, in this review but it was reviewedby. Wlliam-N.

, 5

The overall :findings from the.Williams' :Pt tidy (1976) do not permit anysWeePins.seneralizations, even to the sub-,J-Pdtp in the atticlx:. Findings confirm thatstibiests:IPeem. to have benefited frombeing' in .the program but -othe main thrustPOf Williams' recommendations were in sug-gestec4 program revisions. For example,:she:,PUggested that leaining opportunitiesbe . planned to giArdi homemakers more ex.--periences in us,i.ng' less Pxpensive alternatetive foodg , ti* they have ,ad4kional ex-.iper-iences in, cOMpa4i-son that'they. be helped in.A.unlipitstarOin% the unlitpricing sy,ptemr,$Fid;;;eit#t they given,'more nutritS:9 values ofalternetive Itkod _04tiseci()).rs.

,: !,;Comparipc4rja of 'homemakers W4 knowledgewith- hOmiemakers! 4:sraclk.ice were :disa_ppoint-.

InA!tli4, tliecprr el.t:tibris Were flat-Yek,eXam0e; when they were in.pr-

opiewed,.198`% the%homthitakers suggestedlasing Milk to r'educethe cost . uafregh 50,% actually usedit: TnterePtIngly, tome lfindIngs went inthe c'.,pposite:dire4t.ion:: example, ,80%,of the homemakerP..., stibstitute foodswhile 63% puigest .4,.,!Se Ofkg stitute6thplintervieWt 79,UPed fc:i' tamps while511 indicated' in!: Ebt'InterVie that this'was alternative'-to reduci food costs.In, another .1nPtande, knowled and pra%-,'tide were ,Pi' *Iar;65% *ctua y comparedcosts :'When p oPpingsancf 6Y% `reported onthe ini0a-riri that

.om03.r.json shopping

was a nece v'

4

S

Scoring of the interview in theWilliams' study (1976) was hampered by atechnical problem but her method for ob-taining data is noteworthy. Data werecollected by the program assistants, wellknown and trusted by-the respondents.Williams provided a model-for obtaining.knowledge of subject matter by respond-ents and then determining the use made of

dithat knowledge; she devised instrumentsthat might well be revised for fartherexploration.

Another state which leas provided-funds for various evaluat $qls of programsis New Yofk. When cons and homemak-ing education money..was all cated to homeeconomics programs designed o serve lowincome adults,, funds -.for evaluation were

eincluded. After an earlier assessment-ofthe programs, Nelson and Jacoby carriedout an extens4e evaluation of selectedprograMs for the Bureau of'Home EconomicsEducation; that evaluation was-reportedin 1473.

The initialtgrust of the adult pro-gram was to-provide new approaches whichmight be more attractive to the low in-come people who were targets of the pro-gram. It included such things as learn-ing centers in.apartmepts or in a paillichousing unit, storefronts, communitycenters!, and mobile,units. Participantsshared in planning of the program through.representation on an advisory committee.';eaching Was direct and although soMeindigenous persons served as aides, mostdirect teaching was done.by professionals

70

Activitieg in the divram were varied andas the program progr ssed outreach fromthe centers' increased.

The general objective of the studywas to assess impact of the centers on theprogram participants, particularly withreference to their progress toward per-,formance Qbjectives designed for the prO-gram and selected by the local directors;Another facet of the study concerned'a4sessingeffectiveness of the professional. staff.stafand the progress of the paraprofessionalstaff toward meeting objectivesiselected forthem.

The authors cite some limitations ofthe study, in particular the non-randomselection of. the sample of 10 of the25programs in existence at the time thestudy was planned. The sample of partici-pants was randomly selected, however, andcomparisons were made between those 107and the program dropouts who ere. used asa comparisoh,group.

di battery 'of instruments as de-.veloped for Makin 4 the various SsessMentg,needed to meet !tobjectives ofthe study;. Bef use in the evalua-tion, the instruments met rigorous,cri-teria.for quality. For the most partyexcept for interviews with part&cipants,data were collected by means of observa-tion of perfotmance critical incidents,and reports of theteachers.

rs°

se 71

r.

lson and Jadoby noted that:

The program seems t have merit asan education philosophy halfway be-tween individual cage work and strpc-tured adult classes. In this sense :s

the program did seem -atcleast forsome individuals--to beilling itsrole as the first step toward more .

formal education or employment, orgeneral improvdment in the qualityof life,, or whatever it was that theparticipant himself.desired. Fur-ther, the program more nearly 4ervegthe whole person or whole familyrather thah splintered needs . -(Nelson and Jacoby 1973, p. 127).

That the program was yery,expehslve wasobvious and the-Authors cqpitented thatwhether'it was worth the.eost dependsupon. priorities for social change Sug-gestions made,,other'.than cost, wi'r'e that.the researpn be replicated using,a:longer

rg r sample,, They further sug--Eime spa random selection,of centersand a la

6

sug-gested that a fUli time center and parttime center be compared for effectivenessand that outreach possibilities be ton-sidered.

Suggestiohs,made by Nelson andJacoby (1973) forimproviriTeffectivenegsof programs are worthy off' note since theybeer on consumer and homemakthg generallyand no.t.necessarily on the specific.Program.in the study. Among their recomtenda-tions were_that the program have the et.-:tention of top administration in each

72

71

district, that improvement-of child carebe given top priority, that administratorsand teachers review priorities to be surethat, the local program is emphasizing the'appropriate learning activities, and that moreattention be given to quality of staff.'They noted, as has been cited previouslyin this review, ? that increased attentionneeds to be given to nutrition, child de-velopment and guidance, health, and hous-ing. They p6int,ed oup the importance ofcooperating with othe agencies andthe need' for greater` attentiOn toinstruction which would help the partici-.pants becOme employable (Nelson andJacoby, 973,' p, 128-,129).

.

.

Vocational education programs.whiChprepare students Kor employtexit in theworld of work follbw up their graduatesroutinely; in,fact, success in the occu-pation whichinStruction-wa en isa criterion of a program's succes How-ever, follow-up study of students in.consumer and homeMaking programs at theSecondary leyel.is 4pt tiw norm and al-thoUgh individual teachers may very well_have,contact with their graduates, their-repbps are rarely -1 part of state ornatiOka data.

Attributing su s or failure in arole to instruction _secondary schOol-is risky in any subject field, but par-,ticuaarlyin a field such ;s home econom-ics Wberein a considerable, amount of in-formatiOn is available readily.through,,community centers, the media, and the,Cooperative extension, rvice, Nonethe-

80

ress, it is beComing increasingly impor-,. .

Pant that some way to assess program ef-fedtiveneSs be found. 'Two studies at-(tempted to do this, and althoughthey 'didnot-show any clear-cut association be --

tween success in the homemaker role andhigh school home economics courses, thestudies are .reyiewed for methdology aswell as findins: One was a series ofstudies relating employMent success ofthe husband to the quality of home life(Scruggs et al.', 1568). The other, aregional study, was an,:evaluation of voca-tional home economics programs in termsof effebtiveness'of homemakers (dross,1971).

The regional study had as its pur-pose determination of the relationshipbetween the perceived effectiveness of

, full time hoMemakerS and homemakerswho.viere also full-time employees,-and the ex-tent of enrollment in home economics atthe secondary level. Cross, Gorman,Loftis, and Ridley directed. the studywhich was carried out in Georgia! Ken-tacky, South Carolina and 'Flori--Pro-.-pOrtionate shares ofaata were Ubctedi-steach state from homemakerS; 30 yeai.sof

e4or younger, in-families with husbands'nt and one or more children.. Beforein study was conducted there were a

Ow'iety of,pilot tests for purposes ofiftttrumenthtion and testing of methodb'logicalAproCedure4but-the_main study in:-cludpa personsfioM all four states with216 full ..iii*:hcimemSkers completing the11,6 items7,ppecipriiite.for their role and276 emplo ed hoM#makers completing the 50 -.

6

'74

item instrument appropriate to theirhomemaker role.° The homemakerS' ratedthemselves and their perceived.profi-Ciency relative to other homemakeis inperforming the homemaking responsibili-ties listed on.the' instruments. 'In-struments were administerdd by trainedinterviewers and analyzed by a varietyof statistical procedures.

Findings in general showed some dif-ferences according to perceived effec-tiveness and enrollment in home economicsat the high school level. Effectiveness,alsb increased with number of years-ofparticipation in homemaker clubs andamount of time devoted by their mothersand/or other adults in the parental hometo teaching homemaker responsibilities.Another finding was that the perceivedeffectiveness of full time homemakers was'-''related 'to the husband's occupation;those homemakers *whose husbands were.- in vthe working class felt less adeguat4those, in either the professional or-tech-4,ician'classes (CroeS, 1971, p. 29),.For the employed homemakers,there were po significant differ-

4.erices according to atount of home econom-.:

,ics in high school or other means of ac-0

- guiring.information.fOr' homemaking, The4

'authors were cautious in interpretingtheir data, but those employed homemakerswho had had several years of home econom-ics in high school had somewhat betterscores than those who4did not. 44

4 . Another aspect' of the study by Crossand others (1971) the relative impor-.

°

8?

4

M'

twice attached by the homemakers; td thedifferent cOmpetencies needed. Competen-cies reported most often °were in theareas of child, family, community rela-tionship, and management of,resources-The authors noted.that "compe-tencies related to food preparation andclothing.construction,were-not mentionedas frequently as might-have been pre-..dicted" (Cross, 1971, P. 31). Recommenda-tions made. as 'a result of this study werethat people responsible should reviewcurricula at both state and local levelsto determine if the more importanecompe-tencies are given appropriate emphasis.The appropriateness of asking homemakers.how they perceive themselves in compari-son to others is promising b'ut probablyshould include checks of specific itemsof information at least in regard to such.critical areas as nutrition, child de-velopment, and financial management.

, Recognizing that the-home environ-ment is generally considered,to be re-lated to the achievements of a man in. thework world, Scruggs and others (1968)analyzedthe relationships between.char-'acteristics of the home and 4family of, theworkinsman and his performance in employment. ultimate purpose was to usethe data as a basis far'improving th0vocational homemaking progralA. The ini-tial phase of the study included an ek=',-tensive review of theliberature,on theworld of work,, particularly therelationship of the home to employment,and 'a .pilot s*dy.

8 3

76

pR

4

.;

4

4

Collection ofolluestionnaire data `'from the.35families in the pilot study :was supplementedwith interviews by trained. interviewers.Results of the pilot suggested that fami-lies varied widely and the fact that theirjobs were.Similar did not necessarily'"

an that the..people themselves Were.a feOm the pilot-study suggested that there

ome relationships .between the home envi-t and the employment record, that the

and's roles in decision makingied, that dietary intakes were not

LAimum, and that knowledge of child de-vAlopment was positively related to jobstatus of the husband.

Fallowing the pilot study, Pearson(1971) looked closely at fbod and nutri-tion knowledge of the homemakers andtheir attitudes toward food prepardotion,and investigated the relationship of em-ploymen4Pvariables to knowledge andattitudes. Data were collected ,from 186families by methods similar.to those usedin the pilot study.

c4

. The survey of homemakers' nutritionknowledge indicated that the women had moremisconceptions about the4telstive amountsof certain nutrients needed by people of. ,N

various ages than about what_is "good" or"bad" for p ople in general. The average ,

score on th series of food preparationattitude st ements indi6ated that the women

. toward preparation ( earsOn,had t.positi e, but no strongly pritiye,attitude. towar

77

Kundel (1969). reported oth6r,aspectsof this follow -up study. Her findingsshowed .that the majority of all familyzlothing%/as'bought new, and that homesewing was- done by 72 of the .6Viescores'of the -husbands an, ives re-

1 wo .

,,pected positive)oeliefsabout the impor-tance of the family., On the average,hUSbands and wives . took a position onfamily decision making regarding moneyhat could be described as approximately.midWay between autocratic and democratic.

Higher levels of education were as-socia -.fwith less informal work clothes,

,greater Socia1partiCipation better hous7ing, more knoWibdse of child 'deVelopmentby the husband, leSs autocratic. beliefsabout-decision making and the. preferencefor quality.over quantity in clothing,

. N(Kundel, 1969).

Studies which address program effec-'tiveness-are-scarce. for ongoing programs,but studies frequently assess the worthof new curricula, and/or new instructionalstrategies. Selected for this review aretwo studies which.dealt with a curricultimdebiggad. to prepare stadents for the (Alai erole of4homemaker-wage earner.

Hughes (1969) tested.the efficacy ofa curriculum pa age which contain40 amonth-long unit designed to help Second-ary home economics students Study..combining the homeMaker-wage earner'sroles, including especiallfthe m'anage-.ment problems associated Stith thoseroles. (The Hughes study- was con- 0

. 78

tc,

ft,

ducted just prior to the\resurgence of'.the women's movement and at a time"whencprricaltp packages for use by' home, eco--n'omics teachers'werenot

The materials1 were developed ini-tially with the hip.p.of a group of teach-ers'and subject44tter specialists and weesubsequently_1160:in a variety of schools' ,N\by experieneedchers. Of' interestheie is the eff,4ctiveness of designing actrriculum for tile in a fairly largenumber of schooik;

.Content of the package'S included the'N historiCal background.ofthe employment of

momen1 employment statistiOi;:of the toltme, factorsinvolved in making the decision'abouf employ-ment of the hoMemaker, costs of eMploy-

proviSion4tor care of children,management of money. The variety of'structional strategies included slidinterviews, discussion, overhead trparencies, a simulation game, field t ips,role playing, and prog'rammed'instruction.Teachers judged the total package,accept-able but responses.Vried on individualitems; they also noted that the Materials"were particularly good in eliciting in7terest and partiCipation Of students.Student gain was significant-on theachievement test but not on the attitudetest: Howevern4nterviewdwith.Stu -dents at.theccitiOlik0;on of-the unit ofstudy, they spok0Of?the importance totheM of havinshadthe opportunity tostudi, the kind of topics that were inthe unit (Hugh , 19,69).

79

The information in the package wassuited to use by the teachers in theclassroom and is cited here because itillustrates a.method of bringing about acurricular change with a model thatmight well be explored for use again.The problem with;the Hughes materials isthat there was no provision'for sellingthe package or,getting it into the cur-riCulum beyond the schools where it wastried. This is notmaterials but is withheavily on non-printbetter stiategies4forstill needed.

problem with printackages that relyterials, andissemination are

A much more extensive dual roleproject, 'Preparation for a Dual Role *

Homemaker-Wage Earner with Adaptations 3to Inner-City User was carried .cut i,rifour states by Zialrymple,Lowe andNelson (1971). The experimental studytested the efficacy of two courRes 4e:-sighed to prepare disadvantaged youthfor. their dual role of homemakei and

v

9wage earner. One course el phasizedohome-making4.and the second course includedboth homemaking and wage earnir, with 4both oriented toward the dbncept oteveh-tually com*ining both homemaking and wageearning. q

Subjects were 139 pupils iptexpexi-mental and 147 pupils in control grows.in Connecticut; Indiana, New York andOhio. Pupils were disadvantaged and wereselectd for the study according to spe-cific criteria, any one of which wouldclassify, a pupil as a potential dropout.

'80

../8

sa

4+

The design also provided forsupplementing the basic teaching strate-gies withuse of resources from socialand educational_agencies in the communi-ties, use of more than one kind of re-source, and participation in a teachekworkshop as making .a differenge in effee-

, tiveness'of.the course.

Effectiveness of'the year longcourse was determined through analysis oftest results and records in terms ofchange Pupilsel -concept; perception oflocus of control; nowle,dge and pompre-hension of course ontent; attitbde towardchild rearing prac ices,' marriage, .dualrole for %admen, and work; school attend-ance; academid record; 4hd potential foremployability (Dalrymple, 1971, p. iii).

0!, r

During the-,time the, experimentalstudy was being carried out researchers.visited the clas rooms in order thatcourse plans materials could beppn-tinuoiisly evaluated. In additioikto*tacollected about the experimental and.lkom-

,

trol students, teachers also reacted +.62° "student response. to materials and to,4414

n art.& 4.aspects of the course itself.'; DAta6n". * "./Acluded interviews from all teachers d .1!t,,o

from a random sample of ,pupil ,

the of the course and in 61:1041-xitione year later..

a later report. of.

th udy'th"autho noted that assessment as diffi-

, cult bec se success was in Selected apects,r er than any general, overall!.success (or failure). "The strongIt 4

81

88

,r

eVidence.Ofcgain for pupils in' the courseoriented to wage ;earning, was in terms of.their self -Concerit--Ieelings of self-warth.:,' equality with others, and respectfor themSeive: The pupils gained inchiracteriSt4s 'enhancing. employability!'(14serson feet` al., .1975, p. 113) . Comparedto ,Ontror:grOtIps; pupils in "-the 'homeMaking4-oriented course' gained:More: posj =

at.titudAs.6.tii.,Ward,'WOrk and. their- aca-:records .improved for the iear of

the ;experiment,. Whek interviewed "'afterthe - cOurose, ..plipigiS for ,the' lost part. gaveposiviive RdliartintS.4anc3 notedlthe, helpful-ness: to them of he' Conterit-,,Of the course(NelSoh et ,al. 4101975,1: "p.: 113)

-,44 The !re,S.earchers4 *tressed: not' onlythe content of the curriCuituri for disadvantaged;At.4dentS but also the teachingstrategieAsecl,:. They recommended that avariety ;Of:strategies be 311.3e$,, even. Within"vid41 lessons ,r:and that teaching mater-,ials -116 :1idapted , to ,the sOtio,-econoinj.alevelCof ,the pupil's in' the classes. With,rega on-the-job experience they'sug t.61 that 'pupils be given, experi-de ,aS, soon as possible after. the classha egun in order 'that they May have acem tto referent'..fOr class: 'discussioniScussion(Nel n , 1975) .

It ay. be as a consequence of theirproblems itvdissemination that. the re-searchers maael.the same recommendationmade earlier by,Hughes (.p69) . That is,that curriculum guides be developed withall needed accompanying resource materialsand provided to teaOhers to facilitate

8D

82rs

keachex knowledge of

'Content an t ©; classroom compe-tenae 11975, p. 113) . Bothof tho 4'61.14Y4614s7/ studies were basedon contenin-ltre'a.ViPtor which the needhas b9ervAdkuttrikited.. and, yet they were not

;.t' Widely, useL;f61:34,bWing the experimentation*.Ass*,,ke"siat of a mandate for "main-

hancl capped students, teachersdealing with these stu-

deikS regular classes. Kohlmann(19.71) cleiA944,d:,;a study, "Procedures for

Skill&' for Living In Classes.: 4andidapped Pupils are nte-q4t,e/s Ttit on-handicapped Pupils." Theiraos tig the study was to plan effec-

t .'wtivelIAticO%ional opportunities for 'stu-den 4,tth,`A wide range of abilities and

ions.: More ,specifically, the4, fin' study ojetives were to encourage teach-''.%4tqbe'lliiiling to work with students04ital and physical handicaps; tot';,:? identify :areas of skills for

dependiot living, for familyfor career; to design and test

effectivness of instructional techniques;and tix prepare curricular guidelinesb,sect. on findings' from the 'study.

A

;Various teachers, specialists, and /clas,ses. participated' in initial testing;Ache:main study included data from 16classes taught by 14 teachers . The 251students included 25 mentally 'disabled

end 5 physically disabled (Kohlmann,1977, 'p. 38) .

j4t

4

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1,

Strategies. teste4 group learn-ing centers with each of threeprocedural patterns.. In:.plan.l, one sob,-

Tejective w s studied at one center, andafter c pleting the activities for thatobjecti e the group rotated. Prior toand subsequent to the group work there.were, activities of the total class for

and follow-up. Plan 2 had .

all learning centers working on the sameobjective but diffetent generalizationsat each. After groups had wOrked throughgeneralizations there would be a .report(teach -back) to the. total class:. The .

wthird plan.as &combination of one and.two; that is, it combined rotation withteach-hack. In all cases, the topicstudied was consumer information and allthree. plans. included modules for use-by:the teacher. Modules included all fiegeb7sary materials for carrying out the ac-tivities with the students.

Criteria for assessment of compara-.tive worth of the plans j.ncluded.attitude

test administered' as pre-test and post-toward gabled persons, an achievement

test, attitudes of students and teacheis.toward the-group learning centers and.the materials therein, attitudes toward tworking in groups, and attitudes tpward .

the content area. . 41.

K9hlmann and others (1977)cfound_thegroup learning centers effective ,when - 1used in the mainstreamed classed in -that -- -.

study. Cognitive growthoccurred fornth the typical and'thevildly'isabled 1

although of course it was not as great *

84.-

t,,"

r6±.

for the mentally.disabled. Students' at-,

" etudes were generally positive as were,tfiose'of the participating, teachers. Theopportunity to woik"with other students'nay have been:the most important aspect.of the *studY,:inasMilch as

. .'teactiers expressed very famO4-able attitudeBetowafd the socializa-tion which occurred aTsfUdentiwqrk'ed$,,eogether as a', group to AcComplisfi. a common goal. In addition,

peer tutoring which'took place in. the learning' centers was viewed as a

positive attribtite of the strategy(Kohlmann,_°1977, p..73). ',

, AA4 a result; use of group, learning centerwas recommended for mains*ramed classesand some'specific suggestions for effec-tive use were noted in the report (Kohl--mann, 1977).

In a summary of findings of fourteenlongitudinal studies of infant and pre-school/experiments, Lazar and others(1977). sought to determine whetherearly childhood intervention,programs hada lasting effect. Their report;""ThePersistence of Preschool Effects," hasimplications for both content and potentialparticipanis in consumer *and-homemaking .

,

The fourteen studies included pre-school interventioiivprogram6 in threegeneral categbriesi, center-based, in

/which eftorts.yere directed primarily4

85

92

the child; home - based, with effortst ward the parent, usually the mother; '

d a combination of school programs and.111. h me visits (Lazar et al., 1977,,p.. 5).

. ,.

The report is of importance to con-4'.sumer and homemaking education for cer-tain of its findings and: its methodology.Among-the former are the documented valueof a2structured curriculum for the lowincome chi;dren in the prOgrams and thepositive difference when parentswere actively,involyed. 15ecausethe,pro7grams did make kdiffference which per-sisted and knowldtlge exists relative tocomponents in the program, the heedeforinclusion of such experiences in Childdevelopment classes is evident. lha't is,'the "playschool" should give way to-ex-periences in an ongoing, structured pro-graM,in which parents are actively_in-

. volved.

The methodology suggests a procedurefor designing a series of studies withdifferent approaches in each of several.geographic regions, and then aggregatingthe data. Given comparable content andcriteria the procedure holds promise formore definitive data'on effeCtiveness ofconsumer and homemaking education.

Annul reports of individual teach-ers rarely report formaldreseardh onevaluation yet from them -one may makeinferencea about program quality, .The)reports may be'prOvided for their local-school, but are more llitgly for statecompilation. The maih part of state

t

86

NI

reports contains enrollment and cost databut as one turns to the descriptive re-port:indidationA of successful programsare noted. The report on Part "eon-stimer and Homemaking," in the State of Iowa'sAnnual Report'for Career Education FiscalYear 1976 included a description of com-ponents of successful programs. Threewere selected for reference in this re-view and the appropriate teachers andsupervisors were interviewed. 'Two of theprograms involyed use of funds allocatedfor work with disadvantalged (Jordal, Note 5;Kelley, Note 6) and one was a "regular"secondary program (Yungschlager, Note 4). °

The consumer and homemaking programreported by Yungschlager is illustrativdof the programs regarded as superior bytonsultants4in_tAe Iowa Department .of

. Public Instruction. and by home economicsteacher educators at Iowa State University,In addition to the inclass components,the program included home Visits, an'ac-tive advisory committee, strong FHAwell integrated into classes, 'strong ad-ministrative support, and active,partici-pation of the two'teachers ,in a varietyof professional activities (Yungschlager,Notp.4).

The program, is continually evacuated"and for that' reason Yungschlager inSeptember 1977 contacted 500-former sfu--

'clea.-ss7 the family living program.'Writh'a tructuted questionnaire sheasked them what aspects of the c;,ass weremost use5g1 to them .after they had.left

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school and in a free response sec-tion invited theie comments on the pro-gram as it: was. and as they would suggest.that it be revised.

The progr4m,-in a.town of about 1200'in an area on the fringe of productive.Iowa farmland, has. consistentlyJmain-

-tained high enrollment and.is now at thepoint where.facilities,'-and.pesonnel mustbe expanded or enrollment' restricted.The program, whiCh serves grades'1012,has 'recently expanded offeringsof inter-est to young men and more. semester offer-ings in order_to serve larger numbers ofstudents, ThOse who want a three yearcomprehensive offering in home economics

'may still have it through a combinatIonof the Offerings available. Learningactivities are varied and include such"real" activitiesas working with a houseduring its reModeling, 'feld traps, andmany laboratory experiences (Yuqsschlager,.Note 4). The program at this sehool isnot atypical, but suggests a program tora fairly, conservative community t0 -bringteachings,an line with4bcietY as it' istoday,

In'1974 a special program,called"Mothers and Children'LeArni.Ing'Togeiher(114T) "was initiated at, aft" .area eommuni'college in,the,eastern part Of ipwa.main'iponsOr'of the prbgram is tbe-munityservices.divisiOn of thetollege.'

It it included' cooperation of)(1,variey.educational' and social agetigies. in' the

area CoOpeiate. Particpintsn the progr* arewomen who/iqualify qs-low ...1.noomeunder. the.

4 guidelines. and the.chiidken. in:he4

0

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tare center, a learnAing environment. Thechildren may be children of, the mothersin the program, Spanish speaking childrenwhose parents are attending a bilingual.program, children of students', or chile-dren of faculty and:staff,(Kelley Note6).

-Women who are students in the'pro-gram are often referred by t,lie varfilus'social agencies and may be.high schooldropouts, child abusers or abused, and-so,on. The main emphases of thg-progra4are consumer education, parent"education,and management. Legsonsdn these areas:are presented to.two groups each Oftwomornings a week during, the academic year.The mothers are given opportunity-to dom-plete their high school education and togain knowledge and'skills to help them intheir daily.living, While they are stud'.ying their children are in the childcarecenter and a part Of-the program.invOlVes inter,.action betweenthe mothers andotheir7own.Children.as a' laboratory situation. 'AfterObtaining'the high ~school diplomat thewomen haveoppOktunity tor-some kinds ofjob training (Kelley, NOte

0.

. Though there has been no -formal..-evaluation of the .prOgram, community'col-._lege. and Department of Public instradMinistrator have made a.Further, the arrative r6port of t! e- in

r.structors in luded not ,only their assess -`..oments.Of the progress of prOgram'pa6.ticipants butlso comm6nts of the.par,.ticipant8 themselves, SoMe eviddnce.ofsuccess was the number` of students who

89

finished their high school degree and con-tinued their education at the communitycollege. Other evidence was that.althoughattendance was irregular, there was morecontinuity of 'membership in classes thanis often the case at suCh.ceAters. Par-ticipants may cOme,for as long as twoyears; at the'end/of that tune they areexpected to be "on their ownbut may usereEerral services-pf the pkagtam.

Tinother aspect of theimportance which the part.selves have attached totlessons. They consists lyvalue of this in their lives withtheir own' .children when they reported thatit is possible for one to become a betterparent (Kelley, Note 6).

The laigest city in-the state(20000) is the site of another success-ful adult education prograin, anoutreach program housed-administrativelywithin the public school system. Thetotal;enrollment for FY '77 was 1120, ofwhom 222 were male.' Most were "adult"but there were a few preschoolers andsenior citizens invblved in the progtam.Deliverylimode was through family livingcenters and home visits. Visits werealso made as promotional contacts butthe repOrted 2,007 home visits includedthose in which,actbal teachingoccurred (Jordal, Wite 5).

15rOrPa

concerns thes them- -

arentingreported'the

Objectives of the program are fairlygeneral, oriented toward such things as:management of income, consumer practices,

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nutritionally adequate. menus, preparation.and storage of foods, food buying, someskills in clothing and home furnishings,health and sanitation, communication, andchild development. Objectives are metthrough formal classes and, through re-sponses to particular problems which the

761"fents-smay have. Some of the problems,such as reading,labels and working withour measurement system, are unique to thegroup of Vietnamese who have settled in thecity. Others served either individuallyor through workshop.type classes includewhites, black, Spanish, and Native Ameri-can. The program is becoming increasing-ly successful in working with other com-munity agencies and-that effort will con-.tinue. The use of professional home econ-omists was reported more.satisfactory thanparaprofessionals in this particular pro-gram and the need for additional staff issome evidence of the program's success(Jordal, Note 5).

The New York state program reportedby Nelson and Jacoby (1973) was a state-wide,effort to provide many programs ofthe type of which the two were reported inIowa. There may well be some merit tostarting such programs on a smaller scalewith ample opportunity for. frequent re-'view\and revision during the beginningstages. On the basis of the subjective.assessments of the two programs in Iowa,it seems appropriate to expand' that ef-fort, this time accompanied by evaluationwhich would meet at least some'of thecriteria for design and instrumentation.All three reports noted the need for creative

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programming and all found professionalhome economists necessary. Consideringthe success of the Coopekative ExtensionService with use of ind.igenous paiapro-fessionals, some .combihation might be.moreapptOpriate than exclusive reliance oneither professi9nal or paraprofessional.

On .the whole, studiei suggest that consumerand homemaking programs are effective. COnsumerand homemaking education is an integralpart of the secondary school program andof the adult program. What is strikingis that except for a few enrollees na-tionally, there are no formal reports ofprograms designed to serve the post-

asecondary students. The students, are ta teachable-mOment for consumer educa-tion, family planning, parent education,and provision of nutritious foods. Post-secondary proggAms lead the list of cur-riculum studies to-be done. .

Studies to be Done

Studies needed for further evaluationof consumer and .homemaking education areof three typos:' experimental curriculudstudies which test effectiveness of con-tent and/or approach for different audi-ences, followup studies of participants,and comparison with 'alternatives. As-pects of all might le included in onestudy provided that"tt was adequately funded.

The following are examples of studiesthat would be useful.

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1. Develop and evaluate parenting"educa-tion programs at the community.college(or area school) leirelp that is, f9r,grades 13 and 14. Tide records on childabuse, the concern for cognitive develop-merit of, children, arid the generaXly con-cededimportance of the environment man-date that parent education programs beextended. Design the,. course to appealto a variety of audiences and to #ccommo-,date More than one deliVery system.Monitor effectiveness for enrollees, ob, .

' ,tain control groups and compare with pro-grams including similar content offeredby.other' agencies.

2., Conducit a comprehensive evaluation of"successfdl" programssecondary, communi- =

ty college, or adult.' Consider competen-cies of students', teacher characteristicsincluding preparation, characteristics of the community,cost, facilities, attitudes of several.grous, parent participation,"presence. of FHA, and jobaspirations of students. In short, look.at many var-iables and look at graduates' as well asthose presently in the program. Select afew programs in each of several states.Obtain', control groups, preferably fromthe same schools.

. e

3. Followup graduates of child develop-mept classes. Compare with cohorts whohave not had child development in schoolor.elsewhere. Collect data on. child careprocedures, child health, abuse, and inter-,action of parent and child. Conduct as'extensivean investigation as.reasonable cost willpermit, limiting sample size if necessary.

