banaga journal of educational studies (bajes)
TRANSCRIPT
BANAGA JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL
STUDIES (BAJES)
Volume 1, No. 2, December, 2019
A Publication of School of General Education,
Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
TERTIARY EDUCATION TRUST FUND
Supported by:
Printed By University Press Ltd,
Usmanu DanfodiyoUniversity, Sokoto, Nigeria
REF NO. TETFUND/DR&D/CE/COE/MARU/2018/ARJ/VOL. 1
2000
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 ii
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
ISSN 2714-2736
ISSN 2714-2736
Copyright © (2019) Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES)
School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
All right reserved. No part of this publication shall be reproduced in any form or
by any means without prior written permission of the School of General Education,
Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
DISCLAIMER
The articles published in this journal do not in any way reflect the views nor
positions of the Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES), authors are
individually responsible for all issues relating to their articles except for
publication and copyright, any issue arising from an article in this journal should
be addressed directly to the author.
Supported by
TERTIARY EDUCATION TRUST FUND
Supported by:
TETFUND,
Abuja, Nigeria
Printed by
University Press Ltd,
Usmanu DanfodiyoUniversity,
Sokoto, Nigeria.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 1, June, 2019 ISSN:2714-2736 iii
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
EDITORIAL POLICY
About the Journal
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAGES) is a publication of the School of
General Education, Zamfara State College of Education Maru. It is a bi-annual
peer reviewed journal dedicated to publish original research works and critical
reviews on a broad range of topics of general interests in the areas of Education
and its Allies discipline (science, social science, languages, religion, vocational
and technical education). Authors submitting papers for publication must ensure
that manuscripts must be original and should not be under consideration for
publication elsewhere.
Invitation to Contributors
BAJES are inviting article for publication for it‘s journal edition, the article can be
sent to the Managing Editor, Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES),
School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education PMB 1002,
Maru, Zamfara State, Nigeria or through the journal Email address
[email protected] Equally, authors are required to submit two
hardcopies and soft copy of the manuscript along with a Vetting fee of N3000. Any
manuscript that is not accompanied with vetting fees will not be sent for peer
reviewing.
Editorial Review Procedure
All articles submitted for publication are sent for peer review by Managing editor
to our team of anonymous reviewers, after the end of the review, the Managing
Editor will communicate the outcome of the review to the corresponding authors
along with the assessment report for effecting necessary correction of the
manuscripts and re-submission for second review. Only articles approved by our
Team of editors will be published in the Journal.
Format and Length of Paper
The length of articles should not exceed 15 pages (A4 size) including tables, chart
appendices and references. All manuscripts should be readable and Computer
typed in Microsoft Word Portrait in Times New Roman, 12 font sizes, double
space throughout including tables and charts.
TEMPLATE FOR MANUSCRIPTS
Paper Title
On top of the first page, the Paper should contain the title in capital letters and shall
be bold, Author‘s name(s), and complete addresses including E-mails, mobile
phone number and institutions affiliated institutions, while the corresponding
author should be spelt out clearly all in small letters.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 iv
A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract: Abstract should be brief and concise and should not exceed 250 words
and in Italic style.
Keywords: There should be three to five (3-5) keywords after the abstract
1. Introduction
This section should comprise a description of the general framework, definitions
and principles, primary issues and controversies, background information and
contexts, etc.
2. Literature Review/ Conceptual Framework
This section dedicated to the significant literature resources, consulted or
employed, that contributed to the study relevant to a particular issue, area of
research, or theory, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of
each work. The purpose is to offer an overview of significant literature published
on a specific topic.
3. Material and Methods
A section intended to contain a detailed description of all the methods, materials,
collaborators and participants at the study. The protocols used for data acquisition,
techniques and procedures, investigated parameters, methods of measurements and
apparatus should describe in sufficient detail to allow other researchers to
understand, analyse and compare the results. The statistical methods should be
described in detail to enable verification of the reported results.
4. Results and Discussion
A comparative or descriptive analysis of the study based on results, on previous
studies, etc. The results should be presented in a logical sequence, given the most
important findings first and addressing the stated objectives. The number of tables
and figures should be limited to those absolutely needed to confirm or contest the
premise of the study. The authors should deal only with new or important aspects
of the results obtained. The relevance of the findings in the context of existing
literature or contemporary practice should be addressed.
5. Conclusion
In this final section, the main findings are concisely reiterated. Only conclusions
supported by the study findings should be included.
6. Recommendations
This section contains theoretical and practical recommendations, further research
ideas, new approaches, suggestions and concerns regarding potential social and
cultural impacts, etc.
References
All citations and references style should conform to the publication guideline of
the latest American Psychological Association (APA) format.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 v
A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Publication Charges
All papers/articles accepted for publication will be supported by TETFUND
Nigeria under the Zamfara State College of Education Academic Research Journal
(ARJ) Intervention.
Copyright
The copyright of the articles accepted for publication belong to Banaga Journal of
Educational Studies (BAJES).
Note: The articles published in this journal do not in any way reflect the views nor
positions of the Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES). Authors
individually are responsible for all issues relating to their articles except for
publication and copyright, any issue a raising from an article in this journal should
be addressed directly to the author.
Correspondence and Mailing Procedure
All correspondence should be channelled to the Managing Editor,
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES),
School of General Education,
Zamfara State College of Education,
P. M. B 1002, Maru.
Zamfara State,
Nigeria
E-mails; [email protected]
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 vi
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
MEMBERS OF EDITORIAL BOARD
Mal. Sadi Musa Gusau
The School Dean
Chairman Editorial Board
Dr Tukur Hussani Nahuche
Department of Psychology
Editor-in-Chief
Malam Atiku Mukhtar
Department of General Studies
Member
Dr Muhammad S. Abdullahi
Department of Curriculum and Instruction
Member
Muhammad Ahmad Sada
Department of General Studies
Member
Bello Hassan
Department of Curriculum and Instruction
Managing Editor
EDITORIAL CONSULTANTS
1. Prof. M. G Maitafsir 2. Prof. A. A Salawu
Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto
3. Prof. Muhd Lawal Mayanchi 4. Dr Abbas Sani Dahiru
Federal University, Gusau Federal University, Gusau
5. Dr A. A Dada 6. Dr M. O Ibrahim
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
7. Dr Jamilu Garba 8. Dr Murtala Musa Kaura
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto
9. Dr Mamman Ahmad Argungu 10. Dr Rabi‘atu Musa Mafara
FCET Gusau Federal University, Gusau
11. Dr Ali Musa 12. Dr Muhammad N. I. Na‘ala
National Open University, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Gusau Study Centre
13. Dr Kasimu Lolo 14. Dr Mas‘ud Bello
Shehu Shagari College of Education, Sokoto Federal University, Gusau
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 vii
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
FOREWORD
I am delighted to write a foreword of this maiden edition of Banaga Journal of
Educational Studies (BAJES) Volume 1, issue No 2. It is published at a very
important time that the attention of our Nation are shifting on academic research
which now considered as engine for sustaining national development.
Consequently, it is in realization of the relevance of this research to our nation
building that one will consider this journal as timely effort and significant
contribution in dissemination of new knowledge on current issues in our
educational system.
The mission of Banaga Journal is to provide a common platform for season
academia and researchers to publish research and set the pace of its application to
policy makers so as to achieve a major breakthorough and build new research
directions within the wide range area of educational sectors.
Therefore, in view of the comprehensive insight of research given by scholarly
authors, I obliged to recommend the journal to everyone that is interested in
understanding the current trends in our educational system. It is indeed a
significant journal and aid to academic per-excellence.
Finally, I congratulate the Editorial Board for their tireless efforts in making this
journal successful. I cannot conclude this foreword without appreciating the effort
and commitment of all contributors for a job well done.
Thank you
Ibrahim Usman Gusau
Provost
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 viii
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
PREFACE
Due to the growing academic demands among the old and the new breeds in our
tertiary institutions. the School of Education has rigorously created a way as a
challenging vehicle to move the modern academics to the highest academic
standard and level. Thus, Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES) has pave
the way and set the pace for the modern scholars to exhibit their talents in the field
of academic writings. Indeed, our intent is to help concerned academics and
scholars to meet their needs to grow and progress academically.
This second edition of Banaga Journal Volume 1, No. 2 has (24) numbers of
articles that were rigorously assessed and selected by our team of competent and
reputable scholars from different field of knowledge in an effort to observe
standards and quality.
However, the School of Education wishes to thank the Editorial Board, other
members of staff who tirelessly sacrifice their time and other resources at different
levels to make this Journal a reality.
Finally, we also wish to thank the College management team for its support
logistically. The support of the TETFUND will not be forsaken for her financial
bearing in the production of this Journal. I wish to assure the supporting pillars that
the School of Education will continue to observe and adhere to TETFUND
conditions to the expectations as well as developing all stakeholders in the
academics towards academic writing.
I am wholeheartedly confident that, the journal will be of great importance to all in
all aspects of academic development of our mother country, Nigeria.
Tukur Husaini Nahuche
Editor-in-Chief
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 ix
A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
NOTE ON CONTRIBUTIONS
Abdullahi Saminu, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State
College of Education Maru.
Abubakar Musa, Department of History, Zamfara State College of Education,
Maru
Abubakar Rilwanu Z., Department of Early Childhood Care and Education,
Zamfara State College of Education, Maru, e-mail:
Abubakar S A, Department of Agricultural Science Education, Zamfara State
College of Education, Maru
Abubakar Umar B. Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, College of
Education, Maru
Adamu Muhammad D. Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, Zamfara
State College of Education, Maru
Ahmad Abubakar M. Department of Educational Psychology, Zamfara State
College of Education, Maru
Alhaji Sani Abdullahi T. , Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara
State College of Education, Maru
Aminu I.K, Department of Biology, Zamfara State College of Education Maru,
Nigeria
Attahiru Muhammad S., Biology Department, Zamfara State College of Education,
Maru. :[email protected]
Auwal A A., Department of Agricultural Science Education, Zamfara State
College of Education, Maru
Bello Hassan, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of
Education, Maru, [email protected]
Dahiru M., Department of Chemistry, Zamfara State College of Education Maru,
Nigeria
Ganiyatu Aliyu, Department of Mathematics, Zamfara State College of Education,
Maru
Halliru Yahaya, Department of Geaography, Zamfara State College of Education,
Maru. E-mail: [email protected]
Ibrahim Garba, Department of Physics, Zamfara State College of Education,
Ibrahim Muhammad G., Department of Computer Science Zamfara State College
of Education, Maru
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 x
A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Ibrahim Mustapha, Department of Primary Education Studies, Zamfara State
College of Education, Maru: [email protected]
Ibrahim Usman G., Department of Mathematics, Zamfara State College of
Education, Maru
Kanoma H.A, Department of Curriculum and Instruction Zamfara State College of
Education, Maru: [email protected]
Lawal Musa, Department of Primary Education Zamfara State College of
Education, Maru: [email protected]
Mohammad Ahmed S., Department of General Studies Education Zamfara State
College of Education, Maru
Muhammad Nura U., Department of Educational Psychology, Zamfara State
College of Education, Maru
Muhammad Sadisu Yusuf, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, College of
Education Maru Zamfara State. E-mail: [email protected]
Muhammad Saidu A. Ph.D., Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara
State College of Education Maru.
Muhammad Sirajo B., Department of Computer Science Zamfara State College of
Education, Maru
Mukhtar Ibrahim F., Department of Physics, Zamfara State College of Education,
Musa Muhammad, Department of Education Foundation, Zamfara State College of
Education, Maru
Musa, U.T, Department of Agricultural Science Education, Zamfara State College
of Education, Maru
Mustapha Muhammad Alkali, Department of Islamic Studies, Zamfara State
College of Education, Maru
Nasiru Garba G., Department of General Studies, Zamfara State College of
Education, Maru
Richard Gyasi, Department English Language and Literacy, Zamfara State College
of Education, Maru. E-mail: [email protected]
Sadi Musa, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of
Education, Maru
Saidu Abarshi K., Department of Mathematics, Zamfara State College of
Education, Maru, E-mail: [email protected]
Samaila A, Department of Biology, Zamfara State College of Education Maru,
Nigeria
Samaila Yahaya, Department of English Language and Literary Studies, Zamfara
State Collegeof Education, Maru,: [email protected]
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 xi
A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Sani M.G, Department of Integrated Science, Zamfara State College of Education
Maru, Nigeria
Sanusi Abdullahi M., Department of Integrated Science, Zamfara State College of
Education, Maru
Sanusi Garba G., Department of Mass Communication Abdu Gusau Polytechnic
Talata-Mafara
Saratu Kabir, Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, Zamfara State
College of Education, Maru
Suwaiba Suleiman, Department of Islamic Studies, Zamfara State College of Arts
and Science (ZACAS)
Tukur Husaini Nahuche, Department of Educational Psychology and Counselling,
Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Umar, Babangida, Department of Economics, Zamfara State College of Education,
Maru: [email protected]
Zainab Ibrahim, Department of Economics, Zamfara State College of Education,
Maru
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 xii
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial board
Foreword
Preface
Note on Contributions
Table of Contents
1 Bullying: A School Insecurity Factor Affecting Students‘ Psychosocial
Adjustment in Nigerian Schools
Tukur Husaini Nahuche, Alhaji Sani Abdullahi T. and Adamu
Muhammad D.
1
2 The Roles of Religious Education in Resolving Conflicts for Economic
Recovery and Sustainable Development in Nigeria
Muhammad Saidu A. Ph.D. and Abdullahi Saminu
10
3 Citizenship Education: a Tool for National Unity and Integration
Sadi Musa
15
4 Accountability in Secondary School Education in Zamfara State, Nigeria
Kanoma H.A
22
5 Sports, Education and Politics in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects
Saratu Kabir and Lawal Musa
30
6 Managerial Practice of Head-Teachers and Qualty Assurance in Public
Primary Schools in Zamfara State, as Strategy for Sustainable Development
in Nigeria
Muhammad, Nura U. and Umar, Babangida
38
7 The Impact of Classroom Teachers Participation in the Curriculum Planning
in Nigeria
Mohammad Ahmed S. And Nasiru Garba G.
48
8 Synopsis Analysis of the Factors Affecting Girls Access to Education at
Basic School Level in Zamafara State, Nigeria
Bello Hassan, Musa Muhammad and Abubakar Umar B.
53
9 An Investigation of Teachers Attitude Towards Effective Teaching of
Practical Lessons in Some Selected Secondary Schools in Gusau Educational
Zone, Zamfara State
Samaila A, Aminu I.K, Sani M. G & Dahiru M.
64
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 xiii
A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
10 Relationship of Integrated Science Students‘ First Year Performance and
Their Final Year Performance in Physics Related Courses in Integrated
Science
Sanusi Abdullahi M.
72
11 Information and Communication Technology as a Change Agent for
Effective Teaching of Biology Education
Attahiru Muhammad S.
77
12 The Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Nigerian
Colleges of Education
Muhammad Sirajo B., Ibrahim Muhammad G. and Sanusi Garba G.
93
13 The Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Teaching
and Learning of Mathematics Education Programme in Tertiary Institutions
in Zamfara State
Saidu Abarshi K., Ganiyatu Aliyu and Ibrahim Usman G.
102
14 Zakah and Hibah under Bakolori Irrigation Project: as a means of Poverty
Reduction and National Development
Mustapha Muhammad Alkali
113
15 The Relevance of Railways to the Development of Colonial Economy in
West Africa
Abubakar Musa
126
16 English Language an Agent for National Development in Nigeria: Issues,
Challenges and the Way Forward
Richard Gyasi
132
17 Teachers Utilization of Instructional Materials in Promoting Students
Performance in Agricultural Science in some selected Secondary Schools in
Gummi Local Government Area-Zamfara State
Musa, U T, Abubakar S A, Auwal A A.
145
18 Monetization of Fringe Benefit in Public Service for Sustainable National
Development
Zainab Ibrahim
154
19 Secondary Education Curriculum and Community Development: Problems
and Prospects
Muhammad Sadisu Yusuf
164
20 An Overview of Memory Retention and Problem Solving Ability on College
of Education Science Students in Nigeria
Ibrahim Mustapha
176
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 xiv
A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
21 Early Childhood Education: a Remedy for Corruption and the Realization of
Change in Nigeria
Abubakar Rilwanu Z., Suwaiba Suleiman and Ahmad Abubakar M.
188
22 Reducing Unemployment through Entrepreneurial Development in Nigeria
Ibrahim Garba, Ibrahim U.G.& Mukhtar Ibrahim F.
196
23 The Role of Essay Writing in Resolving National Conflicts for Economic
Recovery and Educational Development In Nigeria
Samaila Yahaya
205
24 Field Study in Geography: Understuding Urban Morphology, Agriculture,
Water and Energy Supplies in Desert City of Agadez, Niger Republic
HalliruYahaya
215
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 1
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Bullying: A School Insecurity Factor Affecting
Students‘ Psychosocial Adjustment in Nigerian
Schools 1Tukur Husaini Nahuche,
2Alhaji Sani Abdullahi T. and
3Adamu Muhammad D.
1Department of Educational Psychology and Counselling,
Zamfara State College of Education, Maru 2Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
3Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Corresponding author: [email protected] 08032844887, 09020674115.
Abstract
Millions of children attend schools in Nigeria with majority facing the challenges of
insecurity humiliations. School environment as an important aspect within the context of
environment need to be secured, safe and protective from all dangers that can cause havoc
in the adjustment and learning of the learner. Violence against children has indeed
became an endemic factor in and around schools emanating from the threats of rape,
sexual abuse, sexual harassment, physical beatings, verbal abuse and one great bullying,
as one major factor of humiliations. However, this paper will discuss bullying as an
insecurity agent against the psychosocial adjustment of the learners in our schools, the
concept, the causes and the effect as well as solutions. However, parents, teachers, and
other stakeholders should join hands to convert this menace by employing the most
effective measures for keeping Schools safe and secured and by creating proper school
safety plans and prevention programmes and interventions that can support students’
healthy social and emotional development so that they can adjust and achieve throughout
their school career.
Keywords: Bullying, School insecurity factor, Students‘ Psychosocial adjustment,
Nigerian Schools.
Introduction
Environment in education generally occupies a very important position. It is
indeed, one of the strongest pillars in the educational process. However,
environment covers both the social, psychological and physical environment.
Which has its origin right from home environment through school. The
interactional experience a child has right from home, has great influence on the
school life experiences. Indeed, the school environment is more than the
curriculum implementation that occurs in the form of instruction in the classroom.
The psychosocial environment according to the Scandinavian Schools of Brussels
(SSB) refers to the interpersonal relationships in the school, the social environment
and how the students and staff interact with each other (2013). Thus, this type of
environment also involves the students‘ experiences of the learning situation.
Therefore, the relationship that is going on between students and their teachers,
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 2
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
how teachers relate to them and to the authority and how the authority relate to the
entire school community all have impact on the students‘ adjustment in the school.
Moreover, students‘ adjustment and learning depend on the type of environment
school provides. Because it will be very difficult for the learner to adjust and learn
at the fullest if there is fear for the safety. Perhaps, the long term effect of bad
school environment can have a very devastating effect on the students‘ adjustment
and learning. In a school where there is always good social relationship, good
understanding as well as respect for views and differences for all. This is the type
of school where security is provided for all members of the school community. The
quality of school social climate has an immediate impact of on the students‘ sense
of safety and wellbeing and on students‘ behaviour. According to Hynes (1991)
psychosocial environment refers to the quality and consistency of interpersonal
interactions within the school community that influence students‘ cognitive, social
and psychological development. The interactions include those among staff,
between staff and students, among students, and between home and school. In
essence the child in the school is heavily influenced by the psychosocial
environment especially on adjustment and learning. Poor psychosocial
environment always negate safety, wellbeing, and good behaviour which lead to
maladjustment in the school in the total learning career.
In a secured school environment, students would be able to cope with the social
environment by having the capacity to relate well with other members of the
school community. Having a well firmed relations warrant good adaptation and
conform to the environmental challenges.
Adjustment according to Okpara and Onyekuru (2013) mean ―process of
maintaining harmonious relationship between living organisms and its
environment‖. By this definition we must acknowledge that accommodation and
adaptation are the determinants for individual struggle to survive in the
environment. Parmanik, Saha and Mandal (2014) opined that, ―adjustment in
psychology refers to the behavioural process by which human and other animals
maintain equilibrium among their various needs and the obstacles of their
environment. Human beings are able to adjust to the social, physical and
psychological environmental demands that arise from having inter dependability
with other individuals in the environment.
Adjustment is an organizational behaviour in life situations for example, at home,
at school, at work, and in growing up and ageing. A lot of benefits are derived
from it, because it helps one to keep out basic impulses at tolerable level, to believe
in one‘s own ability and achieve desired goals. It also helps for self-initiated
growth and development in line with intellectual, emotional, social, physical and
vocational dimension. It is psychological in nature a process through which people
cope and manage with the demands and challenges of everyday life. However,
adjustment counts in conformity as well as adaptability to one‘s environment and
the demands of life. These involve relation to others, dealing to one‘s
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 3
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
responsibility and inner feelings and perhaps coping with the demands of outside
world, desires, and conflicts experiences from within.
In the in secured school environment students usually experience a lot of bad
situation problems like offensive words and behaviour. Which include bullying,
discrimination, racism, violence, exclusion, and sexual harassment are certainly,
sort of unwanted behaviours and activities that count to destroy school
environment thereby producing insecurity for student to adjust and achieve.
Good psychosocial school environment is always attaching a good blue prints of
routines in all segments of the school that are very important so that students
themselves can have a good psychosocial environment which safeguard safety
welfare and learning. This will actively safeguard good cooperation between
student and teacher, and between school and home. This type of environment will
create good social climate thereby establishing good codial relationship among the
school community members. But in contrast an environment full of unwanted
behaviours and actions create chaos and disorganization within the mind of the
learner which lead him/her towards maladjusted behaviour. Parents, teachers,
school administrators are aware that, bullying is by far the biggest violence school
can experience and which became an endemic factor causing insecurity towards
the child‘s psychosocial adjustment.
Comer et al (1981) relate in one study that, school climate plays a significant role
in the child‘s adjustment to school and the ability to perform well. In another
similar Benton Harbor study conducted by Hynes, Comer &Hamilton Ice (1988)
found that, many students relate the conditions of their schools they attend as
characterized by high level of distrust and disrespect among and between students
and teachers, and the sense that, students do not care about one another.
Widespread favouritism diminishes any sense of fairness and highten feelings of
distrust. More detrimental it puts students into low self-concept and feeling of
inadequacy and anxiety. This climate also is not conducive for good mental health
of the entire members of the school general environment. Furtherly, the
environment is characterized by conflicts and distrust and hence members cannot
cope within the environment thus, became maladjusted.
The Concept of Bullying
Bullying is a widespread menace at home or at schools and in communities. The
behaviour is a great challenge for parents, school administrators, teacher
psychologist. Because it encompasses physical aggression, threats, teasing and
harassment. Indeed, in whatever bullying is presented it is an ant- social behaviour
causing great damage to social, physical and psychological set up of students in the
school. This can undermine the quality of school environment at the same time
affect students social and academic outcomes. Causing the victims social and
psychological trauma and in extreme lead to serious violence. Under any
circumstance adults should not tolerate bullying at home and in schools. Though
we know bullying is not inevitable part of growing but is learned through peer
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 4
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
groups and media which also can be unlearn and prevented. Certainly, bullying is
the most common form of violence in our society and in schools.
Then what is bullying? As defined by mental health in schools that, ―bullying is
repeated harassment, abuse, oppressive or intimidation of another individual
physically or psychologically. Accordingly, the centre, take the form of teasing,
threatening, taunting, rejecting, (socially isolating someone), hitting, stealing and
so forth (2001). In this regard bullying occurs at home, in the community and
school in such a way that the bully attack the bullied continuously without
considering the impact of the behaviour. While the bullied develop some certain
fears and unsafe within himself/herself.
In another definition by American institute of research (2015) bullying is a form of
unwanted aggressive behaviour among school aged children that involve a real or
perceived power in balance and that is repeated or has the potential to be repeated
over time. This involve the use of physical strength as well as access to
embarrassing information to hurt or control another person for the sake of power
control. Which in essence occurs in repeated times which might be more than one.
Sometimes it occurs more frequently.
Bullies do operate different types of bullying behaviour depending on the
conditions and situations they found themselves with those they bullied.
Psychologists are of the opinion that, bullies operate in three broad categories of
their behaviour and even more. Because with the advent of information
communication technology they offer what is called cyber bullying.
Types of Bullying
American institute for research have found four categories of bullying as thus;
physical, form of intentional aggression that include injuring someone or damaging
their property. This happens through hitting, kicking, or punching, spitting,
tripping, pushing, taking or breaking someone‘s belongings. The second type is
verbal bullying which came in form of intentional aggression that involve saying
or writing things that are mean or hurtful to others. Example of this include
teasing, name calling, taunting, inappropriate sexual comments or threatening to
cause harm to another person. The next type of bullying is the social one. Which is
also intentional aggression that is used to damage someone‘s reputation or
relationships. This type includes leaving someone out of purpose, telling other
children not to be friend with someone, spreading rumours about someone,
embarrassing someone in public. The last of them is the cyber bullying which
operates through the use of electronic devices like cell phones, computers and
tablets or other means of communications, such like social media sites, text
messages, chat rooms and websites.
The Causes of Bullying
A bully individual is someone who directs either of the bullying behaviour
aggressively towards others. Indeed, it is interesting that once you can detect the
genesis of one problem the next step is to attack it once and for all so that thing
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work well. A lot of factors having generated as the causative agents for bullying
behaviour. These factors are organizational in the sense that, it involves the family,
school and the peer groups. However, one has to be assured that bullying
behaviour is not caused by only one factor but many. Then we look at them one
after the other.
The Family Factors: as the first social unit an individual came to have contact with
has very great to offer to all members in shaping the behaviour. It is in the family
that the child from social learning in which he observed, model and sometimes he
imitates. As puts by the National Association of school psychologists (2002) that,
―the frequency and severity of bullying is related to the amount of Adults
supervision that children receive bullying behaviour is reinforced when it has no or
inconsistent consequences. Therefore, for children who are learning bullying
behaviour learn it through observation. Especially. When they observe parents and
siblings exhibiting such behaviour or else they have long been victims of this
circumstances. For this reason, they are likely to become bullies. More
importantly, when children experience negative messages or corporal punishment
they tend to develop bad self-concept and expectations. And they can possibly
attack before they are attacked. The bully is always having the feeling of power,
dominance and importance to those he/she bullied.
School Factors: Schools are usually collections of different individuals with
variety of backgrounds. However, children may carry along with them some
bulling behaviours right from home through schools and thus it may rightly
escalate unnoticed. One dangerous situation is that, bullying grow very greatly in a
school when there is no proper attention on the students themselves than in a
positive school climate which encourage concerns on respect of differences, views
and set high standards for interpersonal behaviour.
Peer Group Factors: children often relate with their age group members in the
school or the neighbourhood peer group that advocate, support, and promote
bullying behaviour. Sometime children find it very difficult to join a peer group
due to power dominance he/she operates.
Children become victims of bullying behaviour when they are weaker than their
colleagues. Henceforth, they may display some signs and symptoms of poor social
skills in which they cannot relate well and have difficulty in adjusting to the school
environment as well as achieving academically. When children feel victims of
bullying they also have feeling of insecurity, passiveness, and unable to retaliate
because of feeling of inferiority complexes. Children who appear timid are those
bullies attack often.
The Effects of Bullying on Students’ Psycho Social Adjustment
Bullying behaviour has greatly influenced millions of children in our schools
negatively. O‘ Connell explained that, ―victims of such circumstance a lot of
emotions, fear, anxiety, anger, frustration, helplessness, humiliation, loneliness and
feeling of isolation and persecution‖ (2003). He explained that, the emotions the
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 6
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
victims of bullying experienced can be detected by the student sudden or ongoing
illness, mood swings, withdrawal, inability to concentrate, loss of interest in
school, argumentativeness, increased involvement in fights, change in friends and
social groups, avoidance of lunch and recess areas, display of suspicious bruises
and scratches and frequent loss of money and property‖ (2003).
Frankly speaking, other bad experiences can be generated out of bullying among
children in our schools. Because if victims of bullying are unattended they may
probably develop problem behaviours, fail at school, and one mighty problem
commit suicide. One surprising thing with the bullying is that victims can rightly
withdraw their families and friends and blame to other than themselves.
Another problem is that they may run away from home, being hopeless, and
discouraged because they lost hope of telling their problem to peers, parents,
teachers, thinking that they cannot do anything possible to remedy the situation.
On the side of it if there is no intervention coming from the school, bully will
continue to be bully and practice unwanted behaviour like, dropping out of school,
shop lifting, vandalism or using drugs and alcohol and worst of it is the practice of
criminal behaviours.
A lot of researches have been conducted regarding the effects of bullying
behaviour on the students‘ on the students‘ security towards achievement and
adjustment. For example, Tonja (2001) led a team of researchers on nation- wide
study to address the prevalence of bullying in the united states. Conclusively, the
study suggests that, ―bullying is a serious problem and should not be treated as
normal youth behaviour, students involved in bullying had poorer psycho social
adjustment scores than other youths. The study also suggested that students who
both bully others and are targets of bullying might be at particularly high risk for
long term negative outcomes.
Nansel (2001) also made important findings which shows that bullying is
widespread and is not limited to certain groups. However, it was found with similar
prevalence in rural, urban, sub-urban and town areas and across races. The
antisocial behaviour is more common among boys, but occurred in both genders.
More relatively, bullying occurred significantly more frequently among males than
females. The most different scenario is that males are more involved in physical
bullying while females reported instances of bullying through rumours and sexual
comments/gestures.
The research show that, smoking, poorer academic achievement, fighting, alcohol
use, greater difficulty in making friends, poorer relationships with other students
are related to bullying behaviour. The authors further suggest that, ―considering the
combination of social isolation, lack of success in school and involvement in
problem behaviours, youth who both bully and are bullied may represent an
especially high-risk group‖ (2001).
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 7
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
The Solutions to Bullying Behaviour
As said earlier that, once a scenario manifests the only active measure is to
diagnose the genesis to it. Once the genesis has been identified the next step is to
attack the genesis and the situation will be free from the problem. The case of
bullying has not been receiving attention seriously from the stakeholders thus, this
may be due to the fact that, researches were not so heavenly undertaken in the area,
especially on its devastating effects it has on our school children‘s academic
achievement and school adjustment. Concerns must be shown right from home
through school so that this problem is converted. Because when children found it
difficult to relate right from home through school hardly they adjust and learn
effectively. As puts by O‘ Connell that ―the experience of being in the family helps
children to feel connected, and other important opportunity for connections
happens at school. The social experience of belonging at school becomes the
foundations for children to assume future social roles and responsibilities‖ (2003).
Indeed, a fundamental aspect that build the school environment is the respect and
trust from other members of the school environment like peers and adults. We
must therefore, realise that, curriculum implementation is also another important
aspect of educational process which must be carried with care for anger
management, conflict resolution, and leadership training. Perhaps the personal and
social skills training which is expected to begin at home are also very important
which are also articulated in the school can help to establish a holistic and
integrated foundation for building trust and mutual respect and preventing social
alienation.
It is understood that, when a positive, safe, and clean psycho social environment is
established a sound child development is also established. This happens when
bullying behaviour is wiped away from the school environment. As stated by the
School safety (2011) that, feeling unsafe, adversely impacts students‘ motivation,
attitude, behaviour and over all functioning in school. While also producing lower
levels of academic achievement.
Its high time that we take into consideration of the bullying incidence in our
schools. In cooperation is made necessary among education stakeholders, families,
the school and the peers themselves who are the actors and victims of the
circumstance to come together to fight this problem.
The Family: The family comprises the parents and their children is the first to react
to bullying behaviour. Parents should always keep close contact and kept aware of
their children‘s behaviour and attitude change. For example, children withdrawing
or reluctant to go to school or experiencing physical symptoms like headache,
stomach ache, and problem sleeping.
As a parent one should response by reassuring children that you‘ll work with the
school to end up the bullying behaviour. The school also should be made known if
a child is bully or bullied. So that the has a first-hand information on which to act
on. Families and school should also foster proper relationships among students. In
a situation whereby students keep bad company should instantly be broken away
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 8
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
and accept positive friends. Children can be guided on team work, for team work
is a product of discipline. So encourage among them team work like in study,
lunch, home to school, assignments, projects and many other means. And lastly use
other alternatives other than physical punishment, withdrawal of privileges. If it
happens Parent see any bullying behaviour among Children, they instantly stop it.
The School: The school as a community and a collection of different individuals
with different backgrounds must have concern to create a safe and secure psycho
social environment where children can adjust and achieve academically. National
Association of School Psychologists (NASP 2002) stated that, ―school advocate
wide prevention programmes that, promote a positive school and community
climate‖ these would seduce the bullying behaviour in our schools.
Schools should provide early intervention programme in which content should
there be social skills training counselling and aggression intervention for the
bullies. Equal treatment should be given to all students by balancing discipline
with behavioural support. This can happen by establishing clear consistent
consequences for bullying behaviour. The school counsellor, teachers, and other
stakeholders support parents in their effort to teach social skills and managing
bullying. There is the provision of skills for all concern in the school to carry out
their prevention and intervention activities. Positive actions should be taken against
bullying by the school for not ignoring the behaviour. This can happen by
changing attitudes towards bullying. Another important aspect is to encourage
students to support one another so that team work can be stimulated.
The Peers: as proposed by O‘Connell (2003) that, ―students are the key to shaping
peer norms. Students bystanders (not the bully or the target of bullying) make up
the majority of the student body of the school‖. However, students claim the high
position in the school community and hence the most authentic voice for the cause
and would be capable of helping in the school for any tailor and refine prevention
and intervention programme in the school.
The Adults: the adults also have some roles to play in managing and controlling the
antisocial behaviour of bullying among children. Therefore, adults should be
involved and engaged in restructuring an effective environment full of safety and
safety and comfort. Staff members, both academics and should select and deliver
the right curriculum content to help a sound education. Encourage student- to-
student relationships as a well cooperative learning and participation in other
school activities. More fascinating they would have an overall mood and tone of
the interface throughout the workdays.
Conclusion
Most interestingly, creating a conducive and positive school learning environment
will user good social relationships among students. And will reduce bullying and
victimization. A good social, physical and psychological environment would help
improve the emotional climate of the learners for adjustment. But, it is clear that,
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 9
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
bullying is one big factor that destroy school psychosocial environment towards
adjustment and academic achievement for learners in our schools.
Recommendations
The following are the recommendations for the stakeholders to use for converting
bullying in our schools.so that students can adjust and achieve academically.
1. Families should employ the use of proper parenting style especially the
authoritative type so that children could be placed at the right behaviour from
home through school.
2. Schools should also draw the best and proper blue print containing the
school‘s rules and regulations stating offences and penalties in which also
bullying be part of it.
3. Teachers should in their dealings with students as good models, enhance
teacher-child relationships, student-student relations so that social skills can
be improved and also create an atmosphere for understanding and respect for
each other.
4. Students should be made to adhere to binding family and school‘s rules and
regulations so that respect for others‘ right is maintained within the school
environment.
5. All other stakeholders collaborate with the communities, the school and other
agencies for campaign in advocacy and sensitization on the detrimental
effects of bullying behaviour throughout life so that the menace is curved.
References
Hynes, M. N., Emmons, C & Ben Avie. M. (1991). Journal of Educational and
Psychological Consultations (1991) 8 (3) 321-329.
Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M., Pilla. R.M et al (2011). Bullying behaviours among
U.S Youths prevalence and Association with Psycho Social Adjustment.
The Journal of the American Medical Association. (2011), 285:2094-2100.
National Association of School Psychologists (2002). Bullying:
www.nasponline.org
O‘Connell, J (2003) Bullying at School. California Department of Education.
Opera. I. M., and Onyekuru, B.U.D. (2013). Psychosocial Predictors of Secondary
Students‘ Adjustment to School.
Paramanik, J., Birbal, S., and Bhim Chandra, M. (2014) Adjustment of Secondary
School Students with Respect to Gender and Residence. American Journal
of Educational Research. 2. 12, 1138-1143.
http://www.nea.org/tools/16364.htm School safety.
www.supportive.com Safe supportive Learning
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 10
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
The Roles of Religious Education in Resolving
Conflicts for Economic Recovery and Sustainable
Development in Nigeria
1Muhammad Saidu A. Ph.D. and
2Abdullahi Saminu
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education Maru.
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract
Religious education certainly can be served as a backbone to moral education and
enhancing peaceful co-existence among the members of a society that will enable
economic growth and developments. This paper however, intends to look at
religious concept of peace and security. Likewise, the paper highlights the role of
religious education in resolving conflicts, economic growth for sustainable
development in Nigeria. It’s also pointed out that, the prominence of religious
education will instill values and high morals on the citizenry to bring about
expected sustainable development. The principal religions recognized in Nigeria
are Islam, Christianity and African Traditional Religion. Each of these has deep
roles to play in resolving conflicts and enhance economic growth for national
developments. The role of religious education in conflicts resolutions, economic
recovery and sustainable development in Nigeria cannot be over emphasized. The
Federal Government of Nigeria owes it a duty to re-introduce the teaching and
learning of religious education in Nigerian schools and make it compulsory for all
students. However, religious bigotry should be stamped out and proper tenets of
religions should be taught and practiced. Knowing that today religious education
is an elective subject at secondary schools, it’s should be reviewed, and make it
compulsory to all students from secondary to undergraduate level to be offer in
respective of carrier choices. Effective teaching of religious studies and uplifting of
moral and spiritual values by the religious leaders will go a long way to bring
about peace and economic recovery in Nigeria. Islam and Christianity are
religions of harmony, unity, security and peace which Nigeria would need for its
conflicts resolution and economic recovery for sustainable development.
Keywords: Religious Education, Conflict Resolution, Economic Recovery,
Sustainable Development
Introduction
Over the years, Nigeria had been seen as ―security risk nation‖ to which many
international communities have warned their nationals not to live or even travel to
Nigeria. Taking cursory look at the happenings in and around Country, one may be
tempted to agree with these international communities that their fears justified.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
This is because Nigeria has been experiencing a number of crises, social-vices and
lack of cordial relationship among her citizens since independence. There have
been constant conflicts among the inhabitants of one village, town, city and the
other; one state and another or inhabitants of the same town or the same state based
on tribal, religions or ideological differences. Also violent conflict has developed a
pervasive phenomenon in most Nigerian communities. The various political party
crises that finally led to the 1967-1970 civil war have had devastating, effects on
unity and peaceful co-existence in Nigeria. More so, the intensity frequency and
rapid spread of crises in recent times is an issue of intense public concern. In most
states of the federation, one hears stories of violent conflict involving individuals
or groups. For instances, some conflicts are in the forms of communal clashes in
the quest of political superiority or relevance, insurgency, cattle rustling and the
like Ukiwo and Chukuma (2012: P8) had this to say ―While no region in Nigeria
can be said to be immune from violence and crime, political and security
governance has continued to be a major source of concern to many stake holders.
However, in North Western States of Nigeria, there has been an escalation of cattle
rustling attacks, which has been fuelled by the increase in small arms. These illegal
arms normally originate from neighboring countries which have been experience
internal strife, including Libya, Uganda Somalia and Ethiopia cheserek (2007) this
has led to the formation of heavily armed and militarized group. It has also further
led to the rise of criminal gangs forcing a serious challenge to the Human security.
The presence of illegal arms has also led to commercialization of cattle rustling
and those who‘s engage in this practice act purely on self-enrichment basis. This
menace had seriously affected development and provision of essential services in
the areas through disruption of communities‘ livelihood system by restricting
economic development. In addition to loss of lives it also led to destruction of
social amenities already put in place. Hence, the education system is affected,
when teachers are forced to withdraw from conflicting stricken areas and the
communities re-locate their settlements for fear of being invaded. Education for
children and youth is affected and interrupted both in the short and long run.
In these conflicts, people are displaced, properties are destroyed and lives are lost.
For instance, the Booko Haram disturbance in northern Nigeria claimed at least
60,000 persons with over 3,000 residents displaced (Orulu, 2009). In Delta State,
the Gbaramatu Kingdom Genocide witnessed several losses of innocent and
helpless children, women and the aged were lost, property belonging to individuals
and group worth billions of Naira were destroyed by the joint task force. Therefore,
communities in Nigeria are in a crisis situation devoid of peace and as such, there
is need for quick solution before it degenerates in to a full blown civil war.
The challenge before Nigeria is to develop the needed institutional capacity that
will sustain development, transformation and reconciliation through social
enlightment, peace and Religious Education.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 12
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Concepts of Religion
Religion can be defined from different perspectives based on the angle which one
understands it. However, according to Webster‘s Dictionary of English Language,
Religion refers to man‘s expression of his acknowledgement of the divine or a
system of belief and practices relating to the sacred and uniting its adherents in
communities. This shows that religion focuses on what is ultimate or absolute and
taught of worship. Therefore, relationships between the transcendent and men
demands total submission and an absolute obedience. According to James (2007)
an important dimension to the definition of religion, which is essential for the
search for peace, is the often forgotten fact that religious relationship is in fact two
dimensional. It is not only vertical but also horizontal; it does not only refer to the
relationship between man and God, but also the relationship between man and the
society. Therefore, Religious education can be seen as a process through which a
person learns something which his society believed is related to God. According to
Lawal (2003) Religious education can also be described as those processes
designed to induct each new generation into the attitudes, beliefs as well as the
practices of a religions or faith in order to promote the religion and at the same
time provide for the individual a unifying center for his life.
Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development means improving the living condition of the people by
integrating social Development, economic development and environmental
conservation and protection (Olayode, 2006). Essentially, it is about the welfare of
all. Hence, sustainable Development is also defined as a development that meets
the need of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations
to meet their needs (WCED, cf, Olayode, 2006). It also means capacity to continue
into the future (Barbier 1959, David 1986, cited in Olayode, 2006). It is to be noted
that, this concept applies not only to environmental issues, but also incorporated
into economic and social issues.
The concept of Sustainable Development is related to the need for the
institutionalization of best business practices by companies, corporations and
sundry business concerns as well as governments in the processes of production,
distribution and consumption, vis-à-vis their economic, socio-political and
environmental spheres of activity. According to World Development Report
(2003), Sustainability is an evolving framework. Societies will continue to
transform over time and since significant social stress and crisis is likely to lead to
a breakdown in the development and preservation of all assets, inter-generational
well-being is bound to be jeopardized
The Role of Religious Education
No religion preaches violence and conflict or militancy. Every religion advocates
and preaches peace and peaceful co-existence of all citizens. Islam calls for the
quest for peace, tolerance and kindness which is a state of physical, mental,
spiritual and social harmony of every society. Other virtues of Islam are that
Muslims were urged to imbibe the spirit of kindness and forgiveness. (Q3:124) and
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 13
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
further enjoined to live in harmony and peace with fellow human beings, Repel
evil with that which is better and show perseverance with patience (Q 3: 200).
These values and virtues were practically demonstrated by the Holy Prophet
Muhammad (S.A.W). He used non-violent methods to resist those who persecuted
him. He never resorted to violence or force unless as defensive mechanism.
Conflicts resolution through making, negotiation and dialogue are considered more
effective than aggression and violent confrontations. For instance, the virtue of
tolerance and forgiveness as demonstrated by the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) can
be seen vividly when there was famine in Mecca and he helped them despite the
fact that they had driven him out of his home. Similarly, after the conquest of
Mecca, the people of Mecca expected Prophet Muhammad (SAW) either executes
to them in retaliation, take them as slaves or at least confiscate their properties and
belongings. They were extremely worried and wondered what declaration he was
going to make at his historic occasion. However, he began his address by saying to
the pagans of Mecca: ―Today there will be no blame on you for anything and no
one will harm you in anyway‖ Such example of rear nobility and humanness is rear
in human history. These are the type of behavior expected from Muslims, as
exemplified by the Prophet of Islam. In fact, there are several examples of this
nature in the life of the Holy prophet.