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\ d.4. Sampling would be asserious probleribut a worthwhile study would examine horde-makers with small children.' Compare a Pgroup that stays home with, children andspends time on food purchase and prepara-:tion, home care.and repair, .gardening,and so on with a grout) that works outsidethe home and buys serVices.,(The firstgroup might.need instruction0 Thiscould be especially useful for low in-come persons, for welfare recipients, or for ruralgroups. One objective would be costcomparison:, Others could be investigation of .

personal satisfaction and 'quality of-life(as. perceived and as observed).

5. Experiment with funding patternswhich reward innovation: That is, in one'or'two states,_Erovide opportunity andmoney for a fell-Teachers to developcourses that Include the critical skillsneeded by the groups most at risk. Add

of change strategists and communi-46."'cation experts to those of teachers and

researchers.

'6. Explore effectiveness of communityinvolvement experiences within the sec-

?" ondary and/ot post-secondary consumer andhomemaking programs. Determine strate-

, ( gies for implementation of experiencesfacilitating community involvement rolesas students and later as citizens.

7. Vdriations of (1) .for other subjectareas and'other groups.

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POLICY IMPLICATIONS.

Studies of learners and society andrecommendatioCe of'specialists haveim-pact on curriculum but so. do agenciesresponsible for funding and carrying outeducatibnalprograms. Their impact maybe as priorities establithed by, schoolphilosophy; -it may betas ldgislative man-dates for content of programs

Alocal schools want the best educa-tion they can provide for ,their studentswith available resources. Reactions inthe last, few years to increases in schoolbudggts have,been sharp andi'make clearthat only with firm evidence ofeneed will

.

tchools permit expansion of faculty orbudgets in:any area of study. This reaction af-fects vocational areas such as consumerand homemaking, which lay their nature aremore expensive than'academic areas.

,refore when one is looking at con-

sumer aid homemaking, programs one needs.to recognize that changes, if necessary,,May need to be made by shifts in theexistingprogrem rather than by addition,o0,resources to meet what may be more im-porteint needs than are served" by the%present program. jocokmplicate matters,orders for implementing Title IX and forreduction of sex stereotyping maybeforcingdother changes. In making suchchanges, school_ administrators need telpin'interpreting the needs of the studentsin the local consumer and homemaking pro-gram at all levels.

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W thin federal states,"too, h ve their own priorities. :liffek-ences between state and local pr4oritiescaftbe illustrated by,reviewing stateplane for,vOcational'education and en-rollment in those courses. in local pro-grams. For example, one state plan man-dates that. in over to meet requirements -

the program must include consumer educa-tion, including promotion of-nutritional /knowledge and food use, as well as the understand-ing of the economic aspects of food use, ,..,.

and purchase, as an integral part of theprogram. The plan also mandates that:theRiogram be designedfor youth and adultbwho have entered or are prepa'ring to

. enter -the work of the 'home (Iowa Depart7thent of Public Instruction, 1976, p. 54).The mandates follow the federal guide-lines, but are not always represented in..enrollment reports from, local schools.The'eontent may' nopillie,visible, as sug-gestea earlier, but occasionally schoolpdficymakers' expect:production" to take -lace. in. a home economies program regard-less of other needed dimensions,1

0

With increasing. frequency,. state #

legislatureS are mandating that coursesor areas..of study be included in second-ary pxograms. Consumer education haseen among them, afid the mandates may or..

thay not indicate the subject area inwhich it,is to be'tSught. When mandate

1>/(Sources: informal comments from.

students Seeking positions; reviews ofprogram, content in.selected.schools.

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content is in'the consumer and. homemakingsubject matter areas, some legislativeVigilance is warranted.

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If content ofconsumer and homemaking .

programs were more carefully specified,and if there were(consistency in compe=tencies expeoted of partidipants, someof these problems could be eased. In fact,such specifications are important withinas well asoutside'thefield4 Given ,thepresentemphasis on "basics,"'Clear desig-nation of content is In order.

../

The present system of allocations offunds probably should belMaintain&d, Con-sumer and homemaking funds have beenshown to serve their intended purposes:If the funds were not dedignated'to b'espent .within'the existing structure, theymight 'e diverted to other agencies that

Y& not !lave protedOlonalexpertise or a-(delivery system-in Place. For reasonsdot completely blear, the consumer and ..

heiftlemaking funds and programs are vulnerable.,

One would hope that:such funds i

could be part of the basic grant but thetime for thit,is not now.

The 'ogram's audiences include stu-dents at various age levels from avariety of socioeconomic groups; groups.with dpecial4needs are served in in-creasing nuMbers.

p,

Programs are dedigned

t/to helmeetthe eeds of pregnantteenagers, famili s on welfare, femaleheads of families, and those withphysical or mental handicaps. Portionsof available funds are designated for

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these audiences, and shtiuld ccontinge tobe. However, criteria for identificationshould be left to the respective states.Iowa is not unique in finding it diffi7cult to'conform to federal guidelines foridentification of digadvantaged, eventhoUgh it has its share of persons in thetarget categories.

Legislation might encourage use ofconsumer and homemaking funds in jointprojects with other soeial agencies tomeet particular problems, provided theconsumer'and homemaking funds are used,under the direction of home economicssupervisors in the respective state de-partments.. Funds are limited and, al-though it seems appropriate that they beused in cooperation with other agencies,

' policy writers must be careful that theuse is for educatidnai purposes, 'and theimpact identifiable.

Programs_as they are row organizedShould be continued, but with specificimprovements.- Emphasisshodld be on thespecial needs of group's at risk and on/'skills needed by homemakers (both/male t

and female) who are also in the work .

force. One way to implement reorganiza-tion is to.legislate: it, but some form ofparticiNttory- decision and action byteachers the selves would be preferable.Action woul e.fac4itated by strength-ening the.in ervice component of ancillaryservices to rovide curricular materials

.designed specifically--for t achers to usein providing the content uggested for thegroups identified.

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Useful as they are, curriculum ma-terials and guides, whether state orfederal, are not effective for'this pur-pose. Current subject matter'and sug-r-gested strategies(including evaluationdevices) ,in reasonably small "units" pro-vide the 'new information and ideas whichteachers continually request.

Research and evaluation _arte otherAncillary services in need-of increasedfunding. Lack of such funds '17s evidentfrom the paucity of evaluation studiesreported. There are able.gresearchers inhome economics education, and needed stud--ies have not been done because prioritiesfor funds were elsewhere. Legislation.asnow written permits use of consumer andhomemaking funds for research And-teachereducation, and'some of those funds shouldbe available, if not in all states, atleast in some key states for national orregional efforts. If additional fundsare needed, they should be sought.Of equal importance( is thtrt they'be con-tinued over a period of years in orderthat data may be colleCted beyond the oneyear to which many projects are limited.

Youth groups, outreach programs,home visits and other dimensions of theprogram ought_to be continued and perhapsexpanded. 'Special .funding pes'not'seemnecessary, although some states may findit desirable to make certain that suchdimensions' are' available to target groups-as well as traditional audiences.

99:

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Any suggested change will be di'ffi-ctgt without more leadership at the stateand national level. -After the 46.3 act,some state departmepts.of,edupi.tion andthe national office of education were re-organized in such a way that vocationalhome ,economics,duperyisors lost budgetarycontrol; in some cases,positions werelost. The damage to programd, is evident.although hard to document. SoMe evidence,is the decrease in research and curriculumefforts. Another is the lack of a defini-.tive content for consumer and homemakingeducat:ion.,

Organizational pattern's of state de-gpartments of educatidn merit review, per- .

haps as much far ala of vocational educd-tion al.for:tcondumer-and..boirtemaking arone.It may welllbe. that changes in organiza-tion .have increased effectiveness in someresrmcts_ and all that id'needed is ade-- quate. numbers ;of staff 'with bud9::ry,Con-,trol. The.mosttptespin4 need i thenationallevel, where we'need an immediateincrease nuntger of,personnel withexpertise in vocational home economics.Again., those persons 'need budgetary, con-trol.

oe..

,

g,Alternatives to programs beyond the

few suggestedpelsewhere do' not seem viable,although we, need data to'refute orsupport the statement. The present con-sumerand homemaking prograM'has'profes-dional:expertise and a delivery systemsecond to none in education... Some combi-nation.1:)f effort has been suggedted, but

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107

2fundS are not sufficient to permit largescale'use other than as designated.

In summary, this reviewer recommendsthat, the consumer and homemaking programbe continued. 'The funding level should'be increased to the extent that thegroups most ir(need of the program can be'reached without jeopardizing its useful-ness to traditional'audiences. Emphasisshould be placed on out of school pro-grams for persons at risk, on a shift in'emphasis-.in the secondary programs and onpost-segondary'programs.. Research, anddevelopment efforts, with subsequent in-service activities for teachers, will beneeded.if the changes are to occur.

. The need fsr leadership is acute.Professional,' organizaeicns a-re helpful;the American Vocational Associatisin pro

,' vides leadership for vocatiOnal education.and the American Home EConomics Associa-tion provides leadership in the field,ofhoMe economics. generally. However,neither group can take the-Place,cifstrong leadership.from the U.S`. Officeof Education and from state departmentsof education, provided by a sufficientnumber-of professionals with educationand experience in vocational home eco-nomics.

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Ahmann, J. S. Personal communication re-garding NAEP, assessment of career andoccupational development, October 11,1977b.

_Allen Guttmacher Institute (AGI). Dataand analyses for 1976 revision of ['HEW.'five-year plan'for.family planningservices.-'NewOiX1 Alien GUttthacherInstitute,'1976.

American Home Economics Association. 4Con-, ,2/'

cepts and generalizations: their placein high school home economics curricu-lum development. Washington, D.C.:American Home Economics AsSoCiation,,1967.,

American Home Economics Association. Oc-cupational home economics educationseries. Washington, D.C.: Superin-tendent of Documents,. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1977.

Anplerson, C. Parenting and perceivedsex-role of rural Iowa fathers. Un-published doctoral dissertation, IowaState UniverSity, 1976.,

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Berger, P. S. The report of a New Jerseyexperiment guaranteed income: does itwork? J6urnal of Home Economics, July1975, 18-22._

Bivens, Fitch, Newkirk, Paolucci, Riggs,Marie, and Vaughn. Home economics-new directions II. -Journal of HomeEconomics, May 197 $', 26-27.

Carnegie Quarterly. Average daycare:harmful or beneficial? CarnegieQuarterly, 1977f. 25(3), 5-6.

Christmann, P. A. Recognized problems ofsingle girls in Iowa entering the workworld following high school gradua-tion. Unpublished master's thesis,Iowa State UnlVersity,-1.9.671

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Cross, A. A. Eviluation Of vocationalhome economics ptograms.in terms of theeffectiveness of full-time homemakersand homemakers who are also full-timeemployees (Final Report, Project No.071204, G4iant No. OEG-4-9-201204-002.6-085). Athens, Georgia: university of.Georgia,.March 1971.

s /.6a1rAple, P. K., and Nelson,

H. Y. Final report, home economics re-search rirojedt with4focus on prepara-tion for a dual role: homemaker-wageearner with adaptati6ns to inner city,

youth, Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Department of Health, Education, andWelfare, Ofbiceof Education; Bureauof Research, 1971 (ERIC Document Re,-production Service No. ED 058 464).

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Davis, W. ,Knowledges in clothing andtextiles needed by homemakers andworkers in clothing occupations..Illinois Teacher for ContemporaryRoles, 1968-69, 12(1), 31-52.

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Eisner, E. W. and Vallance, E. Conflict-ing conceptions of curriculum.Berkeley, California: McCutchan Pub-lishinqiCorporation, 1974.

Farquhar, N. and Molhman, C. Life compe-tence: a non-sexist introduction topFactical arts. Social Education,1973, 37(6), 516-519.

Hawkins, L. F. Child-rearing learnirl4interests of fathers of first grade,children. Home Economics ResearchJournal, 1974, 3, 194-199.

I

Hilton, H. L. Now that women, are liber-ated. Journal of Home Economics,April 1972, 2-5.

Hughes, R. P. Development and evaluationof a curricplum package on preparationfor a dual tole. Journal of Home Eco-nomics, 1969, 61(5), 350-358.

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jllinois Office.of Education, A compara-tive assespment of secondary consumerand homemaking education programs 1974-75, Final Report. Springfield, Illi-nois: Illinois Office of Education,ik75: a -

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h 1

Iowa State University Press. Competen-cies for home. economics teachers..Ames, Iowa: Iowa State UniversityPress, 19'78.

Johnson,'N. E. and Nitzke, S. Nutrition-al adequacy of diets of a selectedgroup of low- income women: identifica-tion of some related factors. Home.Economics Research Journal, 1975, 3(4), 241-248.

Kohlmann, E. L. Procedures for teachingskills for liVing in classes wheremildly handicapped pupils are inte-

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0

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IFERENCE NOTES

Elementary-Secondary.HomeEconomics Consultant-fpr Iowa. Per-:sonal communication, January 10,.197A.

2. N.C.146 Project Outline. TO be avaii-able from-Current Research Informa-tion Sygtem (CRIS), U.S. Departmentof Agriculturee 1978.

3'. Schultz, J. and Allen, L. Adolescentpregnancy--implications for home eco-.nomics. ,Unpublished manuscript, IowaState University, 1977.

4. Yungschlager, B./ Personal communica-tion, October 1977.

5. Jordal, D., Home and Family LifeCoordinator for Des Moines PublicSchools. Personal communication,October 1977.

6. Kelley, M., Post-Secondary CareerEducation Consultant for Iowa. Per-sonal communication, October 1977.

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..its*s.smENT;X, CONS13MEI AND, -

HOMEMAKING EDUCATION

Aleene K. Cross.

INTIkODUCTTdN

04:4The occupation, of homemaking has

been the purpo46 of Vocational Home Eco=nomics since _the pass-age of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917. Each legislative actfor the past sixty-years, andthe curr4cula that resulted, has addressedcurrtnt socio - economic concerns thataffect families and individuals. The,fir7t curriculum guides focused on the,manual skills of food preparation andclothing construction which were mostlydone in the home. The guides in the earlyfifties placed additional emphasis onchild care, interpersonal relationships,and the family life cycle. Consumeredudation became the focus after the'pas-'sage of the 1968 Amendments to the Voca-tional Acts. These various Changei and/or additions resulted in more emphasis.onhuman development, management, and values.Tie homemaking skills needed to providefood, clothing, and housing increasihglywere linked with decision making and the .utilization of resources.

-:°."AToday the central focus,of homeeconomics continues to,be thekwell beingof the family and the,ggality, enrichment,and stability of famiIralife. Because ofcertain developments ih society," the needfor home economics is probably more impor-tant today than during any other period inthe history of our nation. The lonfj7timeemphasis in the public.schoolsLon preparingindividuals for the occupation of'home-making continues to be important although

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Aleene A. Cross is currently,chairpersonof theHome Economics Education Program at the

. University of Georgia.

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there are lleceSsarily new probleMs facing-familie which hecebsitatemew directions .

in homemaking education. Homemaking educa-tion and the new emphasis, educatiOn forgainful employment or occupational education4 both dtaw on a dommon body'of knoyvl-edge in home economics.' The new purpoSewill contribute to the economic.develop-ment, of the country., Today home economicsis concerned with human development andthe welfare of individuals at all ages andat all stages of life, the rdanagement offamily resources, and the establishment offamily-community relations as comparedwith. the emphasis on production of godsand services ih past years."

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This statement is as true today aswhen written by Lela O'Toole in an unpub-lished paper prepared in 1967 as a memberof the panel, named by President John F.Kennedy to study vocational education.The differences lie in the socio-economic .

concerns of the present that appear in the1976 Amendments to the Vocational Education'Acts such as disintegration of the family; theincreasing number of teenage parents,single parents, and working mothers; therole'changes of bdth men and women; andneeds of disadvantaged, handicapped, low-income, and aging persons as well asinmates of correctional institutions.Curricula and programs must address thesconcerns and should be based on those c m-petencies essential for thellomemkerwhether male or female.

The following definition which encom-passess all fields of home economics has

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been'and continues 'to be used by vocational,homeetonomics educators to establish thescope of curricula. /This definition hasproved to be.sufficiently compre1iensiveand fleicible so that.needs and iAterestpof target groupth have been and can continueto be met by the dcvelopmeht of specialofferings and by adopting new emphases incurricula.

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Home economics synthesizes knowledge !

drawp from its own research; from the phys-ical, biological, amd social sciences; andfroM the arts and,applies this knowledge toimproving the lives of families and individAls.Its concern is with the following aspectsof family living:

- family relationships and care andguidance of, children

- consumption and 'other ,economicaspects of personakand family.living

- nutritional.nedds and the selec-'tion, preservation, preparation andUse of food

- ,design, selection, construction andcarp of clothing and its p§ycholog-ical and social significance

- textiles for clothing and for the -home

- housing for the family and equip-ment and furnishings for the house-'hold

- arts es an integral part of every--day' life

- manageMentin the use of resourcesso that values and goats of the

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indibidual, family or society maybe attained., (American Home

- nomics Association, 959.)`1

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This paper is -divided into threesections:. Crfteria for Determining Effec-tiveness, Eyidence of-Effectiveness, andRationale for Consumer and Homemaking asVocational Education.

CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING-EFFECTIVENESS OF CURRICULA

doniumer and homemaking education has!always had as a major focus preparing per-sone to be homemakers sand to function asmembers of a Tamily.- Furthermore, targetgroup to be served by consumer and home-qmaking programs have been pinpointedaccording to curre socio-economic condi-tions which are al 'reflected in the5.t

. various Vocational ducation Acts. The'criteria to determine effectiveness ispresented in this section first as relatedto target groups and SeCOnd as competenciesnededbvi toe .homemaker.

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ConsuMer and homemaking education has,. in the past been a progra% for females

= rather than males, primarily resultingfrom attitudes of society as reflected inparentalobjections, school counseloradvice, a_nd peeripressure. Histori-cally, homemaking'has "been:defined as thework of the, females,, in the family and eventoday a majority of wives and mothers arein charge of managing the home and caringfor bhildriew. HoweVer, these conditiQs

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are changing.. Men are assuming more ofthe homemaking responsibilities as an ,

increasing number of wives are employedoutside the home and as more singlefatherS have or,share custody of children.Male enrollment in consumer and homemakingis reported as increasing. Ideally allpersons, both male and female, would atsome time have preparation for homemakingother than that received at home. Thecriteria discussed in this paper refer tomales as well as females since it is appar-entthat a target group is boys and men andfurthermore that sex bias must be elimi-nated from all vocational educatioit pro-grams.

Target Groups Related to Socio-Economicconditions

Many of the socio-economic conditionsthat exist today 'did so in 1917'. Certainlythere were families with extremely lowincomes as there were teenage parents,single parents, working mothers, elderlyand handicapped/homemakers, andinstitutional inmates. Perhaps societytoday is more aware of the needs of thesepersons and of the large number whoare in these categories. Certainlx con-slimer and homemaking education scan andshould serve these various target groupsthrough either secondary and post-secondary,programs and/or special classes.

School-age parents and the increasingnumber of pregnancies occurring among teen,-age and preteen girls is.% concern consumer

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and homemaking education curricula andprograms must address. One-fifth, or680,000, of all United States births areto women still in their teens, 274,0110 areto adolescents 17 and younger, 13,000 togirls younger than 15. Ninety-four.E4rcentof teenage mothers keep theft babies'athome according to a 1971 study, 2.5 percentsend the child to live with relatives orfriends, and 3.5 percent give the 'child upfor adoption (Alan Guttmacher Institute,1976, p. 11).

A substantial and growing part ofadolescent childbearing occurs oui.-of-wedlock. Between 1961 and 1974 the 'rateof out-of-wedlock childbearing declined byone-quarter among women 20-24. By ton-trast, it increased by. about one -thirdamong 18-19 year plds and by three-quartersamong-14-17 year Olds. The nonmaritalbirthrate among ,18-19 year olds is nowhigher thanthat' among women 20-24, re'Vers-ing the trend that prevailed until theearly 197Ws. Five-sixths of the' infantsborn to girls 14 and younger and morethan one-third of thoseborn to all14-19year olds are born out-of-wedlcock; the ,

percentage decreases with each year of age.Between the early 1960% andthe early19,70's, the proportion of children of ado-lescent mothers who were born out-of- .

wedlock doubled and has risen'at every yearof age under 20 (Alan Guttmache- Institute,1976, p. 13-14).

Scho61-aged mothers, whether marriedor unmarried, are high risks:

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. educationally. - because more girlsdrop out of school because of preg-nancy than for any other knownreason

. medically - because of increasedlikelihood of heaitp complications.during pregnancy and. because oflow birth weight of babieswho are often born prematurely andsometimes with such handicaps asmental retardation

. socially - because a great numberof the forced or hasty marriagesresulting from these pregnanciesend in divorce (Milk, 1973,p. 34).

One solution is-tp place these youngmothers in a separate class where the cur-riculum is cents 04 around their everydayproblems. Another and perhaps more profit-abl, solution is to approach parenting and-child care, management of financial andother resources, nutritional knowledge and-fOod use, sex.education, and family rela7tionships by utilizing the responsibilitiesand challenges faCing these young people.Certainly in a program for a segregatedgroup of young.mothers, there are greatpossibilities for relevant 'ihstruction.However, there are advantages to providingclasses that are ppen to a mixture ofsexes,.rices, economic incomes, and sociallevels. Young-fathers rarely identifywith the young mother unless married. anOapparently are infrequently included inprograms.designed for school-age parents.Aclass open to all students provides an

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opportunity for boys, 'whether or not'they are

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fathers, to participate in a most relevant eduCational experience. By the same token,girls in programs.'known to this writerhave found this approach to consumer andhomemaking realistic and attractive. Oneteacher reported that students who hadnever elected, to enroll in consumer andhomemaking became eager to enrbll'after the begin-ning of a special funded project thatfocuses on teenage parents. She feelsstrongly that the reason is relevancy andexperiences such as operating a nurseryfor the children of the young parents;planning budgets for a young couple; and-relating nutritional information to pre-natal, postnatal-and child care. The mostobvious advantage is that the young parentsare not isolated frop their peers and arenot identified as a "special" group.

Criteria to be applied should bebasd on the quality of the Anstructionalprogram. The national assessment shouldconsider not only course content but alsothe approach or methodology. Anineffec-tive program would' have a middle c,ldssorientation include instructionalobjectives 4_9 tent) such as 'planning awedding, thooSing china and silver, servinga formal meal, identifying period furni-ture, constructing an evening skirt.An effective program would include meetingprenatal and postnatal Autritional needs,analyzing alternative solutions to.teen- .

age pregnancy, providing care for aninfant and /or a small child, comprehendingreasons for child abuse; providing foodand clothing for a child. The relationshipbetween rate of birth defects and food

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intake is a-more realistici

approach toteaching nutrition than requiring students,to memorize the nutrients. Also relatingthe incidence of birth defects and the age-of the mother is usually more effectivethan the moralistic approach to teachingsex education,

Parental, peer,:and.community atti-tudes should be a- factor in' determiningeffectiveness. Several school adminis-,tratois°in one state did not apply for aspecial grant to implement a programaddressing this concern because severalcommunity leaders felt promisicuity wouldbe encouraged. Yet othter administratorsbecause of their own attitude included asmany students as possible in a similarprogram. A teacheatcan,be limited in pro-ceeding with a spodial program focused onschool-aged paken\s because of these commu-nity and/or school.pressures. On the otherhand, this realistic and problematicapproach is being utilized by consumer andhomemaking teachers without being solabeled. Teachers and administ4etors canidentify prevailing attitudes and any pro-gram can be evaluated taking these into.consideration.

Single parents have not only increasedin number but also have .been more widelyaccepted, particularly fathers having.orsharing custody of children. Single womenhead 12 percent of all American families,a figure which is double the percent in the 1940sisingle men head about two percent(Grossman, 1977).' Consumer and homemakingcurricula to be effective must address thissocial change.,

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The stage of learning. readiness wouldbe the adult level when faced with managingas a single parent. Yet most teenagefemale parents are single and certainly inthe marriage preparation and child careunits of instructioA as well as food,clothing, and housing the single parent ',-,1,-

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concept shOuld be inc uded. Program offer-ings that address the eeds of this targetgroup could be adult classes offered in acommunity college., or an area vocationaltechnical school, or a high school'sextended day program. A secondary school ''offering would' depend upon the schoolschedule.structure. A uarter or semestercou e in Adult Living, Parenthood,.orMan gement could easily include the con-cer s of single parents who can be -encourage&to nkoll. A consumer and homemaking coursethat extends over nine months and containsseveral,content'areas should include thespecial problems of single parents as wellas those of intact families. The approachto instruction. is the real key rather than

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subject content alone. An ineffectivecurriculum. would be centered around thetraditional concept of two parents, a son,and a daughter. The effective approach wouldinclude all types of family patterns:the single mother, the single father, fosterparents, grandparents as well as the intactfamily. The single parent and his or.herparticular problems would then be placed ina larger scope and a study of the transitionfrom an intact family to a one-patent familyor the reverse transition would be placed inreal life context.

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The management skills needed by thesingle homemaker are even greater thanthose'usually-kequired by the married.arent'since he or she must .dO all theio4lmeMaking tapks-shared by two persons.Mailagement of financial resources is ofp4r4mOunt importance for all too oftenincome is.limited. One indication of aneffective program is-the inclusion ofthe many skills needed to manage a homeand certainly the additional skills neededby the single parent..

Housekeeping responsibilities.Such asmeal preparation, laundering, dusting, andvacuuming frequently take precedence over-the parenting responsibilities.. An effec-tive curriculum would place as much if notmore emphaSis on parenting.and care ofchildren as on managing the household.Criteria would include content such as Childgrowth and development, expected behaviorat variOusstages from infancy' throughadolescence, child rearing practiceS, needfor and techniques of expressing affection,individual differences and growth patterns.Another criterion would be the inclusion ofcontent foCusing on the single parentrather than just the traditional twoparentsituation and examination of the differencesunder each set of circumstances.

Evaluation should determine if singlefathers as,well as single mothers areincluded since all too often the conceptis one of the widowed, divorced or unmar-ried mother.

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Mothers employed outside the homehave continued to increase in number. Thenumber of working mothers in 1974 was 2.25times as great as the number of,full-time home-makers: 30,543 compared to 13,506 (U.S. Bureauof Census, 1976). The middle class-dream ofmarriage, keeping house; rearing children, and iitotworking is not-a reality.' These.figuresde not reveal the number who will at somepoint in, the lives of their-children enteror reenter the work force. The father is*as affected by the pother being employedoutside the home ad;"she is. He wilt share,in household tasks to at least some/degreeand increasingly it appears to be a' half andhalf basis. The husband may also have asmany adjustments to make .as his wife.This social condition affects the entirefamily. Consumer and homem4king knowledgeand skills can be beneficial to both theworking mother and her mate.

Effective criteria for a total pro-. gram would include short courses.for

adults (mothers and fathers) on meal prepa=ration in a limited timei.selection ofchild care facilities and sharing careof children, management of time and energyto do household tasks,-budgeting of income,legal, rights and responsibilities of con-

,

sumeri. CourSes would also be available inarea vocational schools and community col-leges that would be required to'complete, anoccupational preparation program.

The secondary school curricula shouldinclude the working mother as one of theroles to be fulfilled by a woman. Theadjustments, needed by both husband and wife

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should be included, in marriage, prepara-tion courses and management techniques and'concepts should be taught in the contextof the working as well as the stay-at-homeMother..

-.. The young homemaker has always beenapart of the population and will no doubtcontinue to be,. Almost 12 percent of thefemales 18-19 years of age and 56 percentof those between 20 and 24 were married. as of.1975,whereas.38.6 percent of the males20:24 years of age were married (U.S.Bureau pf Census, 1976)4 The homemakingskills.needed.by the young homemaker aremuch the same as those `that are needed byany hohamaker. The difference betweenryoungerand older homemakers lies in their maturitylevel and prior life experiences. Theaccelerated role transition of early marriage,and frequently early parenthood, is closelyassociated with family instabilityT,child abuse,and divorce.' Consumer and homemaking programs.at all levels should address the needs ofthis, group. _

Secondary school curricula-can capirtalize on the young homemaker role.bystructuring many phases of the curriculum

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°in that context . , This ro e'. is by far moreappealing to that age boy and girl than the roleof-either the single'pa nt or the working

'mother. Yet the skills and knowledge neededare much the saMe. Certainly the inclusion-of an awareness of the .possibility of marriage,in the near future should be'a criterion ofeffective curricula: Courses such as Pre--tztsation for Marriage, Parenthood Education,

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Education, Child Care, Food Preparationandqlutrition, and Consumer Education providethe content to address the needs of futureyoung homemakers.

Adult short courses for young home-makers that are designed to meet specifiedneeds would be another criterion ofeffective curricula. These courses existin many agricultural states in conjunctionwith young farmer programs and also in urbanareas where age is, not an organizationalfactor. Child care, consumer edudation,clothing construction, and food preparationare frequently in demand in area vocational-technical schools, as wall as through otherdelivery systems.. The outof-sdhool younghomemakers, both Male and female, recognizetheir needs and will enroll in adult classesavailable to them.

Aging persons are yet another socio,,economic concern andwill continue to bewith the longer life span.. Slightly marethan ten percent of the population in 1975were 65 years of age or:over (U.S. Bureauof.Census, 1976)`.. Past generations dealtwith the aged in an extended family don-

t text.. Presently grandparents are more aptthan not to live in their own homes, retire-mentcomplexes, or nursing homes. Consumerand homemaking educat4on can address thissocio-economic. condition by offering specialclasses that appeal to this,age.group andby including the needs of ke elderly incurricula. These are two iteria by which

-programs.could be evaluated.

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Special courses for the elderly couldinclude nutritional needs, food preparation,and crafts such as refinishing, furni e,knitting, ceramics. An'innovatiVe'prfound in several large urban areas hastrained the elderly to be child care ,aides.This provides income as wallas assense ofself worth. Frequently programs for'thisclientele are housed in nursing. hbmes',retirement complexes; and'special cehters.maintained by Councils for the Aged.Mobile Units hake been particularly effec-tive in carrying Orograms to the elderly.However, it is no4 so much where theclasses are held but how the'conteht-meets

, 4the needs of the elderly..

. .-.

Teenagers andyoung adults can profitby learning about the problems of the

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elderly, as well as how to cope with:an aginggrandparent and how to plw for that sta9e'ofthe life cyle. cAn effeceivecurricula,

t will contain these fa9tors in'thestudy oft,nutritional needs of various family memberS,'the emotional support and interaction -J;

between two persons of differing genera-healthcare, and housing.. Future

Homemakers of America chapters,frequentlyhave projects related to the elderly. ,

Such projects are eVidence that the cur-riculum is addressing this concern sinceFHA is an integral part of the total pro- if'

gram.

An innovative program. is described

gby'Norma

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and Smith. (1971, App. 35-37) whoused a v cational hole econbmics'class"CompariPon to the Elderly." Thecourse was-Ataught over two terms. The ,

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first term was spent in the clas'sroomwhere the students learned about the laststage in the life cycle'in terms of physi-'ologlt, psychology, and social and culturalcharacteristios. Students also acquiredskil,ls.in food preParation and simplehousecleanimg, banking procedures, food

-shopping and running errands. In thesecond term, students were 'placed in volun-

. tary jobs at senior citizen centers, con-alescent homes and private homes.