In Christianity Jesus Christ is known and referred to as the prince of peace. He
taught, commanded and demonstrated the significance of peace and ―his is name
will be called wonderful, counselor, mighty God, everlasting father, prince of
peace‖ (Isaiah 9: 6-7). ―Salt is good; but if the salt has lost its saltiness, how will
you season it? Have salt in yourselves and be at peace with one another (Mark 9:
50). Furthermore, the Bible says: ―Let us then pursue what makes for peace and for
mutual up building‖. (Romans 14:19) Throughout Jesus‟ earthly ministry, he
demonstrated his to love and maintained peace with all men. Despite stiff
opposition from the Pharisees and religious leaders, he never said any rude or
insulting word to them. Even when he was arrested and Peter had to draw his
sword to cut off the ear of the slave of the High Priest, Jesus cautioned Peter and
replaced the ear. He was led to be crucified like a lamb that is dumb, for he said no
word, to show the level to which he pursued peace.
Having examined the major religions, it could be seen that peace is of paramount
importance to any meaningful development and religious teachings can provide the
needed peaceful atmosphere if used in the right perspective.
Recommendations
Religious institution are to be encourage against deliberate and mutual use of arms
in resolving conflicts and disputes arising from the question of inter- religious
relation.
The school curriculum should be restructured to include comparative religion to
inculcate the doctrine of the two religions.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 14
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
The religious Teachers should preach and teach the word of God in its true
meaning to the students and not to mislead them through negative indoctrination
and zealotry
Professional body for the study of religion can be set up as part of curriculum
restructuring in the Nigerian schools.
All obstacle that may hinder practical implementation of the moral value taught
through religious education should removed
At home, parents and siblings are to encourage folk stories that stressed tolerance,
endurances, justice and peaceful coexistence among mankind.
Respect and loyalty that members have on their religion should transfer to that of
the nation.
The above mention recommendation will definitely help in maintaining peace,
security and sustainable development in Nigerian society, since the majority of the
populace belong either Islam or Christianity.
Conclusion
Religious education played a very vital role in bringing peace, security and
sustainable development in Nigeria. The federal government of Nigeria should
restructure the school‘s curriculum and make it mandatory for the Teaching and
learning of religious education at all levels of education and to all students in
respective of their career choices. Religious education will change the country in to
virile society where peace, security and sustainable development will reigns.
Moreover, religious bigotry should be stamped out and proper basic tenets of
religious teaching are to be taught and practice.
References
Ambi P.M. (2005). Resources Conflicts and Security in Africa. Journal for
Promotion of Studies in Religion, Educationa and Language. Vol 4, No 1,
pg 69.
James T, G. (2007). Problems of Religion. The Way Out for Peace Developments
in Nigeria
Olayode K. (2006) Globalization, sustainable development and State Capacity in
Africa. Nigeria Journal of International Affairs Vol. 32 No 1, Lagos
Nigeria.
Orudu P. (2009) Bloody Talibans Saturday Sun August, 1 Vol. I, No 341, pg 41
The World Encyclopedia Britain Micropedia, Knowledge in Depth (1480) Vol. 16.
Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. U.S.A.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 15
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Citizenship Education: A Tool for National Unity
and Integration
Sadi Musa Department of Curriculum and Instruction,
Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract
From the global perspective of the roles of citizenship education, is to prepare new
citizens ta fit well in their new environment and also an avenue for the government
to provide people with the understanding of the political, legal and economic
functions of a wider society. Citizenship education is aimed at training responsible
citizens who will help in the development of a united and developed society, a
society where people live in peace and harmony, a society where people work
together for purposeful progress and development. Having this as an opportunity
provided by citizenship education, it is assume that national unity and integration
will certainly be achieved. This paper aims at discussing the roles played by
citizenship education in fostering unity and integration which are fundamental
tools for national growth and development. According to the paper, one of the
ways through which citizenship education helps to that effect is by uniting the
diverse Nigerian ethnics group and provides knowledge that will help in
assimilating and integrating citizens from different ethnic groups with different
cultural background.
Keywords: Citizenship Education, National Unity, Integration
Introduction
There is no doubt that the knowledge of citizenship education has a vital role in
bringing Nigerian citizen together. Through the teaching and learning of citizen
education people are made to understand and play their roles for the unity and
development of the nation. Citizens, irrespective of their tribal, religious, ethnic or
regional belongings are treated equally, enjoy equal rights and are required to
perform duties for the unity and progress of the country.
Through the knowledge of citizenship people are exposed to different Nigerian
cultures and tribes. Citizenship education taught respect for all, restriction against
utterances that pose threats to national unity, regarding and treating people equally.
This makes citizenship education a strong means for positive national unity and
integration.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 16
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Concept of Citizen
The term citizen is seen as any person officially recognized by the constitution or
the law of the land as a permanent member of a given country. Dibie (2003) sees
citizen as a legal member of a state with full constitutional or legal rights in which
he or she resides. Chapter III of the 1999 Nigerian Constitution outlines ways
through which one can become a Nigerian citizen, the place of dual citizenship and
perhaps the renunciation of citizenship in the country. A Nigerian citizen can also
be deprived of citizenship under certain condition. (Constitution of the Fed. Rep. of
Nigeria, 1999)
Citizenship Defined This is an act of being a legitimate member of a given country which involves
permanent allegiance to the country. Complete and total allegiance to the country
involves rendering certain responsibilities and enjoying certain rights. Iyela and
Audu (2006) indicated that, citizenship is a relationship between an individual and
state (nation), involving the individual‘s full political membership in the state and
his permanent allegiance to it. Of course, when one is connected with a state or
nation as its citizen, he is tied with two central issues, that is one is what he is
expected to do to his nation and what the country is expected to do to him in
returned.
Citizenship Education Odunukwe (2010) posits that, Citizenship education is viewed as the processes of
inculcating in the minds of individuals the relationship between him/her and the
state or country. It simply implies teaching the said individuals what he or she can
do for the state as well as what the state expects from him/her for the good of a
particular society and the society in general. He elaborated that, such citizen owes
total and permanent allegiance to the state which is seen as a duty. These duties
invariably consist of being supporting the state and rendering loyalty to the leader
and government of the state or country.
Argungu (2012) discusses citizenship education from global aspect of the word, he
cited two kinds of citizenship, one, ―The education that is intended to prepare to
become legally and socially accepted citizens, which is developed in countries like
Netherland, United States and United Kingdom. The second type of citizenship is
normally taught in schools and colleges as an academic subject. In this type, people
are made to understand the political, legal and economic functions of their society.
The Need for Citizenship Education in our Institutions of Learning
Citizenship education as a program offered in Nigerian schools is aimed at
equipping Nigerian students with the basic knowledge, skills, values, ideas and the
necessary things which will make them good, active and effective citizens.
Citizenship education in schools covers wide area of concern that will develop a
high sense of unity and integration.
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Citizenship education consists of both formal and non-formal ways through which
students are exposed and made to contribute to the effective development of the
nation. The citizen is exposed and enlightened to the need for
i. National feelings national development, national unity, national integration,
national building
ii. Religious tolerance, respect for other ethnics‘ groups
iii. Nigerian government, Nigerian constitution philosophy.
The Philosophy and Objectives of Citizenship Education
Argungu (2012) outlined ways on which citizenship education is built upon in
Nigeria, these includes:
1. Awareness of and sensitization of Nigerians to the rules and regulations
governing all Nigerians as contained in the Nigerian constitution.
2. Awareness of rights and obligations of citizen to government and society and
the reciprocal government responsibilities.
The objectives
According to him, the objectives of citizenship education are as follows:
i. To create an awareness of provision of the Nigerian constitution and the
need for democracy in Nigeria.
ii. To create adequate and functional political literacy among Nigerians.
iii. To sensitize Nigerians to the functions and obligations of government.
iv. To make Nigerians fully aware of their rights and duties and to respects the
rights and duties and to respects the rights of others.
v. To assist in the production of responsible, well-informed and self-reliance
Nigerian citizens.
vi. To inculcate right values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and
the Nigerian society.
Unity and National Integration
The terms unity and integration are interwoven, while unity is referring to state or
fact of being one undivided entity, integration as a concept in citizenship education
implies the coming together of the Nigerians as one indivisible and indissoluble
nation with people of different cultural and religious background there by
accepting and respecting each other as Nigerian. National integration also deals
with ability to of Nigeria to from perhaps different geo-political, religious and
ethnic groups come together, stay, work and above all tolerates each other.
Argungu 2012).
Argungu further advanced the factors that are responsible for the promotion of
national integration, and they are:
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
1. Religious tolerance
2. Political tolerance
3. Appreciation and respect for each other‘s culture
4. Ethnic marriages
5. Positive use of mass media
6. Sporting activities
Working as federal civil servant where one can be posted to any part of the country
to stay and work
Citizenship Education: A Tool for National Unity and Integration
This implies that the knowledge of citizenship education provides a citizen with
the necessary attitudes in line with the provision of Nigerian constitution to play
their parts, roles and responsibilities for the unity and development of the country.
Citizenship education is aimed at uniting the diverse Nigerian ethnics group and
provides knowledge that will help in assimilating and integrating citizens from
different ethnic groups with different civil culture. It also equips foreigners or
newly admitted members with the required knowledge that will enable them fit
well into their new environment.
Proper provision of necessary knowledge for national building and development is
an aspect of citizenship education. Through citizenship education people are made
to their rights as citizens and the roles they are expected to play for the unity and
development of the country.
Citizenship education will help in the integration of diverse Nigerian ethnics, tribes
and cultures by making people understand these different ethnic groups, tribes and
cultures and developing respect for each group. Ethnic, tribes or cultural
differences can pose a threat to national unity, integration and development if not
handle carefully, citizenship education provides ways of handling different people
and bringing them together as one.
The knowledge of citizenship education helps in preparing and grooming of future
leaders by providing citizens with the required behavioral orientation for patriotic
leaders, citizens will be provided with the right attitudes such as patriotism,
honesty, dedication to duties, respect for the Nigerian constitution, abiding with
constitutional provision, respect for elders and constituted authority which are
ingredients for patriotic future leaders.
For the maintenance of peace, national stability, national unity and integration,
there is need for every citizen to play those parts, roles and duties demanded of
him/her. These duties, roles and responsibilities are assigned to every citizen after
which certain rights are given to the citizen for a stable national development.
Chapter IV of the 1999 Nigerian constitution outlines those rights that are given to
Nigerian citizens unless denied by law. Rights are given to citizens so as to make
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 19
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
them enjoy freedom and contribute to the national development and some of these
rights are:
Right to life
Right to personal liberty
Right to fair hearing
Right to freedom of movement
Right of freedom from discrimination etc.
Right to dignity of human persons
Right to private and family life
Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
Right to freedom of expression and the press
Right to peaceful assembly and association
Right to acquire and own immovable property anywhere in Nigeria
Rights are given to every citizen so as to develop in them a sense of national
belonging leading to national unity and integration. Citizens have the right to move
to any part of the country and to live peacefully anywhere irrespective of ethnic or
tribal differences.
Every citizen has right to fair hearing and cannot be judged based on ethnic, tribal
or religious inclination and can acquire properly legally in any part of the country.
These and many other rights are given to citizen in order to develop a high sense
level of unity and integration, to live and relate peacefully with people of different
religion and cultural background.
Every citizen after given these rights, freedom and protection need to reciprocate
the government gesture by rendering certain duties and obligations for a balance in
having a national unity and integration, such duties expected from a Nigerian
citizen includes:
Displaying a high sense of national feeling of love and pride, which will make
him/her ready to identify with his/her wherever one finds him/herself, ready to
sacrifice personal interest for national interest. This national identity and
feeling bring and unite citizens irrespective of their regions, tribes or religions.
Good citizens must be ready to speak against bad leadership and policies,
correct a citizen who wants to tarnish the image of the country depend the
nation against bad leaders. For the Nigerian citizens to live in unity, harmony
peace and stability, its citizens must display a high sense of honesty and
accountability. Nigerians should share a high level of moral standard and avoid
all forms of cheating and misappropriation. For a nation to develop both
politically, socially, economically, educationally and for its people to live in
peace and harmony, its citizens must resist bad leadership and leaders who
have no national feeling and consciousness.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Good citizens should endevour to get rid of and expose unpatriotic and bad
elements such as drug dealers, kidnapers and corrupt officers so as to have a
developed, united and strong country. No nation can develop while its citizens
are not united, indolence and lazies, there is need for the Nigerian citizens to be
focused and hardworking for a sustainable national development.
For the maintenance of unity, citizens should avoid utterance and acts that will
threaten national unity, integration and national development such as tribalism,
regionalism, nepotism etc because no nation can survive the unity of its people
with such attitudes and behaviuors. No nation can survive and prevent itself
from external threat when its citizen are not united and perhaps when citizens
are in conflict. It is our duty to respect one another irrespective of tribal or
geographical area.
Citizenship education play a vital role in bringing citizens together, by providing
them with an insight into their positions, rights and duties to be performed
irrespective of their ethnic or tribal background.
Through the knowledge of citizenship education, citizens are made to develop a
high sense of brotherhood. Nigerian citizens are made aware of the importance of
national symbol such as National flag, National Pledge, National Anthem, Coat of
Arms etc. irrespective of their tribal or regional association.
Through citizenship education also, citizens are exposed to equal treatment; states
are represented equally at the national (federal) legislature arm of the Federal
Government irrespective of their size or population.
For Nigeria to be united, integrated and for its citizens to see and regard
themselves as one, there is need for all to come together, display a high sense of
national feelings, see ourselves as Nigerian first before any regional or tribal
loyalty. Its citizens need to be hardworking, accountable, patriotic, resist bad
leaders, fight corruption and corruption be discipline etc.
Conclusion
From the foregoing discussion, one can assert without any fear of contradictions
that, citizenship education is a fundamental tool for building and solidifying unity
in the nation. Nation like Nigeria that comprises over 360 different tribes
inevitably needs citizenship education as its vehicle to move the nation forward for
the fact that, nations that attained certain levels of unity in the world have prosper
considerably.
Recommendations
This paper has the following recommendations to offer which will help the country
to attain certain/reasonable level of unity and integration viz:
- Just like what happened to history education in the country recently by the
Federal government, citizenship education should also be introduced to all
levels of education starting from primary so that the spirit of nationalism, unity
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Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 21
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
and national integration will be planted in the minds of pupils right from
primary schools.
- Trainings/workshops should be regularly organized to lecturers and teachers at
all levels on citizenship education for the inculcation and promotion of unity
and integration in their minds so that it can be extended to their pupils and
students.
- Posters and pictures that carry messages of the importance of unity, solidarity
and integration should be made available to Nigerian populace so that
Nigerians will be enlightened on the importance attached to the unity and
integration.
- Media houses (Television, Radio etc) should be used in sending messages on
the usefulness of unity in the country.
- Non-Governmental organizations should equally give their helping hands in
any possible way towards national unity and integration of the country for
national development.
- The institutions of traditional rulers nationwide should be supported by the
Federal, states and local Governments to play their own roles of sensitizing
their followers on the roles/importance of unity and solidarity in the country for
development.
References
Alake, A.A. et al, (2000), Citizenship Education for Tertiary Institution, Adlak and
Associates, Lagos, Nigeria.
Argungu M. (2012) Citizenship Education for School and Colleges in Nigeria, OL-
Faith Prints, Gusau.
Dibie, C.C. (2003), Essential Government for Senior Secondary School, Ikeja
Tonad Publishers.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria; Lagos, Federal Government Press
Iyela A and Audu F. U., (ed) (2006) Social Studies for Higher Education Students,
Sunjo Publishing Company, Kaduna, Nigeria.
Khadiri Y. et al (2011). Fundamentals of Social Studies Education, Vol. 1,
Jaleyemi Graphics and General Enterprises, Kano, Nigeria.
Khadiri, K, et al, (2010). Dynamics of Social Studies Education, Volume 2,
Jaleyemi Graphics and General Enterprises Kano Nigeria.
Odunukwe, J. (2010). Nigerian Citizenship Education, Academic Publishing
Company Enugu Nigeria.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 22
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Accountability in Secondary School Education in
Zamfara State, Nigeria
Kanoma H.A
Department of Curriculum and Instruction Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
The fundamental aim of education is to serve as instrument for attaining
sustainable development, the ideal of national consciousness and awareness, may
not be achieved if there is no proper checks and balances in our education system.
Thus; achievement of the goals of education at different levels that is (Primary,
secondary and tertiary) will remain elusive. This paper therefore analyses the
concept of accountability and how it relates to education, the paper tries to answer
the questions is there accountability in education? To whom and for what the
teacher is accountable? It is the duty bound all institutional administrators that is,
principals, to give account of human and material resources invested in their
institutions. Accountability in education plays a significant role in the practice of
education, it is means through which proper checks and balances are ensured. It is
also means through which teaching are enhanced and other misconduct are
reduced. The paper also examined the effect of lack of proper accountability in
secondary education in Zamfara state. So also obstacle to accountability in
Nigeria Education system! To include poor record keeping and poor mode of
release of fund to schools among others based on this therefore the paper
recommended among other things that allocation of funds, equipment,
instructional materials and staff to schools should not be done haphazardly instead
there should be proper mode of doing such.
Keywords: Education, Accountability, Secondary School, Resources, Zamfara
State
Introduction
Education is one of the social systems that enable a particular society to function.
Education is defined Mahuta (2007) as simply one aspect of socialization which
includes the acquisition of knowledge and learning of skills. Another scholar also
Adeyinka (2000) defined education as ―the process of transmitting the culture of a
society from one generation to the other, the process by which the adult members
of a society bring up the younger ones.
One of the main concerns of education is to make an individual useful to himself
and contribute to the continuity and ‗up keep of his society. It is a social institution
and of course an investment. Education as an investment in human capital has
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Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 23
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
become a matter of priority for both government and individuals. The general
belief is that, education helps to enhance the wellbeing of the individual and the
society education in Nigeria is seen as a big industry with large investment.
This sector is considered as an instrument per excellence in nation building and to
aid the control of this institution, the Government handed down a national policy
on education, which specifies the structure, curricula, goals, and objectives of the
various levels (that is primary, secondary, and tertiary levels). Similarly,
substantial amount of funds are allocated in especially every annual budget for
management of both human and material resources. This is an input- output
process because desired results are expected -from the investment. However, in
Nigeria, many scholars are of the opinion that educational system is depicting a
negative trend when compared with the huge direct and indirect costs vested into
it.
As noted by Nakpodia & Okiemute (2011) there are a lot of wastages in Nigeria‘s
educational system. Wastage of real resources, human, fiscal and materials, is now
rampant in the system, some resources are misallocated and misused. Huge direct
and indirect loss involved, is of great concern to investors. Thus, over the years
calls for accountability in education have become imperative because of the
demand for constructive changes in our education system.
Accountability in education implies that those main actors in the curriculum
implementation that is (the teacher, head of the school, and statutory organs among
others) should constantly evaluate and demonstrate that the resources devoted to
education are being properly utilized to accomplish the target objectives.
Going by all the definitions given by the cited scholars one will come to realized
that accountability in secondary schools in Zamfara state does not make any
difference even if there is, because principals are no more accounting officers of
their respective schools due to external forces teachers may not give account of
their classroom teaching but they go with impunity, there was a report of a
principal who was removed because he removed his continuous assessment officer
and examination officer, and his reason of removing them was so simple that they
refused to give account of their respective offices.
The Concept of Accountability
―Accountability‖ stems from a Latin accomptare (to account), a prefixed form of
computare (to calculate), which in turn derived from putare (to reckon). While the
word itself does not appear in English until its use in 13th century Norman
England, the concept of account-giving has ancient roots in record keeping
activities related to governance and money-lending systems that first developed in
Ancient (Durosaro, ud).
Accountability could simply be viewed as the recording and reporting of the
activities and events affecting personnel, facilities, material or money of an
organization. Different scholars however use different words to explain what the
word accountability means.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 24
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
For instance, one of them, Helm (1995) maintain that sometimes the word
―accountability‖ is used synonymously with ―responsibility.‖ Other times, the term
appears to refers to reporting to those with oversight authority or, more globally, to
the general public; or to demonstrating compliance with established laws, rules,
regulations, or standards; or to distributing rewards and sanctions tied to results. In
other words, it involves responsibility, authority, evaluation and control.
The term accountability according to Goetz (1988) in gron1and (l974 simply
means having responsibility for or reporting to others on something, usually fund,
material or personnel utilized in an organization. This definition connotes that
anyone managing an organization should be responsible and ready to give periodic
account of how effective and efficient the system had performed over a given
period of time.
Another scholar Hultt (2000) simply put the concept of accountability as setting of
goals for action and ensuring that they are achieved. From the opinion of the
scholars above one can deduce that there is no place that accountability is needed
most better than schools because education activities everywhere in the world they
affect and they are also affected by the society because of that need for
accountability cannot be overemphasize, but in our secondary school today you
will find a teacher that does not care to write lesson plan, lesson note and even if
there is, is scanty he will not fill diaries and registers and with these the teacher
will go with impunity.
Accountability in Education
There are divergent views of scholars concerning accountability in education. For
instance, according to Adams et als (1967) in durosaro (ud) acountability in
education is specifically concerned with determining what records are to be kept,
how such records will be maintained in terms of the procedures, methodology and
forms to be used, recording, classification and summarization of activities of
events, analyzing and interpreting the recorded data, preparing and issuing reports
and statements which reflect conditions as of a given time. While Kokach (2006)
maintain that the concept of Accountability in education is closely related with the
concept of Management. While management is the Process of coordinating variety
of resources, human and nonhuman to produce desired result, on the other hand,
Accountability implies a measure of the extent to which all available resources in a
productive system are used for greater efficiency and productivity.
Similarly, Nakpodia & Okiemute (2011) are of the view that in any organization,
(school inclusive) there must be a delegation of power and authority by the
superior to the personnel on the lower level and lower level personnel will be
answerable to the superior by being held accountable. Therefore, Accountability in
education tends to ascertain that performance is related to the stated goals. It is a
goal oriental activity when viewed from the input perspectives. It is measures of
how well resources are integrated to produce high output.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Durosaro (ud) maintains that educational activities in most countries affect or are
affected by almost every individual in the nation in one way or another, therefore
in the process of accounting for the progress of educational system each person has
a place in the scheme of things. Each individual is responsible to or for someone
else and for specific activities towards goal achievement. In addition, taking
Nigeria educational system as an example, to him accountability in education
follows this chain;
Classroom Teacher Accountability
Classroom teacher is accountable for the expected outcome of his teachings and
other classroom interaction with the students within the framework of the overall
national educational objectives. Some of the schedule of work which the teacher
carries out in school can be used as means through to ensure his accountability.
Example of such are: Through filling of lesson plan, lesson note, diaries, and other
school records. The teacher is accountable directly to the institutional
administrator. In Nigerian education system especially at primary level, classroom
teacher is sometimes confronting by the team of supervisors or inspectors to give
account of his task.
In Zamfara state education sector constitute ministry of education science and
technology the ministry is charge with responsibility of formulating and
implementing educational policies. They also oversee and coordinate the activities
of all boards and agencies concerned with education, these are teacher‘s service
board female education board and Arabic and Islamic education board but it
appeared that both the ministry boards an agencies are not being accountable to the
people of Zamfara state despite the fact that their statutory function is stated
clearly.
1. Teacher‘s service board: the functions of this board are essentially
recruitment, appointment, promotion, and posting, transfer discipline of
teaching and non-teaching staff of the schools under the board.
2. Science and technical teachers board: the board was established to among
other functions develop policies strategies for the development science and
technical education in the state it recruits appoint, post and promote
teaching and non-teaching staff of the board.
3. Female education board: the board was established in 2001 to supervise and
control all female secondary schools‘ other functions of the board was
provided by law included. Recruitment training, payment of salaries
promotion of staff and feeding all female student in Focal primary schools.
To ensure public accountability that is the essence of quality assurance in
education sector for the system to meet set standard, to improve teaching and
learning, the process involved monitoring assessing evaluation at communicating
the outcome to all concern in order to ensure quality with integrity, in Zamfara
state today ensuring quality in secondary education is generally lacking because
there is little or no supervision of schools, schools inspectors are supposed to visit,
school 3 times per term and 9 times per session, but sometimes once or none at all.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Dimensions of Accountability in Education
Accountability in education is both highly complex and highly sensitive it takes so
many dimensions as follows:
1. Procedural accountability which refers to form of accountability in school
organization that is directed toward process (how something was done). For
example, If one has been delegated the authority to engage in some activity,
then one is responsible, at the least, for conducting the activity ―properly‖—
that is, in accord with prevailing expectations that guide how the activity
should be conducted.
2. Consequential accountability. This implies consequences or results of one‘s
actions—whether positive or negative, and whether intended or not.
3. Helm (1995) also added that there are both internal and external dimension
of accountability in education That is, some accountability relationships
occur among providers and recipients located within the same organization
(internal), while other accountability relationships involve recipients of
accountability located outside the organization (external).
4. In Nigerian, primary education at the state level provides a clear example.
For instance, Education officials at state ministry of education account for
funding, supply of materials to schools‘ supervision of schools while
Principals account for the materials supplied to school. The classroom
teacher on the other hand takes account for the maintaining of students
grades and attendance records.
5. Similarly, Durosaro (ud) observes that accountability in education can be of
four types. These include:
6. Product Accountability. This relates to the evaluation of teaching
effectiveness and the extent to which the teacher achieves the expected
outcome of teaching and the classroom interaction.
7. Input Accountability. This is concerns the evaluation of the extent of
adequacy of supervision, monitoring and evaluation of the operation of the
system.
8. Goal Accountability. This relates to the evaluation of the selection, definition
and prioritization of the goals and objectives of education.
9. Accountability for means and enabling environment. This refers to the
evaluation of the extent to which the general public had cooperated in
providing the required resources for education and for creating the right
atmosphere for the pursuit of education in their state.
Roles of Accountability in Education
From the foregoing discussion, it is obvious that Accountability play a number of
roles in the practice of education. Some of these roles include;
1. Accountability is means through which proper checks and balances in
education are ensured.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 27
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
2. It is also a means through which teaching is enhanced and other school
misconduct are reduced.
3. Through the process of product accountability, the effectiveness or otherwise
of teaching learning process could assessed and the extent to which
objectives are achieved could be ascertained.
4. Accountability in education can also be considered as a means through
teaching learning process can be improve for the benefit of learners.
Effects of Lack of proper Accountability in Nigerian Education
Despite huge amount of resources invest in Nigeria educational sector; it is
obvious that there is deficiency with the outputs or products that many
educationists attributed to improper accountability. For instance, Nakpodia &
Okiemute (2011) observe that, the products of the three levels of the nation‘s
educational system are seen as showing a negative trend when compared with the
huge direct and indirect costs vested into it. In other words, the standard is falling
and this is a thought provoking issue. Similarly, Lessing (1974) an accountability-
leading proponent in Nakpodia & Okiemute (2011) said that our schools have
failed to educate our children because not every child has competencies in the
basic skills. Another scholar, Okobiah (1999) in Kokach (2006) believed that there
is problem inherent in the process and the product of the education system. Schools
are not making any noticeable impact in achieving the set goals and objectives as
well as on the nation‘s socio-economic development. Thus, most parents and other
benefactors of education products are disenchanted with the outcome of the school
to the extent that they now seek substitute for their children‘s education even in the
face of free education programme. In fact, citizens are fast losing some of their
blind faith in education as an instrument for achieving social awareness, political
astuteness and economic prosperity. Billions of naira is budgeted and directed into
our education system without corresponding outcome. The much-needed
quantitative, qualitative, productive, efficient and functional graduates in line with
national goals seen elusive. It appears that the system has failed to live up to
expectation. In addition, the decline in the rate returns amidst high cost of
education also shows the administrative inefficiency and incompetence in the
management of schools.
Nakpodia & okiemute (2011) also added that, over the years there is problem of
lack of accountability in Nigeria‘s education sector and the effect is that there are
neglect and wastages in the system. Wastage of real resources, human, fiscal and
materials, is now rampant in the system, some resources are misallocated and
misused. Huge direct and indirect loss involved, is of great concern to investors.
Obviously, administrators are confronted with enormous challenges as regards
matter of accountability during their managerial function. They ought to ensure
that they account for their teachers‘ performance in the course of discharging their
duties.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 28
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Obstacle to Accountability in Nigerian Education
There many factors in Nigerian educational system in specific that are working
against ensuring proper accountability. Durosaro (ud) highlight the following:
1. Poor record keeping in the educational system particularly in the schools.
2. Fraudulent practices owing to the existing poverty syndrome in the country
coupled with our poor value system.
3. Poor mode of release of funds to the school system and
Other obstacles include:
4. Inadequate qualified and trained supervisors or inspectors.
5. Poor value system
Conclusion
Until recently, the issue of accountability is more peculiar to political and
economic institutions but now Education as an investment in human capital has
become a matter of priority for both government and individuals, thus receive a
lots of investment. Accountability in education is therefore requiring for proper
utilization of both human and material resources involves for the attainment of
objectives.
Recommendations
1. Based on the findings from this paper on the obstacles to proper accountability
in education, the following are some the suggestions:
2. Adequate record keeping materials and equipment should be provided to
schools by the authorities responsible. Head teachers have to ensure that
teachers give proper account of instructional process since it is the centre of all
educational process.
3. Allocation of funds, equipment, instructional materials, and staff to schools
should not be done hazardily, instead there should be proper mode of doing
such: This will provide a basis for holding those involve accountable.
4. Supervisors especially at primary level need to undergo proper training either
through on job training or workshops organize for them by reputable
professionals like resource persons from faculties of education from the
universities. This will expose them to techniques of effective supervision.
5. Transparent measures need to be taken to discourage fraudulent practices in
our schools.
6. Adequate punishment and measures need to be taken against those involved in
fraudulent practices.
7. Proper enlightenment including preaching for people to imbibe good value
system
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 29
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
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Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 30
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Sports, Education and Politics in Nigeria: Challenges
and Prospects
1Saratu Kabir and
2Lawal Musa
1Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
2Department of Primary Education Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract
Today, the recent political changes provide Nigeria with the opportunity for a
fundamental review of policies that will prepare the country to meet the challenges
of the new century. Nowhere is this more than in the sports and education sectors.
Sports and education have served various purposes for different nations at
different times as it concerns Nation Building and Democracy. The valuable role of
the two in the politics of a nation cannot be over-emphasized. The country needs to
re-examine its past and focus on sports and education in politics development
plans that will meet the challenges of the future. This paper reviewed the concepts
of sports and education, challenges affecting politics are also discussed; this
include high level corruption, basing of political activity on greed, selfishness and
domination, lawlessness, and jungle justice among others. The paper also noted
the impact of sports and education. Approaches to reduce and manage these
challenges were suggested among others; Government should encourage seminar,
conference, workshop where related issues on the values of sports and education in
politics should be discussed mostly among the Nigerian youths.
Keywords: Sports, Education and Politics
Introduction Sports and education are seriously interwoven; one promotes the other. One is also
embedded in the other as sports forms parts of education, so also education
provides forum by which different aspects of sports manifest its practices and
activities. Sports and education is vital and dependable weapon for all kinds of
battles; it is today‘s greater marketing instrument for political mass mobilization
and for direct governance and anchorage for national and international unity.
Sports has become an important aspect of Nigerian culture so much that the
interest in and popularity of sports have affected the political, social, security,
economic and educational fabrics of the nation; the review become imperative as
the nation is gearing towards rebranding and reviewing its sports development
policy. The review will go a long way in assisting and bringing to light some silent
issues that have been overlooked over the years
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 31
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Education is a process devised by society for its own perpetual and continuity. It is
the most important catalyst to political development. Since the independence of
Nigeria in October 1, I960, problems have been disturbing the nation and her
leaders so much other than the national unity and political democracy. In Nigeria
today, even the most myopic observers are aware that competitive sports and
education have been connected with the social turbulence of our time and has
become a part and parcel of political struggles. Notably, sports and education are
closely related with man‘s existence, economy and politics (Park, 2003). To the
whole world, sports and education has become an effective instrument of
international politics and one of the easiest ways of promoting the image of a
nation.
Concepts of Sports and Education Sports are the various activities which man engages in from childhood to
adulthood which promotes the acquisition of mental, physical, spiritual, aesthetic,
emotional and educational well-being to make the individual contribute
meaningfully to the development of the society. Aspects of sports are designed and
translated into subject as Physical and Health Education which forms part of
education curriculum in Nigeria.
The following are the objectives of sports: physical fitness, social efficiency, skill
acquisition, emotional stability, life career, cultural development and mental
development. The concept of education on the other hand is the systematic process
of acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities and information through informal
formal and non-formal teaching and learning. In order for the body of knowledge
to be acquired to be properly organized, synthesized and formalized, educational
contents are divided into subjects who are in turn developed into curriculum for
ease of teaching and learning at various educational levels. (Okediji, 2015).
Education is knowledge acquisition, its process and means which a society
evolves for the purposes of impacting its values and morals, and in pursuance and
attainment of its collective vision aspirations and goals (Kolawole, 2006).
According to Eze (2004) education is the transmission of what is worthwhile to
individuals to make them knowledgeable and contributing members of the society.
Amuchie, (1999) states that sport is a mirror of the society; that provides a touch
stone for understanding how people live, work, think and play as well as serving as
a barometer of a nation‘s progress and civilization. It is understood that sports are
one of the social services that nations of the world provide for their citizens and for
such service (sport) to flourish, there must be a laid down philosophy and policy.
Sport is a social phenomenon that has grown from its humble beginning of being
an entertainment and recreation pastime to become a visible and prominent
business phenomenon that could no more be ignored in the political and economic
environment of any nation. (Morakinyo, 2000).
Finally, one could see that the two concepts sports and education are interwoven
and closely related. This is because sports translated into Physical and health
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 32
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
education in the curriculum, forms part of the content for systematic process of
teaching and learning which develops a child to adult and builds him or her up to
become a responsible member of the society.
Challenges in Sports and Education in Politics Over the past decade, Nigeria has been plagued by frequent political unrest. This
political instability has generated negative effects on the sports and education
system. These difficulties have been most pronounced at the foundation levels of
sports and education. Although the sectors had been in crisis for many years, the
situation has recently been made worse by frequent strikes staged by different
government sectors. Much of the difficulty lies in the fact that the sectors are
poorly funded. This result in shortages of materials and human resources for
education and sports: a brain drain from the public sector; few instructional inputs,
and a host of other problems. These endangering factors include:
1. The financing of education in Nigeria since the colonial era has been a
major problem, because the budget allocation for it was usually small
compared to the amount needed to fund it. Most states in Nigeria up till
date have not been able to meet up with the minimum of 26 percent that the
United Nations organization recommended for education vote in the
budget. It is based on this under estimation of education in the yearly
budget that sporting activities suffer at all levels of education in Nigeria.
The case even becomes worse during economic recession. The revenue
from sports is no longer adequate to run sports in Nigeria and that the era of
enough grants has gone. Onifade (1992) comments on the above and said,
―Government subventions are not enough anymore to run
sports successfully. Financing sports has become a big
problem to the agencies responsible for it in Nigeria.‖
2. The basic problems confronting Nigeria‘s political system today is lack of
effective participation of the people in matters affecting them. Participation
is a factor of multiple variables comprising involvement in decision-making
process, implementation of made decisions, sharing in the benefits of made
and implemented decisions and monitoring the entire process. Compared
with the past, particularly the immediate post-independent Nigeria, there
appears today to be a sudden withdrawal of the people from political life.
Indeed, there is today a culture of every man to himself, which pervades the
entire society including those who occupy public positions thereby
hindering the necessary development. (Nwankwo, 2003 & 2012).
3. Most Nigerians are often misinformed or completely uninformed about the
workings, actions and policies of government. Some assert of the people
who participate in elections and other programmes do not clearly
understand the issues involved; some vote wrongly because they were told
to do so or because they were disinterested in the electioneering process
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 33
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
while others stay away from the entire electioneering process completely
(Vincent 2011)
4. Another problem is that of a general feeling of despondency on the part of
many Nigerians. A general feeling of alienation permeates the entire
political terrain of Nigeria. Nwankwo (2012) asserts that apathy and
powerlessness are key factors that can best be used to describe citizens‘
political life in Nigeria. It is this apathy of the people that stood in the way
of massive citizens‘ consciousness while powerlessness is indicated by the
fact that most Nigerians do not seem to have any means of participating in
politics other than during elections which on many occasions are fraught
with challenges. As such, there is the belief that there‘s little or no control
over what elected officials do as representatives of the people in between
elections to the extent that many have lost confidence in politics and
associated activities and therefore spent incalculable efforts in fruitless
sectional, ethnic and religious quarrels (Obasanjo, 1999).
Explaining the concept of powerlessness, Nwankwo (2012) notes that it has
multiple negative ramifications: the breakdown of trust in indifference and
even hostility to government and its activities. Others include high level
corruption, basing of political activity on greed, selfishness and
domination, lawlessness, jungle justice, etc, rather than the awareness of
the inherent requirement of peace and mutual coexistence. All these are
issues of concern endangering developmental processes.
5. Lack of political awareness is greatly associated with the predominance of
illiterates that constitute the electorate. Consequently, the uninformed
electorate tends to ignore character or issues such as infrastructure,
unemployment, corruption, insecurity, and living conditions. Their voting
decisions are rather based on trivial considerations like party loyalty, social
ties, ethnic and religious affiliations among others
6. Poor administration of sports and education at the three tiers of
government, frequent changes in the machinery and administrative
structure of sports and education as well as in the leadership and
membership of the governing also affect sports and education in political
process in Nigeria
7. Another pitfall is the disagreements about the sharing of the country‘s
resources by privileged elite with access to the handles of political power.
The vast majorities do not even know what is going on, nor do they really
care who rules them, provided they can live well within the geographical
space called Nigeria no matter its structural arrangement.
8. The country still languishes as Third World where corruption thrives, the
misguided youths, jobless, idle, poorly educated, dehumanized by the
corruption and brazen looting in the country, are now angling for a ‗war‘
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 34
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
when there is nothing else for them to do than be spoilt brats! (Odegbami
2017).
Roles of Sports and Education in Politics in Nigeria Sports, education and political democracy are social institutions. There are obvious
lessons that the political democratic process can learn from sports and education
for its good and credibility as spelt out by some authors below:
1. The first thing every player or athlete internalizes, to ensure successful
participation, is the rules of the game. By playing in adherence to rules,
sports impacts discipline and good conduct on players. Political democracy
can be very successful if the politicians play it according to laid down rules
as sports people do on the field.
2. Second, in a sport situation or contest, only one team takes the gold medal
or wins. There are usually winners and losers. Both losers and winners
shake hands and embrace one another as they look forward to a future
opportunity of engagement. This value system is something politicians
must learn from the sports institution. Given that the umpire has done
his/her job well without bias and outcome is objectively reached, then, we
must accept the result of any election as sports teams accept the outcome of
games. In order to win a sports contest, no coach can risk not fielding
his/her first eleven or best performers. Political parties must in the same
vein ensure that as they select their flag bearer, they will be objective
enough to pick the best candidates for the different levels of the political
contests, as sports teams do
3. Integrating sports into a political manifesto is a means of achieving social
cohesion and an activity that evokes great passion among the people.
Therefore, using it as a campaign issue can draw the sports adherents to
political contenders, a candidate that makes sports a campaign issue
portrays himself or herself as a lover of young people, who is ready to
protect their interests. (Isiguzo, 2011).
4. Sporting events tend to bring different people with different cultures and
works of life together. Mere contact with sporting events has a contagious
fascination even among the most improbable participants and spectators.
That a richly diverse group of spectators-doctors, lawyers, merchants, and
women become an ordinary devoted gathering with nothing in common,
except sports that reduce idleness and encourage the enjoyment and
entertainment they are able to make more contacts, more friends and even
more money. Sports help them have the tendency to broaden, spread,
diversify and helps to assume a greater role in the general security in
political strategies of any Nation if properly maximized mostly in Nigeria
to reduce the tension and anxiety
5. Character in children and youth can be enhanced in sports and education
settings towards political system ―when fair play, sportsmanship and moral
development information is systematically and consistently taught.‖ In
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
other words, given that sports and education are a powerful social
experience in the lives of children and youth, positive character
development may occur under the right circumstances. (Awoyinfa &
Adebayo, 2016).
6. There are many situations that globally promote Political war. which pull
countries, states, town even villages apart, but sports and education values
have been identified as a unifying force that bring States, Towns and
Countries together irrespective of religion, language, tribe and cultural
differences.
Conclusion
The politics of 2019 in some states in Nigeria is already on the starting blocks and
the starters‘ gun is up for the race to commence, it is the concern of all Nigerians
that this political process should run well according to the rules. We can learn from
sports and education where friendship is the bedrock of competition and
participation, where the human spirit and physicality are tested to the limit in
search for excellence, experience, patience, the dedication, the team work and team
spirit, the hard work, the personal sacrifices without guarantees, the selflessness,
the patriotic spirit and zeal, and the unity embedded in the fabric of sports and
education. Sports and education are mirrors of a society because they mirror or
show the fundamental values of any given society. Therefore, a developing nation
like Nigeria can utilize education and sports to achieve a political democracy. With
the hope that credible and performance – driven winners will emerge for the
overall good of our nation. From all of these analyses; we can glaringly see that
political engineering has much to learn from the sports and education system,
modeling the political process after the sports and education institution is a sure
strategy for political success. Therefore, we all have a role to play in ensuring its
success.
Recommendations
Nigeria as a reconstituted democracy needs to re-examine its past and focus on
sports and education in politics development plans that will meet the challenges of
the future. In the light of the above, the following recommendations are suggested:
1. Government should encourage seminar, conference, workshop where
related issues on the values of sports and education in politics should be
discussed mostly among the Nigerian youth.
2. Real political education added to lessons and verbal arguments must also be
action and model-based. That has to be a slow, systematic and continuous
process of orientation and re-orientation in premise and goal in the family,
the school, Mosques, Churches and other relevant institutions.
3. Sports and education can make a modest contribution to politics resolution
and peaceful coexistence in regions of violence. Therefore, focused projects
should be locally grounded, carefully thought out, and professionally
managed at all levels.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 36
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
4. Following recent political changes which saw the reintroduction of
democracy in the country, the government should acknowledge the need to
revise and update the National Policy on Education once more to ensure
that the education and sports system meets the needs of a new democracy.
5. Government, private school owners, school heads, parents, NGOs, sports
and education administrators/managers and coaches are joint collaborators
in the decline observed in the educational and sports standard in the country
today, therefore, government should play a leading role.
References
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Education and Recreational Indices in Promoting Health and Peace among
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for all Nigerians. Science Teacher Today J. School Sci., Federal College of
Education, Eha-Amufu, Enugu State. 2(1).
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Nigeria, 1904 till date. History Research, Vol. 5, No. 3, 188-196
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politics-of-2011
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Ibadan Cultural Studies Group (ICSG), Faculty of Arts, University of
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Development in Nigeria. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Sport and Social
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Nwankwo, B.O. (2003). Institutional Designs and Functionality of African
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Nwankwo, B. O. (2012). The challenges of political education in contemporary
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Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 38
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Managerial Practice of Head-Teachers and Qualty
Assurance in Public Primary Schools in Zamfara State,
as Strategy for Sustainable Development in Nigeria
1Muhammad Nura U. and
2Umar Babangida
1Department of Educational Psychology, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
2Department of Economics, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract
This study examined the managerial practices of primary school head- teachers and
quality assurance in selected Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Zamfara State of
Nigeria. The ex-post factor descriptive design was employed for this study. The
sample comprised 215, out of 305 primary schools head-teachers in Anka and
Bungudu Local Governments‘ area LGAs in Zamfara state. Stratified random
sampling method was used for the selection of the sample for the research subjects.
Stratification was based on the dimensions of Senatorial Districts. 2 instruments
tagged primary school managerial practice questionnaire (PSMPQ) and primary
school record keeping questionnaire (PSRKQ) were used for data collection. The
instruments were validated by experts in Test and Measurement, while they had
reliability index of 0.5 each through test-retest at 3 weeks‘ intervals, using
Regression Analysis and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC). The data
collected were tested against 3 objectives, and 3 research questions. It was found
among other things that there is significant positive relationship between
managerial practices of primary school head teachers and quality assurance; head-
teachers in most of the schools adopted a centralized record keeping. Therefore,
the study recommendations include, that there was need for education stake-
holders should inspire head teachers‘ record keeping and commitment to quality
assurance in our primary schools for sustainable development, primary education
has been identified as the most sensitive stratum, it determines the success or
failure of the entire education system.