The inc lusion of a similar course ina consumer and homemaking program Mould be

,,.evidence that this particular, target groupiS. being addiessed.

The handicapped is a minority groupin our, population that was ignored for solong that-providing education and services

'' for them has almost become a national,obsession. Yet only 10.6 percent of per-sons of all ages possess limitation in majoractivity whereas 85.9 percent have noactivity limitation (U.S. Bureau of Census,

'1976). One would-assume that 3.5 percentof the total population possess 'a minoractivity limitation. The proportion' o£children appears to be slightly largerthan that of the total population.

esti-mate

andeWgishahan (1976, p. 18) repOrt the sti-

mate of handicapped, children in the UnitedStates 4.s between 11.2 and 16.4 percent ofthe population with 2.5 to 7.'0 percentbeing mentally retarded or having a learn-ing disability. The proportion of disad-vantaged and handicapped students enrolledin public schools is thereby relativelysmall. Yet with the mandates4of legislatiOn

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and.the humanistic commitment of home eco-nbmics, criteria to assess'the ;effective-ness of curricula ,end of programs mustinclude meeting the needs of the handi-

-capped.

Mainstreaming of these students is a t

concept that should .be reflected no drilyin the curri'bulUm materials but al,sointhe classroqm. Individualizing inbtructionis the apparent answer and that does not-.

. mean programming but directing learningexperiences;ithat are tailored for the stu-.,

dents in the class. Curriculum materialswould include textbboks and references at.different reading levels; activities thatreflect different expectations and standards '

such as mirlimum'for the less able and maxi- -hum,kor the more capable; a variety of audioand visual materials that provide for thenew:slow learner, the poor reader, the visu-allyhandicapped, the deaf. Evaluation:techniques would include more obserVationaldevices for affedtive behavior and psycho-.

motoidsisills thafi paper-pencil tests forasee,ssing dognitiveobjectives.

Handiqapped adults have been evenmore neglected thansecqndary studentsdincemainstreaming4s(relatqmely new.

iFurtherMore, adults may have;becpme physi-cellyhandicappedafter completing school:A.comprehensiye doinOumer_and.homemakingprogram dill include coUrbe.offeiings

garinq: for.. themi-

kassis.handicapped persons in -

managing hduseh6ld tasks,

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(feives, and adjAt#Ig tp the c1ianges in theirdaily life

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41..1 fstIC 7:1,3,' k . .

Low income vd/ori sadlimhtaged per-sons made up 12.3 perc0 Ilfiikhe popula-tion in 1975 (U.S: Buret oT Census, 1976).Non-farm families of fo4 with an income ofless thans$5,500 were classified at theproverty'level. It can be assumed that most .

of these groups were culturally as well'aseconomically depriVed. iplpkably many weremembers of "a minority race:

.e

Curriculum materials Vhat have amiddle-class and frequently white orienta-tion do not reflect the needs of.the cul-turally disadvantaged. Learning packetswhich are currently being utilized, all toooften contain wording, references, andactivities that are not flexible enough tobe effective with disadvantaged students.Certainly one ctiterion should be that thereare alternative learning experiences thatwould meet the same objectives and therebyprovide for individualizing instruction.

Adult homemakers, both male andfemale, that are disadvantaged are being,served by various groups such as theCooperative Extension and special projectsfunded with revenue sharing funds. Con-,sumer and homemaking programs should bereviewed to deterMine:their contribution.Offerings sho4ld contain" practical infor-mation presented in.a manner that can beimmediately applied to everyd'ay livingproblems. The courses should be taught incenters convenient to the clientele since'frequently' they are reluctant to attendmeetings in a school building., Contentthat is needed most by disadvantaged persons

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includes nutrition as related to meal,preparation and feeding a family on a lowincome,, child care and parenting,'.andmanagement of resources.

Correctional institution iftmates'arefound 4n prisons, "half-way houses" andrestitution or rehabilitation centers.They maybe alcoholics or drug offendersas well as convicted. criminals. ThOseready.fOr probation or in a half-way. houseor in'a work - release program have specikicneeds that consumer and homemaking programscan help meet.

.

Criteria for el01.1:tting effectivenesS

of curriculum content ,- '9uld be theinclusibn of consumeication, personalrelationships, and nutrition as related to

It their specific conditions. Coping skills;'value .clarification, and self- concept should

. be included in these three'content areas.Although any phase of education, as well aslife experience, contributes to these areas, 'con-stimer and homemaking education Can ,Andshould play a significant role, COking isdefined as an action that enables ,one to 4adjust to environmental circumstances toget something done; coping skills for theseinmates include managing money, maintainingde-sirable food habits, and relating to familyand to people in the outside world. Valueclarification 'occurs in many persons with

/7------ out conscious direction but infrequently, n persons on the verge ,of release from an

institution. Consumer and homemakingteachers who have a background in psychologyand human develOpMent use their expertiseto assist personsirto clarify and place in

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a hierarchical system their personalvalues with which they can begin to makedeliberate choices. Techniques used invalue clarification deal with situationsinvolving facets of everyday living suchas family, love, sex, money, work, death,religion, and, for these inmates, gedbehavior as related tp the specif.c reasonsfor being in an institution. Crafts arealso.ithOstant to include since thof items can contribute to monetary gainand impioving of self-concept. Improvingpersonal appearance is, an equally signi-fiCant focus. Consumer and homemakingprograms can assist correctionalinstitution inmates to become employableand ready to acquire occupational skillsin)order to earn a living.

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It goes,without saying that these pro-grams must be ,taken to the prisons orcenters that use these persons. Thenational evald.ation should include anassessment of the number and quality ofthii type :of program.

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Competencies Essential for the Hdmemaker..,

If the major purpose of consumer and.''.homemaking progams'is preparation for tlid

occupation o homemaker, then the competen-cies needed should be a basis for deter-mining effectiveness. These competencieswould app;y to a greater or lesser degreewhether the clientele were teenagers oradults, men or women, and whether theywere teenage parents, single parents,

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working mothers, young homemakers, agingpersons, or handicapped ox.disadvantagcl`peigions

Those competencies that seem most_eAsential in terms of current socio-economic conditions are parenting, main-taininginterpersonal kelationships,developing coping skills, managing finan-

resources, and meeting_ nutritionalneeds of the family. This list is certainlydebatable and omits several o the tradi-tional homemaking skills such a cid hingconstruction, home decorating and rniSh-ings, and to some degree food-preparation.Value clarification is ah important threadthat runs throughout all competenciesneeded by homemakers including "stitchingand stewing."

(

A study reported in 1971 revealedthat the category of competencies mostoften expected of wives and mothers wasclassified as child care and family and commu-nity relationships with the second categorypertaining to management of resources(Cross et al., 1971, p. 11). The rankorder of the categories of more specificcompetencies was as follows: community relation-ships, housekeeping, clothing selection, familyresources management, family relationships,child relationships, clothing maintenance,child guidance, and health and physicalcare of children:. Food preparation, nutri-tion, and clot4ing construction were cate-gories mentioned less freqUently as weredecorating and-home furnishings. Manage-ment appeared in clothing selection andnian'agement, consumer.practices and mealmanagement appeared under food, and house-keeping and maintenanceappeared

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under housing and a, separategrouping which contained buymanship andhome management as well as financialresources management.

A similar study done by Johnson (1975)revealed that responsibilities often

.assumed by young fathers could be cate-gorized as care, and nurturing of children.A second group of reeponsibilities 4nvolvedcleaning and maintaining the house. Shop7:pink for fbod and. meal preparation wereother.tasks that were frequently reported.-A study.of the single man who maintainsa bptisehold would most likely reveal apattern,similar to the female homemaker's.

. .Criteria seem to emerge from the com-petencies identified in these two studiesan4 also appear. obvious .from current, socio-economic conditions which consumer. andhoteMaking prograMS should and do meet.Probably the greatest deterrent to effec-tiveness is the reluctance of teachers,supervisors, teacher educators, and Cur-riculuM expertsto relinquish part of t etraditional curticuluM in order to add ess new phases'and/or additional,.clientele. For ex pie,'"if a teacher has the same number of students and male enrollment increases, thenthe number of female students declines.An analogy can be made of enrollments andcurriculuM content. When consumer educa-tioribecame a legislative mandate and newcurricula were' developed, then other con-tent areas lost their prominence. Xet ifconsumer-and homemaking curricula meet theCriteria of effectiveness as indicated bythe 1976 Amendments, foci must again beadjusted.

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Parenting is the most crucial of thehomemaker's responsibilities, and ideallyshould be shared by both.parents. Thefundamental core of parenting is the emo-tional nurturing of the child which includesaffection, child-parent'relationships, guid7ance of behavior, and establishment ofethical and moral values.' Parenting alsoincludes heal(ph-and physical care of .aohild, prenatal and postnatal carp, andproviding food, clothing, and.sheiter.

An effective curriculum wouldhave parenting as a major focus inmaterials and offerings,, would be avail4ble at allsecondary grade levels and at the adultlevel, and would include both males and females.The emphasis would be on emotional support,relationships, and guidance. Experienceswith children, would be an integral part ofthe curricula in a play school, a nursery,a kindergarten, or an elenientary school.'lbere would be.a major emphasis on teenageand single parents at the secondary level

.,and on single parents and working mothersat the post = secondary and Adult levels.

An ineffective curriculum would becharacterized by the'absence or limited'inclusion of parenting, availability onlyat the twelfth grade level, a female-motherorientation, more emphAs4e on such contentas layette and formula than on nurturing,and an approach including only the intact familyrather than various family structures.

Interpersonal relationships are notonly important in the occupation of home-maker but als8 in all other occupations.

1.35

The overlap into all phases of .a person'slife is a'contribution consumer and home-.making has made but has not docUmented.Thete is evidence that many persons lose.their jobs because of inability to getalong with employers and/or 'fella*, employees.It can be assumed that unsatisfactoryinterpersonal'relationships are a majorcause of family disintegration.

An effective !curriculum plot s alltypes of interpersonal rel tionshipsbeginning with those that are male-femaleSuch as boy-girl or husband-wife and includingchild-parent adolescent-parent, adult son,or.daughtek-aging parent, neighbors,friends, employee-employer, And fellowemployees._ Another criterion would be con-tent based on the effect of different typesof family structure such as the singlepar4rit whether divorced or widowed or nevermarried, the intact family, an unmarriedcouple, and a couple who have remarried-following'divorces. InterpersOnal relar lktionshiprs should'be included in the cur-ricula at all.levels beginning in theeleMehtary school and the approach shouldbe, geared to the. appropriate age levpl.

- .

understanding of behavior and oftechniques of maintaining satisfactoryrelationships cah be gained through study,discussion, simulated class activities,and- analysis of personal experiences.010 area of subject content in consumerand homemaking. education is family devel-opment and contains such aspects as gettingalong with family analyzing self, assumingresponsibility, understanding dating and

(136

courtship, preparing for marriage. Units,courses, or modules should be'includedina quality program 'and not left to Chandefor inclusion in other content areas such. -as foods, clothing, and housing. A delib-

-erate incbision in the curriculum relating,interperbonal relationships to all phasesof family life is highly desirable butrshould serve to reinforce the structured

iI.!udy done in a planned sequence of learn-

expe*rience.s.

Management of financial resourcespermeates all content areas of consumerand homemaking since monies are needed topurchase food, clothing, and shelter.The efficiency. in managing affects rela-tionships within the family. Values aredirectly' related to decision making andfinancial management is a coping skill.If there is a priority in consumer andhomemaking curricula, then consumer educa-tion must rank with or close to parenting.

An effective curriculum would containdecision making based on values,-goals,needs and wants, and available resources.It would include budgeting, managingcredit, purchasing housing and furnishings;the cost .of owning an automobile, managingfood' money, purchasing clothing, insurance,social security, saving, taxes, and invest-ments. Consumer issues and services willbe an integral part of the curriculum.

.,Managing money is another homemaking skill,that can be included in curricula at alllevels; the older the student the more.detailed the content.

137

The teaching of ,homemaking skills,such as meal preparatibn, selection and/or construction of clothing, and housing andfurnishings, without considering the finan-cial aspect is an indicator of an ineffec-tive program. The omission of variousIdncome levels is another criterion of anunrealistic curriculum.

Nutritional needs of the family and.individuals are of major concern to home-makers although more often than not they areexpressed in terms of food preparation andmeal management. Food is a-large part ofsocialization in American Life and snacksare an everyday occurrence for many peopleyet very few persons are conscious ofnutritional needs including calorie intake.Gussow (1973, p. 7) reports the corisump-tion of bottled sodas has skyrocke -from 19.1 gallons per person in I9,6iFtb34.8 gallons per person in 1971. .1.141 con-sumption is declining as is the On:, ptionof Vitamin-and fiber-rich fruits;.arivegetables, but the per capita.inta tbeef with its load of saturated fat, As:doubled in 20 years, and the,c044e akketis growing twice as fast as.04t=pdlaut tion.In short, the quality of ttlpAmeric diethas gone steadily downhiirickets and scurvy areAthere is evidence of main

!ig,Alt110

ogti.'trk

gteht,is

not necessarily related Apconditions nor, to lack of.,apeci4ic-nliXri7

4ent. The Ten State Nutribia-Stirverih'thel,United States (1972) indicatee-grait:f0iii.nary heart disease, obelitY.;. den'tia-cakies;,and iron deficiency are the '.major: pisri...:-tional problems in this country': '

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a lack of evidence of change in the pastfive years.

A realistic curriculum would be basedon overall nutritional needs and specificproblems of individuals. The major threadshould be improving eating habits and that

.begins with the students in the classroomand carries ever into their' present orfuture homes. A Very practical approachis to identify the physical problems thatclass members or their families have suchas weight, skin, nails,.hair, and dietarydeficiency diseases and to. teach nutritionin a problem solving procedure. Anotheris.to begin with daily food intake inclwl-ing snacks and to do an analysis of whithnutrients are lacking. A third approachis to teach nutrition as it relates tomeal management.which of course is amajor responsibility of the homemakerThe criterion of effectiveness is rele7vance. An ineffective curriculum usuallyteaches nutrition first and fails to relatethe' information to everyday life. Many a'student has had to memorize and repeattWnutrients, sources, and even learn

aut,rscprvy and pellagra before he or shewii,perix11 ted in a unit kitchen to prepare:the 'W- St meal.

n,,

tma4in 'management of resources and behaviorreadtions is based on personal values.

Aarification is a' relativelyto curricula although withouteled values have been an inte-instruction since the begin-

nsumer and homemaking education.al decision making particularly

139

Often in the past the teacher taught hervalues, or those generally accepted by-thecommunity, which were more or less middle-class. Today teachers should beattempting to assist students.to under-stand their own values and to base theirdecision on those vaIi?ies. Value clari-fication should be included in personaland family relationships, child care,selection of clothing and food, and purchaseof all items. 'Value clarification isparticularly important in decision makingabout jobs, mothers working, and assumingthe dual responsibilities of employmentand homemaking. An ineffective curriculumexcludes values and personal decisionmaking as an integral part of all instruc -.tional areas.

Coping skills, like value clari-fication, may be a relatively new termbut the concept has been a part of consumerand homemaking education for at leastsixty years. Coping behavior's include emo-tional responses as well as deliberateactions and unconscious reactions used tocontend with everyday living situations.Although consumer and homemaking educationcan certainly not claim exclusive rightsto assisting persons to develop desirablecoping skills, it does provide a formalizedsystem of instruction that can-focus onthose coping skills needed for the occupa-tion of homemaking. Attention to one'sjob and hobbies is coping behavior, asis time spent with one's family. Copingbehaviors may be harmful especially ifjust one or two are relied upon: If eatingbecomes a primary coping behavior, obesity

1 .11 ea

140

is the likely result. In our culture theuse of alcohdl and other drugs as ,a copingmechanism has created a problem epidemicin scope.

Consumer and homemaking curriculashould include practical applicationof coping skills. T1 inabilityto cope is related to both physicaland emotional problems, and a homemakerneeds to be aware for-his'or'her self andalso for others in the family. Copingskills are a part of management of mealpreparation, housekeeping, social activi-ties, use of time and money as well asfamily relations. Consumer and homemakingcurricula should include coping skills ineach of the content areas. Examples ofdesirable and undesirable coping behaviorsand the probable results of each should beincluded. The homemaking skills such ashousecleaning, meal preparation, grocetyshopping, clothing purchasing, launderingclothes in a manner satisfying to thehomemaker become desirable coping skills:Sjudents cap learn techniques of handlingor managing the everyday aspects of beinga homemaker through the instructionalactivities provided by consumer and home-making programs.

EVIDENCE OF EFFECTINVNIES

The national assessment of consumer -and homemaking education will no doubtcontain several phases and collect comsid-.

erable data. This position paper has setforth the premise that the evaluation should.

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4' die based on the two major ptirposes.of con

sumer and homemaking: .41) preparation forthe occupation of homemaker ,and (2) 'impacton socio-economic conditions' that affectthe family. This section Makes generalsuggestions to be considered in an evalua-tion process under the ,ggadings,of .studentsevaluations, enrollment trends, curriculuM "and program evaluatibbs, contributions ofconsumer and homemaking education(includingsocial services, ecorio*c value of. home-making, and employability>of students), andalternate delivery systems.

L

Student Evaluations

,Frequently vocational education pro-,grams are evaluated on the 'number completipgthe.Cutricula and entering the work force,in the occupation for.which they have bedb,,prepared. If this criterion is uti ized,then consumer and homemaking educat on isnearly roo percent effective since ry few'persons,Iparried or single, are not ome-'makers most of their adult lives. However,a more realistic criterion would be howwell students were prepared to be homemakers;Two populations for such studies are thosewho have completed the program and areemployed as homemakers and current enrolleesin consumer and homemaking programs.

Cme'follow-upstudy utilizing a random"sample would assess the homemaker's percep-tion of -the level he or she had,attained in eachidentified, competency. A second suggestedstudy would compare the effectiveness ofhomemakers who had completed one or'more courses

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e t

46,

I

fl

wi those o had not enrolled in con-suMer'asd h emaking courses. A thirdstudy woul,, ompare the 'employabilityskills offeffi loyed homemakers who hpdinstruction i interpersonal relationships,personal development, management, andparenting with those who had not receivedinstruction. A fourth study could deter-mine the degree to which cons mer and home-making skills taught in in ctionalprograms have been utilized s occupa-tional skills.

Current enrollees, can provide data onrelevance of programs. Ohe)phase of astudy would assess effecliVeness in termsof socio-economic conditions by determiningwhat students' say they ,have learned aboutsingle parenthood, teenage parent needs,family problems when both parents areemployed, the aged, and the handicappedin the home. A second phase could assessthe degree to which students think theynave obtained each identified competencyneeded by a homemaker. A follow-up studyof former students who are now homemakerswould be beneficial; A third phase woulddetermine how well the instructional,pro-gram was meeting their personal needs.The populations might be-those named inPublic Law 94-48i: the aged, school-aged parents, single parents, handi-capped persons, the emotional disadvantaged;..and inmates of correctional instituSons.Since many consumer and homemaking.educa-tion enrollees are secondary students whohave their own Maturing needs, they shouldalso be asked to evaluate instruction onthat basis.

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Enrollment Trends

Traditionally there have been threelevels of.consumer and .homemaking programs:,secondary, post-secondary, and adult.Secondary, in this classification alsoincludes middle school or juniol- high.In. addition there are elementary programs.For purposes of this,diScussion the three'traditional areas will be ised.

Secondary programs are in every,state in the nation.and alMost every,state has a Futuie Homemakers of AmericaAssociation. One phase of the suggestedStudy should to national in scope includingenrollments by grade level, sex, and race;the trend for each group over the past ten

, years would become apparent. Current yeardata could be obtained from state super-

.

visors of consumer and homemaking educa-tion. In a second phase the same data wouldbe compiled by region to determine if thereis a difference in various, parts of thecountry and if there:is, to determine thereasons for the difference, In a thirdphase states with'consistentlyIncreasingenrollments would be compared with thosewith declining. enrollments to.determine thereasons' for the difference In 'a fourthphase enrollment.ih Future, lOmeMakers.ofAmerica would be examined.

.

Jt is only in the past deCade that con-sumer and homemaking,claSseshave, teen a part .of therequired curriculum;fot,studenti

so 144'

-

<2.

enrolled in any occupational preparationprogram and even now this is not a national"pattern. The \first,phase cd.a study ofpost-secondary enrollment would be national inscope to determine the total enrollment,llment, the number,of states Which have such a requirement, and the

or programs. The-secOnd phase would 'analyze ' 4

the to to determine if t&-re- are region41 differencesand third phase would include a breakdown bystates. A comparison could be made between stateswith. large and small enrollments to determinethe reasons for the difference..:

4.

Ad41t programs have not tended to becomprehensive but have contained special-'ized short courses from which the home-maker could choose. A study of enrolmentshould reveal trendi from year to year,state bystate, course'by course, and bysex, age, and socio- economic level.Enrollment data do reveal effectivenessespecially when the courses are electivifpersons tend to enroll in those offerings'.that possess relevance for them..

.Zi

Curriculum and Program Evaluations

. . 1.

. .

A curriculum has been defined asthose instructional experiences-plannedand carried out by a teadher to achievespecific.gpals or instructional objectives..Evaluationsi) f a curriculum can be accarn-

plished in several ways among which.awrefollow-up studies of student performance,current classroom practiceVobserved onsite visits, and a, study of.guides'angjorprograms of work. Most states4and many

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I 51

local school districts have printed cur-riculum,gdides. In addition a teacher hasa yearly program ,of, work.'.' .

A study of current state curriculumguides would provide evidence of Whether A

or not the mindat s of the 1976 vocational'.acts are the basis for the suggested pro-gram. Practices o served on visitswould.give .further indicativisliind the yearly .

pragram_ of work would reveal proportionsof time spent in each,area of consumer and

.

hontemaking.

Priorities at the secondary levelshould be parenting focused on teenageparents, management of resources and con-sumer education, food.and.nutrition, rela-tionships, value clarification, and copingskills. Instruction should, include vari-ous family, patterns and income levels.There should be evidence of mainstreamingthe handicapped and disadvantaged byindividualizing instruction. 'The'offeringsshould be varied at all levels and.compre-hensive yearly programs should includeseveral subject matter areas., . Suggestedresource materials should be varied andwritten.'for different reading levels. The majorproportion of the program should be based-on essential competenciearather than theless essential clothingrcionst4wtial,crafts, and home decorating. Even a.major proportion of food R.reparation would 0 bequestionable. A final si144ested criterionwould be that programs were equally avail-able and attractive to both boys and girls.,

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4'

Yo

a

Epst7secondary Consumer and homemakingprO4ramdvare umdtly.,lessIcoMprehensivethan secondary and moilboften than not

.f focus one,consupezoeducatisn,.family livingskills, and .employabit programs andcUrricui4m guides migHt be evaluated on'

. the relavance for youn'4 OUlts who are pre -Rar g for` employment or- considering marriageor may already be married and have or soonwill' have a paycheck tip spend. An effec-tiVe curriculum would beIalkactical, imme-diatply Applicable, and lacking amiddleass,drientatidn.'

Short courses for adults are usuallyfor development of a sgecific homemakingskill and/or for "recreational "purposes.One priority for evaluation should bespec. al courses foF the disadvantaged, the.handicapped, and correctional ,institution'inmates'. A second priority would beparenting including child care and"parent-teenage rej.ationships. Meeting nutritionalneeds and food preparation would've athird priority, area. N.TariEty; applicability

too everyday, life, and,self-fulfilling naturewould be other criteria.

contributions of Consumer and kingEducation iTY

Three thrOds=E t have nil.' through-out this position papAr and may be ommid-ered contributions of consumer and home-Making are social serviced', financAal worth ofhomemaking, and employability characteristics'josteredby instruction.

4.44

.4w

4.

3147 ;4

n't

.6

.4:

Social services Can be viewed froMthe standpoint of people served such asthe elderly, the handicapped, institu-tional inmatet,:and economically deprivedhomemakers. A compilation' of data ofspecial groups for which programs havebeen provided Would, enlarge the scope ofconsumer and homemaking.

One answer to how consumer and home-making can contribute to society was givenby Spitze (1977, p. 7). Much of the.

pact that hare economics can and shouldeve in helping to solve, today'S socialproblems and to direct societal changein areas such as population, world foodsupply, environment, energy, roleg, of youngand old.waren and:Imp, residential patterns, andattitudes toward work and leisure will cane throughthe interaction of semodary-teachext with studentsin home7ecammlics classes and youth organizations.Many people today are speaking of eft:ad:ion forsurvival, fOr. xesponsibility, for morality, and fora-healthy environment. These categories are notseparate from home economics education; homeeconomics teachers have a strong role to playj.n each of these are.t.a.

Although home economics educatorscannot know with certainty What the futurehas in store, our profession brings us

"certain insights into what is likely tohappen and which ecluCational actions canbetaken now to prevent future socialproblems from beaningcrite Trotter, 1975, p. 8) ..

I

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A It would be ,difficult to documentthese contributions but npt to build'acase for support. The subject matter.areas of ,hbme economics address thesesocial concerns. Examples are population,changing roles, and attitudes-in familyand child'development, as well as energy,'environment, and residential patterns inhousing and management. The stability ofthe family has been equated wi'th the stpiLityof the nation, and if this is an acceptablepremise, then consumer and homemaking have avital role to play in preparing people for theoccupation of homemaking and more satisfyinglives.

Financial worth of the services of ahomemaker are'not always considered yet

;.money is ,used to purchase these services.Parents Pay'when a child is placed in aday care center but a monetary value isnot assigned when a parent cares "for achild at home. Food and service are paidfor in .restaurants but no price is attachedto the meal prepared at home. A case A.sslowly developing for the financial worthof a homemaker's work and when this occursconsumer and homemaking will obviouslymeet all the criteria of other 116'cationalprograms.

Nelson (1977, p. 36) builtva casefor the relevance of home economics asvocational edubation. She wrote,"the dollar value of the household work ofWives is an entry that has yetto be addedto Gross- National Product, the national,indicator of our economic well-being. 4,

If a womanis employeeas a domestic worker,

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the value of'her household work is includedin computing the GNP. But if that womanmarried her employer, the value of her workis no longer included, even though theamount or kind of work does not change.

-.Ten years ago Walker and Gauger con7?r:ducted a. time use study of 1;400 familiesin Syracuse, NY, and using a typical familyof four caliplated the monetary value ofhousehold services. According to the

measures that. were worked out (if thehusband only was eMployed), both parentswould contribute $8,800 in household workto maintain the family: $7,600 by-the(nonemployed) mother and $1,200 by the father:If the mother has paid employment for 15 hoursor more a week, the total time contributedper year by both' becomes $7,5(A: $6,200by the mother and $1,300 by the father(Gauger, 1973, P. 15).

Hall (1975, p. 31) prepared a sampletestimony for the court to show the finan-cial loss to a resulting from the

,

death in 1973 of A young full-time employed.wife anamother of one child. Usingaverage hourly and weekly value of home-making task6 in Seattle in 1974, she cal-culated a value of $110.05 per week and anannual value. of $6,763.

1

AlthoUgh the positions stated aboveare based an the concept ofthe femalehomemaker; the financial 'worth should bedetermined regardless of sex. Data that supportsthe monetary value of Mgmemaking tasks would further

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15-6.

support the position that can:sumer and hafie-making.remain a part of vocationaleducation. Inclusion in the GNP is cer-tainly not necessary but an'accppotance of

- homemaking as an occupation that makes afinancial contribution is highly desirablefor consumer and homemaking education.

Employability is a term that grew inpopularity following the 1963 Amendments.Simply, definedit is those personal quali-ties that,make.a persbn,a'desirable employee.Work habits. such as bqin4 punFtual, orderly,and respprisitble. are kcompdnent and allvocl,ional programsattempi,f9 developthese" habits.in stUdeuts:. ,fifoweVer, theredoes seem to be carryPiter,o,f;these-tr.aitsfrom preparation for homem".4kindriprepa-ration for paid employment. Relatlionshipsare another component. in employability fora person must work`with fellow employeesand,with'his employer. Interpersonal rela-t ioitships receive major estphasis in consumer

and homemaking education so it followsthat these would transfer to employment. Also aperson with a happy family life is .a 'Atteremployee. This is equally true of theworker who can manage his take-home pay.Consumer and b9memaking education is .

attempting to increase employability throughproviding consumer education for student'senrolled in occupational preparation pro-grams.

Alternative Deli

Those who do

Systems

pOses of consumernot undetstand the pur-and homemaking have at

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times suggested that there is a dupliation',in the alternative delivery sysiei,:'theCooperative Extension Service. It 4.4that 4-H clubs and FHA chapters frequentlyoperate in the same setting and sOmefi.MeSthe same young persons are members; 9f/.&ittiThe basic difference is that Futkire;,HOme':maker activities are.an integra*PArtofthe.instructional program wheras4-11,not. There is more everyday dOnti:=0.ty;consumer and homemaking instrudtiohai,pro-7,grams than in 44.1 activities. .F01.1.**non-competitive'orgariization with'ea5h,member setting his or her goalp;where4gH.4-H sponsors a variety of cdonfestS.-The.purpose of each p ogram issonal and family. Aiving; ',Perhaps-aom-,,pari son pf, purposes and the, nufT.i)Der.Ofi'hoUri of'.

instruction for.eacp of the essentialcompetencies.needed,b11,the hoMemaker yOuldprovide-evidence thlatthese.sYstems,cOmPle-meht-rather than duplicate eadh other:.

A frequently 'raised issue. S :whetherconsumer and' homem4 king education'.4iouh bevocational' or geneeal education and thatcontext non-v,Ocqibnai. home, economi6S.programs Comprise#an alternative

',system, ,A study Comparing:twO-adiaCentschool distriCts where one-IlasHamajbrityof vocationalhome_economics teachers:4Pdthe other has ,none or 'a small:minority'might rexieal differences- in Meeting themandate in the 1976 AlphdmentS4.-:AdthmIgtfsuchresearch has not been conducted; the .Writer hasobserved evidence of differericee in these situations.One sySterk with a majority of :vocationalprograms offered many courses ,COSurtler

education, child care and parenthood, andnutrition and food. A system that could

.

be labeled non-vocational offered no con-sume'r ..educat ion with a limited lumber of childcare aqd parenthood courses, but did offerfood preparation as well as clothing con-struction and many, courses in crafts.ApproxiMately 25 0ercent of the studentsin the' voCa:tional program were male sincea concerted ef'fOrtwas being made to altercurrictula ta .eliminate -sex bias. In the non-

. vocational program fewer than Cale percentwere male. Both systnSlwf.16 :jilpervisors.and held regular in- service' meetingt; how-ever, the vocational teachers participated-in the regional and state in-service activi-ties and had active FHA chapters. unlike

the non-vocational teachers.If two adjacent states differed greatly innumber of vocational- teachers and ancillaryseriT40e, a similar_ stuCly Of curriculuunofferings might AndiOa4ethe:'s,ame differ- .

ences as those desdrili6dfor the two localsystems. . ,,

Organizations such as Girl 5Couts,YWCA, and church groups cannot be consid-e fed equivalent c7e7 i very 4steus. toschool-based consumer and homemaking edUca-tion. These organizations do provideinstruction on an 6informal and sometimesinfrequent' basis whereas consumer and.'herme-making education is a continous and regular'prograM in a well-established and tested '

delivery system.. .Furthermore, the pur- rposes are somewhat different in that thee:organizations provide interest groups thatdo not focus

byall the various competen7

cies needed by the homemaker, unlike

tg

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159

the school-based program. Neither do:those-organi-zations require that an instructor be qualifiedin order to conduct, such progran It seems logicalto conclude that if coAsumer and homemaking programsArc to be made available to all persons, they dhoulgAbe continued through thepUblic,school systemand all other delivery systems should be consideredsupplementary.

RATIONALE FOR CONSUMER AND HOMEMAKING.AS VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

The section will serveas a summaryof the positions on which this paper hasbeen based.. Homemaking is aiv:occupation.Homemaking has a monetary vallde Overlapexists between preparation for the occupa-tion of homemaking and occupations forpaid employment. Therefore, consumer andhomemaking education is vocational educa-tion.

"Uniqueness of Home Ebonomics

Home Economics is tstudy that; hays as a"central focus the

individual. Unlike.s it relies

on applicabilityc conditions.

home - the family thesociology, science, or economicless on theory and more.to current socio-economiHome economics utilizes homemaking skillsas a means of teaching principles andgeneralizations. Home economics synthe-sizes basic knowledge from the physical,biological, and social sciences in bothinstructional content an

he only field 'of

and research.

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East (1975) quoted the original 1903definition and added a phrase that throughthe years had been assumed. "Home Economicsis a study of laws, conditions, principles, -

and ideals concerned with man's immediatephysical environment and his nature as asocial being and especiallk,of the rela-tionship between the,two,:- -,in order toimprove the quality of'daily life."

"Ellen H. Richards,the first presidentof the American Home Economics Association(1909-1910), had the following creed:"Home economics stands for:

The ideal home life for today unhampered.-by the traditions of the past.The utilization of all the resources ofmdern sciende to improve the home life.The freedom of'the home frpm the dominanceof things and their due subordination toideals. ,

1-

The simplicity in,material-surroundingswhich will most free the spirit for themore important'and permanent interests'of the.home and of society" (Baldwin, 1949,-p. 17).

Non -Paid Vs. Paid Btployment

An issue'in vocational educationsince 1917 has been the inclusion of hOmeeconomics (Consumer and homemaking). Thebasic reason for not including it' has beenthat a paycheck is not attached. Anotherreason'has been the exclusion of the occupa-tion of,homemaking from the .Dictionary ofOccupational Titles. Perhaps a reason that

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permeates legislation and the clatiifica-tion of occupations is the traditionalconcept of work, done at home. 'Societalattitudes appear to be changingincreasing numbers of menareAssuning responsi-bility for household tasks as well as dareof children. Furthermore, a foajority ofsocial and economic problemsareliome7based and recognition is being.made-of the'impact parents.have on both the presentand future lives of dhildren.:' The phrase"just a homemaker" is almost_pass-

A rationale has beenftmmilatelfbrthemonetary worth of the services performedby homemakers. Now that husbands areassuming addit$nal homemaking respansi-bilities, more services are being purchasedfrom commercial agencies; insurance com-panies are paying fOr the value of- servicesof a deceased wife and mother, and anawareness, is developing that the 6TP would profit byadding the dollar Value of household 'work, -4

homemaking may soon, be,declared an,occUpa-tion, The monetary value of the householdwork done by a full-tiMe homemaker withseveral childrgn can exceed the, take -homepay of her.husbd.TheMonetarY'valueof a husband and wife who are both employedand shsxe:the work of the home may equal thecombined take-home pay of both.

If national assessment of effebtive-ness includes as criteria the' competenciesneeded by the homemaker, the results wouldpoint to homemaking as an occupation andcould be so presented in the report. toCongress and subsequently to the vocationaleducation community. One decided advAptage

156

that could result from the national.as'sess-ment of consumer and homemaking is 'thatCongress.wOuld declare homemaking .an

,oCcupatiom

Overlap with Preparation for HorneEtarrinCsOmtfatials

The 1963 AmendMents.added a newthrUst'in occupational educatiodby allo-cating ten percent of the funds for homeeconomics to he used by gainful employment.'The monies, for these. programs came from.the basic-5raAt.to states following the1968 Amendtents. Home Economics occupa-tions include but are not limited to childcare services, food services, clothingconstructioni,and homemaker.assistance.

Home EcOnomics educatori realized as'they began to implement.the 1963 Act thatadults who had taken classes in party ,foods for

.

. their personal benefit were working as caterersA and others who had taken tailoring weredoing Custom sewing; high school studentsWho had'learned only the entry skills.for

:,the occupation of homemaker were employedin restaurants and as hotel-motel maids.Thus the knoWledge'and skills that areLiniqUe!to,Home Economics were refocusedfrom the occupation of homemaking toseveral single occupatiOns lassified aspaid.employment.'

The same basic principle's are taughtin foods and nutrition for.the homemakeras for the food service worker. The sameclothing construction techniques are used

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3

by the homemaker and the custan seamstress.The same 'child care and guidance contentapplies to childcare services 'and caringfor one's own ohild. The difference lies.,in the setting, ihe,level of competencyrequiredi andthe scope of operation.This overlap remains a strength and a linkbetween ,preparation programs for paidemployment aid for the occupation 'ofmaker.:

CONCLUSIONS

Consumer and homemaking programs are'designed to meet current socio-economicconcerns_of families and individuals inthe context of preparation-for the oceupa-tion of homemaking.

Consumer and homemaking curriculashould be based on competencies essentialfor the homemaker whether male or female.Additional but non-essential skills shouldbe made available for persons of all ages.The essential competencies are establishingpersonal and family,relationshipa. caringfor nurturing children, managing financial'and other resources, providing nutritioufood and c,lothing for 'self and family mem-bers, and creating andcmaintaining housingfor self and others.

Evidence of effectiveness of consumerand homemaking curricula and programsshould include evaluations collected frOlincurrent arid past students, enrollmenttrends, evaluations of programs at alllevels, and compilations of other corrqi-butions such as money and employability..

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Criteria for evaluation would come fromthe language of the 1976 Amendments to theVocational Acts. These would include thetarget groups of school -aged parents,single parents, the aged, young children,handicapped persons,,educationallR disad-vantaged, an4 inmates Of correctional-institutions as well as those perons whohave entered or are preparing to enter.thework of the hare. Other criteria that \

come directly from Public Law 94-482 arethe content emphases of consumer educa-tion, management of resources, nutritionalknowledge and food use, and parenthoodeducation. Finally and most important,homemaking should be declared a legitimate'occupation.

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REFERENCES

Alan Guttmacher Institute. Eleven millionteenagers: What can be done abutthe epidemic,of.adblesc-9nt pregnancietin -the. United Stat4t. -New York:'Planned Parenthczod Federation' ofAmerica, 1976.

American Home Economics Asso44tlorLNew Directions. Washington, DC:American Home EcOnomics AstOciation,1959.

Baldwin, K.E. The AHEA Saga,. Washington,DC: American Home. EconomicsAssociation, 1949.t-

Cross, A.A., A. Gorman, H. toftis, and.A. Ridley. Evaluation of vocationalhome economics programs in terms ofthe effectiveness of full-timehomertIkers and homemakers who arealso full -time employed. (FinalReport, Project No. 071204, Giant No.OEG-4-9-201204-0026-085). Athens,GA: University of Georgia, March,11971.

-East, M. Home. Unpublished paper,The Pennsylvania State Univert4ty,sUniversity-Park, PA, 1975. 7

Gustow, J,D. Improving the AmericanDiet. Journal of Home Economics,November, 1973, p. 7-10.

1 6 ts

"gm

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4

0

Gauger, W. HoutehMid wgFk: can wd'add it.to the GNP? Journr1 'of ,Howe Economcs,

.t._ A t .OctOber, 1973,.p. 131.4 1,.,

Gerheart, ;4.R. and M.W.. Weish05. Thetjandigapped chilli in the rdgularclassroom. St.; Louis, MC: if..V.Aosley Company, 197§e

d.

.2, Grossman, A.S. The labqr'force patterns. liof divorced andseparated#i4omen.4

'° Monthly LaborvReview,-January, 1977,. p. 45-53. 4 * ,- ,,

-2.

Hall; F.T. The dasel,c4 the late' Mrs.Stith: pweiliring testimony for thecourt. Wolighal of Arne Economics, 14

September, 1475,1p. 30-33., a

Johnson, H. Pgreptel and house..14respon§ibilitiet. of husban - asidentified bittarried rfiales.)'Unpublished Mister's thesis, 4.

, 41*

University of Georgia, AthAns, ISA,1975. , A ' q,:) c9,

2 o , %

& 0Milk, j. 1g. Adoles'centsp4renthooqo

Journal of Home tconomicw, DeceVer, L

1973, 13 31-3$% I'ST

:0 4 .

4 .

Nelson, H. TRe unpriced .service' of the °'

(

s

4,

unpaid homemaker.' Amertcan VocationalJournall,28ibbe*% 1977, p.

4:4"

*

Norman, R.E. and R. Smith.the elderly'. JouFnalEconomics, May, 1975,

161

Companion to,o,f Home* 14p. 35-37. °Al.

my

Spitz, K.T. The future of' secondaryhome economics. Journal ofHomeEconomics,. March, 1977, p. 7-110.

Trotter, V:Y.. Education and social change.Journal of Home Economics, September,1975, p, 8-10.

United States Bureau of Census.abstracts of the. Unite gates, 1976.1.9th' editkon) Wash. gton, C,:1976.

Statistical

United States Department of,Health,Education *Id Melfare. Ten st tonutrition survey. (Publicatio No.'SM72-81134) Waphington, DC, 1 72.

44,

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162

II. 0'

LEGISLATION FOR

CONSUMER7AT:04(AEMAKING'EDUCATION1.

SO9TALIkPiICATIONS

*1.442AIATH JPIE, SIMPSON

' "Home economics is an appliedfiel f study, built upon many disciplinesfor rpose of achieving and maintain-ing welfare or well-being of home and-fdmil life in an ever- chaiging society. ,

Its uniqueness as a field of study lies inits integrative power, because it utilizesbasic principles from many:dilciplinesamdapplies them as a composite in solving theProblemsfaced by individuals and familiesin day-to-day living." (Selma F. Lipeattand Helen I. Brown, Focus and 'Promise ofHome Economics, The Madill an Co., New-York,1965, 4.)

Consumer and HomeMaking.Education isone of the major educational programs ofHome Economics. The other is a Home-Econo-mims-related occupational program which .

'Prepares individuals'fbr paid, employment.There is research evidence to support thestatement that nost of the knowledgeneeded for the related occupations is alsoneeded by homemakers. Hence,there are ,

strong inter-relationships between the twoprograms - or, more preciselyi, the twoaspects of one. program.

Elizabeth Jane Simpson is cukrentliDeaof the School of Family Resources and nsumerSciences-at the University of Wiscon4ocn -Madison.

163

Therefore, in this paper, which deals withconsumer and homemaking education, theauthor will frequently use the term homeeconomics as referring to the field of studywhich emcompasses both consumer and home7making education and paid-employment educa-tion..

The,paper'ii.in six major sections.The first deals with the provisions of theConsumer and Homemaking Education section'of the Education Amendments of 1976. andrecommendations for national assessment ofthe 'program. The second, is concerned withAmerican families and related social issuesand implications for home economics Andhome economics legislation. The third sec-tion addresses the social role of home eco-,nomics education: as the only educationalprogram with focus on-families and develop-ment of individuals in the context df farrtily. Part four explicates the purposes Ofhome economics education at the variouseducational levels, five dAls with the-,direction and crtillenge of thg field, andsix reiterates beliefs and hopes aboUt theprogram and explores some. possible alter-natives.

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PART I

CONSUMER AND HOMEMAKINGEDUCATiON INTHE EDLrATIPI AMENEMENTS aF 1976

"Make home 'economics programs moremeaningful in terms of the real problema,ofindividuals and families in today's society. ".This is the clear message of the section onConsumer and Homemaking Education in theEducation Amendments of 1976 (Subpart 5,Section 150, P.L. 94-482).

Program Areas

Under this Act, Consumer and HomeiakingEducation funds may be used for six programareas:

consumer educationfood and nutrition 2

family living and paienthood,ed-;ucation

child developmentrand guidancehousing and aome managementclothing and textiles

,

A well-rounded-home economics programincludes all of these .areas iri.appropriatebalance with cons ideratioa o f ,socia ,cultural ooP4itions an needt; Chara andneeds of t4e learners seined by 41e progfat:111;41*.and thenewer knowledge in six identified program areas.and relevant re .in the rtcrt- discA,plines

and 10

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":*,^Vin,

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on which they arerS;ased.

At first thouptl one might conclude.

that there really is 'nothing new in thisjisting of six program areas in the Act.But 'look. again! It .is very clear that homeeconomies .te4cheiS are being given animportant charge o "help ,Prepare youngpeople- and adult's for understandipg and

- 4uiding children , particularly in the paren-tal ,ro1,4=. There is not just one reference,to, content related to., chilAren, but two:"Parenthood education "; :and ".child .develop-anent and guidance:" "The "parenthood eau-''cation" is tied to ',11kamily living:" That.is, children are o' be Considered,* the'context of family.; 1

Business * usual?`' NO, Od 14 Home

economics 'tela6hoxs4;andv6Perlasbrs shouldtbOnghtfilllY, kamin,43:19 :their, programsto de t e rmine:-apk9pr iatk balances and pro-gram 'emphases . lesS one ne third ofthe. tot 4 4140graM of nome--_ecOnomfFs ischOal is "cle*tted tamily, life sand chiilddeVelopxnent and iluidCince , major changes ifitheikogram'. a're ,an order'. , 4

'

.

In :evatilating the status 'of dome eco-nomics'., in ,.seCondary, postsecodary, , and adult 'programs , questions -60xIcerning content of'-the programs should bOwked....., themajor- identified are4'it-)if cont -4 included?What prOpcirtion titielkin the ptgram isdevoted' to each, Vhie:laSt may be di f fi-cult to 'asSeSs,' Teachers. eometAirs reportwanteejratine managertaTld fazggY

, a"-tionships: within raditionalAfkill areasof htime ecdnomi al*ating.. 'a hoine

v

economics program one would wish to ascer-tain whether content in identified "inte--grated" areas was indeed included in waysmeaningful to learners.

Data regarding program content col-lected by the U. S. Office of Education'.will serve as one source of informationin answering questions regarding programemphases and proportion of time allottedto each area.

Participation of Both exes

The Act directs C n umer and Home-making Education to " nc urage participa-tion of botH Sexes." At ne time a programalmost exclusively for girls, home econo-mics now 'attracts many boys. .According todata collected by the U. S. Office of Edm?cation, 23 percent of, secondary schoolstudents.enolled in home economics in theUnited States are boys. It is interestingto note that the highest male enrollmentin 'home e-;, at the secondary levelis in Tex- witb,35 percent. Nationally,the field has a long way to .go to serveboth males .and females in home economicsprograms, but the progress over the pastfew years is promising.

0As a career field for men, home eco-nomics education would seem to offer ex-citing possibilities: Here and there afew brave males are preparing to teachhome economics but, in doing so, they goagainst tradition and buck old stereotypes.However, as old notions of what is properfor males and females'give way, one might

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expect to find a laiANer proportion of menin teacher training programs in home econo-mics or teaching hcrne economics or one ofits specialities at secondary, postsecondary,and &tat levels.

Fbr evaluating the status of bane eco-nomics nationally, precise,- figures on theenrollment-of males and emales categorizedby state should be obtained. Additionally,studies should include enrollments pf males.and females categorized according to sizeof school; type of program (comprehensiveor specialized, wage earning or homemaking-.oriented); place of residence (rural, urban,size of community); strident ability leveland/or academic success, perhaps as definedby average grade; family income or socio-economic level as defined by currentlyaccepted criteria;-and, perhaps, socialbehavior. Such data, especially as com-pared with the general student population,would be invaluable in understanding thepresent states of home economics,raising questions for further research about itseffect, :and Suggesting program direction.

Infcrmation regarding male and .femalehome economics teachers in training andemployed in the field should also be.obtained.Categorization of teachers by state,type of training institution, type.of pre-paration (general horke economics' orspecialized area), lebel at which employedand nature of teaching assignment (general'comprehensive home economics, specializedarea homemaking elphasis, wage-earningemphasis) would provide!valuable information.

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Such information might' be particularlyenlightening with respqdt to teachersemployed in the field Of home economics.

In. a recent article in The DenvePost, Education Editor Art Branscombequoted Don Shaw, healthandThysical ed-ucation coordinator for the''.JeffersonCounty-Public School. Shaw, ad-,dressing the Colorado'Association ofSchool Executives,'Clted "thefastgrow-ing popularity of home economics coursesamong juniOr high and, high school boyS.''Pointing out that boys have won a nat-ional baking contestfor the last fouryears, ShaW said one boy told him thereason for the popularity of home eco-nomics'courses.

succecg.'

If a boy in Such a coursestarts outto make aidown ski jacket, finds thesleeves too complicated and ends' up witha vest>iot matter = if he has an under-standin4 eacher.

'That (home economics) may be thegreatest drug-prevention program going,'Shaw asserted.

'Drug and alcohol.abuse - growingproblems in schools nationwide areonly symptoms of students' '-real problem,fear of failure,Shaw told' a session .

of the annual CASE convention."

Mr..Shaw's concept Of.home economicsand its content may. be limited, but-,he.does raiSesome provocative questions.

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Is it too bold to-ask: Does takinghome economics, affect a young person'ssocial behavior in certain areas? Isthere a male-female difference with re-spect to such impact? Does the fieldattract or serve particularly well (orpoorly) those students who 4xhibit cer-tain kiilds of anti-social behavior?Can, it serve in warding off anti-socialbehavior among those identified as headedtoward such behaviok? fL

In atiempting to answer such ques-tions,,it would be important to controlfor certain factors, such as grade level(s)and student ability and/or previousacademic success.

.!:

Beyond questi6s that have alreadybeen raised'with respect to participa-

tion of bothenlighten5' towould lo-e

sexes in home econw

s

programs, itfolloW up married couples, both o whom

15r

have had home economics (categorized bymajor content areas qr by emphases, forexample, "household Skills.oriented"and "relationships-management orientee4,andiscover whethec,there is a statis-tically significant difference betweenthese co les and those .with no homeeconomics or those which only the wifehas had:Mime economics s, in terms .of (1) . family stability, (2) self-9ting as

as to happiness in the marriage and familylife," ,and 7(3): such other measuree offaMilyot=ring , as seen indicated by

,

,

the p tic goals of home economies.granted, such a study could 'weenie rather complex;if -well-designed and imaginalve, it Could yield

'significant information for educational.programming, counseling, and legislation:

Elimination of Sex Stereotyping

"Encourage elimination of sexstereotyping" is a directive of tfie 1976Act. Section.1.36, Subpart 3 of the Act,'provides for authorizatio4 of funds "tosupport activities which show promise ofovercoming sex-stereotyping and bias in,vocational education'..". Section 150,Subpart 5, Consumer and Homemaking Edu-cation/ states that grants to statesunder this. subpart should be used solely.for educatiOnal programs in consumer andhomemaking education which, among otherpurposes, "encourage eliminationof sexstereotyping in (these programs) by pro-moting the development of curricuidm"materials which deal (i) with increasednumbers of women working outside thehome, and increased numbers of as-suming homemaking responsibilities andthe changing career patterns fir womenand men and (ii) with appropri0e. red:-J6xal and State laws relating tcregual40Portunity in, education and employment.",

In recent months there has'beenaAt increase in funded vocational edu-

.'.pation projects daaling with the elimi-.Adtion off0ex stereotyping and, haleeconomics educators have taken seriouslythe challengepf developing curriculageared tp_thiePurpOse.

Home economics educators have some-

1.71

times been charged with contributingto sex' stereotyping by targeting theirprograms primarily to girls and womenand emphasizing a style of homemakingwhich places 'a high priority on,somewhatunrealistic standards of housekeepingand the developMent of household skills,priMarily in food preparation and sewing.Present-day home economics programs are,for the most part, far removed from thisnarrow concept.

It would be helpful in Program plan-ning to know hoW many states have de-veldped home economics curricula whichdeal with the changing roles of men andwomen and with laws relating to equalopportunity in education and employment.It, would be helpful to survey Home Eco-nomics programs at secondary, postsecon-dary and adult levels-to determine the ,extent to which consideration is giventhe changing rol'bs and equal opportunitylaws.

41

Addressing Needs of EconoMically.Deprod-Areas

a

The home economics section of theAct directs the field of home economics-

.

to "give greater consideration to eco-nomic, social, and cultural conditionsand needs in economicalLy.depressed

4areas;" and, where appropriate, *to "includeobi-lingual instruction;" Further, it3 q

, provides that "at least one third of4', the Federal funds made available under,

0,;% this section to each State shall be usetl.0 *.

, ..

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°

in economically depressed areas orareaswith high rates of unemployment for pro-grams designed to assist consumers andto help improve home environments andthe quality of. family life."

Vocational education,including thefield of home economics, has taken ser-iously the charge to give increased con-sideration to the needs of economicallydisadvantaged persons and thosd withlimited English-speaking ability. Forhome economics, the charge, particularlythat part of it concerned with the dis-advantaged, is a challengeof great com-plexity because of the value considera-tiOns with which it is laced.

4,

How does one effectively teachdisadvantaged persons in content areasintimately tied into everyday livingand value-laden? In teaching so-called"gOod" standards'involving'materiaLgoodssuch as home furnishings, clothing, andmeal preparation and service, could one atthe same time be teaching "bad,"that is, disruptive and psychicallydamaging, relationships? For example,in realizing that his or her home situ-ation-falls short of some perce,ivedHome Economics-approved "standard,' OpUlda learner reject, his or herdiome and-family situation or some aspect of it ,

and could relationships within the family '

be affected adversely? 'This is'not,afar-fetched question but one,that-isvery real in the home economics classroom.

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There. are those who have arguedthat if a disadvantaged person is..toimprove his lot in life,. that is, riseon the socio-economic ladder, rejection .

of certain material realities of his or,,er everyday life and strained relation7ps with tINe associated with theseities are inevitable and evere?neces-

pd.desirable. Given that somel'ofaissatisfaction is requisiteotivation ix) change, the questiontlevelofdissatis'fackion?" must

be asked and one should certainly ques-tion. whether values "Ore-not somewhatawry'if persons and relationships must

8be rejected along with things.07

Fortunately, home economics text-*bOoks are becoming less prescriptivv.There is- less emphasis on one "right"way of clit,ing things, -that is, one "right

Model. This trend. shOuld be encouraged both intext materials. and in the classropm.

,Many, home economics textbooks haveignored families structured al6ng linesotherthan the so-called "nuclea*" fam-ily,"degcribed by,Toffleroas 7a stripped-down, portable .family unit consistingonly 2f parents-and a small set of child-ren." Alt ough'this is changing, mosttext materi is also give. scant attentionto the larg proportion of single.per-sonsrin our ociety and the increasingnumbers of elderly. (

Limited attention has been givetodifferences an family practices relatedto ethnic and rei .,igious considerations

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But, for example, in the arealof foodsand meal service alone, such differences'suggest interesting areas of contentwhich be used in developing under..--standing about meal planning,preparation and meal .servicAnd, con-'

,40,comitantly, appreciation of ethnic andreligious diffetenCes and the impact ofethnicity and,re/igion on everyday life.

If a simplistic', prescriptive "right,Se and proper standard" mode of teaching

economics content serves to frust-rate and to encourage disruption in fam-ilyOlationships,:should the teacherthen simply,adapt learning to Viat is"in the learne".slife; i.e.; help himorherto make the best`'-of what he or she has?'This approach is hot unknown in home.economics or relatep programs. It .hatthe merit of helping the learner copewith the realitigs of,..his or her'life.Any home economics program should in-clude doping-means and skills, but itwould seem undemocratic to stop there!

. HoWever, parenthetically, _it, should benoted that madsmedia provide exposureto a wide variety pf_standards.and vi-4eggliAlbeit in a hOd4e-podge, manner;hence ,.,the learner is less limited thanhe orshe might be otherwise to the"coping" mode and meanspresentedlinteaching-learfring situation withlOhis.orientation.

Faced with the inadequacies andpossible daMaging..effect1 of s*Mpleprescription and the limitations of acoping approach, is 'there an alternative

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$which will serve to liberat4, the intel-ligence of the learner for making his or,her own considered choices and which willavoid imposing standard4 and damaging..telationships? What and how should one.."teach the disadvantaged"in home economics,given that the problem is very differentand infinitely moose fraught valueconsiderations thWthe problems ofteaching subjedisuh as mathematics,chemistry, or geog*phy?

In answering ttiese questions, animportant consideration is the source ofauthority for 'what we teach. "Certainly,

"there ,is legal authority in.laws andgovernment regulations. The Consumerand Homemaking Education section of theEducation Amendments of,,1976 spells outcontent areas of the program and a fhemeof "linkages" suggests means.' There isalso a moral authority for what and hoc'we teach. Derived from the basic intellectual and moral commitments of AmeriC nsociety, such mor4l authority Iles in thedemocratic ideal.' This ideal includes suchooncepts as decisions based' on theinformed judgments of the people, respon-sibility of the people for self andothers, and fair.timatramftof and respect,for the individual.

Given such 'authority, theneeds of disadVantaged'persOns, andthe opportunitipsofrthe home economicsclassroom, whatohOUid happen in-the

'teaching of home economics?.

First, a pr 1em- solving approach

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is indicated. Situations in daily lifeare treated as problems withvalues,goals, and standards considered in sol-ution of the.problems.

Let us take a simple, everyday ex-ample, the problem of setting the tablefor a family meal. A number of valuescome into play: aesthetics, conservationof time and energy, sanitation, and relation-ships, of those to served-. Aestheticaonsideration might uggest placing milkon the table in'a pi cher;.sanitatidMmight suggest 14ays g it in the carton';conservation of .time And energy might

Asuggest the carton; consideration of ,

relationships might bring us back to,aesthetic values - or perhaps not. A 8, P

class might explore these ideast4

Salong with such questions as: of.liglitthe 4values which -guide choiCes vary from 4meal to meal? -Do the "goals" of family6

4-7

meals vary; for example,, are %he gals P''.of'a leisurely dinner differentqfromthe goals of a, rushed each-his-own breakfast? What are the various ways Bh whichtablds.ard set'in different csltures idsub-cultures? Why are tlixese difffrencesfound? What are the generally acceptedways of tsttting the table in our Ame4-,can/Cult re? _And where may `we go foil II

such information? A cOnclusiont mightbe,reached that there is no one "right"way. but a variety pfpossibilities andthat what is right for, a given situationwould depend on the values operative inthe situation, the goals or purposes ofthe meal, and standards appropriate tothe occasion. The student would belearning problem solving in everyday

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situations and the relationship of val,-ues, goals, and standIrds to decision-making. He or Ake would be learningresponsibility for his or her own deci-sions. These are the "teachings thatwould be taught for:, transfer valueto everyday life situations and problems.

The teacOing would take into accountdifferendes in home and' family situationsand reasons for these differences. Asensitive teacher. could do,much to en-courage'reipect for the positive elementsin family relationthipsfand "roots",rather than wholesale rejec.tion bedausesomehow, what home exempli:fied,,was notquite "right:"

Having personally experienced teach-ing disadvantaged st'udentSin-allIthreemodes, i.e., (1):prescriptive, (2.) oapinq,and (3) problem-solving, the author isconvinced, not only .hrough an intellec.tual process of weighing the advantagesand disadvantages of.each mode, butthrough her own classroom experience,:e,4that the-problem-solving mode is theonly one which is truly effective andwhich demonstrates respect for telearner and his or her family.': The'ample given is deliberately Sims

.7007 ° 4to'Consider applications of the

more- signifj.cant problems inof individuals and ' d.er qLits repetition in many and 11'

ations; such repetition ''merits-"learning such.as how to Mendeal with ksrobleagrinT everyday life inconsideration of individual and family 0 ;

well-being.

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The problem-solving node can incor-,

'porate the textbook-approved "standard"'and ,coPi.ng methods as .wayS of respondingto the probleth, bUt tt is limited toneither'. 'ItserVes to expand options forthe leainer'.and. place responsibility fora conSIdexed- 'Choice on him or her

'

Now';,, ha'v3nc discoursed., on the -meritsof ,piptgem-4,0dIving teaching 'and the im.L

- portance(if Underlking2deMociatic 'valuesthe classtoemk, the author' Presumes

' tb suggeSt i hat -4the re arc ilartain otherbagic Values that :ihdUld be 4 Preferred bythe: 'teadfier a taught .without' apblogy..It is nonhensd to suggest that a teacher'ought riot,',Iroliteach. values; 'he or she., teaches''values ialmost every. word _uttered, in

, body language, in:example,,-and in ift0t, he .orshe,. electt' to, incl;ude or omit in eachlesson; Henc4,: the teacher needs toweigh carefully. that, he or she says,anoti+41qeis ' in ,the teacher :role. Teaching4abo values that are highly per.sonaland hanging,Isuch as those associatedwi YYnaterial resources and their

'hetions of what is aestheticalSing, is one thing. Teaching whichs with .yalues ; such as responsibility

to r E, and others; human growth, dewvel, and well-being as objective;

and co nication among human beings toenhance '4anships is ..quite another!

These are. Values that are more thanfads or transient fashions in a changingworld; these valuet .speak to human'needs across time' and' cultures.%

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Qther examplikdevelopment of';pose' and, qozat.,

-: 'dured, e

6111e. nuetltrance andilyt mbers .as a our-

11 life, and family lifet. values have en-though demonstrated

in differe6e0itYv., To equivocate about".ethese woul e irresponsible.

, In 2tetichin the disadvantaged (anddtilers)" ttien-,- .Ce.rtain transcending val-

..

4_ 4d$ 4104y s' 0#t4ughp for their proven uti-

* 11.,ty.4nd'1400 ess" over time and across

.,11s,10ei;r. rov ,,n utility and goodness over. CuluNs-- test of such,values is-

-title; on4 a St cultures. The task of-:.40ehtifying hese values is perhaps4esi, dVftiult than it might appear toil . 4.

e.. v r V.1i.s- iiiprotant not to confuse these

basic with their expressions which do,.vaLy inhiori cause us, to face many problems

.iti, qvt7i*aay lives.

P. ;?

OIn e.scinomically depressed areas, all

ehient-lfeas of home economics would betaught kwlith the proportion of time al-*

",!'t 1ptted yo each according to need,not aCaOrdirig to. ephemeral student int-dteifs. In terms of need, special at-tenton should be given to =sumer education,parenthood, nutrition, care and guid4ncepf ,children, pieparation for the dualrOle of homemaker-wage earner, manage-'rrent decisions, home environment, and.,personal development and family relations.1Linkages other agencies, providing:education in one .or more of thete areasshould be made in order to enhance op-portunities for lerner growth and de-*velopment.