Keywords: Managerial Practices, Head-Teachers, Quality Assurance and
Sustainable Development
Introduction
The Ministry of Education has the responsibility to manage education through the
head-teachers‘ supervisory skills and practices. The head teachers are responsible
for supervising the entire primary school activities towards achieving quality
education. Primary schools are unique organizations designed to achieve specific
goals of preparing good citizens. This makes it mandatory to emphasize that the
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 39
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
head teachers‘ responsibilities on managerial practices and quality assurance
should not be under estimated. Yusuf (2016) opined that for effective realization of
school policies, the administrative responsibilities should not be exclusively for
head teachers. However, they will be held responsible for whatever happens in
their schools.
Lena (2015) stated that the roles and responsibilities of school head-teachers/
principals are vital to the function of individual schools. There is therefore need to
have policies that actually result in school environment in terms of performance.
Kilanga (2013) noted that the school principals need to be well prepared in leading
organizational changes which address the performance gaps of students. The
development of the education sector has been a long standing objective of the
government of Kenya since independence in 1963 to date.
Managerial practice can be regarded as a measure of the success in school
administration, because it is the extent to which the set goals and objectives of a
school programme is accomplished, taken into consideration some specific
management functions, such as planning, organising and coordinating (Yusuf,
2016).
Quality has always been measured by financial and other inputs. With time, the
term quality relates to educational output (Ogundele & Adelabu, 2009). As
education faces new challenges, new concept of quality develops. Although the
universal concept of quality relates to what is being taught and how well it fits
present and future needs of the learners but in line with UNESCO concept, another
way of looking at quality is in relation to its input and one of such inputs is the
learners. Specifically, UNESCO views quality in six dimensions that is: learners,
environment, content, processes, outcomes and responsiveness, (UNESCO, 2000).
National Policy on Education (2013) states that among the strata of the education
system, primary education has been identified as the most sensitive stratum, the
reason being that it determines the success or failure of the entire system. At this
level, children are prepared for a broad-based education which emphasizes the
attainment of permanent and functional literacy, numeracy and effective
communication skills. This calls for qualitative service delivery in primary
schools‘ system and quality assurance is required to ensure sustainable quality
education at this level. Government‘s shall establish efficient and effective quality
assurance agencies at Federal, States/FCT and Local Government levels for
monitoring and maintaining set standards at all levels of education below the
tertiary level. Quality assurance agencies in both State and Ministries of
Education/FCT Education Secretariat and Local Government Education
Authorities in collaboration with the Federal Quality Assurance Agency shall be
responsible for the organization of supervision and inspection of all educational
institution under their jurisdiction.
Adebowale & Osuji (200) state that records do not only enable school
administrators to have a clear picture of what is available and what is required,
they provide justification for certain needs and seem to extend the memory by
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 40
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
which persons and/or organizations can pass on their culture and achievement to
the future generation. In fact, the content and quality of school record (such as
lesson plans, report cards, etc.) can serve as a direct reflection of the amount of
work that has been expended on the school enterprise. Also, records help school
administrators and parents to keep a concise and accurate timeline of events in the
life of the pupils. Individuals may think they will be able to recollect past events,
but it is easier to use a written record.
Managerial Practices
Managerial practices are all that a manager does with regard to carrying out one‘s
stipulated job-related duties. In a school situation, these are the various tasks
designated to be effected by head teacher of the school and others by way of
having been delegated to attend to them by the school head (Ministry of Education
and Human Resource Development, 1999 in Mathuva, 2013). Such managerial
functions are a vital ingredient for improved pupil learning and academic
performance, and go a long way towards the creation of child friendly school,
(Mathuva, 2013).
Quality Assurance
Ogundele & Adelabu, (2009) defines Quality Assurance as ―the preventing of
quality problems through planned and systematic activities. This will include the
establishment of a good quality management system and the assessment of its
adequacy, the audit of the operation of the system, and the review of the system
itself. Basically, Quality Assurance involves setting attainable standards for a
process, organizing work so that objectives are achieved as well as ensuring the
documenting of procedures required, communicating them to all concerned, and
monitoring in order to review the attainment of standards. Its goals are the
anticipation and avoidance of faults or mistakes.
Drawing from the above definitions, Quality Assurance in education can be
regarded as the systematic management, monitoring and evaluation procedures
adopted to measure the performance of school headmasters, teachers and pupils
against educational objectives towards ensuring best practices in instructional
inputs, through-put, outputs and improvement drives. Therefore, capacity
development and curriculum delivery system become important for attention when
seeking achievement of set standards in primary schools. A critical look at the
definitions shows that quality assurance is evidence-based and directed at efficient
and effective resource utilization in institutional management by headmasters and
curriculum delivery by teachers in primary schools.
In relating quality assurance to primary education, therefore, it is obvious that the
systematic practice of verifying or determining whether the products of primary
schools i.e pupils, actually acquired the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
expected of them at that level via the curriculum offerings i.e both curricular and
co-curricular activities. Quality assurance, viewed from this perspective would
result in qualitative primary education because it is a monitoring and evaluation
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
mechanism put in place to ensure that curriculum and instructional practices are
consistent with and leading to the attainment of the set objectives of primary
education. Therefore, quality assurance is a total and holistic process concerned
with ensuring the integrity of an outcome (UBE, 2015).
Sustainable Development
The concept entails developmental strategy that manage all assets, natural
resources as well as financial and physical assets for increasing long-term wealth
and well- being (Repetto, 1996). Sustainable development could be seen to
encompass all attempts to ensure meeting the needs of the existing inhabitant of a
community without jeopardizing the ability of its future generation.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the managerial practices of head-
teachers in Zamfara state public primary schools for sustainable development. The
study attempted to: examine whether head-teachers‘ effective managerial practice
of record keeping in quality assurance can lead to the attainment of basic education
for sustainable development in the state under study.
Statement of the problem The problem of poor performance in secondary schools in national examinations
has been a great concern of all stakeholders in Zamfara central senatorial Zone, the
situation has been worse due to the continuous students‗ poor academic
performance every year. Very few students qualify to join tertiary institution from
the zone. And this problem is linked to the attainment of proper basic education
which is the foundational stage.
The Departments of Quality Assurance through the primary school- head teachers
has the responsibility of the improvement of the standards of education in our
primary schools. The supervisors are responsible to give feedback by reporting
what they have seen to relevant stakeholders. They should therefore have acquired
special skills and knowledge to the job such as human resource, report writing and
good communication skills.
Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study are to:
1). Investigate influence of Quality Assurance and managerial practices of
head-teachers in public primary schools in Zamfara state.
2). Ascertain the level of managerial practices on record keeping among head-
teachers in Zamfara state.
3). Investigate the relationship between managerial practices and record
keeping in quality assurance among the primary schools‘ head-teachers in
Zamfara state.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Research Questions
In order to achieve the objectives stated above, the following questions were
posed:
1. How effective are the primary school head-teacher‘s in discharging their
managerial responsibilities?
2. What is the level of managerial practices on record keeping among primary
school head-teachers in Zamfara State?
3. What is the effect of the independent variables (managerial practice) on the
dependent variables (quality assurance)?
Significance to the Study The study addressed the managerial practices of head-teachers‘ in public primary
schools in Zamfara Central Senatorial Zone. It highlights the managerial practices
on record keeping among the head- teachers which can result to improved
performance in attainment of basic education in the zone. The study will also help
Quality Assurance and Standards Officers to change attitudes and be committed to
their duties in schools, strengthen Quality Assurance Standards Officers and the
teachers to work in a more cooperate way to enhance their relationship to promote
educational standards in the country.
Methodology
The ex-post factor descriptive design was employed for this study. The sample
comprised 215, out of 305 primary schools head-teachers in Anka and Bungudu
Local Governments‘ area (LGAs) in Zamfara state. Stratified random sampling
method was used for the selection of the sample for the research subjects.
Stratification was based on the dimensions of Senatorial Districts. 2 instruments
tagged primary school managerial practice questionnaire (PSMPQ) and primary
school record keeping questionnaire (PSRKQ) were used for data collection. The
instruments were validated by experts in Test and Measurement, while they had
reliability index of 0.5 each through test-retest at 3 weeks‘ intervals, using
Regression Analysis and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC). The state
contained three senatorial districts (Zamfara central, Zamfara North and Zamfara
West) and 14 Local Governments areas. Two Local Government areas were
randomly selected from central and western senatorial districts. Only 200 returned
questionnaires were found usable, representing 93% usable rate. The researcher
conducted the research in Zamfara Central and Western Senatorial Zones because
at the time of this study he is a resident in the area.
Instrumentation
Two researcher developed instrument tagged primary school managerial practice
questionnaire (PSMPQ) and primary school record keeping questionnaire
(PSRKQ), they were used for data collection. PSMPQ sought information on the
areas of primary school head teacher‘s administrative practice, effectiveness in
teaching and learning process, government and community relationship, SBMC
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 43
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
and CBO relationship, while PSMPQ concerned with information on primary
school head teachers record keeping practice. The instrument was structured on a
four point likert type rating scale that ranges from Strongly Agree (SA) =4, Agree
(A) =3, Disagree (D) =2 and Strongly Disagreed (SD) =1.
The instruments were validated by expert in the Faculty of Education and
Extension Services of Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto and experts in Test
and Measurement in the Faculty of Education and Extension Services of Usmanu
Danfodiyo University, Sokoto. The instrument contained 8 items. The instrument
reliability was ensured by pilot testing it in schools outside the scope of the study
through test-retest at three weeks‘ interval. The Regression Analysis and Pearson
Product Movement Correlation formula was used to get a reliability index of 0.5
for the instrument. The instrument was administered on the subjects with little
assistance from colleagues.
Research Question 1: How effective are the primary school head- teachers in
discharging their managerial duties?
Table 1: Descriptive statistic of Primary Schools’ Managerial duties
Primary school managerial
Effectiveness
Frequency Percentage (%)
Very Effective 140 70%
Effective 40 20%
Moderately Effective 15 7.5%
Not Effective 05 2.5%
Total 200 100
Table 1, shows the response of primary school teachers on primary school
managerial practice. The results reveals that 70% of the primary school teachers
responded that their primary schools‘ management were very effective, 20%
reported that the school administrators were effective, 7.5% indicated that the
administrators were moderately effective, however, 2.5% respondents agreed that
the primary schools managerial practice were not effective. This analysis
established that the primary school head teachers in Zamfara state are very
effective in discharging their managerial duties.
Research Question 2, what is the level of primary school head teacher‘s record
keeping practice in Zamfara state?
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 44
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Table 2: Descriptive statistic of primary schools’ head- teachers record keeping
practice
Level of Record Keeping Frequency Percentage (%)
Very High 145 72.5%
High 45 22.5%
Low 07 3.5%
Very Low 03 1.5%
Total 200 100
Table 2, shows that 72.5% indicated the level of primary schools‘ record keeping is
very high, 22.5% are of the opinion that the level primary schools record keeping
is high, 3.5% responded that the is low, while 1.5% indicated that the level is very
low. This implies that the level of primary schools‘ record keeping among primary
school head teachers in Zamfara state is very high.
Research Question 3, what is the effect of managerial practice on quality
assurance?
Table 3: What is the effect of managerial practice on quality assurance?
Multiple R R2 Adjusted
Square
R- Standard of the Estimate
.988 .976 .964 32.40489
ANOVA
Model
Sum of
Square
Df Mean square
F-ratio Remark (sig)
Regression
85524.596
1
85524.596
81.446
.012b
Residual 2100.154 2 1050.077
Total 87624.750 3
Significant at 0.5
Table 3 shows the joint effect of the independent variable to the dependent
variables. That is, managerial practices correlate positively with the predicted
variable (statistic of primary schools‘ head teachers‘ record keeping practice),
Table 3 shows a coefficient of multiple correlation (R) of 0.988, and multiple R-
square of 0.976. This means that 97 % of the variance in managerial practices is
accounted for by the predicted variable when in use, and other omitted or not
included in this model may be accounted for the remaining variance. The
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 45
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
significance of the composite contribution resulted in P=0.012, at the degree of
(df=1/2), yield ratio factor of 81.446 (Significant at 0.05 Level). This implies that
the joint contribution of the independent variable (managerial practices) is
significant.
Summary of Major Findings:
1. Head teachers in most of the schools are very effective in discharging their
managerial duties.
2. It was also found that head teachers do not keep separate records for each
pupil, in many of the schools; records of all their pupils are kept in one
single ledger, although this can be attributed to the economic state of the
schools.
3. The independent variables significantly contribute to dependent variables
(managerial practice of head-teacher and quality assurance)
Discussion Results from the tables shows that primary school head-teachers were very effective in the
discharge of their managerial duties and reveals they have realised that records are one of
the school most valuable assets, and believe that through proper record keeping they will
be able to meet with the quality assurance, and the importance associated to record
keeping have assisted them greatly in their managerial duties.
The major reason adduced to this, is that records support decision making,
demonstrate quality assurance compliance and importantly enable primary schools
head teachers in discharging their managerial duties. Result from table 3, indicates
a significant and positive association between record keeping and quality
assurance, which implies that keeping of record impacts quality assurance. This
finding is line with Mbiti, (2006) who mentioned that proper record keeping is a
strong determinant of managerial effectiveness in our schools‘ system.
The head- teachers are responsible for maintaining and retrieving items of records
when needed, which adds to his duty in terms of the day-to-day running of the
school and supervision of instruction, knowledge of record keeping via
computerization was found to be very scanty. It is the view of the researcher that
centralized record centers like the ones the respondents claim to be operating in
basic education schools can only be effective where such centers are properly and
periodically maintained and as such, are free from dangers of fire, extremes of
weather conditions, insect infestation, etc. In fact, Chifwepa (2001) described
record maintenance and retrieval as a serious task and recommended that an
official (store keeper or clerk) should be solely designated to carry out these duties
while Hrach (2006) asserted that records must be kept in a locked file, withdrawn
only by those staff privileged to the information therein, and returned to the locked
file at the end of each working day.
The results also shows a significant relationship between pupils records and quality
assurance, this means that information at the entry point would go a long way in
guiding the teachers on the pupil‘s performance, which is a strong source of
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 46
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
information about the efficiency and effectiveness of the teachers on discharging
their duties.
Conclusion
No meaningful development can be achieved without good education; therefore,
sustainable development and education are intertwined. Record keeping occupies a
strategic position in the efficient and effective management of the primary school
education. Proper implementation of record keeping practices improves efficiency
and access to information, meets compliance with obligations and minimizes risks
posed by inadequate records management. Hence, the paper concludes that for
effective primary education and quality assurance, record keeping is indispensable.
Recommendations
1. There is need to inspire quality consciousness in school operators and
managers for the attainment of total quality assurance in schools, and a
turnaround in educational effectiveness.
2. Primary school head teachers must ensure adequate manual classification,
security, improved storage facilities and periodical checking of records, in
order to make it easier to find information and records whenever needed.
3. Record management system in our primary school is still conventionally paper-
based and manually operated. There is need for frantic effort to improve the
situation through computerization of the system, policy enlighten as well as
development of database management system. Not only that, primary school
administrators should cultivate the habit of safely store or electronically scan
and save certain essential documents such as; pupil‘s admission record, bank
record, bills, receipts and others.
4. Review current maintenance culture on our primary schools‘ storage facilities
arrangement and conduct maintenance needs assessment.
5. Recommended for further research
References
Adebowale, O.F. and Osuji, S.N (2008). Record Keeping of Primary School
Teachers in Ondo State: Implications for Successful Implementation of
UBE Programme in Nigeria. Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Press
Chifwepa, V. (2001). Managing Records at School Level. Retrieved December 5,
2018 from:
http://www.adeanet.org/adeaPortal/adea/downloadcenter/NESIS/E-records-
021065.pdf
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National Policy on Education, Abuja: NERDC
Press.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 47
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Hrach, D. (2006). Record Keeping and Confidentiality for Able Administrators.
From www.pde.state.pa.us/able/lib/fieldnotes06/fn06records.pdf accessed
5/11/18
Iwhiwhu, E.B (2007). Management of Records in Nigerian Universities: Problems
and Prospects. The Journal of Electronic Library, 3: 345-550.
Mathuva, P.M (2013). Determinants of Deputy Head Teachers‘ Managerial
Practices in Public Primary Schools in Kisau Division, Mbooni East
District, Kenya. A Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master of Education in
Educational Administration University of Nairobi
Mbiti, D. (2006). Foundations of School Administration and Book Keeping.
Nairobi, Kenya: Published by Oxford University Press.
Ogundele, J.A & Adelabu, M.A (2009) Improving Pupil‘s Quality Through
Advocacy: The Role of School-Based Management Committee (SBMC),
Uluslararasi Sosyal Arastimalar Dergisi, The Journal of International
Social Research, Vol 2/8
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (7th
Edition). Oxford
University Press.
Reppo, R. (1996) World Enough and Time, Yale University Press, New Haven
UNESCO (2000). Focusing Resources on Effective School Health: A fresh
Start to Enhancing the quality and equity of education. Final report to the
World Education Forum. Paris/NewYork//Geneva/ Washington
DC/UNESCO/UNICEF/WHO/World bank.
UBEC (2015). Roadmap: 2015-2020, Government Printer
Yusuf, L.A. (2016). Record Keeping and Administrative Effectiveness among
Public Secondary Schools in Oyo State, Sokoto International Journal of
Counselling Psychology.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 48
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
The Impact of Classroom Teachers Participation in the
Curriculum Planning in Nigeria
1Mohammad Ahmed S. And
2Nasiru Garba G.
Department of General Studies Education Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract
Teacher wants to enjoy teaching and watching their students develop interests and
skills in subject area. Teacher involvement in the process of curriculum planning is
important to align content of curriculum with students needs in the classroom.
Since teachers hold the key to the curriculum process by using a wide variety of
techniques, encourage learning by delivering content in creative and impactful
ways, using different methods for the purpose of instruction, the paper is of the
opinion that the practice of given benchmarks and developing curricular
framework for teachers does not only affect teachers’ performance and
effectiveness but also the wide educational system. The paper therefore, attempts to
explores the role teachers can play in the curriculum planning since engaging
teachers in the process will help students develop and engaged relationship with
the content, promote active learning, increase focus and retention of the
curriculum thereby resulting in an exciting learning environment.
Key words: Curriculum, Planning, Teacher Participation, Curriculum planning.
Introduction
Premises and equipment are needed in the education enterprise but persons are
vital to them and a teacher is the supreme factor. There is no exaggeration that a
spacious building, costly equipment and sound syllabus will serve some useful
purpose only when there are teachers who are fully alive to the nobility of the
profession and its accompanying responsibilities. The teacher plays an important
role in molding and shaping the attitudes, habits, manners and above all, the
character and personality of the students. It has often been said, ―if a nation‘s
teachers are C, a nation itself cannot but be C, and let there be no doubt about this -
if we wish to be A, nation, our teachers will have to be A.‖
But unfortunately, in Nigeria today, the question of who makes curriculum
decision and processes has not been answered very consistently or successfully.
Over the years whoever makes the decisions has great power over what students
will and will not learn at school. Teachers with the great power has been reduced
to mere receivers of the curriculum, even though, the curriculum is formulated
according to the needs of students, their individual differences, ages and stages.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 49
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
And of course, the teacher and the students are the main consumers of the
curriculum. This being the case, the formation of the curriculum should be a joint
enterprise in which teachers should play a dominant role, there is the urgent need
for a shift in the curriculum process in Nigeria where teachers are not adequately in
the scheme of curriculum planning and implementing by so doing the nation will
have achieved the desired education outcome.
Contextual Definitions
Meaning and Definition of Curriculum:
Curriculum has been defined in various ways by scholars, educators and
administrators. It is however believed to be the sum total of the schools‘ efforts to
influence learning whether in the classroom, on the playground or out of schools.
In fact, curriculum has been described as, ‗the environment in motion.‖ It includes
the totality of experiences that a learner receives through the manifold activities
that go on in the school – in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop, and
playground and in the numerous informal contacts between teachers and students.
In this case the whole life of the school becomes the curriculum which can touch
the life of the students at all points and help in the evaluation balanced personality,
curriculum is considered as a tool in the hands of the teacher to mould his students
in accordance with his ideal in the school. Blond‘s encyclopedia of education
(1969) defines ―curriculum as the experience which a pupil has under the guidance
of the school.‖ Good‘s dictionary of education considers s curriculum as ―a body
of prescribed educative experience under school supervision, designed to provide
an individual with the best possible training and experience to fit him for society of
which he is a part or to qualify him for a trade or professional.‖
From the above, the concept of curriculum may be explained as:
1. A curriculum includes all the subjects, activities and experiences for the
development of the child.
2. All these subject, activities and experiences are under the guidance and
supervision of teachers.
3. All these subjects, activities and experiences are offered in the school
include the classroom, in the farm, the laboratory, in the workshop, in the
playground etc.
Curriculum Planning
Curriculum planning is a complex process; it however refers to the creation of a
curriculum. Curriculum planning focuses primarily on content and areas related to
it. It encompasses the macro or broadly based activities that impact on a wide
range of programs, courses, and student experiences. In fact, the curriculum should
define the schools mission and goals. Thus, the way in which the curriculum is
structured and delivered is determined by individual schools or government
agency. However, curriculum should reflect the vision, direction and purpose of
the school, learners and the entire community.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 50
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Teacher’s Participation in Curriculum Planning
Teachers over the years and till today are mandated to follow already developed
curriculum and instruction. For these teachers, it is hard to imagine that teachers in
other times had primary, ongoing, and comprehensive control over curriculum
decisions in their own classroom settings. Having become accustomed to a more
centralized system where in curriculum content, mode of presentation, and
methods of evaluation are decided at the state or federal level, they find it difficult
to conceive of a set of teaching conditions that would not only condone but also
promote the classroom or school as the locus of important decisions about
educational purposes, learning opportunities, organization, and evaluation.
However, in recognition of the fact that no real progress can take place without the
teachers‘ involvement in curriculum process, it necessitated even the so called
advanced countries to include teachers in the planning of when, how and what to
teach, to revise courses, select content, plan units and produce teaching aids.
As Aggarmal (2010) observed, several curriculum development studies have
clearly shown that a significant improvement has taken place where the
participation of teachers was both more extensive and more inclusive and where
more teachers were involved in decision making and in the production of materials.
This led Ghosh (2004) to conclude that ―teacher participation in curriculum
planning today is to be regarded not as a pleasant gesture to the teachers, but rather
as an indispensable part of the process‖. Similarly, cole (1975) maintained that
during curriculum process, teachers use a prescribed curriculum to build lessons
that suit the cultural background of the learners in the classroom that have national
impact. For example, according to him, teachers integrate examples of diverse
people who have made significant contributions in the content area as such the
inclusion of teachers in the curriculum planning cannot be overstated.
Ajuzie (2017) also is of the view that the inclusion of teachers in curriculum
planning helps dispet stereotypes and encourage students to look favorably upon
diverse groups, teachers can provide supplemental materials during the curriculum
process. He further argued that the teacher participation in the curriculum process
enables them to consider how they can best deliver lessons that will reach learners
from diverse cultural background. Fagbemi (2016) opined that well intended
curriculum cannot always meet the needs of all learners in the classroom. He noted
that teachers are the experts, when it comes to understanding the individualized
needs of each student. Accordingly, differentiated or adaptive instruction is critical
as it ensures that each student will maximize their potential that is why the
inclusion of teacher in the curriculum process has becomes obvious.
It was also stated by fagbemi (2016) that during the curriculum process, teacher
consider how they can incorporate student choice into classroom learning. He
observed that teachers can help students connect content to an individualized plan
that reflects a career interest. The current unemployment in Nigeria according to
him may be attributed due to poor career foundation during school days, if teachers
are involved in curriculum process; the project based learning will be a dynamic
option that teachers must plan in advance. This hands on technique immerses
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 51
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
student in a practical project that brings alive the classroom curriculum. It was
generally agreed that teachers use the curriculum process to plan and coordinate
student choice options that is why their participation to curriculum planning is
necessary.
The Teacher Factor Challenges in the Planning of the Curriculum
The teacher‘s involvement in the curriculum process is essential in meeting the
needs of society. However, their approach of participation in the process is not well
defined and very difficult on teachers, so they face many challenges regarding their
involvement in curriculum planning. Some of these unfortunate challenges ranges
from the corruption that has eaten up the educational system to such an extent that
the system has collapsed, monies meant for teachers involvement, training and
retraining in educational policies has been diverted into private product resulting
into non application of plan educational activities. Similarly, the quality of
education in Nigeria has dropped to an alarming rate. Recently, the federal
government reported that, the fallen standard of education among primary and
secondary school students is attributed to unqualified teachers more disturbing
about the report is that about 23 percent of over 400,000 teachers employed in the
nation primary schools do not possess the teachers Grade two certificate, even
when the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) is the minimum educational
requirement one should possess to teach in the nation‘s primary schools (Ogbeifum
and Olisa, 2001).
These invariably shows that the teachers themselves do not understand the content
of the curriculum, how then on earth can these be part of the planning. Teachers
are supposed to have their own firm beliefs regarding what the curriculum ought to
be for their own specific group of students. These therefore, posed a serious
curriculum planning challenge as Dike (2001) has observed half-baked teachers
employed to teach in the nation schools will significantly produce half-baked
secondary school learners. Another challenge facing the teachers is the pair attitude
and non-commitment in the discharge of their work. Many teachers today consider
teaching as a part time job waiting for a greener opportunity. For these reasons
teachers‘ pay little attention to the teaching career and remained resolute in
bringing the desire results of the curriculum expectations. These teachers care less
about the job regardless of participating in the planning of the curriculum. This is a
fact, when teachers‘ attitude toward his work is of indifference and nonchalance; it
always shows on the child‘s performance especially in primary and secondary
schools.
Conclusion
As it has been said no nation can rise above the quality of it teachers. And since
teachers build lessons that include improvisation, experiments, case studies and
activities to deliver the curriculum and by extension effective teaching and
learning. There is the urgent need to give teachers every opportunity to be part and
parcel in the process of curriculum planning and its subsequent monitoring and
evaluation to ensure adequate supervision of the curriculum.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 52
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Recommendations
The paper makes the following suggestions to derive the needed result in teacher
participation to curriculum process:
1. Teachers should be creative by improving the instructional contents, skills,
method for the purpose of learning, in order to meet with the expected
learning outcomes.
2. Teachers should endeavor to maintained effective monitoring and
evaluation of their subject to ensure a wide coverage of the curriculum.
3. Teachers should be equipped academically and professionally confidence
to contribute to a manageable curriculum that will suit the classroom need.
4. Teachers should be sensitive to change, and capable of effecting innovative
practices to meet with global standard for practicable curriculum.
5. Government should make resources available to prepare teachers, through
publications and staff development programmes to meet the expectations
by implicating curriculum decisions at all levels.
References
Aggarmal, J.C (2010). Teacher and Education in a Developing Society, New
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd.
Ajuzie, M.V. (2017). A Concise History of Education in Nigeria: Issues and
Challenges, Lagos, DMM Publishers
Carter, V.G (1973). Good’s Dictionary of Education (4th
ed.) (1973) McGraw –
Hill, New York.
Cole, J.A. (1975) Science Teaching and Science Curriculum Development in
Supposedly Non-scientific Culture, W.A.J.E, XIX, 2.
Edward, B. (1969). Curriculum in Encyclopedia of Education, (197–199).
Washington, DC: Amazon Book.
Fagbemi, S.K. (2006) ―Consolidating the Gains of Technology Education:
Reviewing science education curriculum for sustenance of National
Development. ―Journal of Nigerian Association of Teachers of Technology
(NATT), 2 2(2)422.
Ghosh, P.P. (2004) Effective Curriculum Construction, India: Pointer Publishers.
Marlow E., and Digumarh B.R. (2014). Issues in School Curriculum, New Delhi:
Discovery Publishing House.
Promila, S. (2014) Curriculum Development, New Delhi: A.P.H. Publishing
Corporation.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 53
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Synopsis Analysis of the Factors Affecting Girls
Access to Education at Basic School Level in Zamafara
State, Nigeria
1Bello Hassan,
2Musa Muhammad and
3Abubakar Umar B.
1Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
2Department of Education Foundation, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
3Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, College of Education, Maru
Corresponding author(s) [email protected]
Abstract
The study examined the factors that affect girls’ access to education at basic
school level in northern Nigeria. The research review available related literature
on current state of girls’ education in Northern Nigeria, However, reasons why
girls’ education is important and what constitute the factors that affect girls’
access to education at basic school level ranging from the socio-economic status of
parents, parental attitudes on girls’ education, parental level of education, school
accessibility problems, corporal punishment and discrimination against girls’ and
child marriage etc. Finally, the researcher makes 10-point strategies to improve
girls’ enrolment and access to quality education for overall national development.
Keywords: Factors, Affecting, Girls‘ Education, Basic School, Educational
Access, Zamfara State
Introduction Education is a powerful catalyzing agent of personal, social and economic
development of the nation. It provides mental, as well as the material
accomplishment of human needs and requirements for achieving Physical,
philosophical and moral training and guidance to individuals, so as to enable them
to have full consciousness of their purpose in life and equip them for the
achievement of this goals (Suleman, et al, 2015). It also helps individuals to
acquire knowledge and skills through teaching, learning, training and research.
According to Grace, (2009) having education means that the individual has
acquired adequate and appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes and values,
known as cognitive, psychomotor and affective behaviours to be able to function
optimally as a citizen. These behaviours are the focus of training individuals in
institutions of learning. The planned and systematic training given in an institution
of learning is formal education.
However, within the context of Nigerian system, basic education is the foundation
to which a strong and prosperous nation is build and also a stable ground to raise
and develop an upright and productive citizen that is useful to the nation in terms
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 54
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
of economic and all round development (Victor, 2019). Basic education is an
important sub-sector of the entire education system as it provides middle level
workers of the economy and on the other it acts as a feeder for the higher levels of
education.
Subsequently, the quality of higher education, which is expected to produce quality
professionals in different fields of social, economic and political life of the
country, depends mostly on the quality of basic education. This level of education,
therefore, needs to be organized in such a way that it should prepare young men
and women for the pursuit of higher education, as well as make them able to adjust
with their practical lives meaningfully and productivity.
It is in this background that on International Day of the Girl Child (11 October,
2019), UNESCO highlighted the role of education in empowering girls for them to
be a force for lasting change, so as to empower them to reached their full potential
through education (UNESCO, 2019). According to the report of the Pan African
Conference as cited in UNESCO (2012) Africans have been behind other
continents in girl‘s participation in education and this was attributed to the belief in
male superiority and female subordination.
For this reason, Kabira (1992) explains that discrimination of girls in education
persists in many African societies due to customary attitude; gender biased and
prioritized child education systems. Also, Education for All Global Monitoring
Report (2013) explain that Slow education progress for children today will have
lifelong effects: Almost a quarter of young women aged 15-24 today (116 million)
in developing countries have never completed basic school and so lack skills for
work. Young women make up 58% of those not completing primary school.
Accordingly, in an effort to enable girls participated actively in education,
stakeholders in education are expected to provide adequate teaching and learning
facilities, protect girls against early pregnancy and marriages, supply materials like
sanitary pads and encourage less house work for girls. This will enable them have
ample time for school/homework (Asamoah, 2019).
But unfortunately, in Zamfara State, Nigeria girls are not provided with equal
opportunities like their males‘ counter fact. Majority of the parents in rural
communities have negative attitudes about the girl‘s education. They consider
girl‘s education worthless and insignificant. Our girl‘s education is affected by
numerous factors. Thus, the literacy rate of our girl‘s education is very low. That is
why it is an obstacle to the development of the nation. In addition, there are several
factors that act as barriers toward girl‘s education at basic school level especially in
the rural areas.
These factors are classifying into six major classifications. Socio-economic status
of parent‘s, parent‘s attitude towards girls‘ education, parent‘s level of education,
school accessibility, corporate punishment and discrimination against girls‘ child,
early marriage and Pregnancy and Gender norms and stereotypes and Religion.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 55
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Thus these mentioned factors make so many families keep their girls children‘s at
home for caring of their siblings so as to help work with their mothers. In most of
the rural communities‘ girls are not attending school, so they take participation in
agricultural practices, street hawking and house maid. If families cannot afford and
fulfil the basic requirements of life, then it is impossible for them to educate girls
up to secondary level.
This paper therefore, intention is to makes an appraisal analysis of the factors
affecting girls‘ education at basic school level in Zamfara State Nigeria. The study
will be highly beneficial to policy maker in promoting and strengthening girls‘
education at basic school level as it has explored the factors affecting girl‘s
education and also presented proper recommendations on major ways how girls
education will be improving for the betterment of society.
Brief Overview of Girls Child Access to Education in Northern Nigeria
Educating girls is fundamental to the development of society. Despite many global
declarations and development goals, and also significant effort by the international
community, gender disparity in education continues to exist (Tabreek,, 2017).
Historically, North Western and Eastern State of Nigeria of which Zamfara State is
inclusive has long decade ago focused mainly on men education until recently
when Universal Basic Education in Nigeria was introduced in the year 1999 by
Obasanjo government, which establishes six years of free primary schooling and
three years of free junior secondary schooling on the basis of non-discrimination.
According to UNICEF Communications Specialist, Geoffrey N. (2018) only 45 per
cent of girls in northern Nigeria are enrolled in schools with North-East and the
North-West states had a female primary attendance ratio of 44 per cent and 47 per
cent, respectively. So also British Council Report (2014) that discovered Girls are
less likely to attend primary school than boys, on average in the academic ye 2009-
2010, using a sample of households, 58% girls attended primary school compared
to 64% boys aged 4-16 years. While this becomes truth, the enrolments data
collected by Universal Basic Education shows that only one third of girls in the
North Western state attended primary school at all.
Not only that, many girls fail to make the transition to junior secondary school for
a range of educational, economic and socio-cultural reasons. An over-age starts to
school, the onset of puberty or increased costs of secondary education may all put
an early end to girls‘ education. Girls‘ low levels of transition and retention in
junior secondary schools is becoming an increasing concern because it implies that
girls will continue to fail to acquire fundamental life skills, including literacy and
numeracy.
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Figure 1: Adapted from Nigeria Education Data Survey (2015)
The above table show the percentage of children aged 6–11 years attending
primary school increased from 1990 to 2015. • In 2015, 68% of school-aged
children in Nigeria attended primary school, a steady increase from 51% in 1990.
School-aged males continue to be somewhat more likely than females to attend
primary school, but the gender gap has narrowed. However, the rate of primary
school attendance among school-aged males in 2015 was 68% compared with 67%
for school-aged females for the same period. The gap of 1% is smaller than the 7%
gap in 2003 and similar to the 4% gap observed in 1990.
Why Girl-Child Education is Important?
According to UNESCO, (2014) cited in British Council, (2014) Women account
for almost two-thirds of the world‘s 774 million illiterate adults and there has been
no change in reducing this share since 1990. The gender parity index for the youth
literacy rate in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 0.84 – a significant disparity in
youth literacy.
While these become true, Gender disparities in education are compounded by
additional deep-rooted forms of inequality based on wealth, ethnicity, residence
and disability. Wealth disparities are striking in many countries. Children from the
poorest households are much less likely to ever enrol in school. Living in a rural
area where long distances to school are compounded by poverty and traditional
practices increases the risk.
Similarly, the gender gaps in literacy rates reflect historic and on-going gaps in
enrolment and completion of basic school education. Girls have a high risk of
dropping out of primary and junior secondary school and overall they are less
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likely than boys to make the transition to secondary schooling and complete
secondary education. Poverty, gender, culture and traditional practices, including
early marriage, increase the risk of premature school dropout.
A famous African proverb apprises us, if you educate a man, you educate an
individual, but if you educate a woman you educate a family (nation) so also
Islamic teaching reveal that seeking of knowledge is the duty of every man and
woman. It clearly shows that Islam has given equal importance on education for
man and woman. But unfortunately, the Muslim society has neglected the girl‘s
education.
For this reasons, educating a girl is a concern of every stakeholder within the
society. It means that no girls should be excluded from schooling do its culture,
religion and economic status of her parents. Educating girls is its best investment
for societal development.
Education for all Global Monitoring Report (2013) itemizes the huge impact of
girls‘ education these included:
1. Educated women are less likely to die in childbirth: If all mothers
completed primary education, maternal deaths would be reduced by two-
thirds, saving 98,000 lives in sub-Saharan Africa, if all women completed
primary education, maternal deaths would be reduced by 70%, saving
almost 50,000 lives.
2. Educating girls can save millions of lives: If all women had a primary
education, there would be 15% fewer child deaths. If all women had a
secondary education, child deaths would be cut in half, saving 3 million
lives.
3. Mothers‘ education improves child nutrition If all women had a primary
education, 1.7 million children would be saved from stunting from
malnutrition. If all women had a secondary education, 12 million children
would be saved from stunting from malnutrition.
4. Educating girls is a key factor in hastening the demographic transition to
lower birth rates. In sub-Saharan Africa, women with no education have 6.7
births, on average. The figure falls to 5.8 for those with primary education
and more than halves, to 3.9, for those with secondary education.
5. Girls with higher levels of education are less likely to get married at an
early age If all girls had a primary education, there would be 14% fewer
child marriages If all girls had a secondary education, there would be two-
thirds fewer child marriages.
Ideally, think of a ten-year-old girl peddling in the street, in two or three years‘
time she would be married off, in another one year, she is probably going to be a
mother. What kind of family would this girl who had been denied right to
education raise? Going to school would have transformed her life, it would have
offer her learning and expanded sense of her own potentials, increasing her self-
confidence, her social and negotiation skills, her earning power and her ability to
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protect herself against violence and ill health. In short, education would have
opened the world to her.
Factors that Affect Girls Access to Education at Basic School Level
Several Studies have shown a lot of factors that affect girls‘ access to education.
These studies have examined why do girls in Northern Nigeria enrol and stay in
school less than their southern colleagues? There are many impediments factors,
within and beyond schools, to girls‘ participation in a full basic school system.
Distance to school and perceptions of school security may hinder parents from
encouraging their daughter to attend school (British Council, 2014).
More are self-esteem, availability of school plant, location of the school and
teachers‘ attitude toward s female students in the school (Asamoah, et ails 2019).
Also many families cannot afford the costs of schooling, for uniforms or books.
Other families prefer to send their children to Qur‘anic schools or to keep them at
home to help with domestic work or street hawking to generate additional income.
Thus, in the context of Northern Nigeria to which Zamfara State are integral part,
six dominant categories of factors prevent or shorten girls‘ schooling which
include: (i) socio economic status of parents; (ii) parental attitude towards girls
education; (iii) parental level of education; (iv) school accessibility; (v) corporate
punishment and discrimination against girls; (vi) early marriage and pregnancy,
While these are true, Suleman, E tail, (2015) mentioned poverty; parent‘s
education; culture and tradition; parent‘s attitudes; long distance to school;
teachers‘ absenteeism; lack of basic school facilities; lack of facilities for teachers;
political inference; and lack of communication between teachers and parents as
discussed below:
1. Socio-economic status of Parents
Parental economic status of parents plays a very key role in allowing or enrolling
girls to attend formal school system in northern Nigeria. According to Imran and
Rizwana (2004), cited in Suleman, E tail, (2015) poor families cannot afford the
expenditures of the books, uniforms, and transportation to school. Underprivileged
and poor families are also more likely to detain their girls at home to look after
younger siblings or to perform street hawking for family upkeep. If these poor
families have to make decisions in order to educate son or a daughter, they select
their sons because of poor financial status. Consequently, girl‘s education is badly
affected. Many parents especially in large families with financial restrictions enroll
boys in school instead of or before girls.
Consequently, due to poverty, majority of the girls belongs to underprivileged and
deprived parents which are why they do not afford the expenditures of their
children. So, they do not enrol their girls in school as compared to the boys.
Majority of the girls perform their duties in home i.e. cooking; washing; cleaning;
caring the siblings. World Bank (2017) opined that Poverty remains the most
important factor for determining whether a girl can access an education. For
example, in Nigeria, only 4 percent of poor young women in the North West zone
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can read, compared with 99 percent of rich young women in the South East.
Studies consistently reinforce those girls who face multiple disadvantages.
According to British Council (2014), costs of schooling may push children out of
school, poverty and employment expectations simultaneously curb parents‘
demand for education, pulling children into various forms of work. With over 60%
of Nigerians (almost 100 million people) living in poverty, on less than US$1 per
day, girls are often sent to work in markets or hawk wares on the street.
2. Parental Attitudes toward Girls’ Education
Parent‘s attitudes on girls‘ education negatively affect their access to basic
education. In most of the rural communities in northern Nigeria, parents have
negative perception about the girl‘s education. They considered Girl‘s education as
something that has no importance for them. They consider girl‘s education is only
the waste of time and money because they will not benefit from educating their
girls. Similarly, In Northern tradition and culture, women are expected to entirely
assume the responsibilities of mothers and wives. Females are seen as nurturing
beings and they are expected to be the homemakers and caring of the children. In
addition, they are also expected to be obedient.
Thus, many parents and community members think that girls‘ education is a waste
of time and money, as the girls will sooner or later be married off and their
education will benefit only their husbands and the families they marry into. That is
why investment on girls‘ education is considered meaningless and lost for their
parents and families. Parents believe that their sons will become the main source of
income of their future families that is why they provide them every possible
facility enabling to fulfil these responsibilities. That is why they educate their sons
as far as possible. Conversely, it is expected that the husbands of the girls will
provide them and therefore education is not essential for them.
Furthermore, the fear of fear of pregnancy outside of marriage by parents
intensifies when girls reach puberty, sometimes inducing early marriage. Marriage
may be viewed as a protective mechanism, shielding girls‘ honour from the
potential shame of an early, unwanted pregnancy. Marriage may also be seen as a
way to accumulate cash or goods through bride wealth payments, given by the
groom or his family to the bride‘s family during the marital union. These can be of
significant economic value to a girl‘s family. The significance of marriage
relationships for social networks and developing social capital is also important.
These trends are reflected in girls‘ fears for their education. Among girls surveyed
in six Northern States in 2008, 43% cited early marriage as a major obstacle that
would prevent them from continuing their schooling and 32% cited pregnancy
(ActionAid, 2011 in British Council, 2014). In Gombe and Adamawa States, 60%
of girls‘ withdrawals from primary school were linked to early marriages, which
parents considered a religious obligation (Abdulkarim, 2009 in British Council,
2014).
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3. Parental Level of Education
Parents‘ education is one of the essential factors which affect girls‘ basic
education. In most of the rural areas in Northern Nigeria, people are often
uneducated. Parent‘s education has significant effect on girls‘ education. The
parents who are educated to some extent are more likely to enrol their ward to
school. The children of parents that have completed basic school are more likely
to enrol their Girls to school compared to those whose parents have never been
attained any school. This difference is much more prominent in rural areas
compared to urban, and for girls relative to boys. In case of poor illiterate families,
there is lack of parent-teacher communication which is a crucial factor for lower
learning attainments as identified by head teachers and teachers.
Research by Teachman‘s (1987) in study reported that there is positive effect of
both mother‘s and father‘s education on the educational attainment levels of their
children. King and Bellew (1990) noted that there is a positive impact of parent‘s
education on ‗completed years of schooling‘ of their daughters. In the same study,
they found that mother‘s education had significant positive effects for daughter‘s
education as compared to the son‘s education.
4. School Accessibility
The accessibility of schools can be a significant factor affecting girls‘ enrolment
and retention in school. In rural communities, girls‘ may have to walk considerable
distances to reach the nearest school. In recent research British Council (2014),
14% girls‘ tracked over six kilometres to school every day, taking them over an
hour each way. The majority of girls (61%) walked between 1 to 3 kilometres.
Results of a baseline survey conducted in 2008 in Northern states (TEGINT, 2011)
also in British Council (2014), revealed that 21% girls viewed distance to school as
a major obstacle that would prevent them from achieving their desired level of
education.
5. Corporal Punishment and Discrimination against Girls
Corporal punishment and discrimination in and around schools have serious
negative impacts on girls‘ education. Unequal gendered relations of power are a
root cause of safety and security problems. Girls complain of sexual and
psychological harassment and physical punishments, including caning, from male
teachers and boys in school. Inadequate school infrastructure, such as a lack of
school fences and remote, unsuitable toilets, can contribute to increasing the risk of
violence for girls. Research by ActionAid (2011) emphasises that: ―Corporal
punishment is entrenched in school systems and was discussed most by girls in
Nigeria.