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In designing new legislation forconsumer and homemaking eduoation;,con-sideration should be*giVentoandating,of method, pr process. (amid the legis-lation specify that "emphasis should begiven problem-solving methods which bothavoid simplistic prescription and showrespect for the learner and his or herfamily of origin?" There is precedentfor mandating method in 1pgislation con-cerned with cooperative education; co-operative education is a method rather.than a program.

Assessment of home economics pro-grams, with emphasis on disadvantagedstudents, should take into account howstudents are being taught as well aswhat content is included. Are problem--solving methods being used? Are studentsbeing exposed to a variety of options asagainst .a prescription? Are they beingmade aware of value and goal bases forchoices? Are they simply being taughtto cope, assuming that their: way of lifeWill nevelgIchange? Are the enduringvalues, such as respect' for persons and.property, being incorporated in meaning-.. ful ways?

Other questions to be consideredinclude: To what extent is home.econo-mics reaching those in economically de-pressed areas? What students are beingreached, at what level, and in wtat kindof programs? Is bi-lingual inst7Uctionincluded where appropriaX?

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4,3autreach

J° .The Consumer' gnd Matms4aking "Educa-

,

.tion section of the Kft encourages "out-reach*to'aged, young children, sctlool-aged parents,.. sing10 parents, handicapped,educationally disadvantaged, andprograms for health dare delivery, andservices' for courts and correctionalinstitkiltions,." In othbr words, home

ieconomicsl to'extend beyond the class-./room to-people where they are in the

.*'comtunity. Such gxtended programs havebeen in effect foi some time but the'76 Amendments stimulated expansion ofsuch efforts both in terms of locationand of those served.

The bulk of learners,served in out-xeach'programs will be older youth andadults. They may be reached by Consumerand Homemaking Education programs whichare comprehehsiVe or specialized in com-munity centers, housing developments,correctional institutions, and the like;or, the "outreach" may be a matter ofreaching out ,to ihdiViduals and bring-ing them to the school setting, perhapsat hours beyond the regular school day.

Beyond' encouraging outreach, theAct specifies some groups with special

eds for such programs:" the aged,children, school-aded Parents, single

parents, handicapped;',..0 educationally dis-advantaged.' In reachirig these groups,outteach,programs must move beyond tradition

' methodologies td increased use of mass

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media such as television, radio, andrewspalxms They must make increasinguse of telephones, bape and cassettereomkms, amtuterizedi instruction,'and, newer educational hardware and soft-ware as they are demapped.

Linkages with relevant communityprograms will enhance learning' oppor-tunities for those .who need outreach edu-cational offerings. These linkages willbe necessary to avoid unwarranted dupli-cation Of effort And to 'provide for.complementary Zglationships.

In determining the status of homeeconomics. nationally, one facet of the. study should deal with outreach. Whatoutreach programs and activities exist?Whom do they serve? What is the natureof the programs in terms of content andmethod? To what extent have outreach'`activities increased since passage ofthe '76 Amendments?

Further, one should explore whatlink4es exist with other programs hav-ing some related goals. It would be ,

interesting to dispover, for example,how USDA Extension specialists in homeeconomics work with home' economics edu-

. qators in the schools in places wherethere are cooperative and complementaryrelationships.

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Preparation of Males and Females for theWork of the.HoMe

"Prepare males and females who'haveentered or are preparing tp enter thework of the home. ", This is one of thedirectives of the_Consumer and HomemakingEducation section df the Education Amend-ments of 1976.

For many women, homemaking is stillthe career role., For a very few men, itis the career role. Performance in thisrole is critically important to the phy-sical, emotional, and mental health offamily members. In considering theimportance of occupations in terms of thewell-being of people, surely homemakingmust be at the top of the list.

0

A project fUnded by-the WisconsinBoard of Vocational, Technical, and-AdultEducation aimed at determining what con-.stitues competence for the occupationalrole of homemaking?and-deveroping a cur-riculum framework based o these compet-encies. The projebt. .7.. the

of postsecondary and .Ort learCourses developed AS a part of pro-ject can serve as elet,tives for anystudent at the postsecondary or adullevel, since all people are homemakers-to some degree and could benefit from,instruction related to homemaking roles:p s report of the effort stated:

"In the proceSs of identifyingthe cbmpetenciei, the more tradi-

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tional approach to the field of.home economics (foods and nutrition,textiles.and Clothing; child devel.-Opment, etc%),Was abandoned in favorof a broader role-oriented-apPioach-which would better meet the needs

s

of the homemaker today and in thefuture. The homemaker, male;female-, single or marriedv full-timehomemaker or part7tiffie homemaker isviewed in his/her various roles asan individual, a family member, aconsumer manager,and, a community"member. The decisions made regar-ding the competencies were baseAon an'analy'sis of the vocation andthe knowledges, attudes .arid skillsrequired for competence in thehomemaker role.The identified com-petenciesevolved over a period of,'-time through reading,' discussion,and refinement by steering commit-tee members, '

, 1., 0

-f"Inherenein this approath wasthe basic assumption.thathe &I4t .

student-comes with varying levelsof czapetence. The competen'ciesidentified for the` program consid-ered the_ many and. varied Tesponsi7bilitie4 background, arid, experienceof.the anticipated partiCipants"..

f

4 ,

n

...An IndiVidual

-His/Her Role As

...A Family Membei

4

...A-Consuner.Manager

A COMPETENT HOME-,MAKER WILL....

1. APPLY KNOWLEDGE OFINDIVIDUAL DEVEL-OPMENT TO THEDERSTANDING ,OFHUMAN BEHAVIOR.

2. ASSUME RES#0k§I-. BILITY FOR FURTHER-

ING HIS/HER OWNDEVELOPMENT.

3. FORM AND MAINTAINMEANINGFUL, INTER-PERSONAL RELATION7-SHIPS.

ASSUME RESPONSI-BILITY FOR FOSTER-'ING THE DEVELOP.,--MENT OF OTHER.9,;PROVIDE AN ENVIRON-MENT CONDUCIVE. TO'INDIVIDUAL,ANb'FAMILY DEVELOPMENT:.

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USE MANAGEMENTPRINCIPLES TO A-CHIEVE PERSONALAND FAMILY GALS,.FUNCTION EFFECT-IVELY AS A CONEX5-MER IN.ACHIEVINGINDIVIDUAL AND.FAMILY GOALS.

3

'

. ce

...A Community. 8. USE COMMUNITY RE-Member SOURCES IN FOS-

. TERING INDIVIDUALAND FAMILY DEVEL-OPMENT.

9.,-ASSUME RESPONSIBI-LITY AS A COMMUN--

,

/ / ITY MEMBER."

(The foregoing competencies Orequite broad; sub-competencie whihave been specified, relate o direct-ly to home economics Conte . It is recognized that other sub ct areas makea contribution to achievement of thesecompetencies. It should, be emphasizedthat offerings within'this program willbe available to all students to helpthem prepare for more effective perfor=mance in their roles as indiviThal,family member, consumer-manager, andcommunity member.)

The program proposed to develop thesespecified competencies includes the followingtechnical core cdurses:5

"INTRODUCTION TO/HE CONSUMER/FAMILY MANAGER

Study of the role of homemaker'(male/female) as dynamic force .

in society. Contributions of thehomemaker to society and the com-plexities of homemaker roles areemphasized. The participant willanalyze opportunities and respon-

c,

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sibilities for self growth through-out the life cycle, consideringhis/her unique needs in relation tothe homemaker role.

INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY DEVELOPMENT

Study of individual and family de-velopment through the life cycle.Emphasis on the relationship ofbasic needs to the physical, emo-tional, mental, and social well-being of individuals as well as onthe relationship of heredity andenvironment to growth and develop-ment. The course will include ananalysis of the influence,of familystructures, patterns and roles onfamily functioning and the influenceof the various stages of the familylife cycle on personal and familyrelationships, values and goals.

CURRENT ISSUES IN FAMILY LIVING

Atudy of current forces having im-;act,on the family unit and the de-velopment of strategies to streng-then the family unit. Such perti-Aent,topics-as chemical dependency,social offenses, health problems,local and federal legislation,ecology, and energy conservation agediscussed. Students are alertedto community services available toassist families.

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FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS,

Study involves developing,satisfy-ing interpersonal relationships inthe family. The course includesanalysts of factors contributing toeffective individual and family re-lationships, patterns of fairtily in-teraction, and strategies for copingwith life stresses. ,`The ability tofoster and maintain positive rela-tionships within the family such ashusband-wife relationships, parent-child relationships, sibling rela -.tionships and relationships witholder and dependent members of thefamily will be emphasized.

ENVIRONMENT FOR FAMILY LIVING

Study designed to develop judgmentneeded for creating a favorableenvironment for living at all stagesof the life cycle. Attention isgiven to a complex ,of housing andhome furnishing considerations in-cluding social responsibilitiesrelated to housing, creating a homeenvironment for physical and mentalhealth and safety, factors influen-cing consumer choice'in housing,and dedision-making in housing con-sistent with purchasing power andresources.

NUTRITION FOR THE FAMILY

Study of food and its role in per-sonal And family living. Emphasis

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is placed on the principles of humannutrition and their.applicatidn tothe selection, preparqtion and sto-rage of food. Consideration ofspecial diets, current trends infamily eating patterns, food fad'h,social customs and attitudes relatedto foods will be included.

HOMEJ4ANAGEMENT DECISIONS

Study of the role of management inachieving individual and family goals.Emphasis is on the management of hu-man and material resources based onclarification of values and goalsat each stage of the life cycle.Societal influence on the manage-ment process, management to achieve

2 family goals, managerial problemsrelated to the dual role and theorganization of activities in,thehome, will be'included.

CLOTHING MAVAGEMENT

Study of clothing and textilds in-cluding their significance-to the.individual and family. Unique fam-ily needs of each family member areconsidered. Social, psychological,and economic factors influencingclOthing selection are analyzed.Management principles dealing withcare, maintenance and storage ofclothing will be included.

CONSUMER STUDIES

Study of the economic welfare of thefamily as a consuming unit. The'student will develoP knowledge, un-derstanding, and consumer skills toachieve individual and family goals.

The foregoing course descriptionsare presented to illustrate %ghat home-

o making education based on the needs ofindividuals, and:families today can looklike. All ofrthe identified major areasof home economics are included. Thefocus is on indiVidual development andfamily well-being. Threading throughoutare the concepts of management and re-

.

lgtionships.

Home Economics is an integrated-field of study. A home-economist drawsekl.11issor her knowledge in such areas asfonaumer, education, food and nutrition,family relationships, child developmentand guidance,,housing and thome'furnish-,irigs, home management, and clothing andtextiles in responding to problems ofindividuals and families. 'herein liesthe'.powek of the field. Most problemqof ihdividuals and families are.not so

. simple that answers can be, found in onlyone of the identified areas. Home eco-nomics is the only field of study withfocus on the family and individuals inthe context'of family. It is the only'educational prolram.that brings togeth-er the various fields of. study dealingwith family concerns and relates them

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'in meaningful ways in preparing youngpeople and adults. for family and home-making resfionsibilities. It is the onlyfield of study. preptired to educate youngpeople and'adults in all facets of,theirhomemaking responsibilities.

Since everyone has homemaking res-ponsibilities to some.degree, as eithera full-time or part-time homemaker,,ev-eryone could Profit from the special ed-ucation offered by home economics. Asvocational education, it prepares forthe vocation of homemaking, and becausemuch of the .knowledge and skill neededby homemakers is precisele orwhat isneeded by workers in related,occupatio nsit offers, even in its homemaking-orien-ted aspect, important learning for jobsin such areas as child care, foods, andclothing.

As an ect of vocational educa-tion, homema ing and consumer educationhas a humanizing influenceon the. restof vocational education. As, a field, itis concerned with people .as individualsand as family members. Indeed, the pro-fessions related to home economics,arefrequently referred to as the " peopleprofessions." When vocational educatorswork to4ether, as they do in developingprograms-and in professional organize,-tions, it is the home economics peoplewho help make certain that concern for,people in th &ir variety of roles andrelationships and with their variousexperiences, needs, and-interests ,is not .

forgotten among concerns for idehXification

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of occupational competencies, job per-.formqnc and placement. Hard data tosupport these- statements may be difficultto come by,,but observations of vo=cational educators at work as groups ihthe field and in professional organiza-tions provide plentiful evidence.

In assessing homemaking and con-sumereducation programs, it is in order --to ask:_ To what extent are males andfemales :enrolled at some time duringtheir school careers-IR-Courses to.pre-Ore them fpr their homemaking respon-sitilities, that is/ for entering "thework of the home?" To what extent. areadult learners enrolled, in the homemak-ing-oriented, educatibnal courses andp'rograms of home economics, as contrastedwith such purely skill-oriented coursesand programs as crafts, which have no'family focus, and sewing, which is orientedto-individual interests rather than fam-ily needs?

Are homemaking and consumer educe-iion programs up-to-date in terms-of thereal needs of individuals' and families?Current curriculum' guides developed bystate and lodel educational agenciesshould provide clues. Interviews withhome economics eduCators and teachergmight be useful. It might be-illuminatingto visit,some identified (probably by'the state supervisprs of home economicseducation) "begt," "average;" and"weak"homeMaking and consumer education'pro-grams in representative states.

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Emphasis on Consumer Education, Manave-% .ment of Resources,-Promotion of Nutri-

tional Knowledge and Food Use, andParenthood Education to Meet the CurrentSocietal Needs

In calling special attention to theareas of consumer education, managementof resources, promotion of 'nutritionalknowledge and food use, and parentho0education, the Congress has underlinedtheir importance in meeting prevailingneeds of individuals and families. Theomission of family relationships isregrettable; many current social problepshave roots not only in the inadeguacy'Oparenting but in family life ,in general.

In assessing the, status of home-making and copsumer education' programs,.spe'cial attention should be given to theidentified areas of emphasis. Are theseareas indeed emphasized in.comprehensiveprograms? Are there special- emphasiscourses or programs dealing with theseareas both in the schools and in out-reach programs? Who is being served bythe program's?

Ancilrary Serviaps

Without appropriate ancillary ser-vices in teacher training, curriculumdevelopment,; research, program evalua-tion, and state admipistration, any ed-ucational program is doomed to less thantotal effectiveness. Recognizing this,the .Congress included-provision for suchservices in the Act.

2O0

4

Quality control inthe program ofhomemaking and consumer edUcation, as inother educational programs, is providedthrough teacher'education, curriculum de-velopment,'research and evaluation, andadministration. In particular, curricu-lum development in the field serves toinfluence quality of the program. 3

The state of the art in curriculumdevelopment in general is quite sophis-ticated, indeed. There-is considerableknowledge which may be brought to bearconcerning bases for curriculum deci-sions, 'objectives, learning experiences,content,.teaching aids, and means ofevaluation. airricula in consumer andhomemaking,education should reflect thenewer knoW1edge of curriculum prdcessand substance and should be responsiveto social and family conditions and needs.

In the field of vocati9nal' education,the curriculum work done under Part I ofthe Vocational Amendments'of 1968 gaveimpetus to significant programmatic de-velopment.0 Major projects have been /,

funded in consumer education and childdevelopment and guidance as well as inwage-earning, aspects pf home economics.The resuitting products=are in usethroughout the country.

Insuffi ent fluids, for the basicand applied r search needed in home ear-onomics education_has_long been a.prob-lem. Nevertheless, there has been someexpansion of research in the field, andfunding through federal legislation hasbeen an important factor.

195

Program specialists in home econo-mics'on state vocational education staffshave provided leadership, coordinatedefforts in the field, and monitoredprogram quality.

The one overworked but very compe-tent and creative program specialistin home economics in tne U. S. Office ofEducation has the support and loyaltyof the field for 1ter leadership.and-"effectiveness in communicating with thefield about developments in Washingtonand the fifty states. However, a staffof one in the.Office of Education iswoefully small considering the size ofthe program and the social significance -

of its mission.

At the very heart of development irieducational programs is teacher prepara--tion. Around the country, home economicsteacher education programs vary consid-erably but it seems a fair statement to

re-r say that all aim at preparing teachersin terms of student needs and changingsocial and family conditions. Supervi-sion of student teachers in home econo-mics is perhaps more frequently done byspecialists in the field than'is true inmany general education areas.

An assessment of consumer. andmaking education programs nationallyMust take into account the ancillary ser-7vices of the field.. What is the statusof teacher training and supervision,curriculum development, research,.pro-gram evaluation, special demonstration

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and experimental-progr'ams, developmentof *nstructional materials, exemplaryprojects, provision of eguipmeq,'Andadministration and leadership?

Constraint$ imposed-by limited timeand funds may make it necessary to selectamong the various types of ancillaryservices those most worthy of study interms of their likely impact on qualityof programs.' The following are sugges--ted for study in order of priority t

1. Curriculum'developmentand teacher preparation

Summary

2. :Reearch

'3. Administration

4

Legislation korCohsumer and Home-making Education in the Education Amend-ments of 1976 shoilld have. .'impact on families,social services, labor, and education.The nation4,0spessment of the programmay provid6.sOme hard data, along withclues suggesting further study, regard-ing the extenf and nature of such impact.

Certainly families should be affec-ted. There is great etphasis in thelegislation on making'the program rele-vant in consideration of the- realitiesand neeqs of today's family .life. Pro-gram drdas 'stressed'in the legislation,should receive particular ,attention in

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the assessment. These include.

consumer education, management of resour-ces,ces, nutritional knowledge and food use,

,and'parenthood education. If programsare working, those served by the programsshould be making applications to theirwn lives of learning in these and otherareas of,home economics.

Social services'for' families shouldhave closer ties with educational pro-grams in consumer andhometaking educa-tion; Such.linkages are Ancouraged bythe-Consumer and Homemaking Educationsection of the Education Amendments of176. In particular, outreach activi-

_ ties and programs should coordinate withand serve.io complement-the work of re-levant 'social agencies. Ethisationalprograms in such areas as parenting andnutrition might reduce the work load ofoverburdened social agencies. For exam-ple, the "school-aged parent" programSrun by home economics teachers in somecities might be expected to have impactinthis way and to gain effeyti,veness throughlinkages with the agencies.

If prograMs in consumer and home-making education are working, thoseserved by the programs should be health-ier and more- productive workers. Forexample', if learning in nutrition isapplied, one might reasonably, expectthat nutrition-related illnesses, and hence'absenteeism` related to these illnesses,.would 1e reduced. If learninTin fam-ily relationships is appliedoone mightreasonably expect family tensions'to be

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reduced and the learner to be'more pro-. ductive on the job. .Learning in consu-mer education should produce workerg who notonly earn but know how to_manage and get themost benefit froth their earnings. Lear-ning in management should produce workers.who understand the decision-making prb--cess and can apply it to real-life sit-uations both at hyme and on the job. .

If orogramsn:consumer andthome-making. education are Working, learners,also should be healthier andjaore pro-ductive in th.O.rro11 as students. 'Aleading speciAlist i tr social foundationsof education once stated that- the mostpersdasiiie case 'home egonomi4S couldmake for its programs,.iia:t:he seCondary,schools is the liber4ting. effect itsteachings might have on studoi:1 -4W-

In these days of'-gre4tCqncern, formore emphasis on the basic§ in education,one might Well consider what we mean bybasics. We mean tool subjects, to be sure.But, at ieast44ually important- are thebasics of relationships, managemeilt,parenting, nutrition, consumer education!

Assessment Priorities (Summary)

National assessment priorities forthe Corisurner and Homemaking Educationsection of the Vocational EducationAmendments of 1'976 shouldipinclude:

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o .enrollments

What learners are being servedin programs?

At what levels?

I'n what types of programs (interms of content, formalsckool and outreach)?

o program-content, approaches

What content is included?

How relevant is content to real4 : needs of individuals and

* families t9day?

Are,problem-solving approachesemphasized? .

o 'program impact

jion ftautily life

4On individuals as consumers,

workers, learners

o ancillary services

What is the status ofteacher education?

curriculum development?

research?

administration?

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o linkages,

How does the program in theschool link with other pro-grams concerned with homeand family life?

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PART II

AMERICAN FAMILIES AND RELATEDSOCIAL ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS FORHOMEECONOMICS AND HOME ECONOMICS

LEGISLATION

The American family is a continu-ing;, but changing social unit. Itsmajor functions today aretconcerned withthe growth and development of its mem-bers through affection, socialization, andcultural interpretation. Because oflessened production in the home and chan-ging form and structure, there has beensome tendency in-recent years to under-estimate the continuing significance ofthe family as the basic social unit.

Novak underlined the importance ofthe family in an article in Harper'swhen he said:.

"A people whose marriages, and%families are weak can have no solid

institutions.Every avenue of research today

leads to the, family. Do we studyeducational achievement? nutrition?the development of stable and cre-iative personalities? resistanceft.o delinquency and violence?/-f&eor6-able economic attitudes and skills?unemployment? sex -role identifi-cation? political affiliation? in-tellectual and artistic aspiration?religious seriousn ss? relations

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to authority and to dissent? In a

.

these itInces, family life is fundamenta

In 1973,- ninety-one percent of allAmericans livedas part of a family.8The American family has decreased some-what in size over the years. 'In 1950,the average family size in the UnitedStates was 3.54 persons; in 1975, theaverage size was 3.42.9 Although thehusband-wife team as head of the familyis most common, there has been an increasein the proportion of households headed byfemales.

In 1975, thirteen percent of allU. S. families were headed by women. 10Ten percent of single-parent families withchildren under 18 were headed by men. 11

Divorce and separation are major and in-creasingly significant'factors in.single-headed families.

There appears to be a beginning offathers' rights and responsibilitiesmovement. Organizations of single fathersare presently coming to light in someparts of the country, for example, agroup called Divorced Fathers for Actionand Justice in Waltham, Massachusetts.l2A landmark case decided by the U.S.Supreme Court in 1972 established theprinciple that a concerned and interestedunwed 'father has constitutionally pro-tected parental rights.13

That there has been a startling in-crease in unwed mothers is apparent from

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the folloviing figures. From 1960to1974, the number of illegitimate livebirths in the United States nearlydoubled. In 1960, illegitiMate births-represented 5.3% of all births, comparedwith 13.2.% in 1974. Between 1960 and1974, nationAl statistics show a 43%increase in illegitimate,births to mothersunder 15 years of age and a 41% ivreasepin illegitimate births to mothers 15 -19years of age, inclusive.14

In a leaflet describing a new seri'esoff (:)filmstrips "The School-Age Parent,u15the following information is given:

o "More than bne million teenagers be-come pregnant each year.

o The number of births to young womenunder age fifteen has more .than,doubled over the last fifteen years.

o Almost sixty percent of all birthsto teenagers are conceived out ofwedlock.

o Babies born to teenagers are al-Most three times more likely todie during the first year thanbabies born to mothers in theirtwentiO.

o Babies born to teenagers are morelikely to be born with or to de-velop childhood illnesses thaninfants`born to mothers in theirtwenties.

o Maternal death is far higher forthe teenage mother than for women

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in their Zit/ nties.

o Ninety-four percent of teenage -mothers keep their babies and donot give them up for adoption-orto relatives.

o Two-thirds of all teenage preg-nanciee are unintended.

o Eight out of ten women who becomemothers at seventeen or youngernever finish high school.

o Sixty per-cent of all teenagemothers become dependent on pub-lic welfare.

o Two-thirds of all marriages ofschool-age womdn end in divorce.

o For school-age women who becomepregnant before they are married,three out of five are divorcedwithin six years of marriage."16

Implications of These Family Conditionsand Changes for Home Economics and HomeEconomics Legislation

Implications for Home Economicsof the aforementioned facts about fam-ilies include:

o emphasii on home management, in-cluding "head of household" re-sponsibilities.

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o emphasis on parenting educationfor both males-and lemales, andespecially for, adolescent parents.

15 emphasis on the rights and needs.of childien atid the responsibili-ties of parenthood fbr young ado-lescents.

o realiStic sex education in thecontext of family life education.

o increlsed attention to fathering -role, responsibilities, rights.

The 1,76 education appears to be onthe right track with respect to theseimplications.

4

Ethnic Families

In 1976, the Black population repre-sented approximately 11% of the totalnational population. SixAy percent ofBlack families in 1976 were husband-wifeheaded and 36% were headed by a womanwithopit a hu'sband prese t. More than25% of Black familiellhp d five or moremembers compared with 2 % of all Ameri-can families. The majority of Blacksare metropolitan dwellers (74.7% in, 1976)with 57.5% of the total Black population

iresiding in central cities.17

The median income ratio for.Blackcompared to White families was 58% in1974; the income status of Blacks asreflected by the income distribution of

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B acks has remained essentially unchangedsince 1970% ,In Marche 1975, about431 of-Black families hadearly incomesbelow $10,000 and, of thonUover halfhad incomes below $4,000.1°

'In 1976, -about five aercent of thepopulation was of Spanishprigin.U.S.

er 30-percent of these families hadfive or mofe members, compared with20 percent of all U.S.*families. About60% of Spanish origin families in Max_ch:1976 were Mexican, about. 16% were PuertoRican, 6% were Cuban,. about 7% were Cen-

. '5 tral or South American and 12% were Ofother Spanish background.19

Native Americans in the UnitedStates represent over 200 nations, tribes, -

or lands each differing in-language, cus-toms, and attitudes. Cal Dupree, Assoc-

. igte Professor of Native AmericaEducaA tion at the University of Lethbridge,Alberta, Canada, speaking at the 1976Bicentennial Conference on VocationaEditAtion, emphatzed the differwhen he stated that what they have'pommon .is Indian Fry Elread. Then, in aserious vein', he said that "Two othercommon factors readily apparent in most

- Nativ American groups are undeteducationand ,p erty." He added, "I believe that

'voca onal education has much to4offer, in beginning to eliminate these two

demons that have been- with us for over'200 years."2°

°

Professor Dupree described problemsof housing and health as most critical

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among N4tive Americans.21 these are

problems to which the field of homeeconomics can respond.

Increasing numbers of JapanedeChinese, and Filipino individuals andfamilies contribute to the ethnic mosaictJat is America. 'A large proportion maketheir homes in the inner city.

Increasingly militant in terms ofdemands for recognition and rights areEastern Europeans. New on the pOliticalscene are a few political coalitions ofPolish and Black ethnics.

Alex Haley's book (nd the stunningTV presentation of "Roots" served toraise the consciousness of all Americansto their origins. The author of thisp4per found herself re-reading Robert1Crichton's fine novel, The Camerons,with a new sense of pride and curiosityabout her Scottish "roots."

.11

Ethnic 'Families: Implications for Home Economics

Recognition of, respect for, andpride in ethnic background may be en-couraged in home economics classes.No program, save those directly Concern-ed with ethnic studies, has greater-op-portunity,for helping students under-standiand appreciate ethnic origins.

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214

Working Women'

In 1975, about .40% 'Of the tI.S.,labo-eforce was represented by women. he med-ian age of th fesale labor force Ilia 1975.was 35.5 yeaa. 71.iost half of these

,

f6male workers (45%) **ere married,had husbands present and had childrenunder 18 years of ale. (The correspon- .

ding 1960 figure was 27.6.A.)22

Over the past two decades there hasbeen a notable, change in the ratio ofmale to female full-time year-rowld wor-kers, In A1950, for every, 100 full-timemale workers, 29 women morked full-time.In 1974 the ratio of full-time women tomen working was 74/100.23 The majorityof working women are working for reasonsof economic necessity, whether or notthe husband is present.

The relationship between labor forcedparticipation and such variables asmaritarstatus and the presence and ageof childgen has been changing. Marriedwomen with preschool children represented'

'

12% of the female labor force in 195Dcompared with 37% in 197,5.24 In 1974,26.8 million children had working mothers.df,thege 20 million children, 20.7million were of school age (6-17 yq-Ars) and6.1 million were of.preschool age.t3

In 1975, black children were morelikely than white children to have-wor-king mothers. Of 61ack children under18 years, 51.4% had working mothers com-pared with 42.8% of white children. Thepercentages of children under.6 years old-

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sr

with working mothers were 48.3% ofblack chloldrensand 34.2% of whitechildren.26*

The Office of Education reportedenrollments of chfldrerf under 6 years inpublic and private nursery schools andkindergartens in October, 1974, asfollows:27

5 year-olds: 2,693,04

4 year7plds: 457,000..(kinger-gartenY,

865,000 (nurseschool)

3 year-olds: 34,000*(kinder-.

garten)

-650,000 (nurseryschool)

In 1974-75, the-number of childrenreceiving care in family day care cen-ters was 8,345,000; in day care, 960,000;and in nursery school, 1,981,000.28

Given the numbers of children needingcare, the total number of hours is significant.The traditional education sy-stem even whenoperating on a full-day schedule serves lessthan half of the "child hour" needs. Thetotal number of hours per year needed fora child is estimated to be 2,500 (250 daysper year x.10 hours per day). Schoolsprovide 900 hours per year (20 days per

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2n;

4

month x 9 Months per year 'x 5 hours-Per-day for full -time traditional education).27

Quality of care is an iMportant it-sue involved'in child; care: A 1972 stidyfound that three-fifths of all centers

'were .of poor or fair qua,lity.30. /*°

working_ Women: Implications for Families,Social Services, Labor, Education, andLegislation for Tome Economics

As 'A result Of the'employment oflarger numbers of women -outside'the home,family life has undergone changes. Thechanging roles of men and women may betraced to this cause, at least in part.Men-are becoming more involved with homeand family and related responsibilities.Many women are finding a new sense'of.personal identity and new avenum forcommunication with children;andrEarriagepartners. These are positivp aspects ofwomen's being employed outside the home.

For some women, there is personalstress in the dual role and resultingttrain on family members. Whatever theresult for families, most women who workdo so for reasons of economic necessityand will continue to do so.

The need for education for home andfamily life for both men'and women isunderlined by all° of these considerations.Implied is need for education whic will"emphasize: management, consumer educa-tion, parenting, family relationships

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2 7

4

4

aim? meeting the needt of families forfood-, olothing, and,shelter: Legisla- .

tion to support education 'in'these ateasis pleded both now and in.the'foreseeable,',

. There has been no let.i.brig voice inAmeri4 to speak on behalf of theblue`and pinkcollar working woman. Over 80percent of working women are in thiscategory.' Vocational education, includ-ing home ecdnomics education, could pro-

-th`at voice. Consumer and homemakingeducation-An its 'programs should givepecial attentiOn,to the educationaleeds, including delivery systerri needs,,

of the blue arki,pink collar workers --homemakers.

Opportunities, for women in bothtraditional and nonlEraditional -fields

employmentmust ekcpand. And,,the. , importance of such home-economicsrelated

occupations as pre-sChool work and daycare must be recognized py living wagesfo., those employed in these fields.

An increasing number of pre-schooland day care facilities staffed by high-ly. professional'persOnnel'is needed sothat parents may work secure in theImowledge that their children'are receiv-ing pro13-6i care.' The author's recentcontacts with pre-school teachers whotaresupervising pre-school:student teach-ers in Madison, Wisconsin, have been il-luminating. The teachers are dedicated,concdrned,Thighiy, Competent -- and paidso poorly that-they niuSt elther. have 4k

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other sources of support or accept a lifestyle of bare existence. And yet, thesefine people are working with what is mostprecious to families and-to ttie future ofour nation: its young!

Aging Family Members

A current trend influencing familiesis the increase in life, expectancy atbirth. In 1960, male life expectanCy

'was 66.6 years; in 1974, it was 68.2.Female life expectancy was 73.1 in 1960and 75.9 in 1974-;31

If the 1960's."was the decade ofaroused youth, the 1970's may well belongto their grandparents. Some 23 millionAmericans, about 10% of the population,are 65 or over."32

As of March, 1975, 15.7 percent ofall older persons were living ,below thepoverty level. The majority of low in-'come aged persons in 1974 were eithrliving alone or with nonrelatives.33

Nevertheless, in discussing the end ofyouth culture in America, a recent issueof U.S. News and World Report pointedout that older people are becoming less

, poor and that,in "just five years, thenumber of senior citizens below the of-ficialipoverty level has fallen from 25'to 15 percent, compared with 12 percentfor the rest of the population."A

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9

The same publication stated that:

"Another big diffetence isthe rapidly rising level ofeducation. A generation ago/many people over age 65 wet&illiterate and only 1 out of5 had a high-school diploma.Today, 1.in every 3 seniorcitizens is a high-schoolgraduate, and the ratio isexpected to climb to onehalf by1990, with a growingnumber poessing collegedegrees.'

AgingFamily'Members: Implications ?orSocial Services, Labor, Education, andHome Economics Leg slation

The "grayingof America" has impli-cations for every facet of American life.The'October 3, 1977, U.S. News and WorldReport stated that:

°Effects range'from grade-school closings and high un-employment in certain agegroups to a threat to thesolvency of the Socialcurity system... "Crime rates may decline.Many people, less burdenedby the expenses of raisingkarge families, will havemore money to spend on them-selves. PresVailing tastesmay change in such diversefields as music and fashion,

215

long dominated by youngpeople.

' "in many respects, saypopulation experts, the trend

likely to bring an end tothe 'youth culture'." 36

Raising the mandatory retirement agewill result in longer work lives and maybring about conflicts with younger per-s s clamoring for jobs, although somepo itical leaders predict that no greatproblems will result from deferredretirement. Almost certainly there willbe increasing demand for and use of soc-ial services for the elderly:

The political "clotit" of large num-bers of aging is bein *Welt as they pressfor legislation which will offer greater:protecticp to the later years. There issome trend toward less emphasis on indi-vidual rights.and more on' the rights ofthe society as a whole.

Implications for education offerchallenges to schools and outreach pro-grams:

o meeting the needs"of the changing,populatigh through more study pro-:grams "where people are," throughincreased use of community centersand mass media which make possiblestudy in the home:

g

o developing quality educationalprograms for delivery throughextended and external degree pro-grams.

o developing curricula based on theneeds-of older persons in suchcritical areas as consumer educa-tion, management of resources,health and safety, foods and nu-trition, housing, recreation andleisure, financial aspect§ ofaging, and relationships.J7

.o developing arts and other person-al enrichment programs and acti-vities geared to theinterests ofolder persons.

That consumer and homemaking educa-,tion has much potential for meeting needs,of older persons is obvious. But, oneof the greatest contributions of the fieldmay be in helping younger persons under-stand, appreciate, and respect older .

members of the family through study Andthrough using oller persons as resourcesandas consulta s in various units-ofstudy.

. Legislation for home economicsshould continue to emphasize older per-sons as a target group of special concern.

"Empty Nests"

"The term 'empty nest' refers tothat stage in family growth patterns

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where theAaunching of children has beencompleted. This period involves adjust-ments for the remaining family membersin terms of time and goals.

"In ihe United States.today, womenwhose children have been launched intoindependence have i4creasingly more op-tions,open and a greater number of op-portunities and choices to pursue. Thesituation where'women who had been pri-marily involved in family responsibili-ties are sudddhly 'free' of that occupa-tion has been /ikened to retirement andthe related identity crisis which his-torically, mostly males experienced.

"Among the viablealternitives forwomen whose family respisibilities havediminished are reentrnto the laborrAforce and continuing epcation."3°

The so-called "displaced homemaker"is at the emi)tynest stage of_familylife. She (in very rare instances, he)has been defined in a recent bill beforethe Illinois state legislature as .a per-son who:

"(1) has worked in the home fora substantial number of yearsproviding unpaid household r-vices for family-members; (2) isnot'gainftlly employed; (3) hasdifficulty in securing employMent;and (4) was dependent on the in-come of another family member butis no longer supported by such in-come,.or was dependent on federalassistance but is no longer eligi-

218

e

ble for such assistance. "39

These are persons who, in their middle years and having fulfilled the roleof homemaker, find theinselves diiplacedbecause of dissolution of' marriage, deathof spouse, or other loss of family income.As a consequence, displaced homemakershave a greatly reduced income, a highrate of unemployment due to age, a lackof paid work experience and limited op-portunities to collect funds of assist-ance from social security, unemploymentcompensation, medicaid and other healthinsurance benefits, or pesion plans ofthe spouse. "°

Some would broaden the definitionof the displaced homemaker to includethose women whose children have beenlaunched and who may continue to havethe financial support of a husband butfind that their chief occupational role,that of mother actively caring for thqneeds of children, no longer exists.

"Empty Nests:" Implications for Families,Social Services, Labor,: Education, andHome. Economics Legislation

The, term, "displaced homemaker,"has connotations of frustration and someunhappiness. Families cannot help butbe affected, probably in adverse ways,by a "displaced" homemaker who does notfind a new and more satisfying place forherself. Since her number is growing,society is beginning-to be aware of, andto respond to her needs.

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6

Some state legislatures, as. well asthe United States Senate, are consideringlegislation to provide for support ser-'vic for displaced homemakers. A ,Senatebil cludes proVieions for centers,one for each.9dae,

'!where women could be aided throughthe transition, where they could

, find legal, emotional, and jobcounseling. They would be 'recycle'stations' to outfit the homemakers'skills to fit the work force andfind new jobs to fill both the'pub-lic need and theirs."41

Such services, combined with educa-tional programs adapted to her needs,should'help alleviate problems for thedisplaced homemaker.

The displaced homemaker has exper-iences which have relevance for course-work in -home economics. Her years ofhomemaking have provided her with prac-tical experience which she can relateto the theory and research presented incoursework in home economics. Of course,most displaced homemakers will be interestedin education which h'as occupationalrelevance and most will need to earn whilepursuing studies. Others, whose family,situations are more secure and who haveno.special need to earn in terms ofeconomic necessity, may wish' to continuetheir studies in order to satisfy personalneeds for growth and development,devslOp new avenues for communi-

220

cation with children and spouse, andprepare for,gerfOrming more effectivelyas "volunteers."

Hence, home economics studies atadult, postseOondary, and universitylevels may be of specia interest tosome displaced homemakers. 'Outreachactivities and extended and externaldegree prograMs should be offered towomen in order to make possible theirOontihued.learning. Incorporated inthese efforts should be the use ofmedia such as television, radio, news-,

papers, telephone, tape and cassette'recorders, and correspondence courses.

Image Problems of Homemakers

Sixty-three million women in theUnited States identify themselves ashomemakers. Few positive role modelsfor these homemakers exist and negativestereotypes abound.

Advocate for homemakers is theMartha Movement, a nonprofit nationalorganization founded in May, 1976, by,Jinx Melia, Executive Director of theorganization. The Martha Movement seeks'to improve the status of homemakersthrough public education, counselingservices gor homemakers and stimulationof research in depression, alcoholism,

42and financial dependency of homemakers.

221

Image Problems of Homemakers:Implications for Education and HomeEconomics Legislation

Home economics, through its consu-mer and homemaking education programs,contributes to improvement of the statusof the homemaker. Legislation whichof

the importance of homemakingas an occupation, and as a role of vir-tually everyone, also helps.

Additionally, linkages of home eco-nomics with/ organizations such as theMartha' Movement, which aiMsat improvingthe status of homemaking, are indicated.

Changing Family Structure

One aspect of family structure isfamily size.. A continuing downward trendin levels of expected fertility of Amer-ican women, 18 to 39 years old, has im-plications for.future family structure,.The later' years for many will be spentwithout grandchildren and perhaps even-tually without the support of immediatefamily.

High rates of divorce a remarriagemean that family structures are frequent-ly complicated: his children, her chil-dren, their children, more than one setof parents and grandparents. Tenslonsin families tend to irwrease as thestructure becomes more complex. Studiesof.family boundary ambiguity by Boss(School of Family Resources and ConsumerSciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison,

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227

1977)stend to support the statement thatcomplexity of structure, especially re-garding family boundary and roles, isrelated to family and individual dysfunc-tion.

The typical cluster of persons wholive together as a household has shrunk.Few married couples live with relatives.And today one in every six householdscoftsists of one person living entirelyalone. As an overall measure of theshrinking family size, the average.house-hold consisted of five persons from 1890to 1910, then four persons from 1920 to 41950, and three persons from 1960 --with the 1974 average dipping fractivqal-ly below 3 persons, to 2.97 persons.

During the 1960's a spectaculareight-fold increase occurred in the num-ber of household heads who were reportedas living apart from relatives whilesharing their living quarters with anunrelated adult "partner" (roommate orfriend) of the opposite sex. One out ofevery four of these143,000 "unmarried'couples" in 1970 were women.who had amale partner "living in." Among oldermen sharing their living quarters withnon-relatives only, one in every fiveshared it with a female partner; it islikely that a substantial proportion ofwidowed persons living in th's mannerdid so in order to avoid lo ng survi-vor benefits through remarr e.44

There are no reliable nationalsta-tistics on the number of communes, which

ea

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228

A

is a variant family form. Glick statesthat this is "partly because many of thecommunes are-not welcome in their neigh-borhood and would rathe;. not be identified

' in a census or survey."45

Recent research on "family bounda-ries" in family studies has focused at-tention on the question of what personsconstitute a family. Physical presenceonabsence may be le,gs important thanpsychological presence 'or absence. Thiswhole area has significant iMplicationsfor those concerned with education forfamily life.

Implications of Changing Family Structurefor Home Economics Education and RelatedLegislation

Study of, families and family rela-tionships, including family,structure,is an important aspect of consumer andhomemakirig education. When areas needingspecial emphasis are spelled out, asthey are in the Consumer and HomemakingEducation section of the Education Amend-ments of 1976,'family relationshipsshould be included. This need is appar-ent when one looks at the changes that'are taking place in the family.

Home economics teachers, i valuingfamily life, must keep in mind that, thereare many variations of family life thatcan provide for the growth, development,and well-being of its members." Textualmaterials, must recognize that variations

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exist. Teachers can deal with structureof family as one of the "problems infamily life" which is value-laden andwhich contains elements which may notbe within the control of the individuallearner but with which he or she mustdeal.

Changing Sex Roles

Questioning of traditional views ofmale and female roles is'one of the dra-matic social changes of the past two de-cades. The traditi6nal view is that malestend to be characterized by "instrumental"behaviors such as financial support andcontact with the world external. to thefamily and that females are more charac-terized la nurturant and expressive be-

,.hffiviors.'"

As women have moved into the worldof work otitside the home in large numbersand men have begun to .express moreipterest in the,fathering role and intheir rights and responsibilities aeparents; notions of male and femaleroles have changed.

One group of researchers, Spence,Helmreich and Stapp, found that pe'rsons withhighest self-esteem in a group of 530college students were those men and womenwho viewed themselves as having highdegrees of both masculine and femininecharac4eristics, that'is, as being androgy-nous.''

225

Bern indicated that traditional sextyping is restricting of behavior andthat androgynous people are more adapt-able because they are not bound by stereo-types and labels. From her studies ofhuman behavior, she concluded that andro-gynous men and women can be independentand assertive when they need to be andwarm and responsive when appropriate.Feminine women were found,to be restrictedin 'masculine' abilities like assertive-.ness and independence,'and masculine menwere found restricted in expressing.'feminihe' behaviors such as warmth,playfulness, and concern.48

Implications of Changing Sex Roles for Home Economics

Changing sex roles are appropriate'assubject matter in the family studies 9fHome Economics.' Boys and girls and menand women need to understand changing sexroles, underlying reasons, and the posi-tive aspects of these changes.

Implied in the changing roles is theimportance of educating both males andfemales for the dual role as employedperson (whether-or not the employment ispaid employment) and as homemaker. Pre=sent legislation is supportive of this.

Violence and Child Neglect in Families

A high level of family violence,particularly child and wife abuse, existstoday, along with many reported incidentsof child neglect.

226

231

1.

9.

The Children's DiVAsioti..t the Am-,

erican Humane Asso6iatiotic 'fitly repor-ted on a 1975 national stay of childabuse and-neglect. Theeitudy's fdcuswas on reporting rather than incidence.;hence the data,may underestimate theextent of the problem. -

Of the 289,837 cases Okichild abuseand neglect reported nationally for the1975 calendar year, 79% of the caseswere investigated and 21% of the cases'status remained undetermined. Of the in-vestigated cases, 59.6% were found to bevalid and 40.4% were found not valid.-The number of children involved in re-ported cases was 304,329. Of the repor-ted cases, 63% were neglect and 37% wereabuse, although more than half of all,0reported cases were undifferentiated.'"

Of alleged child abusers and neg-lecters, natural patents represented 83.8percent (mothers, 57.7 percent andfathers, 2t.1 percent);.step-parentsrepresented 6.08 percent (stepipthers, 4.95percent and stepfathers, 1.13* percent);adoptive parents, .1 percent; paramours,1.8 percent with males more frequentlyreported (1.28 percent);, other relatives,2.4 percent; and babysitters, .9 percent."

Tie follow?ng chart shows .thetypes of injuries and neglect inflicted.51Percentages of abuses .are based on totalabuse and percentages of each type ofneglect are based on total neglect. Morethan one category maybe reported perchild.

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3 4

Perbentages of Reported Casesof.Child.Abuse and Neglect

Abuse Neglect

Minor phystcalinjuries 50.3%

-Physical'neglect 78.1%

Sexual abuse 10.6% Medicalneglect 9.%%

Major physicalinjuries 2.3% Emotional

neglect 7.8%Burns 2.6%

EduOCongenital and nel 4.5%Environmental,Drug Addic-tion .1%

A national study of violence be-tween spouses showed that during thevey year, 1975, one out of six couple,engaged in voilent acts ranging from'throwing something at spouse" to."usinga knife or gun." When the reference,period used was the duration of the,marriage rather than the survey year,27.8 percent engaged in violent acts.52

Increasing concern is being expres-sed nationally by groups and individualsabout the effects of television violenceon American children and their families.At the 1977 annual convention of the Am-erican Medical Association in San Fran-

a key address was presented byDr. George Gerbner, Whosv;mxgparch has shown

770

that in.general, families.are ignoredby television writers, particularly duringhours when children watch. GerbnerHas also found that 56% of the men and37% of the women in cartoons are involvedin'acts of violence.33

In a February, 1977, issue of ewSWeekmagazine, a comprehensive.look at teffects Of'.TV violence on children afamilies included A.C. Nielsen's findingthat children under 5 years of age watchan average of 23.5 hours,of TV per week,and that at that rate of viewing, today'stypical teenager will. have spent 15,000hours watching television by highschool graduation, more time than inany ether activity except sleep-ing. Summarizing-the evidence drawnfrom over 2,100 studies anc reports onTV violence and children, Npwsweek'5 HarryWaters said'the findings are decidedlynegative, ranginq from marked drops inchildren's creative abilities, increas-ing paranoia, and tolerance of violentbehavior to perpetuation.of sex and racestereotypes.

Violence and Child Neglect in Families:! Implications for Home Economics

Surely no facts paint up, need foreducation in family life and parentingmore persuasively than those dealingwith family violence. Social agenciesdeal with th results and have a,roleto play in e cation: But, surely, thefield of hom economics, through itseducational. rograms, should take lead-

229

ership in developing understanding,attitudes, and competencies which supportthe kind of-relationship needed fOr thewell-being and fullest development ofchildren and all faMily members.

Further; home economics. classesshould include study of the massmedia as they affect families:DeVeloping criteTri-for family TV pro-grams and evaluating programs are pro-priate learning activities for a cl'family living. Learning to, indicate ap-proval and disapproval to prograMmers isalso appropriate. Simple methods of con-tent analysis might be employed by lear-ners in order to gain better understand-ing of TV "messages;" discussion of theeffects of these should follow.

In considering causes of familyViolence, the effects of family environ-ment and management of resources shouldnot be minimized. The importance of)these content areas in home economics isunderlined.

Marital Status Trends

The single lifestyle is on the in-,crease in America. Between 1960-75,

0' the proportion of single women ages 18 -34increased 8.5 percent. An increase of5.8percent was seen for males in thatage group for the-same 15-year period.55Of allhouseholds in 1975, about 18 per-cent were single person .households ascontrasted with eleven percent in 1960.6

230

e rr 4In 1975, 72.8% of all U.S. males

. 18 years and older were married; 6t.7%of the notion's females 18 and over weremarried.37 The national marriage rate(per 1,000 population) was 8.5 in 1960,10.6 1970, 10.5 in 1974, and 10.0 in1975.

In 1975, of all U.S. females aged18 and older, 5.3 percent were divorced;3.7 percent of all males 18 and over weredivorced.59 The national divorce rate(per 1,000 population) was 2.2 in 1960,

'3.5 in 1970, 4.6 in 1974, and 4.8 in 1975.600Widowhood is more common among 0-

n:tales than males. As age increases, theproportion of widows to widowers climbs,dramatically. 61

According to the U.S. Bureau.of*theCensus, the number of primary individualswho shared their living quarters with aperson ,0f the opposite sex has approxi-mately doubled since 1970.64

Seventy-two percent of the men° and48% of the women sh.iting a two-personhouseholdwith an adult of the oppositesex in 1976 were under 45 years of age.About half of both males and !ferrates inthis group repotted never haviftg been mar-ried. (Assumptions and generalizationsfrom these data should be madewith caution, hoWever,,especially inreference to the relationships betweenthe individuals, at these data are "ag-gregates which are. distributed oven aspectrum of categories including poKtners,resident em loyees, and roomers.")DJ

231

Implications of Marital Status Trends forHome Economics Programs

Implications for home economics maybe seen in the fact that there is an in-creasing number of single people, manyof whom are living alone. Attentionmight be .given to content such as:

o myths and realities of the single.life style.

o managing resources when one livesalone.

o meeting needs for companionshipand emotional support.

o special consumer problems of thesingle, for example, buying foodin small quantities.

-o selecting a place to live.

o nutritional problems when onelives alone.

Singlehood should be neither glam-orized nor demeaned. It is one of thealternative life styles and'should bepresented as such.

The subject of marriage is appro-priately included as important contenin homemaking and family life courses.,Emphasis should be on the problems whichare real in marriage. today.

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At the adult level, courses espec- °

ially geared to the needs of widowed anddivorced persons might be offered through.home economics or other agencies withhome economics support and lihkaqik

"Alternative" life styles and .part =.ner arrangements should not be i ored.They could be considered in to ad-vantages and disadvantages, u lyinggoals and values, and shor and long-term consequences.

In Some:Recent Changes in AmericanFamiliesiGlick64 suggested that the fol-.lowi ng be Cohkliidered:

o Thedevelopment-of the contentsOr,more practical and effective

4 training at home, in the highs:phools, and in colleges abouthow young persons can make a wise

.:elpotion of their marriage part-. lk

',Mx, how they can keep theirjmirriage alive and healthy overa long. period of time, andhow they can use reasonablecriteria to decide whether it isany longer practical to keeptheir marriage intact.65

'.o Designing a scientifically testedand appealing system for selecting'a marriage partner, for bringingtogether young men and women whowould have a much higher probabi-lity of establishing an enduringand satisfying marriage than couldbe expected through the almost

233

universally haphazard system thatnow exists, while at the same timerealizing that the rational ap:-,proach must be supplemented bythe strength of emotional appea1.66

o Acceptance by the pcblic of theconcept of periodic marriage check-ups hrough visits to highly ex-pert arriage 'counselors (when asuffi ient supply becomes avail-able), with these visits occurringin a manner analogous to periodicphysical checkups that are volun-tarily made, -and with the visitsconsidered urgent when a seeminglydangerous marital condition isdeveloping,

o Continuing modernization of mar-riage and divorce laws, whichwould tend to encourage couplesto take much more seriously theirentry into marriage.but to take not -

quite so seriously as some couples dothe hazards of ending a marriagethat is no longer worthy of con-sideration.

o Development of child care facili-ties staffed by highly profession-al personnel, so that more motherscan feel free to maximize the al-ternatives available for the useAt their time while their childrenWre growing up, provided thatcareful attention is given inchoosing the ways in which the ad-'ditional free time is Used.67

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o Finally, programs to increase 'theappeal of experiencing a good mar-riage, including the continuedcollection and dissemination' ofknowledge about how to cultivatesuch a marriage, so that more .

emphasis can be placed on buildingup the positive' side of marriedlife 41 a period when so manystimuli that reach the publichave the effect of making nonmar-riage appear to be much more de-sirable.68

These ideas suggest content for studyof marriage and areas of research andservice to which home economics shouldlend support."

4111'.

Adoption and Abortion

41-There has been a dramatic decreasein n-the number of healthy newborns available for adoption since 1969, due larly to an overall decrease in gena1birth rate and a decreasing propcion6'of unwed mothers releasing tlitir:chil4r

In 1 when the genes*was 17 li births per 1,004.w'child-bearing age, 31 percent$:,9. Wedmothers, released their infants, .1tA';adop.,.tion. In 1973 (general birtti:rer,13/1,000), 14 percent of ipfailtiout-of-wedlock were releasidOnly 10 percent of unwed mother xeleaee4their children for adoption in'1975.§9'

for adoption.

235-

The majority of adopting families_are two-parent families and with decreas-ing numbgrs of 4ealthy young childrenavailable for adoption, some agenciesare limiting adoptions-to those two -pareent families without children or thosewith only one young healthy child, Sih-gle parents are the nation's smallestidentifiath.e group of adoptive-applicantsand many agencies refuse placements withsingle parents excwt for.older or hard-to-place children."

An Urban League study repotted ,inthe Washington Star concluded thatninety percent of black children born -out of wedlock are retained, by informal/adoption, by-the extended family. Thereport concluded that "one of the keyfunctions performer by the black exten-ded family is the informal adoption orfoster care of children bytgra0parents,aunts; uncles,. and other kin.""

stiany unwanted pregnancies end in-abortit According to 1974 data, abor-tion st frequently performed

rgicalt roc lure in the nation. It iseAiOated6" 1976, over 1.1 millionle ar abore OtiArere performed'national-

Tue,tota 0;p. abortion rate -(abor-p .women aged 15-44) was1.04,r23.3 in 1976.72

tion ,pe

Oil

abortionstime of'the procedure. One-third ofwomen obtaining abortions in 1975 wereteenagers. In 1975, of all pregnant

patients obtaining legal1975 were married at'the

236

0

'- teenagers under 15, moKg obtained abbr-tions than gave birth."

Implications of Adoption and AbortionFacts for Families, Socyal Services andHome Econokics,Education

The foregoing facts again emphasizethe need for family life education whichis realistic and comprehensive. Factsabout adoption and abortion must be con-sidered in relation to the whole of fam-ily life. Adoption, formal or informal,may be a very happy thing for the adop -.ting parent or parents and for the child.Some adoptions, particularly so-called"informal" ones, may precipitate prob-lems in the areas of family finances,household management, relationships,'home environment, and nutrition.

Unwanted pregnancies and abortionsare not unrelated to the increase inadolescent sexual activity. Family lifeand sex education as well as teenageparenting courses are warranted in lightof the following data.

A nationwide study at Johns Hopkinsin 1971 found that 28% of women 15-19years of age had some coital experienceand that over half of these women failedto use any contraceptive during the mostrecent intercourse. Eighty-four percentof these women did not want to become'pregnant. Only 20% of these sexuallyactive teenage women used any birth con-trol consistently and of the 8.0% who did

237

not, eight out of ten thought that theycould not become pregnant. Thirty percentof teenage women engaging in premaritalintercourse do become pregnant.74 And,for many, abortion is the way they takeout of their dilemma.

Home economics educators have beenactively involved in special programsfor teenage parents, both"as teachersand as consultants. Linkages with rele-vant social agencies are in place butperhaps nded strengthening.

Pdments are ahead of thd)educationalagencies in many communities in terms ofsupporting realistic sex education. Whatresistance there is nearly always givesway when parents are fully informed andinvolved in decisions about programs.That is to say, parent education and in-volvement should be part of sex educa-tion and of family life education.

Sex education belongs in familylife education; taught by those trainedin the field. the only teachers in thepublic schools who can be depended uponto have received trainingin all aspectsof family life, including family rela-tionships, are the home economics teachers.

Economic-Factors Affecting' Families

The'changes in median money incomefor families per year are shown below.The 1975 figures are not strictly com-parable to the 1960 figures due to revised procedures.

238

Median Money Income of All Families 75

(Current nollars)

All e-

1960 $ 5.6 thousand

1975 $13.7 thousand

White

1960 $ 5.8 thousand

1975 ,$14.3 thousand

Black and other

.190

1975 .4

$ 3.2 thousand

$ 9.3 thousand

Median Income of Persons 76,

1960 1975

Male $4.1 thousand $8.9 housand

Female $1.3 thousand $3.4 thousand

Among 'the 3.7 million families head-ed by women workers, 20 percent hadincomes below poverty level in 1973. The cor-_responding figure for the 2 million womenworkers of minority races who headed

239

N

families waS 33.percent in. 1973.77

A primary economic pressure onfemale family,. heads and other women isthe widening gap between male and femaleworkers' earnings. In 1956, fully em-ployed women's earnings were 65% of Men's'earnings. In 1970, the correspondingdifference was 59% and'Ir41973,earnings were 57% of men's earnings."Comparing the median incomes of-full-timeworking female headed families and hus-band-wife families where the husband isthe sole earner and working fuq-time,the 1973 figures are $8,795 and'$13,675respectively. 79 In 1973, nine percentof all U.S. families lived'in poverty.Almost one-half of these low-income fam-ilies (45 percent) were headed by women.lu

In black husband-wife families,working wives' earnings contribute pro-

---portionately more to family incomes thanin white husband-wife families. In 1972:

black husbands on theaverage, earned

black wivesr.

white husbands

white wives

$7,349 ,

$4:,014

$9,996

$3,932

The higher proportionate contributionof black wives was due to the higherpercentageof black women working full-.time.81

a

240

In 1972, the husband was the soleearner in only 36 percent of husband-wifefamilies.82 "The earnings that womenmake and contribute as part of family in-'come enable many families to signifiCant-lyincrease their standard of living..."83bIn 1973, white working wives' mean earn-ings accounted for nearly one-third oftotal mean family income.°' For full-timeworking wives of all races, their incomeaccounted for 38 percent of family income."

In 1960, 18.1 percent of all fam-ilies were living below the poverty level.Slightly over ten percent of families

. lived below the poverty level in 1970,and 9.7 percent in 1975. With regard topersons below the poverty level, 9.7 per-Cent of all white persons fell under thelevel in 1975, compared with 31.,3 per-cent of all black persons.8 5

In 1960, .8 million families withdependent children' and in 1975 3.6million families with dependent childrenreceived public assisthnce. In 1960,3.1 million individuals with dependentchildren were recipients of public as-sistance;. the cdrresponding figure or1975 was 11.4 million individuals."In 1560, there were 4.3 million reci-pients of the federal needy familiesprogram compared with .8 million reci-pients in 1975.87,

In an article on "The American Un-derclass" 4n a recent issue of Time,the editors pointed out that

241

$.

"The proportion of the nation officially listed as living. in poN)-erty has dropOed\since 1959 from22% to 12%. One of America'sreat success sagas has been the

e of many blacks tos.the securee oiftsts. Today 44 %, of black

famil earn $10,000cor.more ayear. re than '45W of, blackhigh sch ol graduates:now go, ontolcollegee. Though some discri-mifiation persist, mors.,and more.nonwhites are seen in at least the

. junior 'management ranks of banks.,and corporations and government,w4ere they are moving up."88

The editors of Time,continued:

"But the new opportunities havesplintered4the nonwhite popula-tion.. Thd brightest.and most,ambitious have rapidly risen,.,leaving the underclass fartherand farther behihd -- and moreand more angry. While the numberof ;blacks earning, More than10,00()sis exphding and the

number earning $5,1:)0 to'$10,000is' shrinking, almost 'a third ofall black families are stillteloWthe poverty line, defined as $5,500,for an urbanCfamily of ,four` (only8.9% of white families are belowthe line)."89

t.

. They added, "It is the weakness offamily structure,90 the presenc&of(com-,

0 . i ,

,1

.,.

R Ab:

.

*6-

242

2.7-

peting street 'value's, and the lack ofhope amidst affluence all around thatmake the Americap-undeiclass uniqueamong the world's poor peoples." 1'

The following chart-presents,

dataconcerning unemplo ent.rates for males,and females., The f gUrei were approx-imately the same ac ording,to newspaperstories in August of 4977

Unemployment Ra e s ;1960 and 197592

Total U.S. 1960

unemployment rate 5.5%

white male' 4.8%

white female 5.3%

total white : 4.9%

"

black &,other Male- ,10.7%

black & othei female

total black & other, 10.2%0

Although the= most disadliantaged are'N

face& with 'problems ofoverwhdlimingmagnitude, other segMents of the popu-,lation face economic probl4mswbich arealso of compelling.concerAY

The blue collar sector of the workforce represent's approximately 35 to 60percent of the total AmOgban wori force

. 1915

8.5%

7.2%

8.6%

7.8%

13.7%

9.4%. 14.0%

13.9%

8

4)

d

4 . 4depApding onAhow,one categorizes occupa-tions. Ai-a3.9764memorand& preparod for

U.S. Secvetary o#Labo4 Giles oneterictus pause.I't callod attention to

e the iiss

o When hi child en readhpheirteem andofaffiilx budget ,costs areat eak, the male breadwinnerin e blue-polLar faTily reacheia plateau in capacity .to fern byPromotion or advancement.

;ND His expenses continue to rise, asthe list children are born,.asthey become-hoteowners; as carand home ,equipment ,pressures mount,as the children may 'become readyforsGollege, or as support is neededfor aging parents. Hence, there

severe economic squeezeOnthe family.

'C.

o Faced with' his financial problemg,he may moonlight on a second job(and.thugA spend mitre time awayfrom his family) or his wife mayseek employment outside the home(if she hatn't already done,so).

o He pays high taxes bfp may feelthat he is short-c410ed:in re-turn. He is b*elkIlKbping hisbead above water finAcially, but -ippdoes not qualify for governmentprograms for-the disadvantaged.'

o,In many instances he cannot af-t'ford.to send his CnUdren. to'co1-

I.

, *.244kir

9 I 9it *.ft

4

-13

ege, and they do not qualify forspecial educational opportunitiestargeted at the poor.

9

o His family, particularly in thecity, lives in fear of violentcrimes.

o He experiences fears related toclass status. (Many of theseworkers are immigrants or sons ofimmigrants who feel unsure abouttheir place in the mainstream ofAmerican society. As minoritiesmove up, they tend to squeezeman of these people with respectyto jobs, residence, or schools.)94

o As taxpayer, he supports programsfor the disadvantaged, e.g., medicalaid,housing, job training, and legalaid, but with no visible sharethe programs. Yet, his wages maybe only a notch above welfarepayments.

o It is likely. that he has no educa-tion beyond high school; hence, he

'-bas limitedtleverage to changeoccupations.

o He may feel a lack of status inhis work and may find it tediousand,boring.