6. Early Marriage and Pregnancy
Child Marriage also a critical challenge. Child brides are much more likely to drop
out of school and complete fewer years of education than their peers who marry
later. This affects the education and health of their children, as well as their ability
to earn a living. According to Economic Impact of Child Marriage Report (2017),
more than 41,000 girls under the age of 18 marry every day and putting an end to
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
the practice would increase women‘s expected educational attainment, and with it,
their potential earnings. According to estimates, ending child marriage could
generate more than $500 billion in benefits annually each year. Hence, Young girls
who marry usually drop out of school and do not gain the knowledge and skills that
can sustain life in the future. They also cannot participate in decision-making in the
family because of the unequal bargaining position and they are at risk of becoming
victims of domestic violence.
Strategic Ways to Improve Girls’ Education in Northern Nigeria
Many programmed have been developed and delivered in the last decade to
address the obstacles and urgent need for action on girls‘ education in Northern
Nigeria. Northern States have much ground to cover to enroll all girls in primary
school and keep girls in school until they complete junior secondary school.
Federal, States and local government authorities have been engaged with all of the
programmed described below in order to generate ownership, leadership and
sustainability around girls‘ education. Civil society organizations and the media
have also been informal partners in some programmed to deliver public
information campaigns to tackle gender stereotypes and harmful traditional
practices. A selection of major programmed is presented here to highlight various
strategies, interventions and successes in girls‘ basic education.
1. Raising national awareness in girl-child education and increase political and
financial commitments through advocacy and sensitization of policy makers
at all levels, parents, school authorities, other leaders and girls‘ themselves.
2. Developing schools‘ technical capacity and pedagogical skills to create a
girl-friendly school environment that enhances the participation of girls‘ and
improves learning outcomes.
3. Establishing child-friendly school principals as minimum benchmarks for
effective schools linked to community empowerment and development.
4. Creating school management committees with community involvement and
participation.
5. Collaborating with Government and other stakeholders in reviewing existing
curricula and teaching materials for gender sensitivity.
6. Promoting the employment of more female teachers to serve as role models
and mentoring out-of-school girls.
7. Monitoring and evaluating of girls‘ education programmed and mobilizing
and strengthening inspectorate.
8. Promoting synergy between girls‘ education and poverty alleviation
programmed.
9. Service delivery on a partnership basis with all stakeholders providing more
girl-only schools and improved facilities) for the promotion of quality
education.
10. Developing School-based Teacher Development Programmed to build
teachers‘ capacities and skills to improve pupils‘ learning outcomes.
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Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper investigates the remote and immediate factors that affects
girls access to education at basic school level in Zamfara Zamfara State, Nigeria.
The finding observes that the Zamfara State Government and Non-Governmental
Organizations recognize basic education as the foundation for economic and social
development. However, more action is urgently needed to enable and empower
every girl across the state to partake in a full cycle of basic education so as to
bridge the gender gap, so that the poorest girls living in rural areas will most likely
the most attend and completed the basic school level, while Traditional practices
believes and discrimination against girls, including the marriage of young
alleviated.
Recommendations
In meeting the challenges factors that affect girls‘ access to education at basic
school level in Zamfara state, Nigeria. The following recommendation were make
as a way to increase Girls‘ enrolment at basic school level.
1. Poverty is considered one of the major impediments to the girls‘ access to
basic education. The parents cannot pay for everyday expenditures of
stationery, school funds and other expenditures. So, it is strongly
recommended should be make free from all the expenses. In addition,
stationary, uniform and books should be provided free. Poor students should
be supported with financial assistance so as to improve the enrolment rate.
2. As it was discussed earlier school accessibility negatively affects girls‘
education at basic level in community therefore, the research strongly
suggested that schools building should be constructed on feasible and
suitable places so that majority of the girls may fall victim of circumstances.
therefore, it is necessary to construct more new basic schools so as to provide
educational opportunities to rural females near to their homes. In this way
attendance of female teachers will also be ensured.
3. As it was explored that majority of the parents have negative attitudes about
the girls‘ education consequently it is strongly suggested that parents should
be oriented on the benefits and importance of education through community
stakeholder (Traditional Leaders). In this way they will be able to motivate
their daughters to acquire education.
4. Another important aspect that affect girls‘ education badly at basic school
level is Marriage at early age. Majority of the parents consider the marriage
of their daughters as their prime duty. Thus, it is strongly suggested that
parents should be convinced to not arrange marriage of their daughters
before at least secondary level education which is very imperative for a girl.
Social workers and other non-governmental organizations should play their
role to reduce the rate of early marriage of girls. The government should
design and implement the laws of minimum age of marriage for females.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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References
British Council, (2014). Girls Education in Nigeria: Issues Influencers and Actions
Daniel, A., Bejamin, S., Eric, Q.J. and Derkye, C. (2019). School-Related Factors
That Affect Girls‘ Access to Education at the Basic School Level in The
Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipality of the Western Region Of Ghana.
International Journal of Innovative Research and Advanced Studies
(IJIRAS) 6, (1)
Education for All Global Monitoring Report, (2013) Girls‘ Education – the Facts
Global Synthesis Report, (2017) Economic Impacts of Child Marriage
Global Education Monitoring Report, (2018) Gender Review.
Kabira, W., (1992). Gender Ideology: The Cultural Context. A paper presented at
the award seminars on women and democratization in Kenya, Nairobi,
Kenya: University of Nairobi Press
NEDS Report, (2015). Nigeria Education Data Survey (NEDS) Education Profile.
Punch, November, 2, 2018) only 45% of Girls in Northern Nigeria attend School.
UNICEF, https://punchng.com/only-45-of-girls-in-northern-nigeria-attend-
school-unicef/
Saleh, M.J., and Kwache, P.Z. (2012). An Investigation into the Girl-Child
Enrolment and Completion in Senior Secondary School in Bauchi state,
Nigeria. International Research Journal of Library, Information and
Archival Studies, 2, (2)
Suleman, Q., Hassan, D.A., Muhammad, B.H, Kausar Y., Mehrdad, J., Zaitoon, A.
and Zaitoon, A. (2015) Exploring Factors Affecting Girls‘ Education at
Secondary Level: A Case of Karak District, Pakistan. Journal of Education
and Practice, 6, (19)
World Bank, (2017) Girls Education. Accessed at:
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/girlseducation
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 64
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
An Investigation of Teachers Attitude Towards
Effective Teaching of Practical Lessons in Some
Selected Secondary Schools in Gusau Educational
Zone, Zamfara State
1Samaila A,
2Aminu I.K
, 3Sani M. G
and
4Dahiru M.
1 and 2Department of Biology, Zamfara State College of Education Maru, Nigeria
3Department of Integrated Science, Zamfara State College of Education Maru, Nigeria
4Department of Chemistry, Zamfara State College of Education Maru, Nigeria
Abstract
This paper investigated the attitude of biology teachers toward effective teaching
of practical lesson in selected secondary schools in Gusau educational zone.
Descriptive survey research design was used for the study 20 secondary school
were selected with a population 120 Biology Teachers. A sample of 85 teachers
was used in the study. The instrument used for data collection was researchers
made questionnaire contained 20 items on the attitude of Biology Teachers toward
practical lesson. The instrument was standardized by expert in the field research.
Spearman Brown coefficient formula was used to determine the reliability with the
coefficient of 0.72. Data was analysed using frequency counts and percentage
responses. The research reveals that inadequate background and teaching
materials/equipment, lack of proper fundings, poor motivation and training among
other things are the major causes of poor attitude towards practical aspect of
biology. The research recommended that the government of Zamfara state should
provide funds for the purchase of materials, equipment and other consumables for
proper conduct of practical in schools and that teachers and students should
engage in the provision of improvised materials especially where the materials are
either in shortage or absent.
Keywords: Investigation, Teachers, Attitude, Practical, School
Introduction
It is a well know fact that student systematic study of science usually begins only
at secondary school level while acquiring the basic skills start right at primary
level. Good quality, appropriate biology experiment play a vital role in teaching
and learning. They can be used to enhance learning and clarify the aspect of
theory. Practical activities add to the fun in biology and allow the student to apply
their knowledge and understanding their experiences. Infact practical activities
means to a biologist what water means to life (Bashir 2015).
The promotion of positive attitude toward science is always seen as a major aim of
science education. Teachers contribute enormously or positive social climate in
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Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 65
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
biology classes, particularly through their communication with the students. With
this therefore teachers should make a contribution in creating positive attitude
toward biology. A change in teaching method which brings with it simplicity of
understanding and economy should appeal to all (Lawal, 2006).
The importance of practical work in biology cannot be overstressed. In fact,
practical work is the backbone of biology teaching and learning and must therefore
have some justification like screening of lesson content against the objective of
science teaching (Isola, 2010). Practical work in biology, apart from leading to the
acquisition of basic science skills such as enquiry, measuring, observing,
hypothesizing inferring and reporting also involve the acquisition of certain unique
skills such as correct manipulation of scientific tools such as and equipment such
as dissection of biological specimens and drawing of diagrams. It is however
unfortunate that practical biology seems to be the area most teachers neglect and
therefore, presents the most serious problem during senior school certificate
examination (SSCE) as shown by chief examiners report for May/June 2016
practical biology (WAEC 2016).
Factors Considered in the Research Area
Teacher‘s attitude
Teacher‘s teaching methods
Teacher‘s qualification
Teacher‘s personality/experience
Relating Teachers Attitude to Science Teaching
Science is seen to many as a body of knowledge and on-going process of enquiry.
This definition of science revealed to us that, it is an activity that aim at gathering
and classifying information and acquiring more knowledge so as to discarder new
ways and ideas of doing things. (Oguleye, 2000). Nwachuku (2008) describe
science as a body dealing with human understanding of the real world around
them, the inherent properties of space, matter, energy and their interaction.
Biology is define as a science of living organism involves practical manipulation
of apparatus and equipment to study living matters around us, the interaction
between them and the results of such interactions.
On the other hand attitude is defined as mental and natural representation
organized through experience, excerting a directive or dynamic influence or
behavior (Nwachuku 2008). Most attitudes are as a result of either direct
experience or observational learning from the environment. Hereditary variables
also effect attitude albelt indirectly. Attitude are generally positive or negative or
both at the same time. In the later case, it is said to be ambivalent or complicated
attitude when people exhibit both negative and positive attitude on the same matter
at the same time.
A number of researchers found that although most Biology teachers are qualified
to teach at secondary school level, their attitude hiders the performance students.
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
This was prove by a research conducted by Kamar (2007) who reveals that
teachers who proper and good relationship with their students tends to produce
high quality students.
Aim of Practical works in Biology
The laboratory is a room or building where chemicals, apparatus and other
facilities are kept for scientific activities (Kamar 2007). The design of schools‘
science laboratory has architectural, space planning, environmental control and
safety requirement that are not generally required for most other types of buildings.
The primary and major aims of practical works in biology can be summarized as
thus to:
i. Enable student have insight knowledge and evaluation of their experiences
ii. Enable students approach solution of problem through proposed strategy
and active involvement in the pursuit of knowledge
iii. Make science interesting
iv. Encourage individual and groups to work among learners with little or no
direction from the teachers.
v. Verify scientific theories and laws.
vi. Solve student day-to-day problems
vii. Acquire skills and processes
viii. Give student first and knowledge (Gill 2008)
Importance of Practical Lesson in Biology
A long adage says that which I see I forget but which do I remember. This directly
or indirectly points to the importance of students‘ participation in science and
biology in particular. For this reason, practical work in science subjects especially
biology has been emphatically applauded and included secondary school
curriculum. Practical work also broadens the horizon of the subject matter and
helps them develop skills in biology. Discussions about this miller (2004)
enumerated some activities that teachers and student engage in during practical‘s
which forms a basis for their mastery of the subject and these are:
i. Observation
ii. Dissection
iii. Drawing
iv. Experimentation
v. Culturing e.t.c
Effect of Practical Lessons in Biology
As a science subject, practical are very much essential part of biology teaching and
learning. It enables learners to gain positive self-concept. Confidences in the
subject enhance transfer of knowledge from temporary to permanent or long term
memory. Practical always seems to improve students‘ achievement in the learning
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tasks and also furnish cordial relationship between the teacher and student
(Abubakar, 2014).
A research by George (2006) revealed that practical work is the backbone of
effective teaching and learning of biology. It has been repeatedly by emphasized
that scientific enterprise is an activity based involving continuous exploration and
verification of facts. Science is learning by doing, so the different school
curriculum should adequate provide for practicals at all stage of learning. He
(George) further stressed that various studies on the methodology of science
teaching such as enquiry, discovery and process approach have shown that student
learn more from science by doing rather than by observation. Better understanding
of products and process of science cannot be over stressed and also added that the
practical nature of biology is commonly regarded as an important source of
motivation.
Methodology
A survey of 85 Biology teacher‘s opinion in 20 selected secondary schools in
Gusau educational zone was carried with administration of questionnaires to the
biology teachers. The questionnaire addresses the teachers‘ qualifications
experiences, teachers interest, adequacy of materials, the reasons why teachers run
away from practical‘s and the like.
Seven factors were extracted and converted to percentages.
Result and Discussions
Result
The data comprises data collected using the research instrument. The instrument
was administered to biology teachers in all the 20 sampled schools. Results are
presented as obtained from the data collected and analyzed electronically on SPSS
software using simple percentages to compute the result.
The table below shows the responses of the biology teachers in Gusau educational
zone in Zamfara state, Nigeria. The responses are meant on their (teachers) attitude
towards the teaching of practical biology.
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Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 68
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Table 1: Responses of the questionnaire administered to biology teachers
Item Percentage of responses
Qualification BSc/BSc Ed
60%
NCE
40%
Practical teaching experience 1-5 years
45%
5-10yrs 10yrs above
School management readiness
of funding biology practical
Adequately funded
25%
Poorly funded
75%
Teachers interest toward
teaching practical biology
Interested
38%
Not interested
62%
Adequacy of teaching
materials/apparatus reagents
Adequate
30%
Inadequate
70%
Difficulty in teaching biology
practicals
Difficult
65%
Not difficult
35%
Possession of laboratory
attendants/Assistant technician
Available
15%
Not available
85%
Source: Field work 2019
From the table above the result shows that teacher‘s attitude toward biology
laboratory work/practical was found to be negative. It appears that only 38% of the
biology teachers shows interest in teaching practical‘s, 62% of the teachers lacks,
interest on the issue of adequacy of teaching materials, the research revealed that
30% of the schools possesses adequate materials while 70% proved to be
inadequate on the possession of the materials. It is clear also from the table above
that 65% of the respondent found biology. Practical to be difficult while 35%
enjoyed practical‘s and found it not difficult.
Discussions
Biology teachers need to display attributes that will make them effective models,
they must be friendly, have cheerful disposition, emotionally matured, sincere and
caring about the students as individuals, in the sense, therefore, attitude of teachers
can be modified only by individual when he/she becomes aware, via elements and
evidence that new posture would be better to deal with the innovations and
initiations around them.
While it is true that there are teachers whose attitudes are positive towards the
promotion of good biology teaching and learning, for most students the reality of
the classroom consists of lesson where biology is transmitted by their teachers, at
best as a set of facts and laws.
According to Nwagbo (2006) teachers go through three stages when they start
teaching: adequacy, mastery and impact awareness of the effect of their teaching
on the students.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 69
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Teachers are therefore advise to put their best to impact what they master
adequately and always seek the assistance and advises from senior colleagues
where they are in dilemma or where they don‘t understand very well. It is said that
the problems shared is the problem solved.
The findings of this research is line with Okebukola (2005) who noted that one of
the major weakness of science teachers is poor attitude to work. Most of these
biology teachers only teach their students practical when instruction from external
examination bodies was received. Consequently, most of the student fails to grasp
the necessary concepts and theoretical background.
Conducting a similar research Chuku (2007) identified some of the solution to the
problems of teaching practical lesson. Some of these include that teachers must
take time to plan, rehearse the experiment to see it work and improve on it before
facilitating the students. In the same vein, he further lamented that teachers must
carry out consistent evaluation of student work so as to improve upon it and come
up with best performance of excellence.
Looking at the result of the responses of the Biology teachers it was revealed that
teachers are qualified (100%) to teach at secondary school level. It also shows that;
most teachers have reasonable working experiences. Part of the finding of the
research indicated that only 38% of the respondent shows interest in teaching
Biology practical. In the same vein, 65% of the teachers found practical lesson in
Biology to be difficult while only 35% indicated that Biology practical is never
difficult for them.
Conclusion
The following conclusions were drown from the findings of this study
i. Material resources are in short supply in the study area.
ii. Irregular training of biology teachers is one of the major cause of teachers‘
attitude toward practical‘s
iii. There is acute shortage of laboratory attendants/technician
Recommendations
Based on the findings and the conclusions drawn from this study the following
recommendations are made:
i. The government of Zamfara state should provide funds for the purchase of
necessary biology laboratory equipment, chemicals and other consumables,
which should be evenly distributed according to need, to schools of the state
for proper conduct of biology practicals not only for external examinations.
ii. Teachers and students should engage in the provision of improvised
materials, especially where and when the material are either in short supply
or absent.
iii. Attitudinal change is highly needed on the part of biology teachers towards
practical teaching.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 70
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
iv. The government of Zamfara state is hereby advice to produce and provide
trained laboratory attendant and technicians as they are found to be lacking in
almost all the schools of the study area.
References
Abubakar S. (2014). Effects of Availability and Utilization of Instructional
Resources on Students‘ Performance in Senior Secondary School in Sokoto
State, unpublished M.Ed Dissertation, UDU Sokoto, Nigeria.
Bashir M.K (2015). Relationship between Availability of Human and Materials
Resources and Academic Performance in Biology among Students in
Jigawa State, Nigeria. Unpublished M.Ed thesis, Usmanu Danfodiyo
University, Sokoto.
Chuku, F.A (2007). Model Manual for Teaching Practicals. STAN Panel, Gombe,
8th
- 12th
May, 2007.
George, R. (2006). A Cross Domain Analysis of Change in Students Attitude
Toward Science and Attitude Toward Science and Attitude about the
Utility of Science. International Journal of Science Education
http://dx.doi.org//0.080.09500338755.
Gill, M.C (2008). Laboratory Safety Orientation, University Press Ibadan
Isola, O.M. (2010). Effect of Standardized and Improvised Instructional Materials
and Student Academic Achievement in Secondary School Physics. M.Ed
thesis, University of Ibadan.
Kamar, Y.M. (2007). Development of an Instrument for the Assessment of Biology
Laboratory Psychomotor Skills of Senior Secondary Schools Students in
Sokoto. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Usmanu Danfidio University, Sokoto.
Lawal, F.K (2006). Availability and Impact of Material Resources on
Archievement in Biology in Selected Secondary Schools in Katsina
metropolis. 47 STAN proceeding =s 27 August, 2006
Miller, R. (2004). The Role of Practical Work in Teaching and Learning of
Science. A paper prepared for meeting on High School Science
Laboratories: Role and Vision, held at National Academic of Science,
Washington D.C 3rd
to 4th
June, 2004
Nwachuku G.O (2008). Survey of the Resources for the Teaching and Learning of
Biology in Some New Secondary Schools. Unpublished Ph.d thesis,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan
Nwagbo C.R. (2006). The Relative Efficacy of Guided Inquiry and Oppository
Methods on Achievement in Biology Students of Different Levels of
Scientific Literacy. Journal of Science Teachers’ Associations of Nigeria.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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Ogunleye, O.A (2000). An Introduction to Research Method in Education and
Social Sciences. Sunshine Publishers (Nig) ltd, Lagos.
Okebukola, P. (2005). The Race against Obsolescence Enhancing the Relevance of
STAN to National Development STAN Memorial.
West African Examination Council (2016). Senior Secondary School Examination
May/June, Chief Examiners Report, Nigeria.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 72
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Relationship of Integrated Science Students‘ First Year
Performance and Their Final Year Performance in
Physics Related Courses in Integrated Science
Sanusi Abdullahi M.
Department of Integrated Science, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract
The study analyzed students’ performance in the physics aspect of integrated
science with a view of finding out the relationship between the first year and final
year performance of students. Expo factor design was used as the design of the
study. The moderated results of integrated science students in ISC 123 (Man and
Energy I) and ISC 321 (Man and Energy II) from set of 2013 and 2015 were used
as sample of the study. Findings revealed that the performance of the students in
both courses were above average. Similarly, there was a positive and significant
relationship between the first year performance and the final year performance. It
has been recommended that teachers teaching the courses to be friendly and adapt
methods that promote students’ interest and group interaction using learner centre
approaches.
Keywords: Science Education, integrated Science, physics education, academic
performance
Introduction
The role of science in this modern era of science and technology is wide. In view
of this Olagunju, Adesoji, Iroegbu and Ige (2003) in Varuwa, Sheikh and Kefas
(2018) emphasized the importance of scientific knowledge in boosting national
income, prestige might and international rating of any country.
Science education plays a united role in the lives of individuals as well as the
development of a nation both scientifically and technologically. It is a well known
fact that the gate way to the survival of any nation scientifically and
technologically is scientific literacy which can only be achieved through scientific
education (Oladipo, 2011). Thus, scientific advancement enhances human
standards of living.
In order to make her citizen show interest in science Education the Nigerian
government came up with an admission policy of 60% in favor of science and
science related courses and 40% for Arts and Social Science (Ajibola, 2008).
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Despite this effort by government, the dwelling nature of students seeking
admission into science oriented courses in the country‘s tertiary institutions have
not yet yielded much fruitful result (Idowu, 2002).
College of Education are teachers training institution in Nigeria. As Aina (2015)
pointed out the objective of government in establishment these institutions were to
produce Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) graduates who will be teaching
Primary and Junior Secondary Schools. The academic programme of these
institutions was designed to combine two teaching subjects with education, and the
minimum duration of the programme leading to the award of NCE is three (3)
years.
Integrated Science as a subject that teaches uniified nature of science without
showing different demarcations or limitation imposed by the separate subjects or
discipline (Abdullah, 2009; NCCE, 2012). The subject emphasized those concepts
which are common to all sciences, the process of science and the skills associated
with them. The subject prepares students for core science subject (Biology,
Chemistry and Physics) at Senior Secondary School Level (Abdullahi, 2009;
NCCE, 2012).
There is no doubt that a good knowledge of the science is derived from the
principles of Physics. Surely, the knowledge of Physics has led to so many
inventions such as the production, application and utilization of integrated circuits
among others. The invention of modern technologies such as Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) is also a part of the benefit of physics and its
application are found in engineering, Agriculture, Medicine and military among
others.
The study analyzed students‘ first year performance as a predictor of their final
year examination in physics. Academic performance is a measure of the ability of
learners to appropriate learned facts and information at a particular time (Okwele
and Wali, 2011). Thus, this study intends to find out integrated science students
performance in physics courses of the department and find out the predictive
power of the first year performance on their final year performance.
Methodology
The study used expo facto/casual design because the data has already occurred
before this study. Moderated scores for students of integrated science in ISC 123
(Man and Energy I) and ISC 321 (Man and Energy II) from set of 2013 and 2015
were collected and used for data analysis.
Research Question
The following research question was raised to guide the study.
Research Question: - What are the first year and final year integrated science
students‘ performance in physics related courses?
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 74
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Hypothesis
The following hypothesis was formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significant.
H01: There is no significant relationship between the first year academic
performance and the final year performance in physics related courses in integrated
science.
Result
Research Question: What are the first year and final year integrated science
students‘ performance in physics related courses?
Table 1: Integrated Science Students Performance in first and final year
Courses Mean (X) Standard Deviation (SD)
ISC 123 55.86 9.82
ISC 321 63.33 10.52
Table 1: Indicated the mean performance of integrated science students in Physics
related courses ISC 123 (Man and Energy I) to be 55.86 and that of ISC 321 (Man
and Energy II) to be 63.33 with a mean difference of 7.47 this shows that there is
an improvement between the first year performance and final year performance.
The mean score of students in their final year is higher.
Hypothesis One
H01: There is no significant relationship between the first year and final year
academic performance in physics related courses in integrated science.
Table 2: Relationship between the Students’ First Year and Final Year
Performance
Courses R
First Year Course ISC 123 0.501*
Final Year Course ISC 321 0.486**
** Correlate and significant
Table 2: Show that ISC 321 correlates positively and significantly with the first
year course ISC 123 performance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Discussion
This study examines the relationship between the first year integrated science
students‘ performance and their final year performance in physics courses of the
department in Zamfara State College of Education, Maru.
Findings of this research work revealed that the performance of students both in
their first and final year courses were above average. Finding also shows that there
was a positive correlation between the two courses thus, the first year courses ISC
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
123 may influence the final year courses ISC 321 performance. This shown in
table one where the means score in ISC 123 was 55.86 and that of ISC 321 was
63.33. While the coefficient of correlation R for ISC 123 and ISC 323 were 0.501
and 0.486 respectively
Conclusion
The study investigated the relationship between the first year physics aspect of
integrated science and the final year academic performance of the integrated
science students. Result shows that the students‘ performance was above average
in both courses and there no exist a positive relationship between first year at final
year performance
Recommendations
Based on the findings, the following recommendations were raised.
i. Teachers teaching the courses should be more friendly in order to boost
students interest.
ii. Teachers teaching the courses should adapt learners centre approaches and
promote group interaction.
References
Abdullahi, S.M (2009). Effective Teaching Methods of Basics Science at JSS
Level as means of Resuscitating Qualitative Education in Nigeria, Kabai
Journal of Multi-Disciplinary studies 1 (1) 67 -74.
Aina, J.K (2015). Analysis of Integrated Science and Computer Science Students
Academic Performance in Physics in Colleges of Education Nigeria.
International Journal of Education and Practices 3 (1) 38-35.
Ajibola, M.A (2008). Innovation and Curriculum Development for Basic
Education in Nigeria Policy, Practices, Priorities and Challenges Practices
and Implementation. Res. Journal of International Studies 8 51 – 58.
Idowu, C.B (2002). Correction between Students Performance in Theoretical and
Practical Aspect of Environment Science. Being a paper presented at the
2nd
National Conference of Science, Oyo State College of Education Oyo
11th
– 14th
August.
National Commission for College of Education (2012). Nigerian Certificate in
Education Minimum Standards for Sciences, 2012. Education Tetfund.
Oladipo, D.J (2011). Developing Nigerian Integrated Science Curriculum Journal
of Soil Science and Environmental Management, 2 (8)134 – 145.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 76
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Okwele, J.O and Wali, M.A (2011). Effect of Discovery and Demonstration
Methods of Teaching on Achievement of Chemistry Students of different
Levels of Scientific Literacy. Journal of Research in Curriculum and
Teaching, 5(1) 385-392
Olagunju, A.M, Adesoju, F.A, Iroegbu, T.O, and Ige, T.A (2003). Innovation in
Science Teaching for New Millenim. O. Ayodele-Bamisalye, I.A,
Nwazuoke and A.Okedira (Eds).This millennium Innovation in Theory and
Practice. Ibadan: Macmillan Publisher.Nigeria
Vanaruwa, P.P, Sheikh S.Y and Kefas, A. (2018). Integrated Science Students
First Year Performance as a Predictor of Final Year Performance in
Physics. Nigerian Journal of Science Technology and Environmental
Education 6(1) 6 – 10.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 77
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Information and Communication Technology as a
Change Agent for Effective Teaching of Biology
Education
Attahiru Muhammad S.
Biology Department, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru.
Corresponding Author(s):[email protected]
Abstract
This paper, review the use of ICTs in biology education, Effective use of ICT for
Education, along with ICT use in the teaching and learning process, quality and
accessibility of education, learning motivation, learning environment besides, an
overview of the ICT and scholastic performance. Information and communication
technologies (ICT) have become common place entities in all aspects of life.
Across the past twenty years the use of ICT has fundamentally changed the
practices and procedures of nearly all forms of endeavor within business and
governance. Quality education has traditionally been associated with strong
teachers having high degrees of personal contact with learners. The use of ICT in
biology education lends itself to more student-centered learning settings. But with
the world moving rapidly into digital media and information, the role of ICT in
biology education is becoming more and more important and this importance will
continue to grow and develop in the 21st century.
Keywords: ICT, Biology education, Change, Teaching and Learning
Introduction According to Daniels (2002) ICTs have become within a very short time, one of
the basic building blocks of modern society. Many countries now regard
understanding ICT and mastering the basic skills and concepts of ICT as part of the
core of education, alongside reading, writing and numeracy. However, there
appears to be a misconception that ICTs generally refers to ‗computers and
computing related activities‘. This is fortunately not the case, although computers
and their application play a significant role in modern information management,
other technologies and/or systems also comprise of the phenomenon that is
commonly regarded as ICTs.Pelgrum and Law (2003) state that near the end of the
1980s, the term ‗computers‘ was replaced by ‗IT‘ (information technology)
signifying a shift of focus from computing technology to the capacity to store and
retrieve information. This was followed by the introduction of the term ‗ICT‘
(information and communication technology) around 1992, when e-mail started to
become available to the general public (Pelgrum, W.J., Law, N., 2003). According
to a United Nations report (1999) ICTs cover Internet service provision,
telecommunications equipment and services, information technology equipment
and services, media and broadcasting, libraries and documentation centres,
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commercial information providers, network-based information services, 2 and
other related information and communication activities. According to UNESCO
(2002) information and communication technology (ICT) may be regarded as the
combination of ‗Informatics technology‘ with other related technology, specifically
communication technology. The various kinds of ICT products available and
having relevance to science education, such as teleconferencing, email, audio
conferencing, television lessons, radio broadcasts, interactive radio counselling,
interactive voice response system, audio cassettes and CD ROMs, projectors etc.
have been used in education for different purposes (Sharma, 2003; Sanyal, 2001;
Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007). The field of science education has been affected
by ICTs, which have undoubtedly affected teaching, learning, and research (Yusuf,
2005). A great deal of research has proven the benefits to the quality of education
(Al-Ansari, 2006). ICTs have the potential to innovate, accelerate, enrich, and
deepen skills, to motivate and engage students, to help relate school experience to
work practices, create economic viability for tomorrow's workers, as well as
strengthening teaching and helping schools change (Davis and Tearle, 1999;
Lemke and Coughlin, 1998; cited by Yusuf, 2005). As Jhurree (2005) states, much
has been said and reported about the impact of technology, especially computers,
in science education. Initially computers were used to teach computer
programming but the development of the microprocessor in the early 1970s saw
the introduction of affordable microcomputers into schools at a rapid rate.
Computers and applications of technology became more pervasive in society
which led to a concern about the need for computing skills in everyday life. Hepp,
Hinostroza, Laval and Rehbein (2004) claim in their paper ―Technology in
Schools: Education, ICT and the Knowledge Society‖ that ICTs have been utilized
in education ever since their inception, but they have not always been massively
present. Although at that time computers have not been fully integrated in the
learning of traditional subject matter, the commonly accepted rhetoric that
education systems would need to prepare citizens for lifelong learning in an
information society boosted interest in ICTs (Pelgrum, W.J., Law, N., 2003).
The 1990s was the decade of computer communications and information access,
particularly with the popularity and accessibility of internet-based services such as
electronic mail and the World Wide Web (WWW). At the same time the CD-ROM
became the standard for distributing packaged software (replacing the floppy disk).
As a result, educators became more focused on the use of the technology to
improve student learning as a rationale for investment. Any discussion about the
use of computer systems in schools is built upon an understanding of the link
between schools, learning and computer technology. When the potential use of
computers in schools was first mooted, the predominant conception was that
students would be ‗taught‘ by computers (Mevarech & Light, 1992). In a sense it
was considered that the computer would ‗take over‘ the teacher‘s job in much the
same way as a robot computer may take over a welder‘s job. Collis (1989) refers to
this as ―a rather grim image‖ where ―a small child sits alone with a computer‖.
However, the use of information and communication technologies in the educative
process has been divided into two broad categories: ICTs for Education and ICTs
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in Education. ICTs for education refers to the development of information and
communications technology specifically for teaching/learning purposes, while the
ICTs in education involves the adoption of general components of information and
communication technologies in the teaching learning process.
Concept of ICT
Information and communication technology (ICT) is extensional term
for information technology (IT) that stresses the role of unified
communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and
wireless signals) and computers, as well as necessary enterprise
software, middleware, storage, and audiovisual systems, that enable users to
access, store, transmit, and manipulate information.
The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audiovisual and telephone
networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There
are large economic incentives (huge cost savings due to the elimination of the
telephone network) to merge the telephone network with the computer network
system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution, and
management (Wikipedia free encyclopedia).
Concept of Education
Etymologically, the word education is derived from two Latin words ―educare‖
and ―educere‖ (Amaele et al 2011:6). Accordingly, ―educare‖, means to train, to
form or to mould. In other words, it means that the society trains, forms or moulds
the individual to achieve the social needs and aspirations. ―Educere‖, on the other
hand means to build, to lead, or to develop. This is mostly favoured by the
humanists who argue that the function of education is to develop the natural
potentialities in the child to enable him function in the society according to his
abilities, interests and needs. This is child-centered orientation.
Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge,
skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling,
discussion, teaching, training, and directed research (Wikipedia free encyclopedia).
Science Education
Science education is well recognized as a distinct field within education, and is
concerned with the teaching and learning of science and the discrete science
disciplines. Nested within science education are sub-fields such as biology
education and chemistry education (Dr Keith S. Taber Cambridge University).
Enhancing Teaching and Learning Process through ICT
The field of science education has been affected by ICTs, which have undoubtedly
affected teaching, learning and research (Yusuf, 2005). ICTs have the potential to
accelerate, enrich, and deepen skills, to motivate and engage students, to help
relate school experience to work practices, create economic viability for
tomorrow's workers, as well as strengthening teaching and helping schools change
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(Davis and Tearle, 1999; Lemke and Coughlin, 1998; cited by Yusuf, 2005). In a
rapidly changing world, basic education is essential for an individual be able to
access and apply information. Such ability must find include ICTs in the global
village. Conventional teaching has emphasized content. For many years course
have been written around textbooks. Teachers have taught through lectures and
presentations interspersed with tutorials and learning activities designed to
consolidate and rehearse the content. Contemporary settings are now favoring
curricula that promote competency and performance. Curricula are starting to
emphasize capabilities and to be concerned more with how the information will be
used than with what the information is. Contemporary ICTs are able to provide
strong support for all these requirements and there are now many outstanding
examples of world class settings for competency and performance-based curricula
that make sound use of the affordances of these technologies (Oliver, 2000). The
integration of information and communication technologies can help revitalize
teachers and students. This can help to improve and develop the quality of
education by providing curricular support in difficult subject areas. To achieve
these objectives, teachers need to be involved in collaborative projects and
development of intervention change strategies, which would include teaching
partnerships with ICT as a tool. According to Zhao and Cziko (2001) three
conditions are necessary for teachers to introduce ICT into their classrooms:
science teachers should believe in the effectiveness of technology, science teachers
should believe that the use of technology will not cause any disturbances, and
finally science teachers should believe that they have control over technology.
However, research studies show that most teachers do not make use of the
potential of ICT to contribute to the quality of learning environments, although
they value this potential quite significantly (Smeets, 2005). Harris (2002)
conducted case studies in three primary and three secondary schools, which
focused on innovative pedagogical practices involving ICT. Harris (2002)
concludes that the benefits of ICT will be gained ―…when confident teachers are
willing to explore new opportunities for changing their classroom practices by
using ICT. As a consequence, the use of ICT will not only enhance learning
environments but also prepare next generation for future lives and careers
(Wheeler, 2001).
Changed pool of teachers will come changed responsibilities and skill sets for
future teaching involving high levels of ICT and the need for more facilitative than
didactic teaching roles (Littlejohn et al., 2002). According to Cabero (2001), "the
flexibilization time-space accounted for by the integration of ICT into teaching and
learning processes contributes to increase the interaction and reception of
information. Such possibilities suggest changes in the communication models and
the teaching and learning methods used by teachers, giving way to new scenarios
which favour both individual and collaborative learning‖. The use of ICT in
educational settings, by itself acts as a catalyst for change in this domain. ICTs by
their very nature are tools that encourage and support independent learning which
is among the objectives of science education. Students using ICTs for learning
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purposes become immersed in the process of learning and as more and more
students use computers as information sources and cognitive tools (Reeves &
Jonassen, 1996), the influence of the technology on supporting how students learn
will continue to increase. In the past, the conventional process of teaching has
revolved around teachers planning and leading students through a series of 4
instructional sequences to achieve a desired learning outcome. Typically, these
forms of teaching have revolved around the planned transmission of a body of
knowledge followed by some forms of interaction with the content as a means to
consolidate the knowledge acquisition. Contemporary learning theory is based on
the notion that learning is an active process of constructing knowledge rather than
acquiring knowledge and that instruction is the process by which this knowledge
construction is supported rather than a process of knowledge transmission (Duffy
& Cunningham, 1996). In this domain learning is viewed as the construction of
meaning rather than as the memorization of facts (Lebow, 1993; Jonassen &
Reeves, 1996). Learning approaches using contemporary ICTs provide many
opportunities for constructivist learning through their provision and support for
resource-based, student centered settings and by enabling learning to be related to
context and to practice (Berge, 1998; Barron, 1998). As mentioned previously, any
use of ICT in learning settings can act to support various aspects of knowledge
construction and as more and more students employ ICTs in their learning
processes, the more pronounced the impact of this will become. Teachers generate
meaningful and engaging learning experiences for their students, strategically
using ICT to enhance learning. Students enjoy learning, and the independent
enquiry which innovative and appropriate use of ICT can foster. They begin to
acquire the important 21st century skills which they will need in their future lives.
Enhancing the Quality and Accessibility of Biology Education through ICT
ICT increases the flexibility of delivery of education so that learners can access
knowledge anytime and from anywhere. It can influence the way students are
taught and how they learn as now the processes are learner driven and not by
teachers. This in turn would better prepare the learners for lifelong learning as well
as to improve the quality of learning. In concert with geographical flexibility,
technology-facilitated educational programs also remove many of the temporal
constraints that face learners with special needs (Moore & Kearsley, 1996).
Students are starting to appreciate the capability to undertake education anywhere,
anytime and anyplace. One of the most vital contributions of ICT in the field of
biology education is- Easy Access to Learning. With the help of ICT, students can
now browse through e-books, sample examination papers, previous year papers
etc. and can also have an easy access to resource persons, mentors, experts,
researchers, professionals, and peers-all over the world. This flexibility has
heightened the availability of just-in-time learning and provided learning
opportunities for many more learners who previously were constrained by other
commitments (Young, 2002). Wider availability of best practices and best course
material in science education, which can be shared by means of ICT, can foster
better teaching. ICT also allows the academic institutions to reach disadvantaged
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groups and new international educational markets. As well as learning at any time,
teachers are also finding the capabilities of teaching at any time to be opportunistic
and able to be used to advantage. Mobile technologies and seamless
communications technologies support 24x7 teaching and learning. Choosing how
much time will be used within the 24x7 envelope and what periods of time are
challenges that will face the educators of the future (Young, 2002).
Thus, ICT enabled education will ultimately lead to the democratization of
education. Especially in developing countries, effective use of ICT for the purpose
of education has the potential to bridge the digital divide. For instance, India has a
billion-plus population and a high proportion of the young and hence it has a large
formal education system. The demand for education in developing countries like
India has skyrocketed as education is still regarded as an important bridge of
social, economic and political mobility (Amutabi and Oketch, 2003). There exists
infrastructure, socio- economic, linguistic and 5 physical barriers in India for
people who wish to access education Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007). This
includes infrastructure, teacher and the processes quality. There exist drawbacks in
general education in India as well as all over the world like lack of learning
materials, teachers, remoteness of education facilities, high dropout rate etc.
(UNESCO,2002). Innovative use of Information and Communication Technology
can potentially solve this problem. Internet usage in home and work place has
grown exponentially (McGorry, 2002). ICT has the potential to remove the barriers
that are causing the problems of low rate of education in any country especially
Nigeria. It can be used as a tool to overcome the issues of cost, less number of
teachers, and poor quality of education as well as to overcome time and distance
barriers (McGorry, 2002).
People have to access knowledge via ICT to keep pace with the latest
developments (Plomp, Pelgrum & Law, 2007). ICT can be used to remove
communication barriers such as that of space and time (Lim and Chai, 2004). ICTs
also allow for the creation of digital resources like digital libraries where the
students, teachers and professionals can access research material and course
material from any place at any time (Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007; Cholin,
2005). Such facilities allow the networking of academics and researchers and
hence sharing of scholarly material. This avoids duplication of work (Cholin,
2005). ICT eliminating time barriers in education for learners as well as teacher. It
eliminates geographical barriers as learners can log on from any place (Sanyal,
2001; Mooij, 2007; Cross and Adam, 2007; UNESCO, 2002; Bhattacharya and
Sharma, 2007). ICT provides new educational approaches (Sanyal, 2001). It can
provide speedy dissemination of education to target disadvantaged groups
(UNESCO, 2002; Chandra and Patkar, 2007). ICT enhances the international
dimension of educational services (UNESCO, 2002). It can also be used for non-
formal education like health campaigns and literacy campaigns (UNESCO, 2002).
Use of ICT in science education develops higher order skills such as collaborating
across time and place and solving complex real world problems (Bottino, 2003;
Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007; Mason, 2000; Lim and Hang, 2003). It improves
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the perception and understanding of the world of the student. Thus, ICT can be
used to prepare the workforce for the information society and the new global
economy (Kozma, 2005). Plomp et al (2007) state that the experience of many
teachers, who are early innovators, is that the use of ICT is motivating for the
students as well as for the teachers themselves. Bottino (2003) and Sharma (2003)
mention that the use of ICT can improve performance, teaching, administration,
and develop relevant skills in the disadvantaged communities. It also improves the
quality of education by facilitating learning by doing, real time conversation,
delayed time conversation, directed instruction, self-learning, problem solving,
information seeking and analysis, and critical thinking, as well as the ability to
communicate, collaborate and learn (Yuen et al, 2003). A great deal of research
has proven the benefits to the quality of education (Al-Ansari 2006). Hepp,
Hinostroza, Laval and Rehbein (2004) state that the literature contains many
unsubstantiated claims about the revolutionary potential of ICTs to improve the
quality of education. They also note that some claims are now deferred to a near
future when hardware will be presumably more affordable and software will
become, at last, an effective learning tool.
Enhancing Learning Environment for Biology Education Through ICT
ICT presents an entirely new learning environment for students, thus requiring a
different skill set to be successful. Critical thinking, research, and evaluation skills
are growing in importance as students have increasing volumes of information
from a variety of sources to sort through (New Media Consortium, 2007). ICT is
changing processes of teaching and learning by adding elements of vitality to
learning environments including virtual environments. ICT is a potentially
powerful tool for offering educational opportunities. It is difficult and maybe even
impossible to imagine future learning environments that are not supported, in one
way or another, by Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). When
looking at the current widespread diffusion and use of ICT in modern societies,
especially by the young the so-called digital generation then it should be clear that
ICT will affect the complete learning process today and in the future. Authenticity
is an important issue which should be addressed in the design and development of
learning environments (Collins, 1996). Learning environments need to reflect the
potential uses of knowledge that pupils are expected to master, in order to prevent
the acquired knowledge from becoming inert (Bransford, Sherwood, Hasselbring,
Kinzer, & Williams, 1990; Duffy & Knuth, 1990).
In addition, teachers should stimulate pupils to engage in active knowledge
construction. This calls for open-ended learning environments instead of learning
environments which focus on a mere transmission of facts (Collins, 1996;
Hannafin, Hall, Land, & Hill, 1994; Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999). ICT may
contribute to creating powerful learning environments in numerous ways. ICT
provides opportunities to access an abundance of information using multiple
information resources and viewing information from multiple perspectives, thus
fostering the authenticity of learning environments. ICT may also make complex
processes easier to understand through simulations that, again, contribute to
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authentic learning environments. Thus, ICT may function as a facilitator of active
learning and higher-order thinking (Alexander, 1999; Jonassen, 1999). The use of
ICT may foster co-operative learning and reflection about the content (Susman,
1998).
Furthermore, ICT may serve as a tool to curriculum differentiation, providing
opportunities for adapting the learning content and tasks to the needs and
capabilities of each individual pupil and by providing tailored feedback (Mooij,
1999; Smeets & Mooij, 2001). As Stoddart and Niederhauser (1993) point out, ICT
may fit into a spectrum of instructional approaches, varying from traditional to
innovative. Another aspect which may of course influence the use of ICT is access
to technology (Kennewell, Parkinson, & Tanner, 2000; OTA, 1995). This refers
not only to the number of computers, but also to the placement of the equipment,
e.g. in the classroom or in a computer room. Kennewell et al. (2000) feel it is
essential that computers be placed in the classroom, in order to maximize the
opportunities for curriculum activity. ICT environment improves the experience of
the students and teachers and to use intensively the learning time for better results.