`Whereas the foregoing statementsare .true of many blue-collar and lowereschelon white-collar workers, it isonly tair to point out that some, blue-collar .particularly skilled, workers

enjoy relatively high wages and standardof

A 1977 book on pink collar workersgave increased visibility to women inservice occupatious who are the counter-parts of the blue-collar (at the presenttime, primarily male) workers. The fol-lowing table95 shOZ4S the ocbupations in-cluded in "pink collar" and the propor-tion of women employed in each occupa-tional area.

Percentages of Women Employedin Pink Collar hccupations

.

t women1975

t women1962

Registered nurses/

97.0 98.541,

Elem. school teachers 85.4 86,5

Typists 96.6 94.8

Telephone operators 93.3

'Secretaries 99.1 98.5

Hairdressers 90.5 88.1

Waiters & Waitresses 91.1 88.1

Nursing aides 85.8 75.2

Sewers & stitchers 95.8 q4.1

Private householdworkers 97.4 97.3

Homemakers 99.9 99.9

246

201

In March,, 1977, Ms. magazine carriedan article on pink coiTar workers. Thefollowing quotation from the article,mayshed some light on the position of pink-collar worke'rs in the American laborforce:

"We have heard a great deal aboutthe plight of the blue-collar wor-ker...in part because most of those

rkers are males. The few womenin blue-collar professions areactually better paid than many ifnot most of their salaried sisters.But to raise the concerns of womenworking in traditionally femalejobs is not to denigrate the prob-lems of male workers. In fact, thethreat of competition and absorp-tion by women's cheap labor is acrucial factor in keeping many maleworkers in their place. For thesake of all workers, we need tolook at.the problems of that major-ity of women now working in thepink-collar'ghetto; a number of usthat.is growing more numerous,better educated but less well' -paidas the service sector of the econ-omy increases..."96

Inflated prices, high taxes, Anddesire for certain material goods deemed

'important to the "American .way of life"have most families today worrying aboutfinances to a greater or lesser degree.Upper middle income frvflies may appearto have it "made," bit when childrenstart to go to college real strains appear.

247

252

An attractive, middle-aged Coupleattended the annual "Family Day"97 of theSchool of Faamily Resources anti ConsumerSciences, University of Wisconsin7Madi-son, last spring. They were the parentsof a` sophomore in the School and ofthree other children enrolled in univer-sities. They confided that their combin-ed incomes of approximately $60,000 aYdar simplTcouldnot cover the attendantexpenses and theywere,planning a familyconference on ""how tow.coper." *Their plightwas very real.latt'..they found little sym-

7 pathy or means Of_help, :Another 'setof fairlyvyrogperous looki4ng parents toldof the fiftpcial probleMs,involved:insending a talented' daugehter:,tol..1Isew Yorkfor her junior year in apparel' dOigntlatm,the Fashion Institute of Technology.' '-

Par

These parents and others like themfrequently feel.embarrassed and guiltythat they are strapped"for money andfrustrated and angry about inflationand hightaxes. They know that they arethe so-called "advantaged." They aresocially concerned people who want tohelp and to give, but at night in thequiet of their own homes, they commiser-ate with each other.,

With respect to the qtiestion, "Howmuch does it take for a family to liveon?" an article in the Wisconsin StateJournal reported the following, basedon U.S. Department of Labor figures:

I/

248

2 5 3 qF

;..'',

For the fall of 1976, a hypotheti*,:-.,family of four (including a 3B y4ar,,-..'old husband working fulltime, a nokiiWorking wife, a thirteen year-old,,:,..:son and an eight year-old daughter) _required a yearly income of $1600to maintain a conservative standarff.tof living, $16,236 to maintain if;,:.::-..'moderate standard of living$23,759 to introduce some 1u)51.Ke,'into their standard of living,.--

:iThe following chart gives some. ilotea,of what happened to food prices over a..15-year period. Ret Al prices, of 's0Wc,. ,. .

ted items are given. 7 7 .. , ',' °

, .

ketail Price ih cents ofSelectedVoeds;

S . . .

-Item,' 1960

White bread (per 'poi,i4d) 20.3

hamburger (per pound) 52.4

sirloin steak -(pei'.pound)

milk (1/2 gailpp). :.N.Ai ,-; 18:.5... ,

.... .

potatoes (per pound) ,7.2 ., .11,4

4

tr.

Implications of These Economic'Factorsfor Families, Social Services, Home Eco-nomics, and Home Economics Education

The preceding section clearly indicates'that financiaa,and consumer problems plagueall of us! With some families, it is a matterof bare survival; with sfome, it is amatter of maintaining a decent standardof living through 114'peak years of \---family expenses; w4th some, the majorstress is concerned with educating youngwhile.not losing control oyer. InCoftlei.norputting the retirement yeari. .jeopai.dy.Needed'are not only social services forthe most disadvantaged, but financialcounseling for blue, pink, and whitecollar families.

,Individual and family financialproblems_are-never problems in isolation.They involi/"family rela10.01)01.Ps pa-entinq, management of resourges; "and ;>questions regarding, the material goopof individuals and-families. They relate,'to larger social issues concerning jobs,education, taxes, and social services. Ethnic factors may be inVOlved. Affirmativeaction programs have affected the jobfuture for some in both positive andnegative ways. And, stage in. the.familylife cycle influences needs and wants!

Family and °individual financial--problems are value-loaded. Notions of,what is necessary and what is wantedpermeate these-situations.

250

Implications fOr home economics -

education include the following:

o Make individual and faMily 'finan-cial management and consumer ed-ucation areas of special emphasisin consumer and Abmemaking educa-tion for boys and girls, men andwomen. Coordinate with businesseducation where the two programsintersect in financial managementand consumer education.

o Provide for outreach education inthese areas, working with relevantsocial' agencies and using a varietyof educational media.

o Teach financial management and con-sumer education in the context offamily life education to facili-tate applications of learning.,

o Use problem-solvifi rather than"prescriptive". or limited "coping"approaches.

Legislation for home economics shouldcontinue ta identify, management of re-'sources (icluding financial) and con-sumer education.as areas of emphasis.

.other Social Problems Which Have Impli-cations for Home Economies

It cannot be emphasized enough thathome economics, if it is to provide mean-ingful education, must be responsive to

4

251

changing social conditions -and needs. It'deals with'the day-to-day life of the in-dividual and the family which is profound-ly affected by what happens in the socialenvironment. Hence, it is imperative -

that teachers and supervisors in..thefield keep' abreast of what is going onin the laryer society as well as,%familylife today.

Curriculum development and programsin all aspects of home economics.shouldberesponsive to conditions such as':

o the crisis in values in many fa6-eti of our lives, e.g., the dilemma:with respect to moral-ethical-values related to trust in nation-alqeadership, consumer-producervalue conflicts, and individual rightsvs. the rights of society in areassuch as sterilization, abortion°etc:

o the energy crisis.

o developments in'mass mediawith all of the related oppor-tunities for learning and devel-opment and the concomitant pos-sibilities of mutilation of theindividual through tasteless ap-peals to lowest impultes, throughvalue manipulation via seductiveadvertisements, "images" vs.reality, etc.

o pollution of environment -

.19

252 .

o population changes.

o increased "packaging" of foods,housing, etc., with paradoxiCal-ly (or perhaps quite undetstan-

' dably) increased interept incrafts and "hands-op" activities.

o-changing occupational, requirements.

o mo'bility of population.

o population density in urban areas.

o tensions of modern urban life.. .

o persistent mainutrition evenIwherethere is affluence.

o the increasing use of computerswith potential for greater effi-ciency aid for loss of personalprivacy.

These factors, in addition to thosealready explicated at some length, mustbe taken into account in modern programsof home economics.

Does'this suggest that home econo-mics is trying to take on the world?.Not at all.` Its special concern is.withthese problems and conditions as they-impinge on families and individtals inthe context of family life.

Implications for Home EconomicsEducation include:

253

.258

In consumer and homemaking education.'pro9rams:

o'value considerations integrated .inall'areas; development of "re-sponsibility ethic."

o emphasis on such content as

'family relationships, personaldevelopment.

roles of' meh and women.

management7personal, home.

child development and guidance;responsible parenthood,

consumer education.

nutrition.

housing, home furnishings,. andart related to the hometo, contribute to developmentof "huManeness."

meeting family clothing needs.

family health.

aging and death.

thehome as a "lerning centers,'

254

J9

2. In its. occupational aspeCt:

preparatiOn of learnets for homeeconomics-related occupations(reCognizing the transfer Valueof learni*Ig in the homemakingaspect) ..

3. Making .certain that its educationel,.programs are available' to boys'and-girlsand men and women,, both in the classroomand through "appropriate outreach activity.

Ps

`4. Developing a system for continuous;updating of the field, a necessity and, .

.a challenge to creative action.

This last could be done-in the field,,of home economics education. Well-developed'communication networks already eicist in '

the field. To some extent, journals andprofessional organizations now serve thepurpose. What is suggested is a more focused-effort which will have impact on everyteacher in every classroom.

255

,PART III

SOCIAL ROLE OF'HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATIONAS THE ONLY EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM WITH

FOCUS ON FAMILIES

The ultimate goal of Home Economics.. is to improve the quality of life for \

families and their individual members.It is the only field of study that foc-uses on total family well-being. Throughsynthesizing concepts from a variety ofareas of family concern such as relation-ships, child care and development, man-agement, consumer decisions, housing andhome furnishings-, foods-and nutrition,and clothing and textiles, home econo-mics addresses family and related prob -"lems and concerns in a more effectivemanner than would be possible through ad.fragmented approach.

Home economics looks both at familiesand at the larger society in determiningdirection and emphases for i*ograms.There is increasing attention to theinterrelationships between the institurtiori of the family and'other social in.6stituMns and the impliCiTion31theseinterrelationships for curriculum and`prograM development.

The family serves as collector andsynthesizer of material,_cultural, andspiritual goods and influences. Thehome, in a sense,.colledts'frobrour ed-ucational institutiOns, from religious

257

261

p,

institutions, from the economid' realm,from our political system, and from oursocial class system. Within families, .

what is collected. is inferpceted/accor-'ding to the experiepces, needs, interests,

.

and Values held by family members. Pro-cesses of sorting, accepting, discarding,and synthesizing take place. Ideas Nbrought into the family setting a0egiven meaning in terms of whatthe fam-ily thinks and does, in terms of whatits members value and desire, and'iRterms of what they, plah for the future.

Novi, not only is the family so in-1fluenced; the family, in tuih, exerts an,influence. There is a two-way communi-cation between the family and all.other'Social institutions. The family influen-ces and is influenCed by. An apprecia-tion of the dynamics of these inter-relationships is important for. those whoeducate for home and family life.

Of4part4icular interest is' the impactaf,modern technological, developments onthe family. The imagination stag-gers in considering the -effects ofteleviSion, artificial insemination,computers, newer life-suStaining rnedica4,,procedures, pre- prepared foods and pre-'fabricated furniture, and on and on!The.responsible home economics educatormust continuously add 'to her or hisunderstanding of modern technology asit'affects homes and families.

"IP

258

262

4

, so.'?

,....".0, ....,

a , 4. t}.. I;".

.4:A :

. 4.

Direction forProgr4%s, ,

With consideration of the.changings, *soolial scene and family'life,414e

A ..

institut,ion-of .the family and its ter-relationships with other social i itutions,and moderq technological teyelopmenedas they affect the taMiliy, direciibnkfor home economics rograms pr home.and family life is cl4rifie4:,,

First,' value. consideetions shpuld 4i

be integrated in all akeas, and-programsof home economics. ):Woting from Focus TI, fa recent*publiCatioit of Extension homeeconomics: 4

: r '

"Vdkues repretseM,the ultl.:teA .

reasons people have,fOr acting asthey'd°. The changing patterft ofmarriage and fami.14).ife, popultion controll mobilAv, increas 9

*umber of older al:billies are allfactOrs which infruence the values4

f.families have. There i'S0fr quqptly 0

4 ',discrepancy between what pe ler WonsiderAheir vales to be'kicL

(AN

their baitavior. ' * . *, Value clarifiation is en 4. ,

educational trocess to helP4peogrleevaluate their values and belieft'developed in the past %and toNeigh

';'them in theillfUkof.r.their presentpersona*" experiences and everyday 0life. People need to make a can-sOious effort to determinewhere tkl"they stand and why, and then use

.

.

259

2 6 3

C,

Ot.

S

401

this .34 basis for decision Wakingtop." Au

R

We are beginnin4 to be more coura-geoug in guiding our students. to' examineand deal with value questions. Homeeconomics can play a unique role e-IE-helping human beings keepin touch withtheir own humanity.

,Home economistsmust thin rmsof system$ today, .not in th= simplis ctends of isolated social institutions,.prograMS., and activities. Homeecono-mists have broad training which they cause. effectively in helping individualsand families understand and relate to

-the realities of inter-relatedness andinterdependence.

Home economists can play a-

cant role in helping families'and.ihdi-'viduals cope with problems of inflation,

-scarcity,i'and hard choice. Home econo-mics could lead'the nation in developing

s-a new consumer ethic based' on responsi-'bilitx to others as well as to self,,

tMl could be one,of,the most socf6al-ly significant things that hoAg7economics,.might do in this decade.

,

- ,

Does home economics have any respon-sibility for what ia,'"consumed via-TV,radio, newspapersecogAizing the im-pact of such consumPtitOn, can. home ec-onomics, ignore .the mass mediain their coursesinconsiiitier education,family life, and 'child development? Atthe simplest level, a Vass activity

'A

ti

:*" et-

260

Q.

might involve developing criteria forfamily. TV viewing and evaluating. Ty pro-

-gramt-in light of. thdgp7,Ctiteria, 'drawing conclusions,'ankdetermining,A0pli- 'cations. .

1 a W

: ;1')*: 04

As reSultof the increasing soph"istrdatiOn of putcommunicSidon technolo-

.

gy, a,n-eN roIeforthe'home as a learning`enter s' The home as a,.learning center can-serve the purposesof deve ',ping children's concepts ofwOrk a ,ure, training young personsand ad or occupational competency,prepari older workers for new careers,developing competencies of men and womenfor their homemaking and family life'responsibilities, serving in unique waysthe career education needs of ekdeption-al childrenA and promoting personal de-.velopment and a sense of worth for persons of all ages.

Changing roles of women and men sug -,gest whole new areas of content andemphasis in the family relationshipsarea. Since textbooks have not yet caughtup, the _opportunities for creativity incurriculum development and teaching arealmost endless.

Permeating the educational programsof home economics Should be principlesof personal and home management and re-lationships,. Education for responsible.parenthood -and the development of asense of responsibility for all childrenshould be imperative in the education ofill young people and adults, along

e-.

261

6 5

e

with nutrition, studies of the homeenvironment in relation to physical andmental health and lifelong learning,

.meeting clothing needs of family members,family health, and aging and death aspart of human development and familyConcerns.

That is the idnd,of education forhomemaking that can make a difference inthe quality of,life of individuals andfamilieS.

Education for Homem'aking as Slipportiveof Education for the World of Work

Consumer and homemaking educationsupports the development of occupation-ally competent. individuals through pre-paring, homemakers to provide a base of 'toperations for other family members thatfurthers their physical, mental, andemotional well-being: IndividtiOls arebetter workers when...their physicai needsare. met through nutritious meals, safeand comfortable home surrOundings, andthe like. They are more employable 4

when the home has emphasized such.valuekas responsibility, honesty, and pridein a job well done. They are more stable

>hen the home has provided a sense. ofsecurity through affection and mutualtrust. The qualityof the home foun-.dation.can make all the difference withrespect to the way,the family membersperform in .their various roles as stu-'dents, friends, sons or daughters,.wives and Mothers, husbands';and fathrS,and employed persons. Rr

262

-Homemakers of both sexes contributeto the family's economic well-being. nOt:only through their earnings outside thehome but.through- their skills ir(the'many aspects of the homemaker role, ttieir,skills in selecting and buying goods andservices, and their wise_use and con ='servation of the family's material good61Further, it should be noted that,most'ofthe.knowledge and skill learned in conbumer.and homemaking education programs haStransfer value to occupations relatedto home economics content.

Delivery Systems for Home and FamilyLife Education'

ks.

. Home Economics is the major delivery.system for education for home and family s ''life. It is the only field of study:that focuses on all aspects of family.well-being.

Its programs are not only in theschools but also in the outreach of theHome Economics Extension Service. A'Closer working relationship between .

School ancl*xtenSion'peopleis desir7.able and,. kildeed., 4s being achieved

Many buSinesses.emplOy-home etonot':'mics trained' persons for theireXpertise. .

wins consumer education.. Home*eponothiStsalso- work in the comMUntCation'mVdia,in social.-service agencies, .41-1cWili grOUPcare situations. 4'

Cboperation amon traiged:R.

Jae'

4

sons in all of these ettings enhancesopportunity for indi iduals to learn the-

, knowledge,. and attitudes- heededfor family 'welF-being.-

'; People gain information related tohome , and family from .a variety ofinformal source& throughoUt life. Some-.times f'the 'information is reliable, some-es ndt. Aticir. it is generallyk, unkhown:whether: certain, -important teachings everreach an inc4vidual throxigh the informal .

means 'of ,mag's.sines, newii0apere,:'TY, andthe like ,

'$chool programs 'present- learningin ,an. Organized ,faShion 'arid informatiis .,9.enerally, reliable.' .TeaOlingkore-

Aated to home and.. farm y,,- lye tare.important to be left ti?'" .chance api:le 3'23'casual-, arrangement1:4The dettlyerif ofHome: _Economics ;pr'ogrims ,t4tough theschools (and orZlattizela-.outreach) t' is an'ipe'raive?: Ps poci lcsirope rikive

v

PART IV

THE PURPOSES OF HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION

Present legislation tends to com-pletely separate consumer and homemakingeducation from education for paid em-ployment in home economics-related oc-cupations. This is neither cost-effectivenor educationally sound.

Purposes of Home Economics SecondaryLevel

At the secondary level:, there arethree major pu'rposes which home economicseducation serves: (1) education forhomemaking and'family life, includingconsumer coMpetenCe,,(2) education forpaid employment involving home econo-mics knowledge and skills, and (3)preprofessiona. dueation. These threepurposes are r = tech in terms of pro-gram content to achieve the purposes.There is a large bOdy of knowledge andskills common to all three aspects, aswell as certain knowledge and skillsunique to each. Uniqueness is largely;,in terms. of applications'and depth 0

needed rather than in the nature of thecontent. The fact of'theslarge body ofcommon content has important implida-tiOns for curriculum development. Oneway of giving recognition to the Com-monalities is through basic courses inthe middle and junior high and

265

early high school year with appli-cations made through pro-grams for homeMaking and paid employmentin the later years. Those students in-terested in professional careers in homeeconomics or one of its specialtieswould, in most cases, be enrolled inregular courses. Enrichment activitiesto meet their special needs might be in-cluded in their programs.

FIGURE 1

The Three Major Purposes ofHome Economics Educatkon at' the

Secondary Level and Nature of TheirRelationships.

Consumer andhomemakingeducation.

Education foremployment inoccupations .

utilizing homeeconomics knowledge

and skills

AREAOF

COMMONALKff(knowledges and skills commonlyrelated to the three purposes)

. Pre-professionaleducation

4:"

266

Purposes-of Home Economics at the Post-Secondary Level

. At the Post-seCondary level, home.economics is primarily geared to prey 7

paring learners' for occupations of,ai.technidal nature in areas such ai childcare services,. nutrition and fOOd ser-vices, clothing services, and institu-tional and home management services.However, some post-secondary schoolshave associate degree programs to pre-..pare for the.career of homemaking andmany have elective.courses' in aspectsof, consumer and homemakidg education.These elective courses help. both menand women to prepare for the dual-roleof paid employee and homemaker.

,

Purposes of Home Economics at the AdultLevel

At the adult leVel, program pur-poses are Nted. to both homemakingand family 11 ing and ,occupations. Atthis level (as .at _Others) it is impor-tant to plan programs geared'to needsof learners rather than to ephemeralih4erests.

The Teacher-Preparation Level:

At the teacher-preparation level,attention,must be given to all levels ofhome economics and all facets of theprogram. Specialization for.teachingoccupatiohally-oriehted courses is

267

perhaps best undertaken at the graduatelevel.

The Elementary Level

Leatning activities in home econo-mics-related areas are frequently in-cluded at the elementary level. Nutri-tion Is perhapsmost commonly included,',-with,aspectsi'of consumexteducation close.behind. Concepts,are generally inte-grated in other courses such as health,arithMetic, and reading. 'One state hasrequired'that' all elementaili-teachers,take a nutrition education course whichhas dpciuded req4red'home experiencesas"well as classroomwork. A te4cheepreparation course which would, arm atdeveloping basic understanding inmanagement, relatiOnships, nutritiand consumer education would seemsirable. The course.should be taughby a home ,economics educator and.insuch a way as to prepare the elementaryteachers for integratin4-concepts inthese areas in regular:sphool work.

4The Purghes s of Home Economics Educationand Implida ions for Llpfslation

LegiSlation should recognize thehomemaking and paid-eMployment aspects,of home economics and.the large area of

a program which, in the'earlycommonaty connecting the 'tWo. In thelong ruYears makes 'applications both' ways and .

divides according to majo4purposes inthe.jater years, will be mOre effective,-and less costly:

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.PART V

HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION:. DIRECTION. AND CHALLENGE

Looking to tfle future, it is impor-tant to re-emphasize the special role ofhome economics in both vocational andgeneral education.

'Rdle'in Vocational Education

Home economics belongs in vocationaleducation..

-First, in its paid employment aspect,it prepares for occupations in areasSuch as child care services, toodservi-'ces, clOthing services, and institutionaland home management services. ,

Second, it prepares for the ,occupa-tion of homemaking..

0 Ai\

Third, it is supportive of odeupa-,tioAal,competency through its programs

fined` aOstrengthening the homes from*workers go out the world of

1,,Further;,it has "'a humanizing inf1U7ence on the 'rest of vocational education. .

A question that arises again andagain with&redmOt to legislation for

.

vocitionalossduCatpn is: Is educationfor homemaking vocational education? Theanswer wpuld seem to hinge on the ques-

,

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2 73

a

,

tion,s,"Is homemakingD a vocation?".

Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms de-. fines vocation as 'one's occupation or

the work in which one is regularly em-loed engaged." .There would appearto be no'question as to whether hoMe-

,making qualifies,as avocation in light-of this definition.

Several years ago, home economicseducation staff members at the Universityof Illinois asked -several prominent citi-zens 'whether they, considered homemaking.a vocation and if so; what educationthey thought should be provided for thisvocation. A -numiDer of those' who r'espon-'ded gave permission for their answers tobe shared. A few of the,answers follow:

a

.t.

"Of course homemaking'is'a,vocation --the most importapt vocation in theworld. For home is where human beingsare made, and there cannot possiblybe asmore important, vocation than themaking of a human'being. And when Isay 'a human being' I mean hot onlythe children, but husband and wifeare made dndremade in the home.

'For whenever a child is born a fat ieand a mother,also are born orshould be.

It is 'through the' home that the' basicvalues of theculture and of theqoarl;

sents are transmitted'tb the children,and for this reason alone, it would

$ be impossible to conceive of a more'important vOcation an homemaking.Thist nowadays, and om time im.0

)

f.

. r

4

memorial has fallen mostly to the lotof the female, and so it wall continueto be, but what, I believe we mustwork toward, is greater participationof the male in this,.most importantof the.processes'of living.

V

BeCause homemaking is of such basicimportanCe the schools should pro-vide as detailed an educ4iOn in' thetheory (science) and practice (art) -

of homemaking, for both boys andgirls, as it provides for reading,writing, and arithmetic, for the'alphabetic and the arithMetic ofhumar*relations begins in the home,and from there extends to the' wholeof the rest of the world."

Ashley Montagu, Anthropologist.

"It g my opinion that homemaking is'definitely a. vocation. It may be afull-time or 'a part-time vocation,but on whatever basisthe duties areperformed ;it is a demanding job thatrequires 4 Avide.rangeof knowledgeand ability to do it well.

I am' reluctant to prepare a single'Bast o'f courses which should bp-:taught to.equip our young women for,th'e important role of homeT4ing.Most of them are obvious%

.

What I would like.to urge, however,...is that every ycillig woman, as -partof her education-in whatever Major,'

A

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,wereld of study she may chbose,,in-'"' elude courses in such areas. as Autri-7

tion, 'the preparation of familybudgets, in child,, sychology to as-

e that she is prepared for therole that &be most frequentlyoutTsociety today -- home-

. d a careerist outside the

Murie). Humphrey(Mrs. HubertiHumphrey)

"In, that a vocation is a call.or asummons tb perform certain functionsor to enter a certain career,qlome,-.taking is not outranked by any other'Avocation in a democracy which recog- 4

\-----jnizes' the home as the' most importantunit in ouP society.. To be fullyeffective,' homemaking requires theability to nurture the family in all.aspects'. of its living --.to providefor its phygical:and spiritual 14#11-'being, to foster continuing educa-tional deyelopment, to emphasize theimportande of citizenship trainingand of the, fulfillment of responsi-bilities which accompany citizenship,status.

)1,

Actually, tod 1 s homemakers have notone but many v cations. They must'.13e psychologisti,dtgacilers, economists;;'and hutritIonists. , They must beguides and, counselors to family mem-

( bens and transmitters of the central.values of our cult#re. They. must4-

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ftknow and care about their cities,,communities,*the environment inwhich their children gro0 up.must be interested in the k' d.persons who represent them theCongre'ss, the State Legisiat re, the

'141/ city councils, -and expiess their.-Preferences through the vote. Schools,health and sgnitation,also claimtheir attention. As purchasers ofgoods clothing, and household sup-9ies;, they must be familiar, withnsumer economics in order to ob-

tai ,t1he best and the most from thefan y dollar.

0The homemaker'bxesponsibilities aregreat. They are important to thefamily.and to -society. Women should -prepare fdr this vital vacation asthey would for otherworthy

Mary Dublin KeyserlingFormer DirectorWomen's Bureau'U.S. Department of

Labor

Homemaking Contributes io'theEconomic Well-Being

In an article in the Odtober, 19htAmerican Vocational Journal, ProfessorHelen Y. Nelson of Cornell Universitydiscusses "The Unpriced Services of, 'theUnpaid Homemaker": She says that: y

46,

"Though women work outside,

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their homeS in increasing numbers,some of th0x,years Ore spent ashomemaker onit, andall of theiryears include homAakerresponsi-bilities . Y

Employmentafigs, -for 1974'show that" 51 perce4444'mothers ofschool-aged chilxlveVere workingoutside the home. - projections forthe future indicateNnat increasingpercentages of womenat all stagesof the family life-dytle, will bein the ldbor force.

Since .51 :percent of Mothers ofschool-aged children were in thelabor .force in 1974 (according tothe above figures), we can, assumethat 49,percent of mothers of school-aged children were engaged in unpaid'work at hOme. For that same year,56 percent of women aged 35 to 44were 'in 'the labor force; therefore,We can conclude that 41 percent ofwomen in that age group were working-'at libme. Fifty-eight percent_,of womenaged 45. to 54 were also in the 'laborforce in 1974, leaving 42 percent ofwomen in that age bracket as full-timeworkers at home . . .

The'dollar.valge,ot the nou§ehardwork of is an entry that has yet.to .be added to the'apps National Product,the national indicatbr of our economicwell- being. If a' man is etp byed as aZbli4stic worker, Value of er house-hold work is inc in compUt g the

,

A

GNP. But if that woman marries heremployer, the valueof her work.isno longer included, even though theamount or kind of houl sehold workdoes not change." lu

- ,

Nevertheless,, the monetary value ofthe housework done bx the American house-wife has been computed in terms of thecosts of hiring- the work ne. Figuresarrived'at vary from about $5,560 to _$15, 000 a year. Nelsork re orted.that:

,4, ,"

"In a court.case involving thedeath of a 32-year.Old mdther withone 'child, an economic analysis'waSmade :of the financial loss repre-senting.the homemaking services nd

ifuture earnings of the'mother, w owas not. employed at the time of drdeath but planned to return to highschool teaching inthe future. ghe

..t.l.

court award for the financial lossresulting from the homemaker's 4

death was '$353,006." 102P

In the case of Legare v. United"-St testes, the husband received $98,838or tie loss o/ his wife and her ser-vices imireari g six. children whogge4from .a few daysto 12-years..; The amountwas based on the. .value of .her services'at $8,500. per `year for 18 years.- 'or

the loss of companionship and -Consortiumunder the wrrOngful death statute, hereceived $25,000. Total amount receivedby the husband was $125,000, and thatwas, about 15 years ago: 103 A number of'other 'court cases resulted in the

275 i

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husband's being compenSated for the lossofrhis wife's services'ahousewlfe andhomemaker. '

4

It seems abundantly clear that thereis a case for homemaking as,a gainfuloccupdiion. Thehomemaker Contributesto the family'7-econbmic weld -beingthrough her se'rv'ices and ht skills.She may also contribute through her ear-nings outside the home. The woman whoassumes the dual role ofhomeMaker-wage .

earner has'a pgrticularly challengingtask. The knowledge, attictudes she 'brings to the dual;ible willmake a marked difference to he, familyin terms of their economicnot to mention their emotional well-being!

Separate home economics educationfrom the rest of vocational educationand the other programs.will.suffer. ItaddS a.dimension of humaneness that isimportant an education for work that ,isnot simply training. 1

Separate home economics educationfrom the rest of vocational education 4%A';and home economics education will skiffer.,6,*It has much in common with other pro- 1,

grams that prepare for occupationacompetency. Separate the programand these commonalities,'which sh

)exploited for the good of learnerget lost.

Role in General Education

Professor Harry Braudy, at a mat-

216

ional Conference' an COntemporary Issued4n_Home E,Ooriornics Stated that

r. fi4d; a' place in generaleducat *on; 'home ReoonOmi6s will haveto: cOneritaile to .the stUdent's a-bility. t4 ,,bilterpret the problems offamily ,in a:modern. teChnologi-,cal ,Soci;etX; 'and* to ' 46 tnis itneed t6 0e4..e6t'and' Organit0. the

,imat4erialiS,: from tbe::,Sciences andht.tmanitieSthat, bear on these -prOb-

.. :41

-.ferns:Ile, 104,-

:rr ,Home economics, ,cs e atio has progressedtoward .thiSi ive: It still basway: to go ernpbasis,- Ori.personaldefelopment ,and, imprOvement' Of family..

fe , home. econotaics eduCeitiOninonly ,need6d"by all Iri., that debse.itis gegier-al'edtication:

L. .consumers and home-

making fducatior, general.and vocationalDeducati 'purposes may be, served in thesame c dzooni, even at the same .tiatie.\That ;,'education for persohal devel-opme 1:and;.farhili life and education forthe 'co c.utiatiOn. of homemaking; (an occU-.pation f everyone,. to some degree) maybe int edan the classroom.