The ICT environment has been developed by using different software and also the
extended experience in developing web based and multimedia materials. ICTs have
an important role to play in changing and modernizing educational systems and
ways of learning.
Enhancing Learning Motivation Through ICT
ICTs can enhance the quality of biology education in several ways, by increasing
learner motivation and engagement, by facilitating the acquisition of basic skills,
and by enhancing teacher training. ICTs are also transformational tools which,
when used appropriately, can promote the shift to a learner centered environment.
ICTs, especially computers and Internet technologies, enable new ways of teaching
and learning rather than simply allow teachers and students to do what they have
done before in a better way. ICT has an impact not only on what students should
learn, but it also plays a major role on how the students should learn. Along with a
shift of curricula from ―content-centered‖ to ―competence-based‖, the mode of
curricula delivery has now shifted from ―teacher centered‖ forms of delivery to
―student-centered‖ forms of delivery. ICT provides Motivation to Learn. ICTs such
as videos, television and multimedia computer software, sound, and colorful
moving images can be used to provide challenging and authentic content that will
engage the student in the learning process. Interactive radio likewise makes use of
sound effects, songs, dramatizations, comic skits, animations and other
performance conventions to compel the students to listen and become more
involved in the lessons being delivered. Some of the parents of the respondents
opined that their children were feeling more motivated than before in such type of
teaching in the classroom rather than the stereotype 45 minutes‘ lecture. They were
of the view that this type of learning process is much more effective than the
monotonous monologue classroom situation where the teacher just lectures from a
raised platform and the students just listen to the teacher. ICT changes the
characteristics of problems and learning tasks, and hence play an important task as
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mediator of cognitive development, enhancing the acquisition of generic cognitive
competencies as essential for life in our knowledge society. Students using ICTs
for learning purposes become immersed in the process of learning and as more and
more students use computers as information sources and cognitive tools (Reeves
and Jonassen, 1996), the influence of the technology on supporting how students
learn will continue to increase. Learning approaches using contemporary ICTs
provide many opportunities for constructivist learning through their provision and
support for resource-based, student centered settings and by enabling learning to be
related to context and to practice (Berge, 1998; Barron, 1998). The teachers could
make their lecture more attractive and lively by using multi-media and on the other
hand the students were able to capture the lessons taught to them easily. As they
found the class very interesting, the teachings also retained in their mind for a
longer span which supported them during the time of examination. More so than
any other type of ICT, networked computers with Internet connectivity can
increase learner motivation as it combines the media richness and interactivity of
other ICTs with the opportunity to connect with real people and to participate in
real world events. ICT-enhanced learning is student-directed and diagnostic.
Unlike static, text- or print-based educational technologies, ICT-enhanced learning
recognizes that there are many different learning pathways and many different
articulations of knowledge. ICTs allow learners to explore and discover rather than
merely listen and remember. The World Wide Web (WWW) also provides a
virtual international gallery for students‘ work (Loveless, 2003). ICT can engage
and inspire students, and this has been cited as a factor influencing ready adaptors
of ICT (Long, 2001; Wood, 2004).
Enhancing the Scholastic Performance Through ICT
Based on the extensive usage of ICTs in biology education the need appeared to
unravel the myth that surrounds the use of information and communication
technology (ICT) as an aid to teaching and learning, and the impact it has on
students‘ academic performance. ICTs are said to help expand access to education,
strengthen the relevance of education to the increasingly digital workplace, and
raise educational quality. However, the experience of introducing different ICTs in
the classroom and other educational settings all over the world over the past
several decades suggests that the full realization of the potential educational
benefits of ICT. The direct link between ICT use and students‘ academic
performance has been the focus of extensive literature during the last two decades.
ICT helps students to their learning by improving the communication between
them and the instructors (Valasidou and Bousiou, 2005). The analysis of the effects
of the methodological and technological innovations on the students‘ attitude
towards the learning process and on students‘ performance seems to be evolving
towards a consensus, according to which an appropriate use of digital technologies
in education can have significant positive effects both on students‘ attitude and
their achievement. Research has shown that the appropriate use of ICTs can
catalyze the paradigmatic shift in both content and pedagogy that is at the heart of
education reform in the 21st century. Kulik‘s (1994) meta-analysis study revealed
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that, on average, students who used ICT-based instruction scored higher than
students without computers. The students also learned more in less time and liked
their classes more when ICT-based instruction was included. Fuchs and Woessman
(2004) used international data from the Programme for International Student
Assessment (PISA), they showed that while the bivariate correlation between the
availability of ICT and students‘ performance is strongly and significantly positive,
the correlation becomes small and insignificant when other student environment
characteristics are taken into consideration. Attwell and Battle (1999) examined the
relationship between having a home computer and school performance, their
findings suggest that students who have access to a computer at home for
educational purposes, have improved scores in reading and math. Becker (2000)
found that ICT increases student engagement, which leads to an increased amount
of time students spend working outside class. Coates et al. (2004) showed that
students in on-campus courses usually score better than their online counterparts,
but this difference is not significant here. ICTs especially computers and Internet
technologies enable new ways of teaching and learning rather than simply allow
teachers and students to do what they have done before in a better way. ICT helps
in providing a catalyst for rethinking teaching practice (Flecknoe,2002;
McCormick & Scrimshaw, 2001) developing the kind of graduates and citizens
required in an information society (Department of Education, 2001); improving
educational outcomes (especially pass rates) and enhancing and improving the
quality of teaching and learning (Wagner, 2001; Garrison & Anderson, 2003). ICT
can help deepen students‘ content knowledge, engage them in constructing their
own knowledge, and support the development of complex thinking skills (Kozma,
2005; Kulik, 2003; Webb & Cox, 2004). Studies have identified a variety of
constructivist learning strategies (e.g., students work in collaborative groups or
students create products that represent what they are learning) that can change the
way students interact with the content (Windschitl, 2002). Albert Bandura, Girasoli
and Hannafin (2008) urge the use of asynchronous CMC tools to promote student
self-efficacy and hence academic performance. Fister et al (2008) also depict the
power of tablet PCs to improve mathematics instruction. ICTs have the potential
for increasing access to and improving the relevance and quality of education. The
use of ICT in educational settings, by itself acts as a catalyst for change in this
domain. Students using ICTs for learning purposes become immersed in the
process of learning and as more and more students use computers as information
sources and cognitive tools (Reeves and Jonassen, 1996), the influence of the
technology on supporting how students learn will continue to increase.
Conclusions
In order to conclude I will try to proceed to synthesize from a general viewpoint
the results obtained, taking into consideration the relevant aspects of the literature.
The results provided by both the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the
literature obtained will be exposed especially regarding those aspects which are
related to ICTs for Education and ICTs in Education. ICTs for education refers to
the development of information and communications technology specifically for
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teaching/learning purposes, while the ICTs in education involves the adoption of
general components of information and communication technologies in the
teaching learning process. This literature review has sought to explore the role of
ICT in education as we progress into the 21st century. In particular ICTs have
impacted on educational practice in education to date in quite small ways but that
the impact will grow considerably in years to come and that ICT will become a
strong agent for change among many educational practices. Extrapolating current
activities and practices, the continued use and development of ICTs within
education will have a strong impact on: ICT and teaching learning process; quality
and accessibility of education; learning motivation, learning environment and ICT
usage and academic performance. The adoption and use of ICTs in education have
a positive impact on teaching, learning, and research. ICT can affect the delivery of
education and enable wider access to the same. In addition, it will increase
flexibility so that learners can access the education regardless of time and
geographical barriers. It can influence the way students are taught and how they
learn. It would provide the rich environment and motivation for teaching learning
process which seems to have a profound impact on the process of learning in
education by offering new possibilities for learners and teachers. These
possibilities can have an impact on student performance and achievement.
Similarly, wider availability of best practices and best course material in education,
which can be shared by means of ICT, can foster better teaching and improved
academic achievement of students. The overall literature suggests that successful
ICT integration in education.
Recommendations
Based on the discussions above the following recommendations were made:
1. Government should provide enough ICT equipment in Schools and
Colleges.
2. Facilitators should acquire training of proper utilization of the ICT
equipment.
3. Parents also should try as much as possible to provide ICT equipment to
their children.
4. Teachers also should guide their students on how to perform research using
ICT.
5. Parents also should monitor what their children are doing with ICT
equipment at home, since they can have access to the rest of the world at
anytime and anywhere.
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Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 93
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
The Role of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) in Nigerian Colleges of Education
1Muhammad Sirajo B.,
2Ibrahim Muhammad G.
and
3Sanusi Garba G.
1and2Department of Computer Science Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
3Department of Mass Communication Abdu Gusau Polytechnic Talata-Mafara
Abstract It is beyond any reasonable doubt that Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) plays a significant role in education especially in areas such as
e-library, research, e-learning, Computer Based Test (CBT), result checking,
record keeping and online registration. This paper attempted to dissect areas of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications especially at
Nigerian Colleges of Education which is facing problems or limitations in terms of
technical knowledge, poor electricity, improper maintenance of the installed
facilities and inadequate computer skills among the administrators/ decision-
makers in most of the institutions. Despite the fact that the Nigerian government
spent resources in order to deploy the Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) hardware, software development, internet and wireless network
facilities in most of the colleges of education through various agencies including
Tertiary Education Funds (TETFUND), National Information Technology
Development Agency (NITDA) and National Communication Commission (NCC),
the sector still has some problems. The common problems identified in most of the
institutions include epileptic power supply, lack of expertise, motivation, absence
of re-training and maintenance of the installed facilities. The paper also looked
beyond the problems and suggested some remedies for Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) adoption in the Nigerian Colleges of Education
to be implemented for successful Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) applications in the colleges.
Keywords: Computer Based Test, Information and Communication Technology,
National Certificate of Education, Tertiary Education Trust Fund, National
Information Technology Development Agency
Introduction
In present-day life activities technology has been playing a significant role in
helping human beings to achieve several strenuous tasks, including acquirement
and dissemination of knowledge. The rapid growth of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) in the 21st century made it possible for
educational institutions to leverage the technical skills to acquire and disseminate
knowledge irrespective of location and time. The Educational sector like no other,
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is one of the pioneers that have made Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) as a tool in carrying out both academic and administrative functions.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) serve several purposes in
human endeavors with high speed, accuracy, reliability and efficiency. Education
as a significant aspect of social development in every corner of the real world
which gives humans the ability to acquire knowledge through teaching, learning,
research and Innovations had also transformed over time from traditional forms to
modern ones using various tools including Information and Communication
Technology (ICT). The advent of Computer Assisted learning, eBooks, virtual
classrooms, online resources, social media platforms and other Educational
software in the form of e-learning plays a significant role in enhancing educational
development at all levels.
Tertiary educational institutions are the early adopters of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) among the different levels of the modern
school system in both developed and developing countries including Nigeria. The
Nigerian system of education involves colleges of education for the training of
teachers for primary education and senior secondary schools in the country
regulated by the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE). This
has made the colleges of education one of the tiers of tertiary education in Nigeria
which issues National Certificate of Education (NCE) to its numerous graduates
after three years of teacher training. The process of teaching and learning in these
colleges also involves the use of new Information and communication technology
(ICT) equipment‘s in both classrooms and outside classrooms activities including
the digital libraries adopted by the institutions. Most of the colleges were mandated
to establish a unit of information and communication technology (ICT) that take
the responsibility of imploring and exploiting the various computer, internet
operations and software development for both the management, staff and students.
Considering the role of education in the development of any community, the
colleges are essential in developing an Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) culture of any country. The colleges of education must provide
effective leadership in Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
integration through research, modeling, effective deployment of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) facilities and provision of opportunities for the
professional development of citizens of a country, (Yusuf, 2005, p.317).
Definitions of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a term used to describe the
use of computers and telecommunication technologies in the processing of data
and dissemination of information which includes the internet, mobile phones and
other communication devices. And it is also the processing and analyzing of data
and reporting or communicating the processed data in human-understandable form
through the use of computer and communication technologies that can transmit the
data in a bright output.
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Nowadays, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) turned the world
into a ―global village,‖ in which individuals can communicate with others across
the continents irrespective of location and time. Hence, Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) is usually examined in the context of how
modern communication technologies affect the world, (Christensson, 2010,
para.3). Indeed, the advent of modern Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) had influenced the way education is acquired and disseminated
through different use of technologies that enhance the teaching and learning to be
more effective than the traditional methods that were being used for centuries of
human existence.
Importance of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in
Education Education is the bedrock of teaching and learning that enables the acquisition and
dissemination of knowledge through information sharing among the participants.
In present times, Educators tend to use various tools and technologies to simplify
the process of acquiring knowledge, including Computers, the internet, mobile
phones, tablets and other communication devices. These have become standard
tools and techniques that are also relevant resources for teaching and learning.
They also allow both virtual or electronic, online learning through digital resources
such as e-books copied to mobile devices and accessed at the learner‘s
convenience, (Kukulska-Hulme 2012, p.12).
The importance of information and communication in education cannot be
overemphasized because the significant contributions Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) tools made to the sector are numerous and
evolving from ongoing research which made innovations possible around the
world. Even though Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
implementation is costly to deploy in educational institutions, governments at all
levels and non-governmental organizations had thrived in funding such facilities to
schools, colleges and universities to harness the benefits of various technologies
that support the objectives of Education.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a force that has changed
many aspects of the way we live. Information and Communication Technologies
consist of the hardware, software, networks, and media for collection, storage,
processing, transmission and presentation of information (voice, data, text, images),
as well as related services. ICTs can be divided into two components, Information
and Communication Infrastructure (ICI) which refers to physical
telecommunications systems and networks (cellular, broadcast, cable, satellite,
postal) and the services that utilize those (Internet, voice, mail, radio, and
television), and Information Technology (IT) that refers to the hardware and
software of information collection, storage, processing, and presentation. (Sarkar,
2012, p.32).
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Using different Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools meant for
teaching and learning, the school environment gives the learners the ability to
handle their studies more efficiently and conveniently. Unlike the previous
decades, when learners were taught using traditional methods in the classrooms
with hard copies of books and physical teacher offering lessons according to a
syllabus. The emergence of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as
an educational tool is changing. It will likely continue to alter many of the
methodologies utilized by both teachers and learners in acquiring and
disseminating knowledge, (Oliver, 2002, p.3).
In 2009, there was an artificial intelligence (AI) research output in Japan that
produced the first-ever Robot teacher named Saya to conduct a lesson. Saya, the
female robot taught a science and technology lesson to a class of 10-year old pupils
at Kudan Elementary School in Tokyo. The inventor of Saya, Professor Hiroshi
Koboyashi lamented the primary purpose of the robot teacher as to highlight the
joys of technology to children which would benefit schools suffering from a
shortage of human teachers (Demetriou, 2009, para.1-4). Similar inventions were
developed by different researchers around the world which made Robot teachers,
tutors and Instructors like human ones simulated to teach in the classrooms. Even
though the inventions were not fully adopted in the long run as permanent teachers,
but they were just showcased as experiments in most of the cases. Still, this aspect
of information and communication technology (ICT) in the Education sector
cannot be undermined in the modern world where robots are considered to be the
future of technologies.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Colleges of Education There are various applications of information and communication technology
(ICT) in almost every modern Educational Institutions including Colleges of
Education that embrace competitiveness as part of a strategy for national
development. The areas of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
applications in most of the institutions include the following;
E-Library
Libraries are the fountain of knowledge in any educational institutions that provide
the staff, students and even general public access to books, journals, newspapers,
magazines, research tools and other learning materials. Traditionally, libraries were
mainly hard copies before the advent of electronic books and software that help the
teachers and learners to ease the manual methods of acquiring educational
materials via online and offline modes. The emergence of information and
Communication Technology (ICT) has transformed the libraries around the world
by integrating digital technology and library operation that gave the users an
efficient means and virtual accessibility, (Gbadamosi, 2012, p.2). Nowadays,
modern libraries do not require any social support for users to access learning
resources which are mostly electronically available to registered members.
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E–Learning
This encompasses the process of teaching and learning using various electronic
materials in the form of software, internet usage, eBooks, videos, audios, images
and various types of simulations to make a successful acquirement and
dissemination of knowledge possible. The usage of different Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) made it a reality for Educators and students to
imbibe the process of learning in automated and simulated ways utilizing either
computers or telecommunication devices including the mobile/smartphones,
laptops, tablets, satellites, projectors, electronic boards, electronic pens and other
numerous gadgets.
According to Jethro, Grace and Thomas (2012, p.2), Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) refers to the use of internet systems to expand
knowledge and efficiency that provides students access to materials. The phase of
learning, the period for education and other gadgets, allow them to manipulate the
interaction to be consistent with their expectations and also manage the learning
materials. Thus, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) gave the
learners the capability to set the standard and collaborate with others globally on
peer review of the learning methods and resources which would enhance
innovations that transformed the role of teachers.
Record-Keeping/Online Registration
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) improves the methods of
record-keeping and student registration in educational institutes globally. Some
few decades ago, students‘ records and registration were kept and processed
manually, which had solely depended on human interventions to sort out
information of both the staff and students which requires more time and physical
appearance. Presently, the students can register and access or be examined using
the internet without their physical appearance. Undoubtedly, modern technologies
have made it possible for learners to get information through various electronic
means including emails, learning platforms, applications, computer-based
examinations and other mobile devices.
Research
Because the significant output of research is coming out from the educational
institutions around the world, which gave more rooms to technological applications
in Education than any other sector of human endeavors. It is very imperative for
scholars globally to collaborate and seek new knowledge that can be accessed
through various Information and Communication Technology (ICT) based tools
like the internet and computers which allow research to be carried out by different
scholars in dispersed locations around the world and beyond.
The most popular use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in
research is in the data processing. The unprecedented growth in internet and
computing systems provide opportunities for analyzing/processing a large quantity
of data and processing complex computations on the data in a way that is
extremely fast, accurate and reliable. Computer data processing gives researchers
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the ability to analyze data and more importantly facilitates quick and error-free
analysis of large amounts of data from local samples or intercontinental samples
covering many participants, (Sarkar, 2012, p.33-34).
Challenges of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Colleges
of Education Level of accessing computer amongst the primary and secondary school students is
deficient especially in public schools, most of the graduate students from
secondary school were not be able to operate the computer and this led to
imperfect understanding Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in
tertiary schools including Nigerian Colleges of Education. In Nigeria, there is poor
access to Information and Communication Technology (ICT) materials, poor
internet accessibility, reduced involvement in the creation of the Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) environment, and even low participation in
software development. New York City has higher Internet accessibility than the
whole of Africa, Ajayi (as cited in Yusuf, 2005, p.317).
The most challenges influencing against the effective use of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) in Colleges of Education in Nigeria are as
follows:
Lack of necessary computer skills amongst the teachers
Lack of in-service training.
Lack of inadequate infrastructure (electricity)
Improper maintenance and operation of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) facilities
Lack of adequate knowledge of computer among the school
administrators and decision-makers
There is no room for learners to access computers and internet service in most of
the institutions. This led to the low adaptation of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) in terms of basic computer operations and internet usage among
teachers and learners. Also, there is a lack of motivation for Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) adoption, especially for the students to cultivate
the digital culture.
The re-orientation and re-directing our value system towards the latest
development around the world has put many teachers in a state of disarray to
wholeheartedly embrace the e-teaching technology as many of the teachers
lack the basic skills and access to computers. (Owolabi, Oyewole, & Oke 2013,
p.3-4)
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Prospects of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in colleges of
education The Nigerian government policies had clearly shown the implementation plans and
commitments towards the development of Information and communication
technologies (ICT) in school through various interventions. Such interventions of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) come from various
government and non-governmental organizations like Tertiary Education Fund
(TETFUND), Nigerian Communication Commission (NCC), Universal Service
Provision Fund (USPF) and National Information Technology Development
Agency (NITDA). Even though these agencies sponsored the installations of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) equipment and software
involved by awarding contracts, there are no maintenance plans for the projects
executed. However, the management of various colleges of Education should be up
to the task regarding the regular cost of repairs and maintenance of Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) equipment in their respective institutions.
Presently, there are many opportunities for Colleges of Education to grab regarding
the benefits of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) that would be a
revenue-generating avenue for the institutions. Such opportunities include e-
learning /distance learning and some other enterprising programmes at their
respective Information and Communication Technology (ICT) units.
Colleges of education had to evolve in public information and Communication
Technology policies, to serve as a framework for Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) integration in all aspects of national development.
Conclusion Indeed, the role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in
education is numerous to mention in this paper which prepared to review some
related literature from different authors of the topic. Although the article had
attempted to highlight some areas where Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) had been adopted in Nigerian Colleges of Education, but still
they are struggling with some limitations. Hence, the institutions are advised to
E-learning may also be viewed as a promising way for improving the
quality of tertiary Education and the effectiveness of open distance learning.
These promises can be derived from different characteristics of Information
and Communication Technology (ICT), including the increased flexibility
of the learning experience it can give to students; the enhanced access to
information resources for more students; the potential to drive innovative
and effective ways of learning and/or teaching, including learning tools;
easier use of multimedia or simulation tools; and the possibility to diffuse
these innovations at low marginal cost among teachers and learners. (Igwe,
2012, p.4)
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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exploit more areas of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
applications including online mode of study, collaborations, and social networking
which is yet to be adapted in most of the colleges. Verily, the Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) application in the Nigerian Colleges of
Education needs to be upgraded and sustained for them to be competitive in
modern times. There is no doubt that Nigerian Colleges of Education are meant to
train most teachers for the primary school which made Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) skills and knowledge very essential for both the
trainers and trainees.
Recommendations
Lastly, the Nigerian colleges of education are advised to adopt the following
suggestions in order to meet up with 21st century technology advancement.
1. The mobile apps meant for learning should be developed for students and
teachers to enable them access educational resources and acquire
information in real-time.
2. The provision of internet services using Wi-Fi technologies within the
academic environment would enhance the internet usage for the virtual
learning expected to be a digital transformation strategy of the institutions.
3. There is also a need for training and re-training of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) staff, Academics and learners to
simplify usage of the existing systems and new technologies.
References
Christensson, P. (2010, January 4). ICT Definition. Retrieved 2019, Oct. 29, from
https://techterms.com.
Demetriou, D. (2019). Robot teacher conducts first-class in Tokyo school. [online]
Telegraph.co.uk. Available at:
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/5311151/ Robot-teacher-conducts-
first-class-in-Tokyo-school.html [Accessed 28 Oct. 2019].
Gbadamosi, B.O. (2012). Emerging Challenges to Effective Library Automation
and an E-Library: The Case of Emmanuel Alayande College of Education,
Oyo, Nigeria. Library Philosophy & Practice.
Igwe, D.O. (2012). The Roles of ICT Development in Open and Distance
Education: Achievements, Prospects and Challenges. African Journal of
Teacher Education, 2(2).
Jethro, O. O., Grace, A. M., & Thomas, A. (2012). E-learning and its Effects
on Teaching and Learning in a Global Age. Internataional Journal of
Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 2(1), 203.
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Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2012). How should the Higher Education Workforce Adapt
to Advancements in Technology for Teaching and Learning? The Internet
and Higher Education, 15(4), 247-254.
Oliver, R. (2002). The role of ICT in Higher Education for the 21st Century: ICT
as a Change Agent for Education. Retrieved April 14, 2007.
Owolabi, T. O., Oyewole, B. K., & Oke, J. O. (2013). Teacher Education,
Information and Communication Technology: Prospects and Challenges of
e-Teaching Profession in Nigeria. American Journal of Humanities and
Social Sciences, 1(2), 87-91.
Sarkar, S. (2012). The Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
in Higher Education for the 21st century. Science, 1(1), 30-41.
Yusuf, M. O. (2005). Information and Communication Technology and Education:
Analyzing the Nigerian National Policy for Information Technology.
International Education Journal, 6(3), 316-321.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 102
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
The Role of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) in Teaching and Learning of
Mathematics Education Programme in Tertiary
Institutions in Zamfara State
1Saidu Abarshi K.,
2Ganiyatu Aliyu and
3Ibrahim Usman G.
Department of Mathematics, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Corresponding author(s): [email protected]
Abstract
The study was conducted to assess the role of information and communication
technology (ICT) in the teaching and learning of mathematics education
programme in tertiary institutions in Zamfara state, four research questions were
raised to guide the study the population of the study consisted all mathematics
education lecturer’s in all tertiary institution in Zamfara state. And samples of 40
mathematics education lecturers were randomly selected from the institutions. The
reliability of the validated questionnaire was subjected to a test re test method of
reliability using person’s product moment correlation coefficient (PPMCC) means
was used to analyze data, the finding among other revealed that ICT have great
impact on teaching and learning of mathematics in Nigeria. It was also discovered
that ICT facilities serve as a major contributor to effective teaching and learning
in teacher education programme. Based on the findings it was recommended
among others that ICT facilities should be made available for effective teaching
and learning of Mathematics teacher education programme.
Keywords: Information Communication. Technology, Teaching, Learning and
Mathematics Education
Introduction
Information and Communication Technology with the acronym ICT refer to
technologies that provide access to information through telecommunication.
According to Akande (2010) suggested that interaction is made possible among
individuals in the society and also in any teaching and learning situation through
communication. The success of any teaching and learning process depends on the
effectiveness of communication. Education is regarded as the bedrock of any
national development and the issue of information and communication technology
in teaching and learning education programme is considered a priority. The trend
of teaching mathematics is fast changing with the emergence of ICT in most of the
societies in the world now. Teaching and learning being two faces of the same
coins, pre suppose that teaching leads to learning. Teaching of mathematics in
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Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 103
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Institutions of higher learning in Nigeria mostly depends on traditional approaches.
However, it cannot be ruled out that the used of traditional method of delivery
which was face to face mode.
This mode of delivery has been variously view as not being able to meet the
challenges driven age. The student in this learning situation is passive listener.
Anderson, (2013) as it is the job of the teacher to present the content in this
learning setting, what is promoted is shallow learning in the sense that assessment
is usually base on memorization and regurgitation of facts if mathematics
education should serve the purpose of providing the needs of learners and society,
there should be continuous review in the curriculum in order to ensure the quality
of education provide is in line with societal demands. This review of curriculum
was to integrate I C T that can help in passing the desired and required skills to the
learner to make him/her employed as well as relevant in the ever –changing
mathematics environment. According to Salman, Mohammad, Ogunlade and
Ayinla (2012) said that mathematics is an essential requirement by every field of
human endeavour for intellectual development to cope with the challenges of life
and as school subject, mathematics affect all aspects of people life at different
stages and degrees.
Mathematics education as an integrate part of science education is form of
vocational education, according to Idialu (2013), that is directed towards
developing the learner to become productive and self-employed. Mathematics
education provides learners with awareness and understanding of the role
mathematics plays in the modern would. It also provides students with the needed
competences, skills, knowledge, understanding and attitude to perform a worker in
industries, civil service and also properties of school. Mathematics education is a
subject driven by life – related application of mathematics. It enables learners to
develop the ability and confidence to think numerically and spatially in order to
interprete and critically analyze every situation and to solve problems Tsafe
(2013). Mathematics education is worked – focused skill-based, result oriented and
technology base Ugwoke, (2011) mathematics education has been defined by
Gbadeyan (2015), as the practice of teaching and learning mathematics along with
the associated scholarly research. It is a value loaded education which helps an
individual to develop necessary skills for lifelong learning and also integral part of
general education in the Nigerian school curriculum.
According to Owojori (2011), mathematics education teachers should expect rapid
changes in the state of the arts in the world of work and the classrooms in this 21st
century more the changes that occurred in the past centuries together. The over
changing role of technology (ICT) continues to be a challenge for all educators
especially mathematics educators, mathematics education teachers are constantly
required to update their software and hardware skills as well as learn new
information – based technologies. The incorporation of this knowledge, the
constant maintenance and updating of hardware is a real challenge for mathematics
educators. The coming of ICT into teaching and learning have necessitated
paradigm shift from traditional method that was teacher centred to the modern
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 104
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
method which is learner centre Bede (2015). The gain of such a new approach have
been extolled by bua beng – Andoh (2012). Who affirms those great capabilities of
ICT in the spreading of knowledge, making education more real and the
development of more efficient educational service. The introduction of information
and communication technology (ICT) in mathematics education programme makes
teaching and learning increasingly flexible, multitasking and performance base.
According to Olurundare (2006) asserts that ICT is important in teaching and
learning as it guaranties unrestricted access of teacher to relevant information and
development in the subject area as well as the provision of efficient and effective
tools to take care of student‘s individual differences. Since educational institutions
exist for the purpose of teaching and learning, human materials resources are
deployed for the purpose. Information and communication technology (ICT) are
the material resources provided for educators optimize their productivity in
teaching and learning process (Nwanunu and Isuwa (2017). The importance of
information and communication technology (ICT) in the teaching and learning of
mathematics cannot be over emphasised. ICT in the school system is part of new
innovations to foster the standard of science technology and mathematics (STM)
education in Nigeria. Hence, it is clear that the use of ICT in the teaching and
learning of mathematics is imperative. The use of technology should start right
from teacher training institutions and made compulsory for all mathematics
students teachers throughout the training period, to copy with this word of
computer and internet age. The researcher therefore wants to ascertain whether
lectures are aware of the roles of using these ICT in mathematics education
programme, and are those ICT resources available and accessible to them, toP
what extent have they being adapting it in teaching and learning of mathematics
programme in Zamfara state.
Statement of the Problem
Teachers are mostly blamed for students‘ poor performance in mathematics. This
poor performance lies in the fact that most teachers/lecturers use the traditional
method of teaching. Since the world is generally ICT driven and its introduction
has changed the ways things were done even in teaching and learning of
mathematics education programmed, lecture method of teaching is no longer
enough. Based on this the researcher want to access the role of ICT in the teaching
and learning of mathematics education programme in Zamfara state
Purpose of the Study
The major purpose of this study is to access the roles of information and
communication technology (ICT) in teaching and learning of mathematics
education programme in tertiary institution specifically, the study was designed to
achieve the following purpose.
1. Find out the availability and accessibility of ICT facilities in the tertiary
institutions.
2. Identify the roles of information and communication technology (ICT) has
played in teaching and learning of mathematics education programme.
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3. Find out whether ICT facilities are adapted in teaching and learning
mathematics education by mathematics lecturers.
4. Find out the difficulties encountered by mathematics education lecturers in
the use of ICT in teaching and learning of mathematics education
programme.
Research Questions
1. To what extent are ICT resources available and accessible in mathematics
education lecturers for use in mathematics education programme in
Zamfara state?
2. To what extent has the role of ICT enhance is teaching and learning of
mathematics education?
3. To what extent has the use of ICT been adopting in teaching and learning
of mathematics education by mathematics education lecturers?
4. To what extent have the mathematics education lecturers encountered
difficulties in the use of ICT in teaching and learning of mathematics
education programme?
Research Design
The study was survey research design.
Area of Study
This study was carried out in Zamfara state.
Population of the Study
The population of the study consist of all the mathematics education lecturers in
the three tertiary institutions in the state produce mathematics education teachers.
However, the population of the study was forty mathematics education lecturers
from college of education Maru, Federal college of education (Technical) Gusau
and Federal university Gusau.
Sample and Sampling Techniques
There was no sampling because the population was small and the population of the
study was used as the sample of the study.
Instrument for Data Collection
The instrument for data collection was a 35 – items questionnaire designed to
provide answer to the four research questions, using modified 4 – point Likert
scale of strongly agree (SA) = 4, agree (A) = 3, disagree (SD) = 2 and strongly
disagree (SD) = 1 respectively.
Validity of the Instrument
The instrument was validated by three experts in mathematics and science
education. They were requested to provide the face and content validity of the
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instrument. The find draft of the instrument was distributed forty (40) mathematics
education lecturers in college of education, Maru federal college of education
(Technical) Gusau and federal university Gusau.
Reliability of the Instrument
The reliability of the instrument was established using test-retest method. The
person‘s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was employed to calculate the
correlation coefficient(s) of the instrument was found to the 0.82. This was high
enough and hence the instrument was reliable.
Administration of the Instrument
The questionnaires were distributed by the researcher by hand, filled at spot and
collected back. This was to ensure 100% return of the questionnaires.
Method of Data Analysis
Data collected was analyzed using percentage mean ratings of a four – point scale.
A mean of 3.00 and above was accepted while any item with a mean score less
than 3.00 was rejected.
Results
The results were presented in line with the research questions as shown in the table
below:
Research Question one: To what extent are ICT resources available and accessible
to mathematics education lecturers for use in mathematics education curriculum
delivery in tertiary institutions?
Table 1: Responses of Mathematics Education Lecturers on the Availability and
Accessibility of ICT Resources in tertiary Institutions?
S/N ICT RESOURCES Ava %
Availability
% Nava Non-
Availability
% Acce
Accesibility
% Nacce
Non Accessibility
1. Monitors 38 (95%) 2 (5%) 37 (92.5%) 3 (7.5%)
2. Computer 40 (100%) 0 (0%) 39 (97.5%) 1 (2.5%)
3. Internet 39 (97.5%) 1 (2.5%) 35 (87.5%) 5 (12.5%)
4. Overhead projector 37 (92.5%) 3 (7.5%) 27 (67.5%) 13 (32.5%)
5. Video tapes 27 (67.5%) 13 (32.5%) 38 (95%) 2 (5%)
6. Video conferencing 0 (0%) 40 (100%) 0 (0%) 40 (100%)
7. Mobile phone 40 (100%) 0 (0%) 40 (100%) 0 (0%)
8. E-mail facilities 35 (87.5%) 5 (12.5%) 28 (70%) 12 (30%)
9. Computer discs
(CDS)
39 (97.5%) 1 (2.5%) 25 (62.5%) 15 (37.5%)
10. Electronic book 0 (0%) 40 (100%) 0 (0%) 40 (100%)
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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Table 1 above revealed that over 80% of the mathematics education lecturers in
tertiary institutions in Zamfara State indicated that they have monitors, computers,
internet, overhead projectors, and also video tapes, mobile phones, E-mail facilities
and computer discs (CDS), and they also have access to them for the use in
mathematics education curriculum delivery in the lecture halls. The result also
shows that over 100% mathematics education lecturers indicated that video
conferencing and electronic book are not available and then do not have access to
them for use in mathematics education curriculum delivery in the lecture hall.
Reaserch Question 2: To which extent has the role of ICT enhance teaching of
mathematics education programme in Zamfara state?
Table 2: Responses of mathematics education lecturers on the extent of I.C.T role
in the teaching and learning of mathematics education in Zamfara state.
S/N Items S.A=4 A=3 D=2 S.D=1 X Decision
1 Student can set up internet service
after graduation.
20 10 5 5 3.1 Accepted
2 The use of internet helps students to
make more research and get more
fact.
15 20 3 2 3.2 Accepted
3 It possess the capacity to improve
teaching and learning
28 10 2 - 3.65 Accepted
4 It equips students with skills
required for survival in the modern
mathematics office.
20 10 7 3 3.18 Accepted
5 It enables the teacher to meet the
need of every students
25 10 - 5 3.36 Accepted
6 It gives students opportunity to
learn and to discover new ideas
17 10 8 5 2.98 Accepted
1. 7 I C T enhance learners
understanding concerning the
mathematics environment
26 16 4 4 3.33 Accepted
8 Grand mean 3.26 Accepted
Source: adopted from Nwanunu and Isuwa (2017)
Table 2 above revealed that all the respondents accepted that ICT has enhanced
teaching and learning of mathematics education program with a grand means score
of 3.26 this show that mathematics education programme can be enhanced by
integrating I.C.T in to the mathematics education programme in Zamfara State.
Reserch Question 3: To what extent has the use of ICT been adopted in teaching
and learning mathematics educations?
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Table 3 Responses of Mathematics Lecturers on the Adoption of ICT Facilities in
Teaching and Learning Mathematics Education.
S/N Items S.A 4 A 3 SD 2 D X Decision
1 Monitors 20 15 3 2 3.33 Accepted
2 Computer 25 15 5 - 3.50 Accepted
3 Internet 20 105 5 5 3.13 Accepted
4 Overhead
projector
15 15 10 10 3.38 Accepted
5 Videotape 22 8 6 4 3.20 Accepted
6 Video
conferencing
5 5 20 10 2.13 rejected
7 Mobile phones 27 10 3 - 3.60 Accepted
8 e-mail
facilities
18 12 5 5 3.08 Accepted
9 Computer disc 20 10 6 4 3.15 Accepted
10 Electronic
book
Grand Mean
10 3 23 4 2.40
3.09
Rejected
Accepted
Table 3 above revealed that out of 10 items of the questionnaire (items 3& 10) with
mean score of total (2.13 and 2.40) were rejected. In all the total grand mean score
of 3.09 was arrived at, indicating that ICT has been adopted in the teaching and
learning of mathematics educating programme in tertiary institutions in Zamfara
state.
Research question 4: To what extent have the mathematics education lectures
encountered difficulties in the use of ICT in teaching mathematics education
programme?
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Table 4: Responses of Mathematics Education Lecturers Encountered in the use of
ICT in Teaching and Learning of Mathematics Education Programme
S/N ITEMS S.A A SD D X DECISION
1 High cost of ICT equipment
resources
20 8 6 6 3.05 accepted
2 Poor internet connectivity 24 6 5 5 3.23 Accepted
3 Lack of technical support 30 5 3 2 3.58 Accepted
4 Lack of maintenance culture 25 10 5 - 3.50 Accepted
5 Individual poor attitude to
acquire ICT skills
15 15 10 10 3.38 Accepted
6 Lack of standby electric
generating set
20 14 3 3 3.28 Accepted
7 Inadequate of ICT
equipments resources
30 6 4 - 3.65 Accepted
8 Insufficient e-learning
literacy
21 10 5 4 3.20 Accepted
Grand mean 3.36 Accepted
Table 4 above revealed that eight (8) items which were stated as difficulties
encountered on the use of ICT in teaching and learning mathematics education
were all rated accepted. However, a grand mean of 3.36 indicated that the above
factors hindered the effective use of ICT in teaching and learning mathematics
education programmed in tertiary institutions.
Summary of the Major Findings
The results of the findings are as follows:
1. Computer, monitors, internet, overhead projector, video tape, mobile phones,
E-mail facilities and computer disc [CDS] are available and accessible in
tertiary institution for mathematics education curriculum delivery.
2. Mathematics lecturers in the mathematics education department use traditional
method of teaching and learning, hence they should be encouraging to adopt
the ICT for effective teaching and learning mathematics educations.
3. Mathematics education lecturers in mathematics education department need
the technical skills in the use of electronics means for the teaching and
learning of mathematics educations.
4. There is inadequacy and insufficient knowledge of E-learning literacy.
Discussion of the Findings
The data presented in table 1 provided to research questions one by accepted that
80% of the ICT resources are available and accessible for mathematics lecturers in
teaching mathematics education programmes. This is in line with the finding of
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Nwanunu and Isuwa (2017). That ICT are the material resources provide for
education to optimize their productivity in teaching and learning process.
The data presented in table 2 shows that mathematics education learners accepted
that ICT play a vital role in enhancing teaching and learning of mathematics
educations programmes in Zamfara state. The result collaborates with Olurundare,
(2006) that the students agreed that ICT has emerged as an important component in
academic institution as it play a vital role in teaching and learning as it guaranteed
unrestricted access to teachers‘ relevant information and development in the
subject areas as well as the provision of efficient and effective tools to take care of
students industrial differences
Table 3 shows that mathematics education lecturers accepted that ICT facilities
have been adopted in the teaching and learning of mathematics education
programme. This is line NCC minimum standard 2008, which stated that lecturers
should use several teaching method and institutional materials (including ICT
materials) if effective teaching and learning is desired. Finally, the finding in table
4 shows that mathematics education lecturers agreed that there are many problems
encountered on the use of ICT in teaching and learning of mathematics education
programmes.
Conclusion
The role of I.C.T facilities in teaching and learning of mathematics education
programmes was discussed, it was therefore, concluded that Information and
Communication Technology (I. C.T) in mathematics education programme make
teaching and learning increasingly, flexible, multitasking and performance base.
It was also concluded that the challenges which to use of I.C.T posed have
hindered its effective use in teaching and learning of mathematics educations
programmes in Zamfara State.
Recommendations
Based on the results of the findings the following recommendations were made;
1. Mathematics lecturers shall improve their teaching methods through the use
of I.C.T resources to achieved desire goals.
2. The mathematics education curriculum should be re-arranged to
accommodate the use of modern I.C.T resources in the mathematics
programmes.
3. Government should provide adequate facilities that will promote the
effective teaching and learning of mathematics education through
information and communication technology (I.C.T).
4. The use of I.C.T resources for instructional delivery should be incorporated
in to teacher education programme of pre-service mathematics teachers.
5. Government should try to improve power supply system, since power has
become a major setback in the actualization of the use of I.C.T.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Zakah and Hibah under Bakolori Irrigation Project: as
a Means of Poverty Reduction for National
Development
Mustapha Muhammad Alkali Department of Islamic Studies, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract
The paper discusses Zakah and Hibah as panacea for poverty reduction and
national development. It begins with the definitions of Islam as a religion,
irrigation as a scheme as well as Zakah in Islamic law and as institution. It
highlights on brief history of irrigation in Nigeria and Bakolori Dam in particular.
It discusses the responses of some farmers of the study area such as Bakura,
Maradun and Talata Mafara local government areas in Zamfara State. The paper
discusses the concept of Gift (Hibah) in Islam and its wisdom; utilization of funds
generated through Zakah in construction, donation in Islamiyyah schools,
classrooms or mosques, consequences of refusal to pay Zakah were pointed out.
Finally, recommendations on how to improve Zakah funds for the wellbeing of the
poor are preferred.
Key words: Zakah, Hibah, Islam, Bakolori, Irrigation, Conflict
Introduction
In the name of Allah the Beneficent the Merciful, All praise belongs to the All-
knowing All hearing, whose power is beyond the human comprehension, the
Supreme Judge, the Omniscient, the source of peace and perfection. May His peace
and blessings be upon the noble Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon), the last
messenger, the magnanimous, the generous, the leader of the combatants and
example of the reformers and also on his family (household), his companions and
to those that follow his footsteps to the Last Day of accountability.
Water is an essential factor that plays vital roles in human being. It also serves as
an important factor in the production of food for their good health and energy.
According to Iwena, (1995:02), Agriculture, refers to the cultivation of soil for the
purpose of raising food crops which in other words is called farming. It also
encompasses breeding of livestock, conservation of forest, and fisheries
development. Dangana, (2004: 02) described the word Islam as:
Peace. It also means total submission to the will and commands of
Allah. Islam is a complete way of life which encompasses all aspect
of one‘sexistence, his mode of worship, eating habits, the way he
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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dresses, how he acquires and disposes his wealth, his attitude
towards himself and his family and society at large, his attitude as a
leader and as a member of the society. The submission in this
respect should be continues process or act throughout the entire life
span of a Muslim.
Islam therefore, draws the attention of its adherents and encourages them to protect
their integrity by seeking their ways of livelihood through lawful means (Halal).
To achieve that, they should venture into business provided they are permissible by
law (Islamic Injunctions). Economists are of the view that society cannot be
peaceful when people are stricken by starvation and poverty. Alkali, (2018:02).
This will not be possible without water. Water plays vital role in human existence
without which a society will perish. Societies utilize water to produce variety of
food items through different ways, for examples irrigation system of farming and
lots more. Almighty Allah States in the Glorious Qur‘an:
And We send down from the sky rain charged with blessing, and
We produced there with gardens and grains for harvest. And tall
date palms with ranged cluster. A Provision for (Allah‘s) slaves.
And we give life there with to a dead land. Qur‘an, (50:09-11)
And Allah hath made the earth a wide expanse for you that ye may
thread the valley ways thereof. Qur‘an, (11:19-20)
From the above verses of the Glorious Qur‘an one will realize the bounties of
Allah to His servants by sending water from the sky for man to use and live a
comfortable life. People are encouraged to engage in farming activities.
Furthermore, irrigation system of farming enables all year round production of
food. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to land for the purpose of
farming activities in all seasons of the year. (Iwena, Op cit, p.320)
This study emanates from an observation over the years that large numbers of
people, especially the youths, are nowadays running away from regular farming as
well as irrigation system of farming in Bakura, Maradun and Talata-Mafara Local
Government Areas. This is more obvious when compared with the percentage of
population of those involved in farming in these areas (4/5%). For this reason, this
research intends to examine the zakah and gift (Hibah) as well as their wisdom in
Islam, under irrigation system in the aforementioned three local government areas
with a view to drawing attention of our youths to partake in irrigation.
Concept of Irrigation
According to Google.com definition, irrigation is applying dry land with water by
means of ditches etc. Dictionary.com described it as the act of artificially applying
water to the soil to allow plant growth. This can also include applying water to the
lawn or garden. Erebor, (2003:07) defined Irrigation as the artificial application of
water to the soil to supplement insufficient rainfall or to eliminate soil water
handicap for crop production or agricultural purposes.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 115
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According to Hansen (1962:12), irrigation is the system of harnessing surface and
underground waters to make up for deficiencies in total volume of seasonal
precipitation or deficiencies in the distribution of the precipitation over time and
space. He further stressed that it is undertaken to provide an insurance against
drought, for cooling the soil and atmosphere, thereby providing a more favorable
environment for plant growth, to wash out or dilute salts in the soil, to reduce the
hazard of soil piping, and to soften tillage pans.
History of Irrigation in Nigeria
Irrigation in Nigeria has been traced back to around 700AD when Shaduf lift
irrigation system was believed to have been brought from North Africa to the
northeastern part of Nigeria. Abbas, (2008:11). The Baro experimental irrigation
farm started in Baro, Niger state in 1908 (ibid, p.11). However, it was not until
1926 that the first formal irrigation scheme, the Kware irrigation scheme was
established in the present Sokoto State. (ibid, p.11)
The Jihadist leaders also, were not left behind, Malami (1998:50) opined that
Muhammad Bello was very much interested in bringing improved farming
techniques and methods. It was said that he introduced sugarcane for production of
granulated brown sugar (ibid, p.50) He also established a sugar refinery at Gidan
Maikara. In addition, he introduced cassava, the herb, economic trees and
pomegranates in Sakkwato. (ibid, p.51)
More so, method of irrigation using fulcrum and bucket shaduf was also introduced
by him. The idea of leadership by example was also practiced by him. For instance,
he established a garden for growing of medicinal herbs at Gidan Bango, Sagin
Lemu and a farm at Garin Maidaji his personal house, where he used to water, the
garden in which he produced vegetables for sale so as to earn income for his
personal use. (ibid, p.52)
In 1949 an irrigation division was set up in the then Northern provinces.
Agricultural Department with an irrigation training school was established in
Sokoto (Abbas, Op cit, p.12). However, it was not until 1953 that an irrigation
policy was actually promulgated for Northern Nigeria enabling the irrigation
division set up in 1949 ―to construct village level irrigation schemes ranging
between 40 to 200 hectares all over the region‖. FMWR, (1991:12)
In 1960, the Federal Government of Nigeria commissioned several studies to
examine the water resources and irrigation potentials in Nigeria. These studies
covered Sokoto Rima River Valley, Kano River Valley, Chad Basin and Anambra
River Valleys. In 1962, the Federal Government of Nigeria included in its first
National Development plan (1962-1968), as a matter of policy, the issue of water
resources development for crop irrigation, among other things. In 1973, the Federal
Government created the Sokoto Rima and Chad Basin Development Authorities
with the responsibilities for full development of irrigation schemes among other
mandates (Abbas, op cit, p.12).
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The Bakolori Dam and Irrigation Project
The idea to construct the Bakolori Dam and Irrigation project predates the
establishment of Sokoto River Rima Basin Development Authority (SRRBDA)
ARIT, (1970:05).
Since 1960s various levels of Nigerian governments in
conjunction with world agencies initiated several programmes with the sole aim of
improving agricultural activities in the country. Based on the experiment at Gonar
Sardauna, the Bakolori Irrigation Project was conceived by Food and Agricultural
Organization (F.A.O) and was recommended to be one of the programmes for
socio-economic development of the area.
The research for design and construction of the programme started since 1965
(ibid, p.05). This indicates that the preliminary studies started long before then.
The Bakolori multi-purpose irrigation project is made up of a dam constructed
across the River Sokoto in the now submerged village of Bakolori with a storage
capacity of 450 million cubic meters for the irrigation of 23,000 hectares of land.
SRRBDA, (1985:03). The Impresit Bakolori (Nigeria) limited, was incorporated in
1975 for the management of the integrated irrigation project and development of
agriculture in Nigeria. In the company's share, 60% owned by the Federal
Government of Nigerian and the remaining 40% to its technical partner, Impresit
of Milan, one of the world's largest company in civil engineering. The Board of
Directors reflects the shareholding proportion by having six Nigerians and four
Italian directors.
From its beginning, the company increased in size and by 1980 had fixed assets
worth of $100m and an annual turnover of approximately $200m. BIP, (1975:02).
During the construction, over 5,000 people were employed for the work, which
include the dam, supply canals and the three major bridges of Sokoto and Bobo
Rivers. The followings were also constructed: transmission lines, pumping, lifting
and drainage stations, drain roads, flood dikes, a siphon across the Gora valley,
roads, and service centers among others. (ibid, p.03)
The Concept of Zakah
The word Zakah is the infinitive noun of the verb: Zakah, meaning: to grow, to
increase or to be pure in the heart.
The literal meaning of Zakah, therefore, is growing, increasing or purification of
the heart NCE/DLS, (2000:15). But in Islamic law, Zakah takes a different
meaning from the one known to the Arab before the coming of Islam. Prophet
Muhammad (S.A.W) defined Zakah as what is taken out of the property of the rich
ones and given to the poor ones. Al-Jaza‘ir, (1992:285). That is why the learned
scholars said: Zakah is a portion of a person‘s wealth, which is the right of Allah,
given to the poor people. (NCE/DLS, Op cit, p.15)
The Impact of Zakah
At this juncture, we will discuss the religious impact of Bakolori Irrigation Project
(B.I.P) to the autochthones of the study areas. Islam as a religion permits activities
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that could, promote human development and irrigation system of farming among
others.
Similarly, it encourages people to work diligently for their survival as well as
emphasizes on peaceful living among them.
It further motivates people to equally engage in things that could fetch them
benefits of the next world (Al-Akhirah). Some of these things include giving out
Zakah out of their wealth especially harvests due to irrigation farming.
Zakah as an Institution Zakah institution is one of the basic pillars of Islamic religion. It is the third pillar
which was instituted in the 3rd
year after hijrah (from Makkah to Madinah). The
Glorious Qur‘an attaches great importance to it where it appears several times with
‗prayers. In the Glorious Qur‘an Allah says‖
...and steadfast in prayers and spend out of what we have provided
for them (i.e. giving Zakah) and also giving charity to the poor and
also in Allah‘s cause. Qur‘an, (02:03)
Islam has been built upon five pillars: the testimony that none has the right to be
worshiped except Allah, and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah,
establishing prayers, giving (legal) alms, fasting the month of Ramadan, and
performing Hajj to His House (the Ka’abah) khan, (2006:65)
The fact that Zakah is an obligation upon Muslims is one of the most apparent
indications of the beauty of Islam and the concern it has for its adherents. The
Glorious Qur‘an reads:
Take alms (Sadaqah) from their wealth in order to purify them and
sanctify them with it. Qur‘an, (09:103)
The above verse shows clearly the benefit of giving out Zakah that is, it purifies
and cleanses the soul of the giver and distances him/her from greed and avarice. It
also strengthens the bonds of love between the rich and the poor, for it is from
human nature that a person shows affinity to those who treat them well. More so, it
brings increase and blessings to one‘s wealth and Allah replaces it (The wealth
giving as charity with something better), as Allah (STW) Said:
And what so ever you spend of anything (in Allah‘s cause), he will
replace it. And He is the best of providers‖ Qur‘an, (34:39)
Zakah has been made Obligatory upon Four Categories of Wealth:
1. Grains and fruits produced by the earth.
2. Grazing or herding animals which feed freely from the earth
3. Gold and silver
4. And inventory (stock) with which one does business. Bn Baaz, (2004:09)
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For each of these categories, there is a specified amount under which Zakah
becomes obligatory (termed as ‗Nisab‘). At this juncture, our major concern is for
grains and fruits which are predominantly large in the production of Bakolori
Irrigation project in Zamfara State.
Grains and Fruits
According to Oxford English dictionary, Grains can be defined as cereal crops, a
small hard seed or a tiny individual piece of something such as sand or salt. This
includes oats, barley, wheat, rice, maize, millet and corn.
The Nisab for grains and fruits is 5 ‗Ausuq’ and one Ausuq is equal to 60 Sai
measured during the time of the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) (ibid, p.10). This
amount measured according to the Sai during the time of the Prophet (S.A.W),
such as dates, raisins, wheat, rice, barley and their likes, is equal to 300 Sai, (one
Sai) is equal to 4 handfuls of an average sized man. while 300 Sai, is also
equivalent to five (5) bags, that is to say every one bag contains 60 Sai, when
multiply 5 bags by 60 Sai is equal to 300 Sai.
The amount which is due upon grains and fruits (if it reaches the Nisab) is 10% if
the date-palm or plants relied upon natural means for water, such as rain, rivers,
flowing streams and their likes. If they relied on unnatural means for water, such as
using animals to water or machines which lift water or their likes, the amount
which is due upon them is 5% as has authentically been reported by the messenger
of Allah (S.W.A):
The amount due upon that which is watered by the sky or streams,
or was … is a tenth, and what was fed by (manual) watering a
twentieth. Khan, op cit, p.327)
There are two important things to note with regard to Nisab. Firstly, the property
must reach a fixed minimum amount. And secondly that fixed minimum amount
should remain in one‘s possession for a complete year. Therefore, if it becomes
more within the year, the Zakah is compulsory. But in the case, where the amount
decreases and becomes less, there is no Zakah.
In an effort to assemble data appropriately, three hundred (300) questionnaires
were administered within the three local government areas of Zamfara State
namely; Bakura, Maradun and Talata Mafara to the farmers of Rice. This is due to
the fact that, random sampling was made in choosing eleven towns out of many in
considering them more serious and close in partaking farming activities. Through
the effort of self-administered by the researcher and his assistants. Out of these
questionnaires two hundred (200) were returned successfully leading to a rate of
66.6%. Data obtained were therefore analyzed using SPSS in descriptive statistics
(frequencies and percentages). The findings were presented below:
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Table 1: Did you pay Zakah of your farm produce on time?
Town Frequency
No Yes
Bakura 0 20
Birnin Tudu 1 19
Gidan Kano 1 19
Gora 1 19
Jabe 0 10
Mafara 0 20
Maradun 0 20
Matusgi 0 20
Rini 1 19
Sabon Gari 0 10
Ware 0 20
Total 4 196
2.0% 98.0%
Source Field Data (2017)
The table 1 above shows an illustration of the farmers with different dimension of
paying Zakah of their produce. In the first segment about four (4) farmers which
are equal to 2.0% of the sampled population, gave, a ‗no‘ response (denial) in
giving out Zakah. This does not mean that they are not abiding by Allah‘s
injunctions, but what they have produced does not meet the minimum percentage
required to be given out as Zakah. (If it reaches they are willing to pay).
The second column of the table above shows that 196 farmers or 98.0% of the
entire sampled population of research study areas were able to make a positive
response that, they do observe the payment of Zakah as soon as they harvested
their farm products. If the above percentages can give out Zakah promptly and
issue it to those entitled, no doubt poverty and hunger may reduce and fend off for
a short period of time. It also promotes and elevates some lives of the
contemporary Muslims (autochthones) of the study areas.
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Table 2: Did you face any problems in distributing Zakah from your farm
produce?
Town Frequency
No Yes
Bakura 18 2
Birnin Tudu 19 1
Gidan Kano 20 0
Gora 20 0
Jabe 9 1
Mafara 19 1
Maradun 18 2
Matusgi 20 0
Rini 18 2
Sabon Gari 10 0
Ware 20 0
Total 191 9
95.5% 4.5%
Source: Field Data (2017)
In the table 2 above, the first segment/Column shows that the respondents have the
highest/largest number of farmers which is about 191 or equivalent of 95.5% of the
total sample of the study areas opined that, they do not observe or come across any
problem while distributing Zakah after harvesting their farm products. According
to some farmers, the first thing they do after harvest is to earmark what is Zakah
and to give it out as a protection against any misfortune such as fire, water
disasters, and theft etc. However, in the second column, the respondents have only
9 farmers‘ equivalent to 4.5% that encountered some problems in the course of
giving out Zakah in their areas/localities.
The Concept of Gift (Hibah) According to Al-Jazair, (1992:422) Gift (Hibah) implies giving out what one
possesses legally out of his wealth, to his fellow. Such things include a house,
clothes, food or money (e.g. Dollars, pounds Naira etc.)
In view of this, let us have a glance at the Glorious Qur‘an for more clarification,
in the following verses:
… and we gave him Ishaq (Isaac) and Yaqub (Jacob),and each one
of them we made a Prophet. Qur‘an, (19:49)
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It also says:
… and do good as Allah has been good to you, and seek not
mischief in the land… Qur‘an, (28:77)
The Risalah of Abu Zaid Al-Qairawan, (ND:103)explains that gift (Hibah), charity
(Sadaqah), and endowment (Hubus) would not be complete without full possession
(to meet hand of receiver).
He further said if the giver dies before possession, it is returned to the estate of the
deceased person. But if he is on death bed, (sickness) then, it should be treated
within the bequest (will) of his wealth.
Table 3: Apart from the Zakah, do you give out extra gifts to the relatives, masses,
etc for the Development of Islam?
Source: Field Data (2017)
The table 3 above shows that only 8 people/farmers responded ‗No‘ in giving out
extra gifts to their relatives. This is equivalent to 4.0% of the sample population
opined that, what remains after remittance of their debt and other expenses would
not be extended to the next dry season. For this reason, there is no room for giving
extra gifts to others.
In the other segment, the table above shows that 192 respondents/farmers, which
equals to 96.0% out of the total sampled population of the research study, took the
largest number, with their ‗Yes‘ response in giving out extra gifts to relatives,
masses etc. Some even said their relatives from far and near were eager to pay a
visit, on hearing that their farm products were ripe for harvest. The givers (farmers)
Town Frequency
No Yes
Bakura 0 20
Birnin Tudu 1 19
Gidan Kano 3 17
Gora 2 18
Jabe 0 10
Mafara 0 20
Maradun 2 18
Matusgi 0 20
Rini 0 20
Sabon Gari 0 10
Ware 0 20
Total 8 192
4.0% 96.0%
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feel encouraged and satisfied to assist their brothers, their sisters, relatives or
masses etc
The Construction of Mosque Construction of mosque is important and rewarding in the religion of Islam.
Reflecting back to the Islamic history, the building of the Prophet Muhammad
(S.A.W) mosque (Masjid-Annabawi) was attached to his house. The first mosque
to be built in Islam serves as a center of worship, preaching, learning, as well as
place for public gathering for the entire Muslim Ummah during the life time of the
Prophet Muhammad (SAW) for execution and co-ordination of all the affairs of
Islam and Muslims in general. However, it is noticed that only few individuals
have the capacity to build mosques without assistance from some quarters. Some
provide plots, others in bringing blocks; bags of cement, flanks, ceilings, Zinc for
roofing and those who have the means may sacrifice their physical strength to
work as laborers. In this research, therefore, the random sampling of 300 target
farmers in the study areas has shown that very few individuals had used their
possessions, gained under Bakolori Irrigation project to construct some classrooms
in Islamiyyah or a Mosque. This is shown thus:
Table 4: Have you ever constructed or donated to Islamiyyah School, a class room,
a mosque or any building for the sake of Allah through irrigation farming?
Town Frequency
No Yes
Bakura 3 17
Birnin Tudu 4 16
Gidan Kano 5 15
Gora 3 17
Jabe 0 10
Mafara 7 13
Maradun 5 15
Matusgi 0 20
Rini 0 20
Sabon Gari 4 6
Ware 1 19
Total 32 168
16.0% 84.0%
Source: Field Data (2017)
The table 4 above, shows only 32 people/farmers, equivalent to 16.0% out of the
sample population of the study area; do not construct or donate to Islamiyah
School, build a classroom and a mosque through irrigation system of farming in
their localities. However, in other part, the above table shows that 168farmers
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which is equivalent to 84.0%, out of the total sample population of the study areas,
the responded have contributed their quota in either of the above stated structures.
In addition to that, some individuals‘ farmers do assist with little amount in their
possession. Some of them, invested/assisted through the use of their physical
power, which means exerting their energy in building or constructing a mosque.
From the above, about four (4) personnel have made a tremendous and marvelous
contributions through this system of irrigation. The first person is Alhaji Yusuf Son
Allah who with the assistance of some few individuals, was able to construct a
large Dihliz with three (3) small rooms were some students took as their residence,
situated in Mallamawa area in Talata-Mafara local government. The Dihliz can
contain a hundred people, in it the father of the current Sarkin Malaman Mafara,
Sheikh Liman Zaid conducted for several years a Ramadan Tafsir session. After
his demise, his son, Malan Sanusi Sarkin Malamai succeeded him. It was later
transformed and reconstructed to an upstair level by the current administration of
Abdulaziz Yari Abubakar of Zamfara State, under the supervision of some
Engineers from the ministry of works and that of Religious Affairs respectively.
Also, in Ware village, under Talata-Mafara local government there was a
development. Alhaji Abubakar Sha Madara Sarkin Fulanin Ware who was able to
construct a classroom for Islamiyya session, is still there for many years (see in
appendix 3)
The construction of five daily prayers mosques, situated at Bamfa area in Bakura
local government by the two personalities is also visible. According to Alhaji
Yusuf Farnana Bakura the construction of the mosques was an opportunity for
good, in the hereafter and therefore the philanthropists should thank God for giving
them the chance to do the work.
These personalities, made use of their minimum income derived from irrigation
system of farming, after giving out Zakah and with some gifts to their relatives,
masses as well as settling some expenses. Most of the projects conceived took
long time before being completed. However, this could encourage others to give
their own quota, so as to reap abundant benefits in the hereafter.
Warning for Refusal of Giving out Zakah
Islamic religion strictly warns its adherents whom there wealth and product have
reached the Nisab stated by the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) in the previous page.
The following quotations supported the verdict where almighty Allah says:
Those that hoard up gold and silver and do not spend it in Allah‘s
cause-proclaim to them a woeful punishment. On (that) day their
treasures will be heated in the fire of Hell, and their foreheads,
slides, and backs branded with them. They will be told: these are the
riches which you hoarded, taste then that which you were
hoarding. Qur‘an, (09:34-35)
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It also reads:
...Woe to those who associate others with Him, who give no alms
anddisbelieve in the life to come. Qur‘an, (41:6-7)
It further says:
Let not those who are niggardly in spending from that which Allah
granted them of His bounty think that their avarice is good for them:
it is nothing but evil. The riches they have piled up shall become
their fetters on Resurrection. Allah is He who will inherit the
heavens and the earth.
He is cognizant of what you do. Qur‘an, (03:180)
Conclusion
In conclusion, economic indices have shown that agriculture contributes 40% of
the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employs about 70% of the working
population in Nigeria (C/A, 2012). It is widely believed that agriculture is the
largest economic activity in rural areas where almost 50% of the population lives.
However, these agricultural successes are due to the influence of irrigation
activities in rural areas. Irrigation has no doubt contributed positively to farmers of
Bakura, Maradun and Talata Mafara Local Government Areas by the influence of
Bakolori Irrigation system of farming. In addition, if Zakah could be well
implemented promptly and accordingly will no doubt fend-off starvation and lift
the standard of those less privileges. It also strengthens the bonds of love between
the rich and the poor. More so, gift also added special values, rises images and
personality of the delivery of gift (giver).
Recommendations
There is need for non-governmental organizations to invest in Irrigation
system of farming to reduce tension, redundancy and to provide job
opportunities to the less privileged.
There is need to expand the B.I.P farmlands, thousands of farmers were
either not satisfied with their farmlands or have no farmlands to cultivate
what would make them to sustain their families.
The federal and state governments in collaboration with banks should
provide free interest loans to empower the farmers of Bakolori Irrigation
Project.
The Bakolori Irrigation Project should design an efficient cropping system
to ensure double or triple cropping in a year and to re-establish Agricultural
Extension Services Co-operatives.
The federal government/Bakolori Irrigation Project officials should provide
enough farming implements such as tractors, excavators for clearing of the
lands, as well as provide enough fertilizers, and pesticides and insecticides.
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Finally, there is need for the reliable, pious as well as worthy trusted
Muslim scholars to preach to the farmers for them to give out Allah‘s right
(Zakah) promptly and appropriately as well as gift to assist their brothers,
the less privileged and give some parts for the progress of Islam.
References
Abbas, A. Y. (2008). Sustainable Cost Recovery in Kano River Irrigation Project
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Usman Danfodiyo
University, Sokoto. Ph.D Thesis
Abdul‘aziz bn Baaz, (2004). al-Zakah, the Islamic Propagation, Rabwah
Abi zaid al-Qairawan, A.M. (N.D), Matnu al-Risala, Darul Fikr
Al-Jazair, A.J, (1992). Minhajul Muslim, Darul al-fikr, Beiruit Lebnan
Dangana, M.M. (2004). Lecture notes on Moral Philosophy in Islam, Department
of Islamic Studies, Usman Danfodiyo University, Sokoto
Erebor, (2003), in ribe, I.A. (2007). The impact of small scales Irrigation scheme
on income Generation, department of Agricultural Economics and
Extension UDUS, Sokoto.
Federal ministry of water resources, (1991). Irrigation Policy in Nigeria, A
Memorandum.
Hansen, E. V. (1962). Irrigation Policy and Practices, Iogon, Utah State University,
3rd
Edition, United States
Iwena, O. A. (1995). Essential Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary School,
Tonald publishers Limited, Lagos, Nigeria
JICA, (1993) in Abbas, A.Y. (2008). Sustainable cost Recovery in Kano River
Irrigation Project, UDUS Sokoto.
Khan, M.M. (2006). Sahih al-Bukhari (Translated in Arabic-English), New Delhi
India.
Malami, H.U. (1998). The Economic Principles and Practices of the Sokoto
Caliphate, the Institute of Islamic Sciences, Sokoto, Nigeria-
Nigeria Certificate in Education NCE/DLS (2000). National Teachers Institute,
Kaduna, Nigeria
The Bakolori Irrigation Project: A Background Information, Impresit Bakolori
(Nigeria) Limited, Talata Mafara 1975.
1969-70, Annual Report on Irrigation Trials, 1970.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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The Relevance of Railways to the Development of Colonial
Economy in West Africa
Abubakar Musa
Department of History, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract
This paper attempt to explain the activities of Europeans in the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries West Africa, with peculiar emphasis on railway lines
construction, the paper discussed transportation system in West Africa during the
pre-colonial period which include water and land. It also looks at the emergence
of towns and markets at the railway junctions, emergence of commercial centres as
well as decline of others. The transportation sector played and is still playing a
crucial role to the economic development of West Africa. It also looks at the
railway as employer of labour and facilitated the spread of the European currency,
railway also contributed in mass movement of cash crops from West Africa to
European nations, many areas of cash crops production were linked with the
roads, railways and ports and such crops were easily evacuated. More so, railways
assisted greatly in reducing the cost of transportation to the European officials. In
the course of conducting this research text books, published and unpublished
papers by different writers were consulted, internet materials related to this write
up were also consulted.
Keywords: Railway, Relevance, Colonial Economy, Economic Development,
West Africa
Introduction
The transportation sector had played a great role to the development of the pre-
colonial economy of the West African communities during the period: (pre-
colonial period) it remained one of the vital sectors of the economy in West Africa.
Its primary function is to provide the movement of goods and people from one
place to another thus, serving as one of the basic requirements to every economic
development. For this reason, this paper therefore, aim at discussing: the
transportation sector in the pre-colonial West Africa, trading relations between
West Africans and Europeans, the emergence of Railways in West Africa as well
as the relevance of Railways in the colonial West Africa.
Transportation in the Pre-Colonial West Africa
Historical evidences have shown that the pre-colonial economy of West Africa was
not subsistent.1 The fact is that, during the pre-colonial period, no West African
community was economically sufficient. Therefore, among the various West
African communities, existed a system of exchange of goods and services. The
people in the Savannah region needed coastal products, such as salt, fish among
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others, and those in the coast needed products like, shea butter, hide and skin
etcetera, from the Savannah. This made the transportation of goods and services to
where they were not available.
There were two forms of transportation during the pre-colonial period in West
Africa, by water and by land. The water transportation is mainly on areas where
there were rivers, big streams, lagoons and oceans. A number of ways were used to
transport goods to various destinations. People could wade through them or walk
on a trunk out across the water.2 The professional ferrymen stationed on the banks
of the rivers also ferried traders and their goods. Canoes were also means through
which large number of people and bulky goods were transported across the rivers,
lagoons, lake and oceans in the pre-colonial West Africa .3
Transportation by land was either through the use of head porterage or pack
animals. Traders carried their goods themselves, employed the services of porters,
slaves or members of their families. A person was able to carry between 80-120
pounds of load and walk a distance of about 3 kilometers an hour.4 The animals
used as means of transportation in the pre-colonial West Africa include: camels,
donkeys, mule bullock and oxen.5 The animals were capable of carrying heavy
loads and traveled longer distance with ease. These means of transportation were
able to cover the local routes linked villages and towns: regional routes which
linked two or more states and international highways which connect many states
and different ecological regions together.6
Colonial Railways in West Africa
As the commercial activities among the West African communities extended to
other parts of Africa and Middle East, varieties of goods and services were
exchanged the famous Trans-Sahara trade provided an avenue for the Europeans to
have a taste of the West African products in the first instance, through North Africa
and Middle East, goods like elephant tusk, salt, hide and skin.
In their quest to reach India, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to had contact
with the West African coast in the 15th
century, when they discovered that gold
was in abundant in the Gold Coast, the Portuguese were able to established trading
bases along the African coasts.7 After the Portuguese had successfully launched
their trading interest along the coast of West Africa, other Europeans such as;
Dutch, Danes, British, French, Germans etcetera followed.8 From the 15
th century,
the export commodities of West Africa, among others include; gold, Ivory, timber,
gun, dye-woods, beeswax, leather, pepper and slaves (though in a myopic form).
With the establishment of the European plantations and the great demand for
labour in the ―new world‖ the West African population was moved in masse to
cultivate such plantations. This marked the beginning and changing nature of the
trading relations between West Africa and Europe. Thus, from the 15th
century to
the next 300 years, the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade became the dominant feature of
the West Africa-Europe relationship. The Atlantic Slave Trade has its own
consequences to the economies and societies of West Africa. In fact, this trade laid
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the foundation of a network of commerce and production that brought about the
wealth of Western Europe and North America, at the same time the
underdevelopment of not only West Africa, but the entire continent as a whole.9
The Emergence of Railways Construction in West Africa
Early in the 19th
century, the production of export crops has been encouraged by
the European nations. There were monopolies of trade and markets by the different
European firms that were encouraged by their home governments. By 1877,
groundnut production had increase so much that the French proposed the
construction of a railway from Saint
Louis to Dakar, through Kayor to collect the product.10
The railway was finally
completed in 1885 despite the opposition from the Lat Dyor (Chief) of Kayor and
it consumed 120 million Francs.11
By 1923 a 720 miles of railway track was
constructed from Saint Louis to Bamako.12
Lines on Thies-Kayes that gave Sudan
an outlet to the sea at Dakar was completed in 1923.
The French also constructed railways in Ivory Coast (Bouake a 315 kilometers
inland) between 1903 and 1912; Fer Kessedougou 558 kilometers and Bobo
Dioulasso 796 kilometers, all in Upper Volta, were reached in 1926 and 1934
respectively. 13
Conakry to Kankan (in Guinea), the Pobe-Porte-Novo (in
Dahomey) to Cotonou (in Upper Volta) railways were all constructed by the
French between 1905 and 1913 and between 1926 and 1930 respectively.14
The
French also constructed the Benin-Niger one metre gauge line that covered a
distance of 577 kiometers.15
In fact, between 1880 and 1930 hundred kilometers of
railway lines were constructed by the French colonial government in its areas of
commercial influence of cash crops production with sea ports onward
transportation to France.
In Togo where German commercial influence was glaring, the central line from
Lome to Atakpame (which was extended by the French to Blita in 1934); the
Lome-Anacho and Lome-Palime lines were all constructed by the Germans.16
Railway construction started much later in the British West Africa. Although,
Britain had claimed possession and commercial influences in some West African
kingdoms during the early part of the 19th
century, it still had to make its presence
felt. Thus, because of many internal and external reasons that the British had to
contend with the colonial railway construction had to wait for the passage of the
―colonial Loans bill of 1899‖.17
Therefore, the construction of railways in the
British West Africa had to be taken care of by the colonial government.18
In 1895, railway construction was conceived in Lagos and the line was extended to
Ibadan in 1901, Jebba 1909 and Kano, 711 miles inland in 1911, and Port
Harcourt-Enugu-Jos line, linking the northern and eastern parts of Nigeria was
completed in 1926.19
The line from Freetown-Balma, a distance of 222 miles was
constructed in 1903, Accra-Kumasi and Accra-Sekondi lines were completed in
1923 and 1927 respectively.20
By 1940, there were 5,200 miles of railways
constructed in British and French West Africa.21
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These railways together with other means like telecommunications that were
constructed across the West Africa served as a means of evacuation of the West
African raw materials to the ports for onward export to Europe as well as an
avenue for the importation of European finished goods into West Africa.22
Colonial Economy
Colonial economy simply means interventionism which in turn implies the policy,
practice or advocacy of extending the power and domination by direct territorial
acquisition or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of
other areas.23
In order to attain this objective in Nigeria, roads, railway lines and
harbors were extended to all potential cash crops producing areas by the British
colonial administration. The largest bridge in Africa was commissioned in 1932 at
Makurdi (Benue state). By 1937, about 19500 miles of railway lines had also been
constructed in Nigeria connecting cocoa producing area with Kano in the north.
Different feeder roads were also linking major towns and depots.24
This
infrastructure were created to boast the internal trade and exchange ideas between
the Europeans and Nigerians or among Nigerians. This had easy the transportation
of goods and services from different parts of Nigeria to the coast where the goods
were shifted to England. In other hand the British goods and services were also
moved to corners of Nigeria easily and freely. However, scholars like Skidely
asserted that the whole idea behind British colonial social facilities was to provide
employment for the 134000 Britain at home.25
Colonial Industrialization in West Africa
The closing decade of the 18th
century was a period of rapid industrial expansion in
Europe which essentially depended on tropical raw materials.26
To ensure the
getting the needed materials for the industries at home various European firms at
home lured their governments to pursue the policy of mass of primary crops. For
instance, in Britain the cotton manufacturers formed a union known as British
Cotton Growing Association (BCGA) in 1902, to promote cultivation of cotton in
the British colonies in Africa. Similarly Lever Brothers (a soap manufacturing
firm) began to promote the production of palm kernels. Likewise the confectionery
manufacturers and cocoa processing firms made cocoa cultivation attractive in
West Africa.
The West African peasants were forced to produce cash crops like cotton, ground
nut, cocoa, rubber and palm kernel, in response to the various demands such as
taxes, court fines must have compel them to grow since failure to do so could
easily cause European proconsul. Likewise inability for the farmer to pay taxes or
crop fine lead to his imprisonment or forced labour on public projects. The peasant
farmer therefore, has to produce more than his consumption for both domestic and
international market.27
The Relevance of Railways in the Colonial West Africa
Generally, the transportation sector has played and is still playing a vital role to the
economic development of many nations; particularly, economic development of
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West Africa during the colonial period, it could be remembered that, the
construction of railways in West Africa has been regarded by some scholars as the
―major legacy‖ of colonialism.28
In the contemporary there is the use of European
ready made goods like cloths, farm implements and wiping out local industries like
black smithing in West Africa. The use European currencies and like.
The railways in the colonial West Africa served as an impe tus to the production of
export crops. Many areas of cash crops production were linked with the roads,
railways and ports and such crops were easily evacuated. It also assisted greatly in
reducing the cost of transportation to the European officials and merchants. This is
because it facilitated an access to hinterland and enables the Europeans to exploit
West Africa.
In addition, railways facilitated the quick dispatch of troops to quell the West
Africa resistance as well as a weapon for the diversion of trade to a port for the
benefit of the colonial powers.
Railways assisted in no small measure in what Hopkins regarded as the opening of
the West African market to international competitiveness.29
this is because colonies
were required to be self-sufficient. Therefore, the colonial officials had to device
all possible means of promoting the trade.
Through the railway, goods that were imported into the West African markets were
able to reach the final consumer. Other means of transportation have been
complemented by the railways in ensuring the development of colonial economy in
West Africa. Large numbers of people have been carried through the railways to
various port cities. Thus, there were growths in population of port cities such as
Dakar, Lagos, Takoradi among others. It also contributed to what Hopkins called
―dramatic reduction‖ in the cost of transportation.30
The railway sector had led to the consolidation of position or some existing
commercial centres (Kano as an example) as well as caused the decline of others,
unless such towns were linked to it by roads. It also led to the emergence of new
towns and markets at the railway junctions Sabon Garin Kaura Namoda in present
Zamfara state for example.
The railway in West Africa was a major employer of labour in the colonial
economy, it facilitated the spread of the European currency, an early centre of
unionism and the remained the greatest carrier of merchandise.31
Furthermore, all the agricultural stations (agricultural departments and research
centres) were set up was to meet the demand of exporting crops needed for
European industries, like cocoa, ground nut, palm trees, rubber, cotton, timber,
Shea butter tree, beniseed etc were studied and improved seeds and seedlings were
produced and distributed to farmers free of charge in the areas suitable for each
crop.
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Conclusion
Prior to the advent of railway construction in West Africa, there were various
mode of transportation that adequately served the needs and the extent of the
existing markets. Railways construction started in West Africa by the French in
1880s and was followed by the British in the 1890s. Hundred kilometers of railway
lines were constructed by both French and British in West Africa to link areas of
cash crop producing and mining areas with roads and ports for easy exploitation of
West Africa‘s resources.
The construction of railways in West Africa had contributed greatly to the
development of the colonial economy. It failed to cut across the different colonial
boundaries, a situation that led to the improper economic integration of the region
even after the independence. Railways were largely constructed with the exploited
West African labour and purposely served the colonial economic interest.
Reference
T. Falola, (1996). An Economic History of West Africa Since 1750, Ibadan
Rexchantes. P. 54
G.O. Ogunremi, (1980). Topics in Nigerian Economy and Social History, Ile-Ife
University. Chapter 7
T. Falola (1996). An Economic History of West Africa since 1750, Ibadan
Rexchants. P. 57
E.O. Abiola, (1978). A Textbook of West African History (AD 1000 To The
Present Day), Ado-Ekiti Omolayo press. P. 66
A. Alade, (1996). The Economic Basic of Imperialism, Ibadan Rexchantes. P. 122
J.D. Anderson, (1982). West Africa and East Africa in the 19th
and 20th
centuries,
Ibadan HEB press. P. 73
A. Olukoju, (1980). Transportation in Colonial West Africa, p. 145
M. Webster‘s, (2008). Encyclopedia Britannica.
M. Grouder, (1976) West Africa under Colonial Rule. P. 276
S. Oshin, (1898-1914). Colonial Railway policy in Northern Nigeria. P.164
A.G. Hopkin, (1973). An Economic History of West Africa, London. P.206
I.L.Bashir, (1980). Socio-Economic Development in British West Africa from
1900-1940, the case of Nigeria Sokoto
L. David, (1985). The Unbound Prometheus Technological Changes in Europe,
London, OUP p.45
R.W. Gavin and W. Oyemakinde, (1980). Economic Development in Nigeria since
1800, in Ground Work for Nigerian History, Ibadan, p.152
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
English Language an Agent for National Development
in Nigeria: Issues, Challenges and the Way Forward
Richard Gyasi
Department English Language and Literacy, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract
English is the world’s common language. English has come of age as a global
language. It is spoken by a quarter of the world’s population, enabling a true
single market in knowledge and ideas. It now belongs to the world and
increasingly to non-native speakers – who today far outnumber native speakers.
But when English language is addressed as a tool for development in Nigeria it is
often seen as a hindrance to development. In this respect this paper will attempt to
argue for the usage of English language in Nigeria as an effective tool for national
development amidst the challenges of the 21st century. In the course of discussion,
these challenges appearing in the process of education for development were
presented and supported by opinions and examples. The paper ends in conclusions
directly related to real-life situations, and gives implications to be utilized in the
English language educational process directed at achieving development in
Nigeria.
Keywords. Language, English Language, National, Development, Challenges.
Introduction English language is the lingua franca of Nigeria as well as the ‗second‘ language.
A ‗second‘ language is the language that comes after one‘s primary language.
Ironically, it‘s also Nigeria‘s dominant language, with the use of English being
taught at various levels of Nigeria‘s educational system. When every guiding and
holding factors are scrutinizing, the role of English language in National
development is noteworthy.
English originally the language of England, but through the historical efforts of the
British Empire it has become the primary or secondary language of many British
colonies in Sub-Saharan Africans including Nigeria. Currently, English is not only
the official language of Nigeria; indisputably it is the vehicle for international
communication. It is therefore the major language of Nigeria and indispensable
plays an international role. There are other languages which are also commonly
used in Nigeria but English has eliminated rival tongues by its vigorous efficiency
in national development. The pressure of English challenges these other languages,
as the intensifying interrelationships of economics and trade circumscribe their
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international utility. African countries need both international and national means
of communication neither of which is likely to be provided by an indigenous
language (Povey, 1976:13). Therefore English becomes official language of the
administration, medium of instruction, and subject of study in Nigerian schools.
Knowledge of English is considered as necessary for activity, thought and
employment. Making this possible is the use of a common Language-English.
English Language English is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval
England and eventually became a global lingua franca because the English
language allows non-native speakers to adopt to it easily. (Crystal, 2008:3-6.,
Wardhaugh, 2010: 4). It is named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that
migrated to the area of Great Britain that later took their name, as England. Both
names derive from Anglia, a peninsula in the Baltic Sea. The language is closely
related to Frisian and Low Saxon, and its vocabulary has been significantly
influenced by other Germanic languages, particularly Norse (a North Germanic
language), and to a greater extent by Latin and French (Frinkenstaed etal, 1976:6)
English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms
of English, a group of West Germanic (Ingvaeonic) dialects brought to Great
Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the 5th century, are collectively called Old
English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman Conquest
of England; this was a period in which the language was influenced by French
(Crystal, 2003a : 86). Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the
introduction of the printing press to London, the printing of the King James Bible
and the start of the Great Vowel Shift (bbc.co.uk)
Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, and later the United
States, Modern English has been spreading around the world since the 17th
century. Through all types of printed and electronic media, and spurred by the
emergence of the United States as a global superpower, English has become the
leading language of international discourse and the lingua franca in many regions
and professional contexts such as science, navigation and law (The Route of
English), especially in the commonwealth.
English is the largest language by number of speakers, and the third most-spoken
native language in the world, after Standard Chinese and Spanish (Gordon,
2006:1). It is the most widely learned second language and is either the official
language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states including
Nigeria. According to Crystal there are more people who have learned it as a
second language than the native speakers. It is estimated that there are over 2
billion speakers of English. English is the most commonly spoken language in the
United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland and New Zealand,
and it is widely spoken in some areas of the Caribbean, Africa and South Asia
(Crystal, 2003b: 108). It is a co-official language of the United Nations, the
European Union and many other world and regional international organisations. It
is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of
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speakers of this Indo-European branch. English has a vast vocabulary, though
counting how many words any language has is impossible. According to Algeo
(1999: 57-91), English speakers are called "Anglophones".
Modern English grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo-
European dependent marking pattern, with a rich inflectional morphology and
relatively free word order, to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection, a fairly
fixed Subject +verb+ Object (SVO) word order and a complex syntax (Konig,
1994:532). Modern English relies more on auxiliary verbs and word order for the
expression of complex tenses, aspect and mood, as well as passive constructions,
interrogatives and some negation. The variation among the accents and dialects of
English used in different countries and regions—in terms of phonetics and
phonology, and sometimes also vocabulary, grammar, and spelling—can often be
understood by speakers of different dialects, but in extreme cases can lead to
confusion or even mutual unintelligibility between English speakers
National Development
Scholars hold that national development is not an easy concept to define. Obasi
(1987:5) gives reasons for the difficulty encountered in defining the concept. He
holds that the term is ambiguous and is perceived differently by different people.
To rise above the difficulties, which scholars attribute to the definition of national
development, we attempt to separate the two words involved in our study. We
analyze these two words differently, and then bring them together again in order to
give an acceptable definition. The two words are national and development.
National
The word national is an adjective of another word, nation. To understand the
meaning of national we must first know the meaning of nation. Nation is a tricky
word to define. It yields different meanings depending on the side from which it is
approached. Majorly, the definition of nation is approached from three
perspectives: the cultural perspective, the psychological perspective and the
political perspective. Wellman‘s definition captures these three perspectives in the
definition of a nation. According to Wellman, ―a nation is a cultural group of
people who identify with one another and either have or seek some degree of
political self-determination.‖ (0basi, 1987, p.4).The cultural aspect of a nation
demands the common possession of certain cultural elements like language,
dressing, values, etiquette, traditions, crafts, mores, history, etc. The psychological
aspect emphasizes the consciousness of these possessions and the collective
identity which they foist on all possessors. On the other hand, it is the political
aspect that calls for self-determination.
The scope of our present study emphasizes all of these aspects of a nation.
However, while recognizing the role of the cultural and psychological in the
making of a nation, as understood in this study and as is necessary for it, the term,
nation, as used in the context of this course ―English Language and National
Development,‖ is analogous to a state, a country. Thus, the definition given to a
country can also be applied to a nation. According to Anderson (1996),
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―A clearly defined territory which (i) is recognized internationally
as a state (ii) is presided over by a government able to make and
enforce independent decisions concerning domestic policy and law
and foreign policy and (iii) is permanently occupied by a specific
population.‖ (p. 36).
Development
Development has become the watchword of our time. Despite the widespread use
of the term, scholars do not agreed on its meaning. The implication is that
development is defined differently by various people. In the same manner, the
difference in the definitions of development arises because people define
development from the perspective of their own disciplines. It is these disciplines
that colour most of the definitions given of development. The first of these is that
by Guzman et al. (2017: 192) define development as ―the accumulation of human
capital and its effective investment in the progress of an economy‖ .Todaro and
Smith (2011:5) define development as ―the process of improving the quality of all
human lives and capabilities by raising people‘s levels of living, self-esteem, and
freedom.‖. You must notice immediately that Todaro and Smith emphasize human
person as the centre of development, unlike Guzman et al. who emphasized on
economic progress. In Todaro and Smith, we identify an effort to improve the
human person not because of what can be gained from him but simply because he
is a human person. It can be said here that man is properly instituted as the subject,
goal and reason for development and not its object. Todaro and Smith‘s definition
emphasizes three dimensions as constitutive of development. They are (a)
Economic Dimension (b) Psychological Dimension and, (c) Social Dimension.
Consequently, national development is the development which belongs to a nation.
Obasi (1987: 60) define development as ―the progressive transformation of the
economic, social and political structures of a society from relatively less complex,
less efficient and less desirable forms to relatively more complex, more efficient
and more desirable forms‖. National development is seen by Awotokun (1994:
130) as a minimum socio and political development as well as economic
development in the building of a national identity. The ability of a country to
improve the social welfare of the people by providing social amenities like quality
education, water, good roads access to health facilities , etc accounts for the
development of any nation.
Arguments in Favour of English as a Tool for National Development It is hard to imagine the modern world without the English language. It is in the top
three of the most spoken languages in the world. English has become the lingua
franca of travel, business, and international communications. In fact, Nigeria is
ranked 4th among countries with the highest population of English speakers (List,
2019: 615). But how important is English for us?
English as Language for Commerce and Economic development
As Nigeria economies look to increase their commodity exports, ―the security of
millions of African farmers depends on the negotiation and marketing skills--
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including their command of English--possessed by the leaders and exporters who
represent them‖ (Negash, 2011, para.4). In this way English is displayed not only
as the language of world markets, but also as the language of inter-country trade
and negotiation within the African continent. The ability to clearly write in
English is also key, as many forms of business communication, from emails to
presentations and marketing to important business contracts, are written in English.