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Althou h -neither choice is without-pome disdonailZ4,.the author- believes

the ,best Ihierests Of learners willhe served if consumer:and homemakingeducation, as well as .eddcation for home-economics related occupations, remainsas o federally fUneck:and integral part

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orbs and Needs

AFaCed ri&O eha es on the family,*Iscic.41;-aliCeCO.uomqC'scenes, home eco-

.

Vom10$4A0pUl simply react to symp-tips.b4pSho, d 4palyze causes in seekingirWicatinS 9,44progranis. And, ques-tiolis14"Wha ought'torbe? What is.iri41t!,;.sall4 ' 4r?" should be Asked.

-

. ..

Theltelti.of home economics has re-

.. -

Soureesorphi#'.its ranks and has ac-Yitncess to y,004ther resources for ad-

dieS'din'tgh yalue questions involvedAllAA)54-ng:4,p&eition with respect to41041/4dikpland the direction of fam-

iiife. '-

X61StantskAlfecting the Home Economics.ProgramePV

ltdat deal has been said aboutCcial:aild technological changes, theirimpact- in 'fanlilyW.fe, and the implica-.tios%for.education, for home and fam-id? iiVing. Less has been said about`thd gonstants, those unchanging ,factorsthat affect these educational programs..Ihconstanttinclude:

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belief in the importance ofamily life.

The family' is a dynamiC unitwith the potential for growth,velopment and,change. HOmemakingand family living programs are basedon, this conviction: that - familylife may be improved through educa-tion'.

. the family function of preparing'children to establish their own-homes and.families and thus pro-'viding for the continuation of

.

family_ life:

A major challenge to home eco-nomies is that of helping to prepareyoung persons and adults to establishhoMes where their children willde-

,

velop the values and standards'neces=saryfor.,the achievement of what isgood and wholesome in life:

. family needs for'food,.shelter,clothing.

Concern for the family mustinclude concern for what its members/eat and wear and for what sheltersthem from the elements and providesan'outlet for their desires to createand expiess'themselves.

.

. tasip human needs',

aeyond the .physical needs areneeds for spcurity, affection, re-

'1"cognition,' dependence and.indepen-

dem*, new experience and a satin- .

fl'in'g" phirosophy of life. The l' .

.

heeds may .be expressed'apd met in,

a variety.of: ways, but. they are 4

there in each human being.. Those '

concer ed with ;family life educa-tion st be concerned with thebasic uman needs and hoiii they maybe met in most satisfying and wholesome waysL) , I. .,

.001e need 'for creatiye expression.,

.'This might be considered one

of the basic human needs, but itmerits some special, attentibp.. Theneed Ito create 'a home and make.ita place'of beauty and orders afelt need that a home economiCsteacher sees expressed in gleamsand glimmers or full radiance inalmost every learner. The expres-sions vary but the desire is strong.

. the character of the home as acollector and synthesizer of ma-terial.and spiritual goods.

. (See Part III of this paper,"Social Role of Home. Economics'Education"..) : -

.. -1110? together in human dignitya ecency as a,goal *lel which-the whCle world is:zhcerned.-

4In ctilK culture, the Values that

are basic to the''achievement of thisgoal constitute important constants

.which should be kept in mind as

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educationalprograms are developed.Among these values are: recogni-tion of and respect for the uniqueworth of each individual, respectfOr individual rightS and freedom,and acceptance of concomitant re-sponsibilities and deidocratic pro-cesses as ends as well as meals toends.

The Home as,a Learnin3 Center

AS a result oNthe increasing.Soph,istication of communication technology,a new role for the. home as*learning cen-ter is developing: The possibilities ofTV as educational medium have barely beentapped. Videodiscs, new developments'in telephones, computers, cassetteand tape recorders, radio, and newspipers4,all have educational possibilites yet tobe fully:exploited in the interests ofeducation. All can reach learners inhOme and community settings.

.A home learning center may servetounite families'thtough shared familygoals. It may.provide:the setting forparents to contribute to the educationof, their children; this idea-isgaining a great deal of attention throughemerging parenting programs across thecountry. 'A home learning center mayprovide a, setting for the continuingeducation" Of parents 'for work roles'and for family roles. A 5pecial purposemay be served when'women who thave beenConfined to the home prepare to returnto the world of, work. .The model of

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learning parents should not be minimted,as one purpose served by: home. learning.activity.'

The home as.learning center is aconcept crying out for xesearch anddevelopm-ent. An interdisciplinary ap-proach involving communications andmediapersonnel, social scientists, and home'economists is ,needed. Home economicscould` provide leadership. Legislationto Support essential research and devel-opment is recommended.

Education for Home and Family Life for A11

Education for homeand family life;`including'consumer education, must berealistic in terms of"',the real needs offamilies. It should be based on,care-

:f fully considered values which give direc-tion and substance. It must accommodate .

new needs 'as they arise in response. to.changing social conditions.

,

Education for home and family lifeis education for boths,exes and for all .

stages of the family life cycle, eachwith its. Special problems and needs.

For` the sake of.organized learningof reliable information and the, oppor-tunity o explore problems in appropri-

,fte depth (depending on the readinessOf the lea er) , such educational pro-grams belong in the school. ,Related?programs and Ativities -must erxtend1 intothe community and into homeAr.

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The possibilities of the home 'aslearning center ought to be .a major cop-.cerrCofhome.economics. What we havelearned about the importance of.the earlyyears in the cognitive development ofchildren. underlines this statement.

" :There should be onejlome Economicsprogram in the schools and "Outreach".

' It has several facets; the two majorones concerned with (1) education forindividual development and home andfamily life, including homemaking and

; consumer education and (2) educationfor paid employment. N,

fd

Most of the knowledge and skill needed'.for homemaking is Aol.so needed in rela-ted employment areas, Thereis someresearch to back up this statement.TheSe commonalities suggest curri'eulumand program direction for the earl', yearsof home economics which ought to be sup-ported through legislation rattier than`blocked."f

1.

All home.economicsjprogramsshouldbe permeated by concefn.for.underlyingvalues andgoals. Problemiolving pro-cedures should be emphasize4.1

All home economics p'xograms spouId 4t,reflect respect for ilidividuals .

Tinesiented prcgra/s, ethital valueOrela-as a basic value. In eniployMent

ted..to occupatiOnal choice-ant perfor- .mance should-be included asidontdnt.,e00

kPART VI

.HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION':BELIEF AND HOPE; REALISTIC

EXPECTATIONS1, AND ALTERNATIVES

Thrpughout the_foregoing .five s0e-tiOns, there is a sturdy thread. of beliefin the power of home economics *6 respondto bOth constant and changing amiy con -ditions arr,d7needs.and to educate indi-'viduals for.their-family Toles-and re-sponsibilities. The best'home economics'

. programs have always been based on therealities' of.family life, They havebeen family=fOCused rather than'tkill'oriented. The,nUmberof,these "bestprograts is growing if one can judge.

,

from reports of progtOm.coiltent to theU.S.; Office'of Education: That is,.the,ie"are ind'reasing numbert-of.pkograms giving 2emphasis tofamily relationships, child.development'andguidance, home manage-.Imen, home, environment, and consumer.probleMs. ConcOtitantly,- Oerearefewer

-programs. giving major-emphasis to the.

skills of sewing and cooking, Althoughthese are appropriately included.in pro-grams

!contributions .t family well-being.

:t.O some. ext rit in terms

'Unfortuna ely, there are few studiesf ths-impact...f home economitsprograMs,.on,indiviclOals.and families. Still, it'really it not just a sCase of "fond hope."Most home economics-teachers can relate

. .anecdotes which illustrate how home eco-hbmics.iristrtictionftas impacted on stu,-

r. .

dents and their families.

) The author recalls Cornelia,'herhome economics student for three years-in a Midwestern high school, The highschool principal and several faculty

imembers.stated that/t was a triumph ofthe school, and Particularly of:the homeeconomics program, that Corneliabedamethe first member of her familiytO stayout of trouble ,with the law,;t6:db lete'high schOol, to establish a &bp home,and even_t6 become a comMun eader:Cornelials home economics °grain wasa comprphenive one with family life,asthe focus.

She remembers John who came back tovisit three years after graduation to saythat he and his wife were buying furni-ture for their first apartment and toexpress appreciation for.the unit of,study on the home environment and con-

--eumer buying of furnishings and equip -ment that helped prepare him for hishomemaking role. tOrnelia. and John arebut two of the many students recalled bythe author when she thinks of studentswhose lives were affected by their home

economics programs.

'A former Wisconsin state supervisorof home economics at(the postsecondiryand adultlevels reported that-in 1977,28,826 persons were served by home eco-,nomics programs. 106 Over 50 percentof these were in depressed areas. Majorprogram emphases were:

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1. Consumer education for:. welfare recipients. low income rural families

.. senior citizens ,

. minority groups such as blacksatOIC, Spanish speaking through,consortium efforts, Vietnamese,Native Americans through mo-bile unit, and others

0 . new home owners,-low incomefamilies

2. Parent education for:. Head Start parents. single parent' familieslow income, disadvantagedparents enrolled in postsecondary programs

. parents with problems throughFamily Living discuSsion groupapproach, serving 6,000 per-sons in Milwaukee Area District

3. Nutrition education for:. .Vietnamese refugees. low income families, rural and '

urban, , .1)

..residents of the Spanish speakingcommunity

. Head Start parents, senior' citizens

In_these programs, linkages withrelevant social agencies enhanced prog-ram effectiveness. Agencies involvedincluded city and county dbcial serviceagencies; Family Services, Head Start,public schools, University ExtensionSystems, family court,bonsumer groups,

44

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housing tenant groups, Manpower Trainingthrough OIC, GM, and CETA, and prisons.

Chwistine Nickel, formerly a Wis-consin State supervisor of Home EconomicsEducatkon and presently Director, Bureau,of Program Accountability, State Boardfor Vocational-Technical Education, whosupplied the foregoing information, shareda number of stories .of students who bene-fitted from these programs.

There was the young mother in Mil-waukee, struggling to stay off subsidized.income, who attended a nutrition classto learn about'diet and shopping at thesupermarket. According to the tother,the family. is now eating nutritious mealsas well as saving money..

An urban-area project helped handi-capped adults imp&ve buying practicesand meal planning and preparation, learnhow to use household equipment, selectclothing suited to their special needs,and develop home management skills. Italso helped these students identifylpos-itive personal qualities and build uponthem.

Home Economics is a broad and variedprogralWand home economists are sometimes viewed as trying to be all thingsto all people. Thosein the field whohave an abiding faith in its goals,ideals, and programs may find it diffi-cult to keep expectations realistic.Objectives in terms of desired and real-istic outcomes .have not always beenspecified, and, even less frequently

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have assessments of :student growth, interms of actual behavioral change, been'made. The mandated assessment of homeeconomics should provide invaluable in-formation regarding the effectiveness ofthe programs and activities of /the fieldalong with direction for the future.

To summarize, although there arelimited empiricaI'data to support theclaims made by home economics advocates,there is an abundance of supportive"soft" information. It isto be hopedthat the N.I.E. studies of home economicswill supply the kind of information re-garding program effectiveness that hasbeen lacking.

Based on her many years of experi-ence inthe field of home economics edu-cation and such data about programs asare available, the author has concludedthat:

. consumer and homemaking educatiori:ought to remain in vocationaleducation

. homemaking is an 'occupation ofall persons to some degree and,for some, a full-time career,hence should be treated-as avocational subject

. home economists and consumer andhomemaking programs have a hum-anizing effect on the rest ofvocational education, and

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. consumer and homemakingeducationis the.most effective ddliverysystem for education concernedwith home and family-life problems and issues.'

What is recommendecI is theimprovedmanagement and strengthening of.presenstructures. and programsin:home-econo-mics. There is no -need for.'a completere- organization at this time. That

1 response is too simple. 'It_gets every-one off the accountability hook. It.postpones evaluation because "How canyou expect results'fom a recently re-structured program?" As practiced bymany agencies, frequent re- organizationdefers assessment. of results or in-sureethat a "day of reCkoning" nevertomes. It makesliRning. down respOnsi-bility difficult, .if not impossible.-.

After the national assessment of the5-04suiter'and Homemaking EducatiOn prog-ram, has been completed, as a resultof-findings i.tis possible that a con,-clusion may be reached that areorgani"zation of the program and delivery sys-tem for home and family life educationor an alterna.Eive system is indicated.

.'However', such a concluSion at this timeis unwarranted.

Alternatives

.Ne extheless,, one might speculateabout ssiblealternatives to the pre-sent program and livery. system.

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1. Assign consumer-homemaking education togeneral education'

One alternatrve, which some advoc7.ate, would involve. placing consumet and'homemaking education in the geneial edu-cation cate4oxy while re-assigning.thewageearning aspects to vocational,edu-.cation.. This would probably mean aisign-ing rio, federal funds to ConSumer andHomemaking Education.

s

Results would,possibly include:

fragmentation of the Consumerand Homemaking prograt, with -various departments of theschool taking o* responsibili-ty-foryelevant spects. Whatwould be lost would be the in-tegrated approach to family'problems that is "characteristic

jland the "power" of hoipeonomics,

. lessened service to disadvantaged, handicapped, and ether."special needs" groups since,these are more expensive pro-grams which could be' elimina-

% ted in a dollar crunch.

. 'a return Ito more home,econom-icscourses based on studentinterests in skill arenas inthose schools where more mean=ingful programs are not wellestablished.

291

294

A loss .of the huthanizing in-fluence-of the program to otherareas of vocational education.

. As courses to prevent farnilyproblems are reduced in number,an increase in courses and pro-grams designed asr"cure.!

. An elimination of some wage-earning home economics pro-grams because of loss of thesupportive consumer 'and home-makkig aspect.

. Even greater failure to,dx-ploit the commonalities-of thetwo program aspects (consumer-homemaking and Wage-earning)for the cost-benefit results.

. On the plus side, greater en-rollments in the_Consumer-Homemaking Education (orLars), classes because of free-dom from the stigma of voca-tional education. (The authordoes not believe this would bea result, but some would notagree with her.)

Elimination of theOffice'ofEducation and State supervisoryroles in.the total programand, as a result, loss of somestimulation for Program im-provement and in-service edu-cational activities.

292

2. Eliminate the present program and offerhome and family life education as a

, specially funded program through anotheragency

One possibi lity that has been sug-gested is to place home and family lifeeducation,in the Office of Child Devel-opment. The anticipated 'result would be`a narrowed program primarily consisting

. of parenting skills, child development,and possibly family relationships, alongwith reduction or elimination of con-sumer education and education relatedto the home environment, foods, andClothing. A loss & desirable linkagwith other educational programs of 0.E,is also likely to. result.

Another posiibility that has beenoffered is to place home and family life

. education in the Department of Agricul-ture and develop,and exploit linkageswith USDA Extension programs in familyliving. Again, this would tend to sep-arate home and family life education inthe sc ?ools from other educational pro-grams of the schools because of differ-ing administrative arrangements. Link-age between aome Economics programs inthe schools and Extension are highlydesirable. However, transferring admin-istration at the federal level to theDepartment of Agriculture 1.4ould not ap-pear to be the most sound way of achiev-ing such linkage.

c 293

296

is

8. Fund home and Emily 4fs edUCALthn P khome-based program but provide no fed-eral funds for in-school programs

This is a somewhat attractive.alter-,,

native which would serve to encourageinnovation but it is probably ahead ofits time. Some funds shoUld be set asidefor home-based programs delivered' via..television, radio, newspapers, computers,etc. But, these should be gupplementaryand complementary to school-based pro-grams.

0 Difficulties in achieving access tomedia for delivegoLof home and familylife education 04.-Eld be a problem in a

,home-based program. However, on the plusside, this alto-Illative would take jntoaccount the changing population (moreolder persons) and anticipated lowerschool enrollments.

Doubtless, there are other alter-natives to the present programs and de-livery systems of Consumer and HomemakingEducation. All possible alternativesshould be %xamined.

But, fir things,first! Let usboldly face up to assessment of theprograms which are developing from the'76 Amendments and see just where thefield stands before. deciding on amajor re-direction.

ee 1 294

4

297.

4

Following is the Consumer and Homemakingpart of the Education .Amendments of 1916'SS the author would like to see it writ-ten.

Homemaking and Consumer Education

(Those parts changed in substantive waysare' underlined.)

From the sums made available forgrants under this subpart pursuant tosections 102 and 103, the Commissioneris authorized to make grants to Statesto assist them in conducting homemakingand consumer education programs utilizingthe established home economics delivery,system.

(b.) Grants to States, wider thissubpart may be used, in ac-cordance with five -year Stateplans and annual program plansapproved pursuant to section'109, solely for (1) educationalPrograms in homeffiaking,and ,

consumer education consistingof instructional programs,services', andoactivities atall educational levels for theoccupation of homemaking,in-cluding.but not limited tofamily relationships, childdevelopment and guidance andparenthood education, home° .

management (including resourcemanagement), the home environ-

295

4%

' 298

-J

ment, consumer education,YUaag-and nutrition, andclothing and textiles, which,(A) encourage participationof both males And females toprepare'for combining theroles of homemakers and wageearner; (B) encourage elimi-nation of sex stereotyping inhomemaking and consumer educa--"tion;. (C) give emphasis toproblem-solving methods whichboth avoid simplistic prescrip-tion and show respect for theleATner and Ilis_or her family'of origin; (D)'give greaterconsideration to social,.eco-nomic, and cultural,conditionsand needsvas a basis far pto=2grammatic cisions; (E) en-.courage ou reach.prOgrams andlinkages w th other agenciesin addressing thee needs of.'"aged; young ciliidrdni 4chciol-age parents; single Parent's;-handicapped perso; socially;eConomically, And, educationally.,disadvantaged persons; andhose"in corre24onal insti-tutions and gfbqp health carefacilities; (F) 'prepdre malesand females who Lave. enteredr are preparing 'to enter theI

,work of the home; (G) focuson the family and the 37,aivi-dual in the context of familyand emphasize family relation- .

ships, child care and guidanceand parenting, home management,

296

and nutrition to meet currentsocietal needs; and (2) ancillary.services, activities, and-other means of assuring qualityin all homemaking and consumereducation programs such asteacher training s

curriculum development,research, program evaluation,experimental.programs, devel-opment of instructional mater-ials, provision of equipment,and. State administration andleadership.

(c.) Notwithstanding the provisionscontained in section III (a)from a State's allotment de-termined under section 103 forany fiscal year'from the fundsappropriated pursuant to sec-tion 102 (c), the Commissionershall'pay to each State anamount equal to 50 per centumof the amount expended fov thepurposes set forth in subsec-tio41 (b) except that the Com-'mislioner shall pay an amountto each State equal to 90 percentum of the amount used inareas described in subsection(d).

(d.)'At least one-third of the Fed-eral funds made available underthis section to each State,shall be used in economicallydepressed areas or areas withhigh rates of unemployment forprograms designed to assist

297

300

consumers and to help improve.

home environments and the qual-ity of family life and childcare.

(e.) Additional funds are to be madeavailable under this subpart.,./-for the sole ,Rutpose of con-tracting for ek00tatOry eduM,-cational progras,in home andfamily life, child care andguidance, consumer education,and aspects of home management'to be delivered into the home,utilizing the home as learningcenter, through media of com-munication suchas television,radio, newspapers, and compu-ters. Assessment of programeffectiveness will be-part ofeach contracted project.

(f.) All aspects of the Homemakingand Consumer Education programoutlined in this subpart willbe under the direct supervisionof three specialists trainedin the field of home economicseducation who are membwrs ofthe vocational-technical edu-cation staff of the Office ofEducation.,

Recommended funding levels:p

Section (b.) $100,000,000 perannum

298

3

a

Section (e.) $ 4;000;000 perannum

Note: Consideration should be giventhe possibility of additionalspecial funds for nutritioneducation at the elementary'level.

299

L

FOOTNOTES

1. transcombe, Art; "Making Youths SuccessfulMay Fight Drug Abuse," The Denver Post,August 12, 1977, p. 16.

2. Toffler, Alvin, Future Shock, New York: RandomHouse, 1970, p. 214.

3. Smith, Bunny Othanel, William Stanley, andHarlan Shores, Fundamentals of CurriculumDevelopment, New York: Wor13-Book Company,

L1950, p. 152.

4. 'Consumer/Family Manager, An Asciate Degree. Program in Home Economics: Project StatusRepokt, TEase III, Madison, Wisconsin: WisconsinBoard of-VJEitional, Technical, and AdultEducation, 1977, p. 4.

5. Ibid, pp. 8-9.

6. Noted in e comprehensive report, CurriculumDevelopment, the Part I Program, prepared by,Elizabeth SimpsonT3f the National ResearchCOuncil, 1975.

7. Novak, Michael, "The Family Out of Favorf"'-Harper's,April, 1976, p. 43.

8. U.S. Department of Labor, 1975 Handbook on WomenWorkers (Women's Bureau Bulletin 297), WYiEITIgton,T.T77--U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976,p. 137.

9. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstractof the United States, 1976 (9/th ed.T7747Hington,D.C.; U.S. Governmenf-Tanting Office, 1976,p. 39.

10. Ibid, p. 1.

11. Orthner, D.K., T. Brown, and D. Ferguson,."Single-parent Fatherhood: An Emerging Family

.Lifestyle," Family Coordinator, 25, October, 1976,429.

12. NBC News, NOW (special broadcast), June 30, 1977.

301

13. Governor's Commissiori on the Status of Women,Wisconsin. Women and the Law (2nd ed.),RianTRTWisconsin: TaMEIVersity of WisconsintExtension, 1977, p. 20.

14. Ibid, p. 58.

15. Produced Parents' Magazine Films, In a;., inassocia 'on with The National Alliance Concernedwith Scho 1-Age Parents.

16. Leaflet describing series of four Sound-and-color filmstrip sets on"The School-Age Parent,"Parents' Magazine Films, Inc., p. 1.

17. U.S. Bureau of the Census, "Characteristics ofthe Population-below the Poverty Level: 1974,"Current Population Reports, Series P-60, No. 102,Washington, D.C: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1976, p.A0.

18. Ibid, p. 24.

19. Ibid, p. 40.

20. Dupree, Cal, "Meeting the Future Vocational EducationNeeds of Native Americans," The Future ofVocational Education, Columbus, OEIT5TTE-e- OhioSAX University, The Center for VocationalEdu tion, 1977, p. 129.

21. Ibid, p. 136.

22. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract ofthe ynited States, 1976 (9/th ed:), Wash on,D.C.. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976;p. xviii

23. U.S. Bureau 'f the Census, "A Statistical Portraitof Women in the United States," Current PopulationReports, Washington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office,_1975, p. 1.

24. Ibid.

25. U.S. Department-of Labor, 1975 Handbook on WomenWorkers (Women's Bureau Bulletin 297), Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976, p. 3.

302

3

26. America's Children, 1976, Washington, D.C.: NationalCount 1R75F5iniiations for Children andYouth, June, 1976, p. 56.

C)g

27. Ibid, p. 72.

28. Ibid, p. 73.

"29. Ibid, p. 74.

30. Ibid.

31. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Nbstractiofthe United States, 1976 (97th ed.),. Washington,r7 .7u7s. Government Printing Office, 1976,p.

32. "Now, the Revolt of the Old,' Time, October 10, 1977,4: 18.

433. U.S. Bureau of the Census, "Characteristics of the

Population below the Poverty Level: 1974,"Current Population Reports,' Series P-60, No. 102, ,

WiaiNton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1976, p. 8.

34. "End of Youth Culture," U.S. News and World Report,October 3, 1977, p. 56.

35. Ibid.

36.( Ibid, p. 54.I

37. A lecture, "Under tanding Your Middle-Aged Children,proved popular ith a e or Citizens' group inMadison,,Wisco sin. a

38. Bell, Colleen S., ent Status of American Familiesand Related Sofia Issues: An OveiTrieTaTUnpublishedpaper, Univerifity or-1417s-ZoilsIN-madison, Schoolof Family Req8urces and consumer Sciences, 1977,p. 20.

39. House Bill 1822, 80th General Assembly, State ofIllinois, Displaced Homemaker Assistance Act,1977 and 1978, p. 1.

40. Ibid, p.

41. Goodman, Ellen, "Displaced, Replaced, Misplaced'Homemakers,"AHEA Action, November, 1977, p. 2.

30.3 305

les

c:

P. 42. David, L., "Jinx"Melia: Crusader for'Homemakers,"Good Housekeeping,,June, 1977, p. 156.

43. Glick, Paul C., "Some Recent Changes in American'Families," U.S. Bureau of the Censns, CurrentPopulation Reports, Series P-23, No. 52-,Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1974, pp. 12-13.

44, Ibid, p.. 13.

45. Ibid.-

46. Parsons, T: and 'R. Boles, Family Socialization andInteraction Process, Glencoe, Illinoip: The FreePress, 1955,,p\ 23.

47. Spence, J. T., R. Helmreich, and J. Stapp,"Ratings of Self 'and Peers on Sex Role Attributes

k and Their Relation-to Self-Esteem and Conceptionof Masculinity and Femininity," Journal ofpersonality and Social Psychology, 32 M.19,75, p. 29.

48. Bem, S. L., "Fluffy Women and Chesty Men," Psychology,Today, September, 1975, 9 (4), p. 62.

/

49. De Francis, V., Child Abuse and Neglect Reports,American'Humane AssTaaion, February, 1977.

50. Ibid.

51. Ibid.

52'. Straus, M. A., Normative and Behavioral Aspects ofViolence between Spouses: Preliminary Data on aNationally Representative USA Sample, paperpresented at the SymposiumEY Violence in Canadian'Society, Simon Fraser University, March 12, 1977.

53. "Researcher Warns-of Warped TV View," WisconsinState Journal, June 23, 1977, Sec. 1, p.12.

54. Waters, H. F., "What TV Does to Kids," Newsweek,.February 21; 1977, pp. 62-67, 69, 70.

55. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract ofthe United States, 1976 (97th ed.), WiaTE.Ffon,D.C.:, U.S. GovernmiaPrinting Office, 1976, p. 38.

304 3 ub.

56. Ibid, p. xiii..

57. Ibid.NO.

58. Ibid, p. xiv.

59. Ibid, p. xiii.

60. Ibid, p. xiv.

61. ,Ibid, p. 37.

62. J.S. Bureau of the Census, "Population Profile ofthe United -- motes, 1976," Current PopulationReports, Series P-20, No. 307, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977, p. 10.

63. Ibid.

64. Glick, Paul C., "Some Recent Changes in Americanramilies," U.S. Bureau of the Census, CurrentPopulation Reports,-Series P-23, No.Washington, D.C.: U,S. Government Printing Office,1974, p. 15.

65.. Broderick, Carlfred B. and Jessie Bernard (eds.),The Individual, Sex and Society: A SIECUSHandbook for TeaZEWrs and Counselors, Baltimore,Maryland: The Johns HETRins Press, 1969.

66. Glick, Paul C., "PermanenCe of Marriage," PopulationIndex, Vol. 33, No..;4, pp. 517-526, PresidentialAddress, Population-Association of America, April,1967.

67. Low, Seth and Pearl G. Spindler, Child Care Arrangementsof Workin Mothers in the United States, U.S.

dren s Bureau Women's Bureau,Washington, D.C.: U.S: Government Printing Office,1968.

'68. Mace, David and Vera Mace, We can Have Better'Marriages, Nashville,-TerlieiWeTX5iWOUNPress, 1974.

69. Waddington, L., Division of'Family Services, State ofWisconsin,' personal communication to C. Bell,June 21 and 27, 1977.

70. Ibid.

305 .307

71. Anderson, David E., "informal Adoption'Seen AidingBlacks," The Washington Star, July 31, 1977,'p. A-16. I

72. Sullivan, E., C. Tietze, and J. G. Dryfoos,"L4gal,Abortion in the United States, 1975-1976,"Family Planning Perspectives, 9(3), May/June 1977, ID]116-, 117, 121, 124-129.

41

73. "More AbOrtion Patients Are' Young, Unmarried, Nonwhite;Procedures Performed Earlier, and by suction; 1/5Repeatsl," Family Planning Perspectives, 9 (3),

fMay/June 1977,. pp. 130, 131.

74.... Shipp, D. A.,TAduocating for Responsible Parentho

,, paper presented at the 5th annual WisconsinAlliance Concerned with Teenage Parents Works

. Madison,#Wisconsin October 14, 1976.'ND%

75...S.S. Bureau of theCensus, Statistical Abstract ofthe United States, 1976 (97th ed.), 1iREEn,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976, p. xix

76. 'Ibid.

77. U.S. Department.of Labor, 1975 Handbook on WomenWorkers(Women's Bureau etin 297), Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976, p.

78. Ibid.

79. ibio, p. 138.

80. Ibid, p. 141.

81. Ibid.

82. Ibid, p. 136.

83.. Ibid, p. 138.

84. Ibid.-

85. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract ofthe United States, 1976(97th ed.), Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976, p. xix.

306 3 u8

/86. Ibid, p. xvii.'

87. 11Td, p. xiv.

88.- "The American Underclass," Time, `August 29., 1977,15.

89. Ibid.

90. 9.de'not italicized in original/statement.

.-91._ Ibid, p.

92., U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract ofthe United States, 1976(97th ed.), Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976, p. xviii.

93. Assistant Secretary of Labor, Memorandum for- theSecretary; Subject: The Problem of the BlueCollar Worker, August, 1970.

94. Nevektheless, according to a-recent survey reportwhich the author of this paper read - atd,unfortunately, cannot locate - it was blue collarworkers who were more supportive of minorityadvancement than'were middle class persons.

r'95. Howd1,40.K., Pink Cellar Workerk, New Y rk N.Y.:

G.P. Putnam & Sons, 1977, p. 21.

%96. Siei,nhem, G., "The Rise of the Pink Collat Ghetto,"Ms., March,1977, p. 52.

97. The term "Family Day" rather than "Parents' Day"is used in,order that no student will feel leftout. Students are invited to bring parents,husbands, wives, grandparents aunts, uncles,'cousins, and/or friends (social family).

98. "Family of Four," Wisconsin State Journal, ParadeMagazine, June 26, 1977, p. 11.

99. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical 'Abstiact ofthe United States, 1976 (97th ed.)-, Washington,D.C.: U.S.- 7-1i5Winment Printiftg Offibe, 1976.10/

N. 1

307. 3.0 9

0

,

100. Focus,II, Tisk force OPpginted by the Home EcodoMiCCoMmittee of ECOP, Home ,Econbmicd Extension\Service, p. 11. *

R..

-o.101. qlelso Helen Y.., "The Unpriced Services of the

ipad Homemaker," American Vocational. Journal,October, 1977, p. 36.

102. Ibid, p. 37.

103. Federal Supplement, Vol. 195, St. Paul, Minnesota:.%West Publishing Co.6 19'61, pp. 557-562`

104. Broudyl Harry S., "Home Economics as GeneralEducation," Contemporary Issues in Home Economics:A Conference. Report, UniveiTiTTor-IIIIimis,Urbana, Illinois, 1965, p. 28.

105. Simpson, Elizabeth J., AConstante Affecting theHome Economics Program," American VocationalJournal, November, 1960, pp. 14, 29-30.

106. Consumer and Homemaking Education i Wisconsin for. °' FY '77., unpublished report.

4

sly. B. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1979 926-114/1520

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