In some industries in Nigeria, knowledge of business terminology in English is
critical for entry into and the success of a business. Workers need to have an
understanding and command of detailed vocabulary dealing with specific concepts
in order to be able to communicate effectively with other professionals in the
business. Examples of specialized businesses requiring knowledge of English
include computing, engineering, science, technology, medicine and law.
English has emerged as one of the major languages for doing business on the
Internet in Nigeria. A website written in English can attract many customers and
enable even small business owners in remote villages in Nigeria to sell items to
people around the world. Well-written product and service descriptions in English
are keys for attracting new customers and keeping them up to date on any new
product offerings.
English Language as Unifying Language for Peace and National Development
National development only anchor in an environment where there is peace,
people‘s right and freedom respected. Many scholars argue that in certain cultural
contexts, the English language can be seen as a language of unity for peace and
peace is a platform for sustainability for development. For example, in Nigeria
English serve as the language of nationalism, concerned with political integration,
efficiency and peace (Bamgbose, 1991:20). It is the language that brings all the
supposed ―nations‖ of Nigeria to function as one mention is often made of each
ethnic group being a nation on its own with the Hausa nation, the Ibo nation, the
Yoruba nation, the Edo nation, Jukunland, Tivland, Urhoboland, Ogoniland etc. as
examples. But, the cohesion of all under the subsuming Nigerian nation is possible
through English.
English as Language to Sustain Education for National Development
Some Nigerian scholars such as Bamgbose and Akere (1991:5), vehemently
opposed the use of English as the language of education and for that reason, openly
canvassed in parliament for the replacement of English language with one of the
indigenous languages as the official language citing the problem most people have
in understanding the language and the inability to communicate effectively through
the language as the major barrier.
However, much as one would like to salute the sense of patriotism demonstrated
by these Nigerian scholars, the fact remains that none of the indigenous languages
has the linguistic capacity to handle the teaching of subjects like physics,
chemistry, mathematics, geography, etc. This fact is buttressed by Adedeji,
(1992:11) when he points out that:
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―A science student needs language for acquiring and communicating knowledge
and skills in science and technology. He needs language to help him define
concepts and describe substances, objects, locations and processes, report facts,
draw inferences, make conclusions, classify items and make generalizations‖.
What should be the purpose of education? This is a question that has agitated the
minds of teachers and policy makers all through the ages. Development
incorporates personal empowerment, Knowledge, which is often equated to power,
is a catalyst for gaining positive self-image and confidence. A global education is
key to such knowledge gain since it empowers students with information in the
following areas synthesised by Sen (2010:2) as constituting the global curriculum:
cross-cultural awareness, global issues, universal values, critical
thinking/leadership skills and experiential learning.
The purpose of education in Nigeria is for national unity and development. This
has informed many of the reform programmes of successive governments. There
have been initiatives by government on nomadic education, technical skills
development, professional enhancement and continuous education among others. It
is only through the English language that this basic education at different levels
can be achieved. Even the nomadic education has to be done in English language
because the concept to be used in teaching at a higher level (right after primary
three) has to be provided in the English language. Educational opportunity and
literacy have long been key elements in programmes committed to human
development (Street, 2011: 6). The increased status of English within a global
economy of languages has meant that English language education has also begun
to be promoted as an important factor in international development programmes.
Indeed, Bruthiaux (2002:289) contends that development efforts have now become
‗inextricably linked in governmental and academic circles as well as in the media
with English language education‘ (pp. 269-291).
Policies supporting the teaching of English as a means of educational enhancement
in Nigeria are not solely based on societal beliefs about the power of English to
transform people‘s lives, however, and there is some tangible evidence that
knowledge of English can correlate with a better overall education in certain
contexts and sustain development (Grin, 2011:). Moreover, links between quality
education and economic growth have been clearly established in some recent
studies (Little and Green, 2009). From this evidence, therefore, one could argue
that the prominent role assigned to quality English education in the education
systems of developing countries is partially justified, though again context-specific
factors need to be taken into account for each actual case.
English as language of Technology for National Development
If English language has aided in national development in Nigeria, technology has
enabled it to jump the fence and to thrive without the physical contact which had
previously been necessary. The growth of English, and the emergence of the
internet as a global communication channel, is mutually reinforcing development
(Robert, 2015:15). Today Nigeria has benefited a lot from the modern technology.
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They are able to read and interpret, and put into use the instruction of such
information.
As well as being promoted as a key factor for economic competitiveness and
educational advancement, English is also often framed within the discourse as a
means of allowing access to technology, which in turn is seen as facilitating
learning and supporting educational change. In this sense, the use of technology in
such projects is viewed as a way to help reach the United Nations‘ Millennium
Development Goals of universal primary education and of developing global
partnerships that make available the benefits of new technologies. A discourse that
simultaneously promotes English and ICT education can be found in policy
statements across the globe, and is not restricted to underdeveloped and developing
countries. The provision of ICTs in schools, and training in the use of them, is thus
also seen as part of the way to provide people in remote areas in Sub-Saharan
Africa with opportunities to access knowledge and education skills. In
development contexts, this type of strategy is mostly viewed not as a luxury, but as
part of any individual‘s freedom (Sen, 2010:5). In fact, Graddol (2006:65) argues
that exclusion from these networks is one of the most damaging forms of
exclusion, as he sees access to ICT as an ‗essential tool for economic
development‘. As Graddol(2006:72) notes, information technology and English
have become ‗basic skills‘ in education globally; and along with literacy in the
national language (and perhaps the mother tongue) and numeracy, they are now
seen as ‗generic skills [that are] needed to acquire new knowledge and specialist
skills in the future‘ (para.1). Moreover, research suggests that access to technology
has a particular appeal in development contexts where it ‗holds the allure not only
of improving education and economic competitiveness, but also of allowing a
nation to leapfrog to modernity‘ (Warschauer, 2004, pp.377-390).
English as Language for Tourism Sustainability
Any discussion of development sustainability in Nigeria must consider the
phenomenon of globalization and, in particular, that of international mobility. We
will look at one aspects of mobility which is international tourism.
Tourism delivers jobs, something Nigeria needs above all else if they are to make a
success of their growing demographics. So how is the continent faring? It is
improving but is far from reaching its potential, according to a 2016 United
Nations World Tourism Organisation report. The continent of Africa recorded 53.5
million international tourist arrivals in 2015, up from 50.4 million in 2010, but was
still slightly lower than 2014‘s 55.3 million. The continent secured $33bn in
tourism receipts in 2015, with 3% of global market share in terms of revenue and
5% in terms of tourist numbers (African Report, 2018).
International tourism is already a huge international commercial undertaking. In
2008 there were 922 million international tourist arrivals. In the same year US$944
billion (30% of the world‘s export of services) was generated through international
tourism. Despite occasional fluctuations in line with world economic trends,
tourism is expected to continue to grow rapidly and by 2020 it is predicted that
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there will be 1.6 billion international tourist arrivals. The importance of English in
international tourism is well recognized (UNWTO Report, 2016). There is a
dynamic commercially driven response to the need in the form of English language
training provided as part of tourism training programmes and in the publication of
English language course books designed particularly for those engaged in the
tourism industry. Tourism is particularly important to developing countries. The
United Nations World Tourism Organisation recognises this importance through its
ST-EP (Sustainable Tourism –Eliminating Poverty) Programme which provides
assistance for the development of tourism in poor, rural and marginalised
communities in Sub-Saharan Africa. Examples of current projects include English
language training for the staff of tourist lodges in Nigeria, Ghana etc (Hywel,
2010).
Challenges in using English Language as an Agent for National Development English language as an agent for national development in Nigeria is hindered by
challenges slowing its positive effects. Some of the problems are highlighted
below:
Problem of Mother Tongue (L1) Interference in English language learning.
According to Oluwayemisi (2014:124) other challenges confronting the teaching
and learning of grammar in Nigeria are Intralingua and Interlingua problems.
Interlingua problems: These are problems that arise from the interference of the
native languages. Second English language learners experience mother tongue
interference phenomenon which deals with problems a learner encounters when he
transfers the acquired skills in his native or indigenous language (L1) to his second
language (L2). The problems can be syntactic (grammatical), phonological
(mispronunciation), semantic or morphological. Nzinga (1983) in Oluwole
lamented the low performance of new entrants at the University of Ilorin saying
that-there is clear ignorance of most basic elements of logical interference ... and
most of the students do not have the opportunity to undertake advanced reasoning
tasks. Phonetically, learners of English as a second language find it difficult to
pronounce certain English words because the sounds are absent from their native
languages. Examples are dental sounds // in thin, this and// in them, that etc.; and
also palato-alveolar fricative sound /ȝ/ in measure, pleasure etc. Syntactically, the
students employ plurality to honour elders.
Problem of Shortage of Specialist Teachers in English Language
Another problem which English learners encounter is staff shortage. Oluwayemisi
(2014:128) explained that-there are academic staff shortages across board
particularly in the critical areas English language; Over 60% of the academic staff
in the Nigerian University System is in the category of Lecturer I and below of
English language (Oluwayemisi, 2014: 129). These shortages are compounded by
inter-and intra-sectoral brain drain. It furthers revealed that Colleges of Education
has staff shortfall of 56.9%, Poly/Monotechnics 56.9% and Universities
39.1%.These have implications on the equality of teaching and learning especially
at tertiary level. In my opinion, there should be one lecturer to between 20 and 50
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students; however, what obtains in our higher institutions is the opposite. Most of
the lecture halls where general courses are taught are usually overpopulated and
since listening which is the first foundational skill in learning English language
cannot be done in a noisy and rowdy environment, learning is hampered.
Moreover, facilitators easily lose control of the class except in situations where
colleagues assist in class control (Kannon, 2009: 26).
Lack of Basic and Necessary Teaching and Learning Equipment Lack of basic facilities and equipment in teaching and learning challenges effective
teaching and learning of English Language. Most schools and colleges in Nigeria
lack essential equipment which could have strengthen learners‗skills. Most schools
do not have language laboratory, well equipped libraries, softwares, computers, etc
which facilitate the learning of English language.
Recommendations For English language to contribute effectively to national rebranding project and
national development the federal Government needs to be more committed to
Bilingual education, with English language giving a prominent attention. A more
serious commitment entails the following:
1. There should be an evaluation on the curriculum in general in particular.
For English teaching, evaluation will be made to ensure a thorough look
and discussion throughout the entire formal system from primary (optional)
to secondary (compulsory) and tertiary (compulsory) education.
2. In order to improve the teaching and learning quality, several institutions
should look out and learn from other countries what they have been doing
concerning the contents, teaching methods and school/program evaluation
and teacher/learner assessment concerning the use of English language
side-by-side of the local language. The government should set up twinning
programs, joint venture partnerships and different academic activities.
3. English teachers should apply new technologies, pedagogy methodologies
and techniques in teaching.
4. A close cooperation among institutions should be developed to widen the
opportunities for English teachers to attend various types of academic
training. Strong emphasis should be placed on teacher training and
retraining, and selection and placement.
5. Effort should be made toward the funding of adult education programmes
that will focus on teaching and learning English language to illiterates who
are artisans, tourist guides, market women, drivers, labourers, farmers and
all those who engaged in a blue collar job. etc.
6. Though a lot of tasks need to be done, action research, classroom research,
and especially the sharing of expertise and findings in the field to bridge the
gap between Nigeria and the wider world.
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7. Sufficient attention should be paid to quality assurance in English teaching
and learning. Many tasks must be done in the future to put in place quality
assurance and accreditation criteria and practices.
8. There should been an increasing trend through the media to recognize
English as a very important tool in national development, cooperation and
globalization but not a rival to local languages.
Conclusion The English Language is an indispensable tool for national unity, integration and
global communication. It plays a pivotal role in the attainment of sustainable
developmental goals. The paper advocated total utilization of the English language
roles especially in contemporary Nigerian society where corruption,
underdevelopment, security quagmires have eaten deep into its fabrics. English
should be allowed to perform its role most importantly in national development.
English is equally the language of nationalism. It plays a significant role in almost
all spheres of human endeavour, be it in education, politics, the judiciary,
administration, economics, religion, government, business and legislation.
Summarily, it is the key factor to unending development in Nigeria in specific
areas such as education, national unity and the overall nation building of the
country
Finally, the paper does not in any way intend to suggest that the indigenous
languages are inferior or incapable of performing educational functions like the
English language, however, it is the believe of the paper that the geographical
spread of English language provides the benefits for more international
communication and interactions than the indigenous languages that still have a
limited spread. Nevertheless, it is important that we should not exaggerate the
importance of English nor should we undervalue the importance of other
languages. We must temper our enthusiasm for English with a sense of
responsibility towards those who do not have easy access to it.
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Teachers Utilization of Instructional Materials in
Promoting Students Performance in Agricultural
Science in some selected Secondary Schools in Gummi
Local Government Area-Zamfara State
1Musa, U T,
2Abubakar S A,
3 Auwal A A.
Department of Agricultural Science Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract
Instructional materials are materials that are needed in order to enhance teaching
and learning for training pupils and students in primary and secondary schools.
The objectives of the study is to determine the roles of instructional materials in
the teaching and learning process, their availability or otherwise and find out the
extent at which teachers make use of such materials in teaching agricultural
science in the study area. The research design used in the study was descriptive
survey, the sample size of ten (10) schools for this research, in all a total of twenty-
four (24) questionnaires were administered in the ten (19) selected schools. Simple
percentage was the statistical tool used in data analysis, the results of the research
indicated that the use of farm implements, live animals, pictures, cardboard
papers, tape recorder, laboratory chemicals etc in teaching promote the students’
performance in agricultural science. Also improvements of the teaching,
methodology, good teaching qualification, teaching experience, effective practical
lesson promote students’ performance in agricultural science. Finally, the
research made some recommendations encouraging government and non-
governmental organizations to provide quality teaching materials for secondary
schools in the study area.
Keywords: Instructional Materials, Teachers, Pupils, Students, Utilization,
Performance, Agricultural Science.
Introduction
Instructional materials are essential and significant tools needed for teaching and
learning in order to promote teachers ―effectiveness and students‘ performance‖,
Alabere, (2017). Some years back teachers mainly concern with the knowledge of
the subject matter, and how to organize and present the content of the lesson
meaningfully (Abometa, et al, 2013). Teachers of those days made minimal use of
instructional materials or sometimes, the materials were insufficient, but
nevertheless now more emphasis is laid on the use of instructional materials
(Junadu, 2008).
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
It has always been the concern of the educationists all over the world to determine,
organize and teach the subject matter that is more relevant to the need of the
society (Anonymos, 1990).
To achieve this several innovations were developed. One of the innovations in the
educational system is the production of several teaching strategies at different
levels of educations.
Instructional materials otherwise known as teaching aids constitute one of the
primary tools in the hands of the teacher for effective and learning to take place.
The importance of incrustation materials is demonstrated in a popular adage that
―when we hear alone in the class we forget much of what he heard while when we
hear and see we forget less and recognized better‖ (Albert,2012).
The instructional materials include pictures, cardboard paper, television, sound
films, tape recorders, laboratory chemicals, live animals and farm implements to
mention but a few. Today children are growing up in a world of many sources of
information as are result of which lesson are more understandable when materials
are in the teaching and learning process (Akinbande, 2000).
Whatever we hear, seen and do, the rate of forgetting is significantly lowered, but
stigmatized more in student‘s memory (Ogizi, 2010).
The instructional materials are used to supplement the normal process of listening
speaking reading and writing and serve the pupils in meeting their educational
goals. (John, 2014).
Instructional materials are classified into three categories as visual aids, audio aids
and audio visual aids, the visual aids facilitate learning through the sense of sight
e.g modern diagrams, photography, cartoon, specimens and printed aids while the
audio aids are that appeals to the sense of hearing only e.g record while the audio
visual aids are those teaching aids which appeals to both sense of sight and hearing
e.g television motion pictures, videos (Oyejemezi, 2016).
The effectiveness of instructional materials in promoting students‖ academic
performance in teaching and learning is indisputable. It provides in the much
needed sensory experience needed by the learners for an effective and meaningful
behavioral change. Instructional materials are meant to improve the quality of
education for effective academic performance of students in schools. The
performance of the students on the intended learning outcomes provides the
validation- loop on the success of the interaction and instruction.
The performance of students in senior secondary schools is not encouraging
(Onlieowo, 2016). It was observed that the poor performance of student is
unconnected with non-utilization of suitable instructional material. Many teachers
go to class to teach subject without any materials to assist the learners. No
laboratory, live animal, tape recorders among others to facilitate leaning. Learning
is facilitated when learning make use of at least three of the sense organs namely:
seeing, hearing and touching.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
In making use of any instructional materials, such materials must be previewed,
that is, having full knowledge of the materials; prepare the environment where it
will be used; prepare audience by means of making sure that the materials to be
used are relevant to the lesson of instruction.
Materials and Methods A well-organized questionnaire was distributed to Agricultural Science teachers
and principals in order to verify the instructional materials used in teaching
agricultural Science in selected secondary schools in Gummi local Government of
Zamafara State. A number of variables were choosing to collect the data these
variables include, Teachers qualifications, teaching experience, students‘
performance and instructional materials that are necessary in Agricultural Science
teaching learning situation. The research also carried out by physical inspection of
instructional materials to confirm data obtain from the questionnaires.
A total number of twenty-four (24) questionnaires were distributed to ten (10)
school in which G.U.S.S Gummi and G.D.S.S Gummi has also four (4)
questionnaires each while the remaining eight schools, G.G.D.S.S Gummi,
G.D.S.S Daki Takwas, G.D.S.S Falale, G.D.S.S Gyalange, G.D.S.S B/Magaji and
G.D.S.S Gwalli has two (2) questionnaires each. The number of questionnaires that
were distributed was based on the number of agricultural science teachers available
in each school.
Simple random sampling techniques were used to select the ten (10) secondary for
this research. However, the purposive sampling techniques was used in selecting
the respondents from each of the selected school, the purposive sample was
employed to ensure that only teachers of agricultural science were selected.
Simple descriptive statistics tools of frequency and percentage were used for data
analysis.
Result and Discussion
The data collected were gathered, sorted, analyzed, and presented in tables.
Types of Schools
The result obtained indicated that nine (9) schools in all the selected schools were
day schools which is 90% while only one (1) schools is a boarding schools which
10%. This indicated that day schools dominated the schools in Gummi Local
Government area of Zamfara State. See table I below:
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Table 1: Types of Schools
Types of Schools Frequency Percentage%
Day School 9 90
Boarding School 1 10
Total 10 100
Number of Agricultural Science Teachers in each School
The result obtained on the number of Agricultural Science teachers in each school
indicated that G.U.S.S Gummi and G.D.S.S Gummi has four (4) teachers
accounted for 16.8% each while each of the remaining eight (8) schools has two
(2) agricultural science teachers having 8.3% each. This indicates that G.U.S.S and
G.D.S.S Gummi has more agricultural science teachers see table 2 below
Table 2: Distribution of Respondents Base on Number of Agricultural Science
Teachers
Name of schools Frequency Percentage%
G.D.S.S Gummi 4 16.8
G.U.S.S Gummi 4 16.8
G.D.S.S Gummi 2 8.3
G.D.S.S Daki Takwas 2 8.3
G.D.S.S Gayari 2 8.3
G.D.S.S Birin Tudu 2 8.3
G.D.S.S Falale 2 8.3
G.D.S.S Gyalange 2 8.3
G.D.S.S B/Magaji 2 8.3
G.D.S.S Gwali 2 8.3
Total 24 100
Classes Taught
The result obtained on the classes taught indicated that junior secondary classes
has fifteen (15) teachers 60.2% while senior secondary schools has (9) teachers
scored 37.5%. This shows that junior section has more Agricultural science
teachers than the senior section because junior section are more populated.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Table 3: Distribution of Teachers Base on Classes Taught
Classes taught Frequency Percentage%
Senior classes 9 37.5
Junior classes 15 62.5
Total 24 100
Qualification of Teachers
The result obtained indicates that fifteen (15) Agricultural Science teachers in the
whole school are N.C. E holders (62.5%) followed by seven (7) teachers with B.sc
Agricultural (29.2%) and two (2) teachers are B.Ed holders (8.3%) this shows that
N.C.E holders dominate the teaching of Agricultural Science in Gummi Secondary
Schools followed by B.Sc. and B.Ed. holders, with No Diploma holders. See table
four (4) below.
Table 4: Qualification of Teachers
Qualifications Frequency Percentage%
N.C.E 15 62.5
B. Ed 2 8.3
B.Sc Agric 7 29.2
Diploma 0 0
Total 24 100
Teachers Teaching Experience
The result obtained on teachers teaching experience shows that eight (8) teachers
in the selected Secondary Schools were having two years teaching experience
which is 33.3% which tally with those having 10 to 20 years of experience,
followed by six (6) teachers with less than two years of teaching experience
(25.1%), then two teachers having twenty and above years of experience (8.3%).
This indicates that teachers with two year teaching experience and those with ten-
twenty (10-20) years are the majority.
Table 5: Distribution of Teachers based on Teaching Experience
Teaching Experience Frequency Percentages (%)
Less than two year 6 25.1
Two years only 8 33.3
Ten – twenty years 8 33.3
Twenty and above 2 8.3
Total 24 100
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Use of Instructional Materials for Teaching Agricultural Science
The result obtained indicates that 24 teachers (100%) in all the selected Secondary
Schools in Gummi make us of instructional materials for teaching Agricultural
science while no teacher teaches without instructional materials.
According to the response most teachers used instructional material like simple
farm tools such as Hoe, Rake, Axe, Sickle, Watering Can, Maps, Diagram, Chart,
Soil Samples (Sandy, Clay and Loamy). See table six below
Table 6: Distribution of Teachers Base on the Use of Instructional Materials in
Teaching Agricultural
Response Frequency Percentage%
Yes 24 100
No 0 0
Total 24 100
Types of Instructional Materials Used
The results obtained on the types of instructional materials used shows that nine (9)
teachers in all the selected secondary schools were using modern types of
instructional materials accounted for 100% while fifteen (15) teachers were using
improvised types teaching aids accounting for about 62.5%. This shows that most
of the teachers in all the selected secondary schools make used of improvised
instructional materials for teaching Agricultural science. See table seven below.
Table 7: Distribution of Teachers base on Types of Instructional Materials Used
Response Frequency Percentage%
Modern 9 37.5
Improvised 15 62.5
Total 24 100
Availability of Instructional Materials for Teaching Agricultural Science
The result obtained shows that Eleven (11) teachers in all the selected Secondary
Schools (45.8%) report that there are adequate instructional materials while
Thirteen (13) teachers (54.2%) believed that teaching materials for Agricultural
science is inadequate. See table eight below.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Table 8: Distribution of Teachers based on Availability of Instructional Materials
for Teaching Agricultural Science
Response Frequency Percentage%
Adequate 11 45.8
Inadequate 13 54.2
Total 24 100
Differences Noticed by the Teachers while Using Instructional Materials for
Teaching Agricultural Science
The result indicates that eleven (15) teachers noticed that the students
understanding is very high when instructional materials were used in teaching
(62.5%) followed by nine (9) teachers whose response was that students have high
understanding (37.5%) and none of the teachers report a low understanding by the
students when instructional materials were used for teaching Agricultural Science
in the study area.
Table 9: Distribution of Teachers base on Differences that Teachers noticed on the
use of Instruction Materials
Differences Frequency Percentage%
Very High 15 62.5
High 9 37.5
Low 0 0
Total 24 100
Result Discussion
The researched work was specifically designed to determine the effects of
instructional material utilization on the academic performance of students in
agricultural science in secondary schools in Gummi Local Government Area,
Zamfara State. In order to achieve this purpose simple percentage and frequencies
were used in analyzing the data obtain from the respondents. One of the objective
the study was to identify the types of instructional materials being used to
influence students‘ academic performance in agricultural science in secondary
schools in the study area. Data collected were analyzed and it was observed that
utilization of good and relevant major instructional materials influence students‘
academic performance in agricultural science.
The result also indicates that teachers‘ qualifications and experience in the used of
instructional materials influences students‘ academic performance in agricultural
science. Other factors are motivation, facilities and materials, space of time
available, number of learners. However, majority (54%) of the teachers were not
satisfied with the availability of instructional materials for teaching agricultural
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
science in the selected secondary schools. This is in line with the work of Olaitan
and Agusiobo, (1994) where they state that,
Major Findings That the use of instructional materials is important to influence students‘ academic
performance in agriculture science, that teachers‘ qualification and experience
were the major factors affecting the use of instructional materials to influence
students‘ academic performance in agricultural science in secondary schools. The
success of achieving what the instruction materials are met to achieve in an
instructional situation depend on their suitability, adequacy and effective
utilization.
Conclusion The study was carried out to determine the utilization of instructional materials on
the academic performance of students in agricultural science in secondary schools
in Gummi local government, Zamfara state. In order to achieve this objective, the
research used questionnaires as the instrument for data collection. Descriptive
survey research design was adopted for this study. A total of 24 respondents (as
stated in the methodology) made up of teachers were used for the study. The data
collected were presented in tables and analyzed using simple percentages and
frequencies.
The failure rate of students will be curtailed if agricultural science teachers were
made to utilize appropriate and relevant instructional materials while teaching
agricultural science in secondary schools. This was affirmed by the respondents
where they say there is very high understanding by students when relevant
instructional materials are used the teaching situation.
Instructional materials were very important to influence student‘s academic
performances in agricultural science as they can simplify and clarify what is
complex and difficult to express in words.
Recommendations The following recommendations were made based on the findings of the study.
The agricultural science teachers should endeavor to use and try to
improvise instructional materials for effective teaching of agricultural
science in the secondary schools.
Government should ensure that adequate employment of dedicated and
qualified agricultural science teachers to teach the subject in all secondary
schools in the study area and in the state.
Adequate and suitable instructional materials for teaching agricultural
science should be made available to all secondary schools for the
enhancement of students‘ academic performance in agricultural science.
Government should sponsor training and re-training of teachers on
utilization of agricultural science instructional materials.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 153
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
There is need for a well-equipped laboratory and farms for agricultural
science practical. This will go a long way in ensuring that students are
exposed to different aspects of practical learning.
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Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 154
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Monetization of Fringe Benefit in Public Service for
Sustainable National Development
Zainab Ibrahim
Department of Economics, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract The main trust of this paper is to consider and analyze issues that are useful for a
successful implementation of the policy of monetization of fringe benefits in the Nigerian
public service. The topic is a subject of current interest, not only to public servants who
are directly affected by the policy pronouncement of the Federal Government, but to the
generality of the Nigerian people who in one way or the other will be effected by the
policy. In other to address the issues involved, the paper adopts a priori approach of
analyses. It observed that the problem of monetization is not in the policy but that of
implementation. In conclusion, no matter how laudable the objectives of the policy of
monetization may be, certain people will still view the policy with suspicion. Therefore,
public servants should embrace the policy with an open mind to ensure its success.
Government, on its own put should put in place the necessary infrastructure, including
adequate budgetary provisions.
Keywords: Monetization, Public Service, Fringe Benefit, Sustainability, National
Development
Introduction Monetization of Fringe Benefits in the Public Service is a subject of current
interest, not only to public Service is a subject of current interest, not only to public
servants who are directly affected by the policy pronouncements of the Federal
government, but to the generality of the Nigerian people who in one way or the
other will be affected by the policy (Daniel 2016). The subject can be considered
as a hydra with tabular body and tentacles around its mouth. The extent of policy
pronouncement on the issue of monetization and the, level of sensitization reached
by government, make it very difficult for the subject to fizzle out even after initial
implementation, just like some other government policies that often die halfway in
the path of implementation. It is a matter that government cannot gloss over; the
sensitization exercise has affected the psyche of every worker in the federal public
service, with those at the state and local government level waiting to see how the
policy of monetization will also affect them. In matters of this nature, these
workers refuse to recognize the concept of a federation being preached by the
government. They argue that what ¡s good for the goose is good for the gander
(Budget Circular 2015).
However, the main thrust of this paper to consider and proffer issues that will be
very useful for a successful programme of implementation in other to achieve the
objectives of the policy monetization. In this paper, the rationale for the policy of
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 155
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
monetization the objectives of the policy of monetization, the issues of policy
implementation, monitoring and strategy will be considered. The last sections of
the paper contain the recommendations and conclusion.
The Rationale for the Policy of Monetization Against the backdrop of several political and socio-economic problems facing the
economy, government decided to fashion out, the objectives of the policy of
monetization in a manner that could resolve some of the teaching problems of the
nation. Ekaitte (2013) observed that ―over the years, the cost of government has
continued to escalate beyond imagination, arising mostly from the burden of
providing basic amenities to the public servants. These amenities include
residential accommodation, transport, medical services, utility services, fueling and
maintenance of vehicles. For example, in 1977, recurrent expenditure was
N158.563 billion. In 1998, it rose to N178.097 billion. Between 1999 and 2001.
The increase rose sharply to N447.67 billion (1999); N461.61 billion (2000) and
N79.33 billion (2001). Capital expenditure on the other hand was N269.651 billion
(1997); N309.015 billion (1998); N498.027 billion (1999); N239.45 billion (2000)
and N438.7 billion (2001). While the percentage of the Recurrent over total
expenditure was 36.56 percent and 37.02 percent in 1997 and 1998 respectively, it
rose sharply to 65.84 percent in 2000. The increases are attributed to the
implementation of the new, salary increases in year 2000. Government is
convinced that to move the economy forward. Monetization is the answer as it
minimizes waste, misuse and abuse of public facilities and enhances allocation.
Between January and December last year, the Federal Government also spent
about N7.36tn on the implementation of the 2018 budget. The amount was spent
on the three major expenditure component. They are recurrent expenditure, Capital
Expenditure and Statutory transfers. The 2018 budget signed by president
Muhammad Buhari on 20th
June, 2018 had total spending of 9.1tn (Budget
Circular, 2018)
From the above, the entire concept of monetization is to cut costs in government
spending Democratic governance is an expensive type of governance. It is the
government of the people, by the people and for the people. It is the government
that listens to the yearnings and aspirations of the people that elected the m through
the ballot box. Therefore, it is not strange if government the government says that
the cost of governance has continue to escalate and the burden of providing basic
amenities for public officers has contributed significantly to the continuous
increase in government recurrent expenditure, thereby leaving very little for capital
development. Ogunleye (2011) observed statistical data obtained from the office of
the accountant-general of the federation showed an increase in recurrent
expenditure from N100.13 billion in 1997 to N478.29 billion in 2002. It was
assumed that the increase was due solely to the increases in the salaries of public
servant during the period. However, the increases, in the recurrent expenditure
became more pronounce between 1999 and 2000 of democratic governance. The
re-emergence of the presidential system of government in May 1999 added to the
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
burden of both recurrent and capital expenditure. Salaries and allowance of
political office holders and their numerous aides have to be paid. Infrastructural
facilities have to be provided for the additional political office holders and their
appointees. These are issues associated with democratic governance. The outcry of
government on such issues does not absolve it from providing the basic amenities
and infrastructural facilities for its citizens.
The core issues that government is battling with and consider as problems of
national concerns are:
The escalating cost of government
The burden of providing basic amenities for public officers.
The ever rising increase in recurrent expenditure.
The inadequacy of funds for capital development.
The issues encapsulated above are very important and are matters that should be
handled and resolved by a responsible government that is interested in national
growth and development. The last democratic government led by President
Goodluck Ebele Jonathan had since the assumption of power in May 2010 put in
place certain policy measures to revamp the national economy. The policies
include privatization, tax reforms, public service reforms, due process, trade
reforms, local government reforms and procurement reforms. These reforms are
being introduced to take Nigerian into the class of middle income earning nations
and to, increase its gross national products from the present level of $300 to $630
or $700 bracket within the next 10 years (Faloseyi, 2014).
Objectives of the Policy of Monetization
According to the federal government, one of the ways it thinks of solving problems
of waste and misuse of public amenities in the possession of public officer is the
introduction of the police f monetization into Federal Public Service. The
objectives of the policy include the following:
To encourage public servant to own personal houses, and to enable them plan
for a more comfortable post-service life.
To minimize waste, misuse and abuse of public facilities.
The reduction of capital cost, maintenance and running cost.
To reduce the rent burden on government as public servants make up over 80
percent of the tenants, especially in Abuja.
The promotion of the, observance of maintenance culture and discipline in the
use of public utilities since individuals will now have to pay for such services.
The savings from monetization will enable government to prosecute more
capital projects (Budget Circular, 2013 and SGF Circular, 2013).
The above objectives are quite laudable and they can be achieved if appropriate
machinery of policy implementation, monitoring and strategy is put in place. The
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achievement of the desired results will be of immense benefit to government,
public servants and society at large.
Issues of Policy Implementation
From the outset, there seems to be the problem of acceptability of the policy of
monetization on the basis of its proposed implementation. The Editorial (2013)
observed that the President (Chief Olusegun Obasanjo) had in his characteristic
manner ordered the monetization of the public servant‘s benefits with effect from
July 1, 2003 without input from the National Assembly. He had even gone ahead
to recommend the measures to state governments in violation of the concept of
separation of powers. The Editorial also observed that the president did not provide
figures regarding how much would be saved each years and when the savings
would start to accrue to the public purse. ―Like everything the President does. It is
a measure compelled by good intention but which because of lack of consensus,
might create more problems than it solves‖ (Editorial, 2013). Similarly, ―attempts
by the senate to hide its dismay over the presidency‘s efforts to prosecute the on
policy using the law makers to make implementation (Daniel, 2016)
It has often been argued that Nigeria does not stop the laudable objectives. The
problem with Nigeria is in the area of implementation of its programmes. There is
skepticism that the implementation of the policy of monetization will not differ
much from earlier policies that have failed in the process of implementation. In an
interview with Okunrounmu (2013), he expressed the view that if the country goes
about monetization the way it goes about most government programmes, it will
suffer serious setbacks. In Nigeria, programmes are announced before planning
commences. At the stage of pronouncement, Nigeria should know how much the
policy of monetization would cost. What would be its financial implication on the
nation‘s budget annually for the next five years? Answers should be given as to
how the policy would be sustained.
The man components of the policy of monetization include benefits, which were
hitherto provided by government to entitled public officers at huge costs. Such
benefits include residential accommodation, furniture, utility, domestic servants,
motor vehicles, fuelling/maintenance of transport facilities, medical treatment,
leave grant, meal subsidy and entertainment. The crucial components of the policy
of monetization that require immediate implementation are: -
(i) Residential Accommodation
The highlights in relation to residential accommodation are as follows:
100 percent of annual basic salary to be paid unblocks annually to enable the
officers, to rent houses of their choice.
During the first year of the monetization policy, the residential
accommodation allowance of officers, which is 100 percent of annual basic
salary, will be converted to rent for the quarters they occupy.
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Government residential houses across the country will be sold by public
auction at the end of the first year of monetization after proper valuation.
Public officers occupying such houses will be given the first option to
purchase the house, but at the price of the highest bidder.
To ensure that government properties are properly maintained during the one
year transition period, all residents will pay 10 percent of their basic salary as
service charge into a trust found to be managed by a board of trustees made
up of representatives of residents, facility managers appointed to manage
each estate/group of property and the federal government.
(ii) Furniture Allowance
The highlights in relation to furniture allowance are:
300 percent of annual basic salary to be paid once in every four years
The allowance will be paid annually at the rate of 74 percent of annual basic
salary.
(iii) Motor Vehicle and Transport
The highlights in relation to motor vehicle loan and vehicle are:
Government will no longer provide chauffeur driven vehicles to entitled
officers
300 percent of annual basic salary will be granted as motor vehicle loan.
Loan will be recovered within 6 years at 4 percent of interest.
(iv) Use of Government Vehicles
The highlights in relation to the use of government vehicles are:
No new vehicle will he purchase by the ministry, Extra-Ministerial
Department, Federal Government Agency or Parastatal.
Each Ministry/Agency will be allowed a specific number of utility vehicles,
including houses, for essential services.
Where there is a need to purchase a new vehicle or vehicles by any Ministry,
Extra-ministerial Department Agency or Parastatals, A request will be made
to Mr. President for approval.
A committee will be set up to work out details for the disposal of the
vehicles.
Service-wide staff buses will be pooled under the management of the office
of the head of the Civil Service of the Federation to convey staff to and from
office at an approved rate.
(v) Fuelling/Maintenance and Transport Allowance
The highlights in 10 percent of annual basic salary will be paid to public
servants.
30 percent of annual basic salary will be paid to political, public and
judicial office holders as contained in the Act, 2002.
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Relation to this Sub-section are: -
(vi) Personal Assistance Allowance
The highlight is:
25 percent of basic salary will be paid to entitled officers as listed in the
certain political, public and judicial office holders (Salaries and
Allowances, etc.) Act. 2002.
The above component of the policy of monetization required immediate
implementation. In order to guard against its failure, government has to
address and adequately tackle the following issues:
Preparation of budget estimates and timely submission to the Budget
Office.
Budge considers: ion and approval by the National Assembly as item on
national priory.
Quick resolution of areas of disagreement between the legislators and the
executive.
Signing of the Appropriation Act at least three months before the
commencement of the government financial year.
Compliance with the guidelines of the Appropriation and Supplementary
Appropriation Acts.
Timely release of funds to the relevant ministries benefits within the tax
structure.
Favorably treatment of the monetized benefits within the tax structure.
Monthly rendition of financial reports in a standardized and uniform format
by all ministries, Agencies, etc.
The success or otherwise of the implementation of the monetized benefits largely
depends on the sufficiency of funds in the Appropriation Act. The first year of
implementation of the policy of monetization could be considered as the year of
financial resources experiment. In the subsequent years, the lessons learnt in the
first year will be used to tackle emerging problems associated with implementation
of the policy. It is important to note at this juncture that a lot of savings well result
from the successful implementation of the policy on the federal public service.
These savings can be channeled to the provision of infrastructural facilities for the
growth and development of the national economy. (Saka, 2011)
Issues of Monitoring Strategy
The issues of monitoring and strategy are a sine-qua-non for the successful
implementation and sustenance of the policy of monetization. The issues of crucial
importance are the composition, of a presidential Monitoring and strategy
Committee to collate, review and submit monthly progress report on the level of
achievement or otherwise of the objectives of monetization. The Nigerian economy
is volatile economy and is subject to various kinds of shocks. Therefore, any issue
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that requires effective monitoring and strategy should be broken down into phases
of implementation. (Williamson & Oliver 2011)
On the short run, the implementation of the policy of monetization will have
serious consequences on the economic, social and political lives of the country and
its citizens. The work of the Presidential Monitoring and strategy committee will
also include the determination of such consequences on the fact of the economy.
The short-time implementation of the policy of monetization has to be considered
in relation to its consequences on the national budget inflation, unemployment,
productivity, political and social aspects. On the short run, government has to be
very careful on how it goes about implementing the policy on monetization. There
is no doubt about the bitter pills of monetization on the short-run. Hence, it
requires the assistance of such a committee to do the nutty gritty that will bring
about the realization of the objectives of the policy of monetization. (Okoye,
Annazodo, Izueke and Eze, 2012)
In an interview with Odion (2012), he expressed the view that ―Nigeria seems to be
running a special brand of democracy, where the president is operating as through
we were still in military regime. If I look back to the time we took off since 1999, I
can count as many policies that have been initiated and just simply rubbed-stamped
by the National Assembly. Now, monetization has to deal with national revenue
that is expenditure. In other words, spending the money that belongs to the
country, and I think that the appropriate body that should deliberate and be seen to
be initiating it really, should be the representatives of the people‖.
Abstracting from the above, reforms of this nature should be deliberated by the
National Assembly. The National Assembly is the creation of the Nigerian
contribution. It is made up of elected representatives of the Nigerian people
through the ballot box. This is the assembly where crucial national policies are
subject to debate as to their advantages and disadvantages; desirability and ultimate
approval or disapproval on the basis of its implication and consequences on the
national economy. Therefore, the first port of operation and enlightenment on the
benefits of monetization is the National Assembly. If the law makers are well
informed about the pros and cons of monetization, they will not kick against it but
they will be in a better position to educate the people at the grassroots.
(Okunronmu, 2012)
Adequate appropriation for the timely and regular payment of salaries and
monetized benefits should be a matter of primary concern when considering issues
of monitoring and strategy. Government has to consider the Aspect of funding to
meet the payment of salaries and monetized benefits. On the short run, the policy
of monetization will increase the budgetary appropriation of government because
of the colossal and immediate disbursement of salaries together with the monetized
benefits to the public officers. The issue of irregular payment of salaries and
allowances is not strange to public officers at the state and federal levels. Workers
are owed arrears of salaries and allowances for several months, ranging from three
to eight months. If these arrears are not cleared, how will the government be able
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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to start and religiously adhere to timely and regular payment of salaries and
monetized benefits to the public officers? The best approach to handle this matter
of monetization is the adoption of the strategy of phasing. Monitoring and strategy
require the existence of sanctions and discipline for non-compliance with the
policy of monetization. This should be applied consistently nom matter whose ox
is gored. The interest of the nation overrides every individual interest. Adeleke
(2010)
Policies are not introduced for the mere sake of introduction. They are introduced
for the overall benefit of the nation and its citizenry in the application of sanction
and discipline government should take into consideration the concept of
federalism, and its deregulation policy. For instance, every state should determine
what he could pay to its workers and so on. In an interview with Okunronmu
(2013), he expressed the view, ―we all know the bane of our policies is in the
implementation and the civil servant is ever ready to thwart any policy of it does
not suit him. You can see that civil servants will get so many years allowances;
they will still be living in government houses after collecting the three years‘
salary. We all know they are the only ones who know where the government
houses are, and you are going to depend on the same civil servant to implement the
policy‖. In order to overcome these fears, stiff sanctions and discipline should be
meted out to any erring officer. This role should not be glossed over by the
presidential Monitoring and strategy Committee when constituted. The aspect of
sanctions and discipline is a fundamental aspect for the successful implementation
of any policy including that of the policy of monetization.
Conclusion
No matter how laudable the objectives of the policy of monetization, people would
still view the policy with suspicion. This is not uncommon with public policy. If
people do not agree with the identified problem or the definition of the problem,
the chances are that such people will not agree with the policies to tackle the
problem. In the case of the policy of monetization, if it is successfully
implemented, it will definitely minimize waste, misuse and abuse of public
facilities since people will have to pay to use facilities that were hitherto provided
by government to entitled officers. Public servants should therefore, embrace the
policy with as open mind to ensure its success for their future benefits, that of the
nation, and the entire citizenry.
Recommendations
The paper makes the following recommendations:
1. The government should constitute a presidential Monitoring and Strategy
Committee to collate, evaluate, review and submit monthly progress report
on the level of achievement or otherwise on the objectives of monetization.
2. There should be continuous education and enlightenment on the benefits of
monetization to public officers and entire citizens through workshops,
seminar, conferences, print and electronic media.
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3. Government should make adequate appropriations for the timely and regular
payment of salaries and monetized benefits.
4. There should be sanctions and discipline for non-compliance to make for
effective strategy and monitoring of the policy of monetization. These
sanctions and discipline should be applied consistently no matter whose ox is
gored.
References
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Workers‘ Fringe Benefits in a Nigerian Higher Institution‖. Research
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July 0l,Pp. 1-6
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Budget Preparation and Submission Call Circular. BD/2000BP/2003/T/19 of
July 0l,Pp. 1-6
Daniel, A. (2016). Monetization of public Sector Benefits. Vanguard. July 24, p.
16.
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July 24, Pp. 16.
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delivered by the Secretary to the Government of the Federation at the Retreat
for Ministers and Permanent Secretaries at the NICON Hotel. Abuja: July
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Faloseyi, M. (2014). No Going Back on Degradation, Monetization - SGF. The
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Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 164
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Secondary Education Curriculum and Community
Development: Problems and Prospects
Muhammad Sadisu Yusuf
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education Maru Zamfara State
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract Secondary school education has been a catalyst for youth in terms of developing
their talents, interest and abilities. The paper explains secondary school education
identifies its aims and objectives of secondary school education the role of
community in development of secondary education diagnoses problem affecting
secondary school education which includes among others; poor leadership roles,
poor funding of schools, unqualified teaches, ineffective inspection and supervision
bribery and corruption and ill-convened curricula, etc the writer suggest lastly as
part of the prospects to have viable and effective leadership of school head, good
communication between school administrations, teachers and student; good
funding of school, reconstructions and rehabilitation of schools buildings and
lastly establishment of senior secondary school commission to take care of senior
secondary school issues.
Keywords: Junior Secondary School, Senior Secondary Education, Community,
Development, Community Development.
Introduction
Education was being identified as the yardstick to any meaningful development,
socially, politically, and economically. It is seen as a gateway to effective national
education and industrial transformation a sine-quanun for progress, unity,
cohesion, and development (Argungu, 2012). It is all round development of the
individual, socially, physically, psychologically and spiritually. It is the greatest
force that can be used to bring about change, the greatest investment that a nation
can make for the quick development of its economic, political, sociological, and
human resources. It was in realization of this that a national policy on education
was formulated to put things in right perspectives for the country. Since the
national policy on education is the government way of achieving that Part of its
national objectives, using education as a tool, no policy on education can be
formulated without first identifying the overall philosophy and objectives of the
nation. The first national objectives of Nigeria as stated in the national
development plan and endorsed as the necessary foundation for the national policy
in education, are the building of; a free and democratic society; a just a egalitarian
society; a united, strong and self reliant nation; a great and dynamic economy and a
land full of bright opportunities for all citizens
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Nigeria‘s philosophy of education, therefore, is based on the integration of the
individual into a sound and effective citizens of this nation at all levels of
education. The national aims and objectives to which the philosophy is linked are
therefore; the inculcation of the right types of values and attitudes for the survival
of the individual and the Nigerian society; the inculcation of national
consciousness and national unity; the training of the mind in understanding of the
world around and the acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competence
both mental and physical as equipment for the individual to live on and contribute
to the development of his society (FGN NPE, 2014).
Statement of the Problem
Nigerian educational system is based with serious problems ranging from
unqualified teachers, overcrowded of classroom, lack of enough instrumental
materials in schools, poor leadership rulers and ill-conceited curriculum. These
challenges are so complex and interwoven the problems of basic education and
secondary education. The quality of instruction in terms of content delivery,
curriculum development, teachers, effectiveness in teaching and learning, etc
empty in our secondary schools, (Ahmad, 2014).
On the other hand, government has not helped matters in poor funding of
secondary education, poor educational polices and program, lack of effective
inspection and supervision of schools to checkmate the activities of teachers and
students as a result, secondary schools have become ―Centre of exploitation and
moral decadence. (Guga and Bawa, 2015).
In essence, this paper is to depend secondary education curriculum and community
development, its problem and prospects.
This led to the production of poor secondary school leaner‘s who could not read
and write effectively or become production in any viable vocation skills. As a
result they become misname in the society and used by politicians as ―things‖
during election campaign. This is serious menaces which need to be carried out to
here a stable society.
Objectives of the Study
The main objectives of the study is to assert secondary school education
curriculum in Nigeria specifically, the objectives if the study includes;
i. Define what is meant by secondary school education
ii. Identify the aim and objective of secondary school education curriculum
iii. Diagnose the problems affecting secondary school education.
iv. Suggest, possible solutions to the identified problems affecting secondary
school.
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Research Questions
The paper tries to answers the following questions
i. What is meant by secondary school education?
ii. What are the aims and objective of secondary school education curriculum?
iii. What are the problems affecting secondary education?
iv. What are the solution affecting secondary schools?
Significance of the Study
The paper would be useful to educational planners in publishing out strategies and
methods of helping teachers, learners and parents with useful remedies to
secondary education. Also educational developers and curriculum planners and
administration would find the paper useful in teaching challenges affecting
secondary schools in Nigeria.
Basic Concepts:
i. Secondary Education: As the name implies it is the kind of educations
receive at the senior secondary level. According to the national policy in
education (2004 Revised) it is the education received after the junior
secondary school level/ upper basic education. It is the education received
after the nine (9) years of basic education and before a child enters into
higher education (i.e.). It is now called senior secondary education.
According to the National Policy on Education (NPE, 2014 revised), the broad
aims and objectives of senior secondary education are;
i. Provide all primary school leavers with opportunity for education of a
higher level irrespective of sex, social status, religious or ethnic
background.
ii. Offers a diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in talents,
opportunities and future roles.
iii. Provide trained manpower in the applied sciences, technology and
commerce at the sub-professional grade, as well as;
iv. Develop and Promote Nigerian languages, arts and culture in the context of
world cultural heritage.
v. Inspire it students with a desire for self improvement and achievement of
excellence.
vi. Foster national unity with emphasis on the common ties that unite us in our
diversity.
vii. Raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the
views and feelings of others, respect for the dignity of labor, appreciate
those values specified under one broad national goal and live as good
citizen (FGN, NPE 2014).
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The policy also highlighted that to achieve the stated goals, secondary education
shall have six years‘ duration, given out in two stages; a junior secondary school
stage and senior secondary stage, each shall be three years‘ duration.
Concept of Community Development
1. Community: This refers to people living in a common locality having shared
(common) interest and behavioral patterns. It implied people who have
common problems and goals. People live in community by virtue of the
things they have in common. This included their norms, beliefs, aspiration
and knowledge (Zaki, 2003). While, development has been shown by (Zaki,
2003 and Michel) as multi-dimensional process including changes in
attitude, structure and investigations as well as acceleration of economic
growth, reduction of absolute poverty.
2. Development: According to Ladela (2005) on quoted by Ahmadu (2011) ―is
a continuous process of generating and approximately allocating resource for
achieving great socially satisfying needs‖. In addition, he asserted that
development essentially comprises of inter related components which are
increasing the available resources in a country and improving the utility of
these resources.
3. Community Development: Is therefore project initiated or with the active
participation of the inhabitants of a locality, which are intended to benefit
them collectively. The project may concern education, social welfare, health,
infrastructure such as roads, wells, irrigation, farming, manufacture or
commerce while most of the benefits may accrue to individual families the
projects are intended to involve community as a whole, in self confidence
and political skills.
According to Yakubu (2003), community development is an integrated rural
development. This means the concerted effort of government and other
interested agencies (e.g voluntary, educational research e.t.c) uniting with
those of rural communities to tackle co-operatively rural development
problems in order to make improve and increase per capita income and the
welfare of the people.
Another aspect of integrated approaches in the provision of road, schools,
water and power to rural dwellers and to encourage young rural dwellers or
stay in their home areas and work in their land rather than flocking to cities to
smell the number of unemployed.
Junior Secondary School: The junior secondary shall be both pre-vocational and
academic. It shall be tuition fee, universal and compulsory; it shall teach basic
subject which enable pupils to acquire knowledge and skills, every student offer:
i. Minimum of 10 and maximum of 13 subjects.
ii. All subjects in group A
iii. At least one subject each from group B and C.
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Group A: Core
1. English
2. French
3. Mathematics
4. Language of Environment to be taught as LI
5. One major Nigerian Language other than of the Environment to be taught as L2
6. Integrated Science
7. Social Studies and Citizenship Education
8. Introductory Technology
The language of the environment shall be taught as L1 where it has autography and
literature where it does not have, it shall be taught with emphasis on orally as L2.
Group B: Pre-vocational Electives
i. Agriculture
ii. Business Studies
iii. Home Economics
iv. Local Crafts
v. Computer Education
Emphasis on subjects in group B shall be practice.
Group C: Non Pre-Vocational Electives
i. Religious Knowledge
ii. Physical and Health Education
iii. Fine Art
iv. Music
v. Arabic
Students who complete Junior Secondary School shall be streamed into;
i. Senior Secondary School
ii. Technical college
iii. An out of school vocational training center
iv. An apprenticeship scheme
The screening shall be based on test on academic ability, aptitude and vocational
interest on the ratio of 60:20:10. (FGN, NPE 2014)
Senior Secondary School Curriculum
According to the National policy on education (2014) it explains the term
secondary school curriculum thus;
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A. The senior secondary school shall be comprehensive with a core-
curriculum designed to broaden pupils‘ knowledge and out-look.
B. Every student shall take all the seven (7) core subjects in Group A and
minimum of one and maximum of two from the list of electives subjects in
group B and C to give a minimum of eight (8) and maximum of nine
subjects.
C. One of the three elective subjects may be dropped in the last year of senior
secondary school course.
Group A Core
1. English Language
2. French Language
3. Mathematics
4. A major Nigerian language
5. One of Biology, Chemistry, Physics or Integrated Science
6. One of literature-in-English, History, Geography or Social Studies.
7. A vocational subject
Group B Vocational Electives
1. Agriculture
2. Applied electricity
3. Auto-mechanics
4. Book-keeping & Accounting
5. Building Construction
6. Commerce
7. Computer Education
8. Electronics
9. Clothing and nutrition
10. Home management
11. Metal work
12. Technical Drawing
13. Wood work
14. Shorthand
15. Typewriting
16. Fine Art
17. Music
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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Group C Non-Vocational Electives
1. Biology
2. Chemistry
3. Physics
4. Further Mathematics
5. Integrated science
6. Health Education
7. Physical education
8. Literature-in-English
9. History
10. Geography
11. Social Studies
12. Bible knowledge
13. Islamic studies
14. Arabic
15. Government
16. Economics
17. Any major Nigerian language
Students offering integrated science cannot offer any of Chemistry, Biology
and Physics.
Students offering social studies cannot offer any of Geography, History
ande Literature-in-English.
Certification
a. The Junior Certificate (JSC) shall be based on continuous assessment and exam
conducted by States and Federal examination boards.
b. The Senior School Certificate (SSC) shall be based on continuous assessment
and national exam. (FGN, NPE 2014)
Curriculum of Secondary School Education
Depending on the kind of choice abilities of the candidates, senior secondary
curriculum is the bridge for ones‘ subject specialization at the secondary level. A
child who has just finished his junior secondary school examinations (JSCE) is at
liberty to choose of advancing his/her education. The core subjects in our senior
secondary schools‘ education are;
Pre-vocational subjects like
Agricultural science
Metal work
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 171
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Wood work
Electronic
Commence
Book keeping and Accounting e.t.c
Auto mechanic
Major Nigerian‘s Language English language, mathematics, chemistry, physics,
biology, creative arts, music, drama, Islamic studies, Christian Religion
Knowledge, literature in English and other subject of social science includes
geography, history, economics, government, and civic education. There are other
categories like: fine arts, creative arts, drama, music, and English literature.
Vocational subjects include wood work, metal work, applied electronics, building,
and painting e.t.c. Computer studies and ICT which includes: computer
mathematics, data processing/data management. So at the senior secondary level a
candidate can now choose his/her area of specialization for future career. For
instance, whether he/she wants to go for either arts or science like; physics,
chemistry, biology, agricultural science, etc. Arts class: English, Arabic, Hausa,
IRS/CRS etc. (liberal arts) or social science class: which comprises subject in
economics, geography, government, e.t.c or commercial subjects like; commence,
book keeping and accounting, metal work, building technology, electronic. Others
include home economics, home management.
Secondary School Education and Community Development
Secondary education if well managed can provide the nation with the required
capacity man power in the development of science and technology. And it is at this
stage (secondary school level) that the child is prepared and developed for
university education and hence very vital and essential for effective development.
In addition, secondary school education can best be developed meaningfully and
effectively if members of the community see to themselves that schools built by
the government/ private organization are to be supported positively by them. If this
happens, a tremendous land mark would be recorded in the area of secondary
education. This can be done through proper monitoring, supervision and inspection
of school by members of the community. Of course, that argument the effort of the
school heads in proper development and implementation of the school curriculum.
A good example of this is in the establishment of Parent Teachers Association
(P.T.A), School Based Management Committee (SBMC) Community Based
Management Committees (CBMC) and Mothers Association e.t.c.
The organization of PTA is a representation of members of staff of a school and
parent of wards in that school who occasionally came together through meetings to
rub minds, discuss issues, policies and programs affecting the student and the
school. Also the school based- management committee (SBMC) comprises of
experts and specialist in various cadre that can contribute meaningfully in cash or
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 172
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
kind toward the success of the school. The idea of establishing School Based
Management Committee (SBMC), Community Based Management Committee
(CBMC) has come to stay as enshrined by the federal ministry of education. So,
the SBMC in CBMC are now included in implementation of the school curriculum
of schools especially domiciled in their localities /communities. They can now
make inputs as in the kind of curriculum to be given in their community, make
decisions concerning the staff, student‘s welfare and security of their children.
From the above discussions, we could see that there is a close relationship between
the roles of the community with that of the schools which could in turn produces
good curriculum development, better co–operation, diligence, sustainability of the
schools goals and objectives, enhanced productivity and better end result.
Challenges of Secondary Education
Secondary school education like other levels of education has its own problems,
According to (Obe, 2013), (Guga and Bawa 2015) itemize the following problems
affecting secondary education, these includes:
i. In consistent school curricula
The Curriculum of secondary school education is very much inconsistent
within schools, state and regions. This is very bad and disappointing, twice
out the end the students are to sit for are uniform qualifying examples
WASSE or NECO as last, the student would be disadvantage
ii. Poor policy decision and programes
This is very obvious when one visits any of the public schools among the
country, he/she would see a lot of policy decision regarding educational
plains and programs.
iii. Improper planning and implementation
The planning and implementation of secondary schools‘ education is
begetting with many obstacles in terms of implementation due to social and
political problems.
iv. Poor funding of schools
Educational development plans could not be carried out without finance
and educational sector in the most segment that suffers poor finance and
this suggest all educational sectors.
v. Poor infrastructure and dilapidated buildings
Of one looks at most of the public secondary school building it is clear that
the structure is at disgracing situation must states in unyoked buildings with
cracks no windows or doors.
vi. Lack of proper inspection, monitoring and evaluation of school plants
Though, we have the inspectorate division in most Northern states of the
federation, but the inspectors handily inspect schools because of lack of
funds by the Ministry of education.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 173
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vii. Overcrowded class rooms
This is obtaining in most of our junior and secondary school, student sit on
the floor or on windows. In most classes we have 150-200 student per class.
This makes teaching learning very difficult.
viii. Lack of instructional materials in schools
Most of the secondary schools lack basic instructional materials like
textbooks, exercise books, laboratory equipment and which has serious use
to curriculum delivery.
ix. Poor leadership roles and mismanagement
Educational plans and decision could be easily achieved if there‘s good
leadership role. Otherwise it most results to poor leadership.
x. Unconducive learning atmosphere in schools
This is the most serious disease affecting all sectors of Nigerian economy.
It is the cankerworm affecting the segments of government (Obe, 2013).
xi. Bribery and corruption
Our student are unproductions, decide, inactive because their teachers are
untrained or unqualified.
xii. Exam malpractices
Things do not go will because of poor administration everywhere now and
political leaders are only interested in continuing projects that benefits
them.
xiii. Unqualified and untrained teachers
The implementation of the curriculum content could not be realized,
because most of the aims and objectives are not realistic, pragmatic or
practical in nature.
xiv. Poor administration and negative political will
xv. Unrealistic aims, goals or objective
Conclusion
On attempt has been to buttress the issues surrounding secretary school education
curriculum, its aims and objectives and of course the role of community has been
explained especially the PTA and SBMC. Lastly, the challenges of secondary
school education could be minimized if all stakeholders join hands together and the
federal government should establish senior secondary school commission to take
care of all issues affecting them.
Recommendations The writer is of the view that the aforementioned problems could be solved if the
idea of enhanced secondary education curriculum could be achieved. Hence,
recommends the following solutions:
1. The school curriculum should be realistic, brief, achievable and measurable
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2. The federal and state ministries of education should have accurate policy
decisions and programes and should be implemented well.
3. There should be proper planning of educational decisions, actions,
developments and implementations.
4. Educational planners and policy makers should be up to date with
evaluation, assessment and adjustment of changes in the secondary school
curriculum and should involve all stake holders in the community in case of
possible innovations.
5. All schools should be adequately funded, so that proper implementations of
the set goals would be achieved.
6. All schools‘ plants, including classrooms, students‘ hostels, libraries,
laboratories, sport arena should be built, and those dilapidated should be
rehabilitated.
7. Proper inspection, monitoring and evaluation of schools should be
intensified by the ministry of education officials and lapses should be
reported for quick action.
8. More classroom blocks, facilities and equipment should be provided in
schools so that learning will be enhanced.
9. Basic instructional materials like Audio, Visuals, and audio-visuals should
be provided in schools to make learning interesting and motivating.
10. Special workshops, seminars, conferences should be intensified for school
heads and other academic staff for proper administration and management
of schools.
11. Special salary package and incentives should be given to teachers to boost
their morale.
12. Good leadership role should be encouraged among administrative heads of
schools.
13. More importantly, government should establish a special commission for
secondary schools‘ education to address problems affecting senior
secondary schools.
Lastly secondary schools‘ education curriculum if well managed can provide the
action with required capacity manpower in the development of science and
technology in Nigeria. This is possible only if concerted efforts are being made
both at the planning, development and implementation stages of the curriculum
development.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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References
Ahmadu (2011). Community Development at Grassroots. A paper presented at
Community Development Dialogue in Sokoto State.
Ahmed, H (2014). The Impact of Community Development as Non- Governmental
organization in Nigeria. A research thesis (Unpublished), Usman Danfodio
University, Sokoto.
Argungu, M.A (2012) The Importance of Education in Nation building ―A paper
presented at the Conference on Education FCET Gusau 2012.
Guga, A & Bawa A (2015). ―Curriculum and Instruction‖ Guga Printers and
Publishers, Zaria.
Ladela, M. A (2015). Development Concept and Usage. Paper Presentation at
Lecture Forum on Youth Empowerment, Sokoto State
Federal Government of Nigerian, National Policy on Education (NPE) Federal
Ministry of Education, Abuja (2014).
Obe, A.O. (2013). ―Curriculum Change Process Graphic Publishers, Zaria‖.
Yakubu, B.A. (2013). Community Development as Instrument of change. A
Research Thesis (Unpublished). Submitted to Usman Danfodio University,
Sokoto Faculty of Agriculture.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 176
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
An Overview of Memory Retention and Problem
Solving Ability among Colleges of Education Science
Students in Nigeria
Ibrahim Mustapha
Department of Primary Education Studies, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Corresponding Author: [email protected] +2348065955316
Abstract The main purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of memory retention and
problem solving ability on college of education science students in Nigeria. The
paper specifically examined some cause of poor memory retention such as over
learning, inappropriate timing, duration of study and problem solving ability such
as overcrowding, inadequate instructional materials among college of education
science students. The paper also examines the two variables on academic
performance such as lack of motivation, and stress. It concluded and recommended
among other that the National Commission for College of Education should spread
the course to a specific number of credit unit per semester, and Government should
build more lecture hall and employ qualified manpower to reduce overcrowding in
our tertiary institution and embark on funding so as to acquire adequate
instructional materials.
Keywords: Memory Retention, Problem Solving, Science Education, College of
Education
Introduction
Science has been and will continues to be a tremendous importance to humanity
for its ability to explain many of the everyday occurrences in life as well as playing
a very significant role in the technological development of both developing and
developed nation of the world. The issue of academic performance of students in
Nigerian colleges of education has not been encouraging. Infect, Gabel and Bunce,
(1994) lamented fact that students in college of education often do not succeed in
applying knowledge which they have acquired in lessons given in school. This
circumstance seems to apply especially to science lessons (Friege and Lind,
2006).As a consequence, improving students‘ problems solving skills continues to
be a major goal of science teachers and sciences education researchers. Problem
solving skills ability is the prediction of achievement in the school environment.
The ability of problem solving has a fundamental role in students‘ academic
performance and their construction of the concept (Adesoje, 2008). Students
having problem solving ability, have the ability to acquire knowledge of wide
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 177
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application and the development of the same ability to transfer that skills acquired
through problem solving in school, to find solution for their personal and
community problem.
The poor academic performance in our colleges of education was as a result of
understanding of strong domain knowledge; knowledge of problem-solving
strategies, and attitudinal components (Janassen, 2000; O‘Neil and Schacter,
1999). In order to achieve the ability to solve problems in science, there are two
issues (Lee, Tang, Goh and Chia, 2001): developing problems solving skills in
students through science education, and looking at the difficulties faced by
students in this area and finding ways to help them overcome these difficulties.
Learning plays a significant role in all the walk of human life. But if we just learn
to recall in a particular situation without being able to repeat that successfully on
subsequent occasions, learning is of no avail. According to Weiten, (2013),
memory and retention are lined because any retained information is kept in human
memory store, therefore without human memory processes, retention of material
would not be possible. In addition, memory and the process of learning are also
closely connected. Memory is a site of storage and enable the retrieval and
encoding of information, which is essential for the process of learning. Information
is retained in human memory store in different way, but it is primarily done
through active learning, repetition and recall. While information that is encoded
and store within memory store can often forgotten through ineffective encoding of
material, decay of information, interference, competition of newly learned material
and retrieval failure. Mangal, (2010). It is believed that for an effective learning to
take place, there must be good ability to preserve our past experiences and make
use of them whenever needed.
It is against this background that this paper examines the effect of memory
retention and problem solving ability on among college of education science
students with the aim of determining how to improve memory and class retention
as well as strategies of addressing knowledge in problem-solving ability.
Conceptual Framework
Human memory is the process in which information and material is encoded, store
and retrieved in the brain. Memory is a property of the central nervous system with
three different classifications; long term, short term and sensory memory. The
three types of memory have a specific difference function but each are equally
important for memory processes.
1. Memory: refers to the mental capacity or faculty of retaining and reviving facts,
events, impressions, etc or of recalling or recognizing previous experiences.
www.lumosity.com Eze, (1999) in Olagbewo, (2008) refers memory to be like a
black box of an aircraft which contains information of all things that happened to
the aircraft while on flight.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Kendra, (2008). Refers to memory as the process that are used to acquire, store,
retain and later retrieve information. There are three major processes involved in
memory: encoding, storage and retrieval.
2. Memory Retention: in psychology, memory retention is an organism‘s ability to
store, retain and recall information and experience. Wikipedia.org/wiki.
Mangal, (2010). Memory retention refers to the measurement of the soundness or
quality of one‘s memory which can be judged on the basis of his power of
retention or retentively. In a related development, Olagbewo, (2008) enlisted four
kinds of methods of retentively which includes:
i. Recall: According to Hilgard, (1967) in Olagbewo, (2008) one way of
remembering is to recollect or reintegrate an event and the circumstances
surrounding it.
ii. Recognition: to recognize is the ability to notice a difference between an
object or human beings among others.
iii. Reproduction: this is the ability of an individual to vomit what he has
learnt.
iv. Performance: this is to act out or execute a task like reading.
3. Problem-solving ability: is a mental process that involves discovering,
analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to
overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue. www.
Lumosity.com.
Altun, (2003) problem solving ability is the highest level of learning in the
hierarchy which depends on the master of next lower type of learning. He advocate
five steps that are basically associated with task of [problem solving; these are:
i. Identifying the problem,
ii. Defining / representing the problem,
iii. Exploring possible strategies
iv. Acting on the strategies, and
v. looking back and evaluating the effect of ones activities
The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In
some cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and
then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances,
creativity and insight are the best options. www.lumosity.com.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, (NCTM, 2000, P.52). the principles
and standard defines problems-solving ability as ―engaged in a task for which the
solution method is not known in advance‖. Polya defined problem-solving ability
as finding ―a way where no way is known, off-hand…..out of a
difficulty……around an obstacle‖.(1999 p.1) for example one mathematician
defines problem solving abilities as the process of evaluating possible techniques,
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applying techniques reaching a solution, checking the results for accuracy and
writing out the solution in a coherent fashion.
Theoretical Framework
Theories about Memory
Theory of encoding specificity finds similarities between the process of
recognition from the memory trace, or the situation in which it was learned, and
from the environment in which it is retrieved. Clifford, (2010) asserted that
theories are frameworks serving to tie together the results of many observations
and experiments. They are especially useful in giving order to the vast amount of
information psychologists have accumulated about memory. He explains two
theories these are:
1. A theory of general memory functions: one theory a simple one agreed on by
most psychologists was used in the definition of memory. Three distinct processes
of memory have been identified. These are an encoding process, a storage process,
and a retrieval process. Encoding is the process receiving sensory input and
transforming it into a form, or code which can be stored; storage is the process of
actually putting coded information into memory; and retrieved is the process of
gaining access to stored, coded information when it is needed.
2. Information-processing theories: this are models of memory based on the idea
that a device i.e a digital computer that takes items of information in process them
in steps, or stages; and then produces an output.
The Steps in Problems Solving: In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps;
many researchers refer to this as to the problem-solving cycle, which includes
developing strategies and organizing knowledge. While this cycle is portrayed
sequential, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution. Instead,
we often skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired
solution is reached.www.lumosity.com.
A. Identifying the Problem: while it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the
problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might
mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to
solve it inefficient or even useless.
B. Defining the Problem: after the problem has been identified, it is important to
fully define the problem so that it can be solved.
C. Forming a Strategy: the next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem.
The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individuals‘
unique preferences.
D. Organizing information: before the solution to the problem, there is the need
to organize available information. What do we know about the problem? What do
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we not know? The more information that is available, the better prepared we will
be to come up with an accurate solution.
E. Allocating resources: of course, we don‘t always have unlimited money, time
and other resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, one
need to determine how high priority it is.
F. Monitoring progress: effective problem-solving tend to monitor their progress
as they work towards a solution. If they don‘t make good progress toward reaching
their goals, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies.
G. Evaluating the results: after a solution has been reached, it is important to
evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the
problem.www.lomusity.com.
Causes of Poor Memory Retention among Colleges of Education Science
Students
Most people have spent thousands of hour in the classroom, the result of this effort
is surprisingly disappointing; indeed, both the popular press and the academic
literature are replacing with examples of educational failure among students and
recent graduates. Researchers have been conducted about possible causes of poor
memory retention on college of education students. Carpenter, (2007) outlined
some causes of poor memory retention among students and graduates on their
academic performance. This includes:
1. Over learning: when learners choose to devote an uninterrupted period of
time to learning some material or a skill, they must decide when to quit,
regardless of whether they later return to the same material. For example,
only a student has cycled through a list of vocabulary words until each
definition has been correctly recalled exactly one time, the student must
decide whether to cycle again through the same list. The continuation of
study immediately after the student has achieved error-free performance is
known as over learning.
2. Spacing of learning: I most research on this topic, a fixed amount of study
time is divided across two sessions that are separated by an intersession
interval (ISI), if the ISI equals zero, study time is said to be massed.
Importantly, the retention interval is always measured from the second
study sessions. When tested later, performance is usually much better if the
study time is spaced rather than massed.
3. Inappropriate timing and duration of study: students do not prepare for an
exam and more so, shows ineffective study duration in learning. Most
students lack poor retrieval practice and rapid feedback; it offers a currently
unexpected opportunity to schedule study sessions in ways that optimize
long term retention.
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In a related development, school students in most colleges of education today
performs less well than before, or less well than reasonable expected, this can be
due to a number of causes. Some of these are:
Problem at home, while not the most common problem this can interfere
with concentration.
Excessive ambition can result in frustration, leading to lack of trying. This
can result from parental pressure.
Lack of motivation, this is the opposite of excessive ambition. The students
need to understand the importance of good grades.
Puberty, sometime hormonal changes can temporarily affect performance.
So can emerging in the opposite sex, as well as lack of self-esteem.
Jacquelyn, (2008), opined that a person‘s ability to remember or retain facts, faces
and events depends on the brain‘s ability to perform a complex network of
processes that record and retrieved information, various malfunctions within the
brain‘s processing centers can delay memory recall, or prevent it altogether.
Although diseases or injury can dramatically affect memory by damaging specific
areas of the brain, poor memory normally has a more gradual onset resulting from
nutritional, psychological, behavioral or age related factors.
Dietary Cause: like the rest of the body, the brain requires certain nutrients to
perform optionally, when deprived of these nutrients on a continued basis, the
body‘s metabolism and cognitive functions begin to break down.
Cells require adequate supplies of oxygen, and the proper balance of vitamins and
nutrients, to function in a coordinated manner. In terms of brain function,
neurotransmitters secreted by cells determine how efficiently the brain process
incoming and outgoing information.
Stress: when stressful conditions persist over long periods of time………as
occurs with depression, job dissatisfaction or loneliness……… the ongoing
production of stress hormones begins to take a toll on the brain and body within the
brain, excess levels of stress hormones have adverse effects on the hippocampus,
which is one of the primary areas involved in memory can develop as cell
structures in the brain and body age, causing metabolic process to function less
efficiently. As the body ages, the brain gradually loses brain cells. Fewer brain
cells mean that fewer cells are available to produce the neurotransmitters need for
optimal brain function. Jacquelyn.
Causes of Poor Problems-Solving Abilities among College of Education
Science Students
The success of any educational problem depends on the caliber of teachers,
Ajeyalemi, (1990), opined that the students‘ poor performance and lack of interest
in learning is as a result of lack of qualified teachers and facilities in education.
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This therefore, forms the bases of poor problem- solving abilities among colleges
of educations science students. Situations were learners are not properly guided
especially in science subjects e.g physics.
Altun, (2003), confirms that there are series of causes of poor problem-solving
abilities among students. These are:
1. Crowded Classroom: this problem is caused by increase in students‘
enrolment as a result serious guest for education.
2. Inadequate Instruction Materials for Effective Learning: this problem is
virtually everywhere in the country, the government, communities and
privates shows no concern is ensuring adequate administration of
instructional materials.
3. Poor Technological Advancement: it is a known fact that our technological
is only developing in the area of communication, leaving education sector
with serious delay in technological advancement.
4. Poor Supervision: most tertiary institutions are operating domestically
without proper and regular supervision, this certainly contributed to poor
supervision among both academic and non-academic staff. The effect of
these can reflect on student problem-solving ability in school.
5. Lackadaisical Attitude in the Part of the Students: most students today,
show non chalent attitude towards learning. They do not pay attention to
their students and at the same time do not have good study habits, many of
which spend their time watching movies, pornographies, football and the
likes.
Causes of Poor Academic Performance of College of Education Science
Students
Nigeria like any other developing nations has witnessed series of political
instability, with obvious effects on education policies at federal, state and local
government levels.This gradually laid the foundation of fallen standard in
education at the tertiary levels, which causes differential academic performance of
students. In the quest of finding survival feet, the nation has evolved series of
socio-economic and educational measures but these have not improved the social
economic status of families in the country. Carrier and Pashler, (1992).
In addition, Pradman, (1999) asserted that a number of factors could influence
students‘ performance in schools. These factors include educational policies, home
support system, nutritional status and health of individuals. For Wasagu, (2001),
poor study habits, lack of activity-based teaching methods and negative students‘
self-concepts were some of the factors responsible for students‘ poor performance.
Sola and Ojo, (2007), momentous development in the country education such as
expansion without proper physical and academic planning plus inadequate
provision of qualified teachers or instructors form this poor academic performance.
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In a related development, it is within this study examines socio-economic factors
influencing students‘ academic performance in Nigeria, with some explanations
from Chanchaga local government area of Niger state, specifically to Niger state
college of education as a case study. The time frame of the study covers the period
of 2004 to 2007. A total of one hundred and twenty (120) copies of questionnaire
were administered to respondents. The study revealed that:
Insufficient parent income
Family type
Lack of funding by governments; are
Factors influencing students‘ academic performance based on these findings
certain recommendations are made towards improving students‘ academic
performance. Prominent of these include proper funding of education by
government, sensitization of parents towards their children education and the
support of NGOs to eradicate poverty.
Memory Retention and Academic Performance
In educational institutions, success is measured by academic performance, or how
well a student meets standards set out by the institution.
Engle, (1994) reported that an individual working memory capacity (as measured
by performance on a specially designed task) correlates well with performance on
a variety of other task. Engle interprets this correlation as evidence that all of these
tasks requires use of a common resource, the individuals working memory, which
influences academic performance.
Kyllonia and Christal, (1990) have claimed that a major source of individual
differences on reasoning tasks lies in how much information one must maintain in
working memory, especially while effecting some transformation, found that latent
variables for reasoning ability and working memory correlated approximately
r=0.8 in four large studies. They noted that most performance processes (such as
encoding and inference) in information of processing models of reasoning are
presumed to occur in working memory.
The impact of working memory on academic performance is considerable.
Between the age of 7 and 14 years, children who score poorly on working memory
measured linked which executive skills typically performance below expected
standards in national curriculum. (Gathercole, Brown and Pickering, 2002).
Gathercole, (2004) a child with weak working memory capabilities is therefore
limited in their ability to perform this operation in important classroom-based
activities. A related suggestion is that poor working memory skills result in
persuasive learning difficulties because this system acts as a bottleneck for learning
in many of the individual learning episodes required to increment the acquisition of
knowledge.
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
In a related development, Legbo, (2006) conducted a research on the relationship
between memory retention and academic performance in Niger state college of
education Minna using memory retention data invention results of the study
indicated that the correlation between memory retention and students‘ academic
performance was low, negative and not significant.
Problem-Solving Ability and Academic Performance
Problem-solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process such as
visualization, association, abstract, comprehension, manipulation, reasoning,
analysis and synthesis, generalization that requires the mediation management, co-
ordination control of more routine or fundamental skills. (Schvable, 1990).
However, problem-solving is a basic skill needed by today‘s learners. Jarnic,
(2008) also studied the nature of the progress towards effective problem-solving in
young children she evaluated the interaction between a child‘s evolving
understanding or belief system regarding cause-effect relationships and their
choice of strategy in problem-solving using a computerized micro world, fifth and
sixth-grade children were asked to determine relationships between design features
and the speed of race cars. As children used various strategies to produce faster
cars by changing design features, new information became available to them.
However, if the new information disconfirmed a prior belief the child held
regarding the relationship between speed add design features, the prior belief
frequently served as a source of bias against using the more effective strategy and
the new knowledge was either ignored or misinterpreted.
In a related development, Mayer, (2002). The process of solving problems has two
steps: problem representation and problem solution. For problem representation, a
learner needs to transform a problems description to his or her internal mental
representation in two stages: problem-translation and integration. Problem
translation extracts concepts from the textual description of the problem by using
linguistic and semantic knowledge, linguistic knowledge is used to comprehend the
words meanings in the textual description, while semantic knowledge means
factual knowledge in the world. Problem integration requires a learning to connect
sentences in a problems description and produce a coherent representation. After
the problems description is translated into the learners internal mental
representation (mental model), it means that the learner has already comprehend
the problem.
Further, he concluded that the preliminary stages in the problem-solving process
that involved disembedding relevant information from the statement of the
problem and restructuring or transforming the problem into one the individual
understands are particularly important in determining the success or failure of
problem-solving process.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Implication of Memory Retention and Problem-Solving on Education
Agwu, (2005), asserted that education is the best legacy a nation can give to her
citizens especially the youth. This is because the development of any nation or
community depends largely on the quality of education of education of such a
nation. It is generally believed that the basis for any true development must
commence with the development of human resources.
Base on this assertion, it is believed that for any development to come, there must a
positive change in terms of the ability of our mind to conserve or store what has
been previously learned or experienced for recollection after sometimes,
subsequently, this will certainly enhance mental process that involves discovering,
analyzing and solving problems.
Students in tertiary institution have low memory retention capacity as a result of
over learning which must at times result to stress. Situations were students are over
used without resting; this can result to massive failure of examinations.
Conclusion
This paper has examined the effect of memory retention and problem-solving
ability on academic performance of a selected college of education students in
Nigeria. The paper asserts that, the continues decline in academic performance
among students in general can be achieved if he/she develops, interest in the lesson
and teachers must also develop good principles and concept to aid retention.
Recommendations
1. The national commission for colleges of education should spread the
courses to a specific number of credit units per semester, so that year of
NCE graduation should have additional one [1] year, making a total of four
years NCE programmed. This will reduce students‘ poor performance at
that level.
2. The school on its own should set-up a time-table committee that will look
into spacing of learning so that students can learn not more than the
minimum courses per day to curb massed time of study.
3. Guidance and counseling department of the school should organize
orientation to educate and enlightened the students on the appropriate time
for study and good study habits to enhance effective and efficient learning
process.
4. Parents should assist in training their children both morally, socially and
emotionally to curb the problem of home frustrations.
5. Students on their own should develop strategies and skills of reducing
stress e.g proper resting after a difficult task.
6. Government should build more college of education and employ qualified
manpower to reduce overcrowding in our tertiary institutions.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
7. Government and the community including NGOs should embark on
funding tertiary institution so as to acquire adequate instructional materials
for effective learning.
8. Government, community and NGOs should set up a committee to ensure
constant of those facilities.
9. Student must be aware of their objective for schooling and should be
extrinsically motivated to improve performance.
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Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 188
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Early Childhood Education: A Remedy for Corruption
and the Realization of Change in Nigeria
1Abubakar Rilwanu Z.,
2Suwaiba Suleiman and
3Ahmad Abubakar M.
1Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
2Department of Islamic Studies, Zamfara State College of Arts and Science (ZACAS) 3Department of Educational Psychology, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Corresponding Author: [email protected] +2348033651445
Abstract
This paper highlighted the roles early childhood education can play in enabling Nigeria to
curb with existing challenges of wides spread of corruption by the past and present
administrations which has been hindering national development. The Concepts of change,
democracy, early childhood education and anti-corruption institutions were also
discussed. In addition, how early childhood education can be applied to eliminate corrupt
practices. The paper concludes that for Nigeria to curb with emerging challenges,
Nigerians must concede to the fact that her major social problem is corruption and that
corruption could best be fought by giving much attention to early learning. Therefore, the
paper suggested that early childhood education should be given much emphasis as it is the
bed rock of any education in Nigeria and early childhood teachers/care givers should
serve as roles model of corrupt free society to enable Nigeria curb with emerging
challenges.
Keywords: Change, Youths, Democracy, Corruption and Early Childhood Education
Introduction
Nigerian state is engulfed with many social problems that has affected its
economic, political development so much so that the citizens has lost confidence
on the leadership abilities and the integrity and the trust of the general citizens is
lost. These has no doubt affected our national and international outlook. According
to research Adaji (2005), Adejimo (2010), UNDP, cited in Lanre (2012), Ebdrup
(2014), Mike (2016) asserts that and Q & A (2016) the most glaring and
subsuming of these problems is corruption, others include unemployment, poverty,
insurgency amongst youthetc. (Africa and the world, 2016). According to Igieobor
(2014) ―one of the greatest threats to purposeful leadership, economic and political
development of any nation is corruption‖ Igieobor describe corruption as
cankerworm in the fabrics of our system. Crash of attitudinal value system has
resultant corrupt attitudes especially among children (mostly school children who
are the future democratic leaders in Nigeria have been observed. Some children
nowadays see certain corrupt attitudes such as examination malpractices not as
crime but as their right. Consequently, when the menace of corruption became
unbearable, people became agitated for change in governance and change in
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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attitudes for just society. In view of that Muhammad Buhari made a clarion call for
―change‖ in the 2015 election in Nigeria (Punch, 2016), that was similar to what
Barack Obama did in U.S.A in 2008 (Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia, 2016) as
well as Nana AkufoAddo and Adama Barrow of Ghana and Gambia respectively
in 2016 (Oluwakoyan, 2016). In Nigeria the CHANGE SLOGAN implies
―CHANGE OF ATTITUDE‖ that is, change from corrupt attitudes to honest
attitudes. By extension cleansing of the mind from negative attitudes at grassroots
so that prevention and control measures against corruption can be solidly built
before thinking of how to prosecute and jail the culprits in Nigeria is paramount
(Dada 2003), (Ogundugba, (2008), (Nigerian Tribune, 2016), (Punch, 2016) and
(Christian, 2016).
Conceptualization
Change: Is defined by Webster (2019) as the ability to make someone or
something different and to become something else. Meanwhile, future democratic
leaders in this article are referred to as youth.
Youth: Youth as in Ogundugba (2008) and UNESCO has been defined as persons
between the ages of 15 and 24 but Oduwole (2015) reported that in Nigeria, youth
usually fall in to the ages 18-35 years and to Van (2012) they form more than 60%
in Nigeria. However, Abutudu (2016) describe a democratic leaderas a leader who
come to power through election, that is a situation while citizens elect who are
togovernthem.
Corruption: Corruption according to Transparency International that is the abuse
of entrusted power for private gain. Ebdrup (2014) identified two level of
corruptionas grand or political corruption which are committed by leaders and
petty corruption which are committed by individual.
Furthermore, Africa and the world (2016) ascertained that negative attitude of the
leaders resulted to corruption and poor management of public funds as a cause of
unemployment and eventual abject poverty, insurgency (Boko Haram), arm bandits
and un-patriotism among youths in Nigeria and other parts of the world, thereby
generating vicious cycle as illustrated in figure1:
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Negative attitude
Unpatriotism Corruption
Unemployment
Insurgency
Poverty
(Africa and the world)
Democracy: Democracy (Greek: δημοκρατία dēmokratía, literally "rule by
people") is a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting. In
a direct democracy, the citizens as a whole form a governing body and vote
directly on each issue. In a representative democracy the citizens elect
representatives from among themselves. These representatives meet to form a
governing body, such as a legislature. In a liberal democracy the powers of the
majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the
constitution limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the
enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of
association.
Democracy government by the people; a form of government in which the supreme
power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected
agents under a free electoral system.
Early Childhood Education
Early childhood, defined as the period from birth to eight years old, is a time of
remarkable growth with brain development at its peak. During this stage, children
are highly influenced by the environment and the people that surround them
(UNESCO).
Early childhood care and education (ECCE) is more than preparation for primary
school. It aims at the holistic development of a child‘s social, emotional, cognitive
and physical needs in order to build a solid and broad foundation for lifelong
learning and wellbeing. ECCE has the possibility to nurture caring, capable and
responsible future citizens (UNESCO 2019).
In this way ECCE is one of the best investments a country can make to promote
human resource development, gender equality and social cohesion, and to reduce
the costs for later remedial programmes. For disadvantaged children, ECCE plays
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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an important role in compensating for the disadvantages in the family and
combating educational inequalities.
Anti-Corruption Institutions in Nigeria and Corruption cases
There are a lot of recorded corrupt practices in previous and present governments
(i.e present government of Gen. Muhammadu Buhari) and some anti-corruption
institutions in Nigeria. However, every Nigerian will also admit that both past and
present governments have put some efforts to curb corruption through establishing
anti-corruption agencies such as:Observed by Ayobami (2016) and Ikubaje (n.d)
that all successive government were accused of one or the other form of corrupt
practice. In respect to that in pre-independent (1960-1966) civilian administration
of Tafawa Balewa/Azikiwe, it was reported that in 1944, some executives were
accused and investigated to have bought African Continental Bank in Lagos. More
so, the 1966 Aguyi Ironsi‘s military government instituted a commission of inquiry
to investigate corrupt practices surrounding Nigeria Railway Corporation.
Similarly, the 1966-1975 Gowon military administration some officials of defence
ministry and Central Bank of Nigeria were accused of having influence in cement
importation.
However, 1975-1976 Murtala‘s government promulgated the ―Corrupt practice
Decree‖ of 1975, initiated asset declaration and Balgore commission of inquiry.
Meanwhile, the 1976-1979 of Obasanjo‘s military administration was abused of
favouritism in appointing the head of international Telecommunication (ITT).
Likewise, Shagari‘s civilian administration of 1979-1983 was also accused of
preferential treatment to some associates in terms of rice importation and
distribution and also the defunct Johnson Mathey Bank of London revealed that
many politicians launder money. On the other hand, the 1983-1985 Buhari‘s
military administration launched War against indiscipline, established special
military tribunal of inquiry and ordered for currency change exercise. However, the
1985-1993 Babangida‘s military government set up Code of Conduct Bureau of
1990 butwas also characterized by corrupt practices referring to annulmentof June
12, 1993 election, privatization initiatives in favour of the higherplaced
individuals.
Also there was the transition between the military to civilian in August-November
1993 led byShonekan‘s stint civilian government was brief. Subsequently, the
Abacha‘s military government come to power between 1993-1998 in which
Advanced free fraud and other related offences Decree and National commission to
fight corruption were promulgated. Thereafter, Abdulsalam‘s military
administration camebetween 1998-1999 was also suspected of looting the public
fundwithin the short period. It was Obasanjo‘s civilian government of 1999-2007
that strengthened the existing anti-corruption laws and established three anti-
corruption institutions which survive not only during his government but remain to
the present, these are; The Independent Corrupt Practice and Other Related
Offences Commission (ICPC) instituted in 2000, the Economic and Financial
Crimes Commission (EFCC) of 2003 and the money Laundering act, of 2004.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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However, despite that, some executives were accused of stashing cash in freezers
and also attempted to amend the constitution for a third term. Likewise, the
‗Yar‘Adua‘s civilian administration from 2007-2010 could not probe the corrupt
scandals of his predecessors due to how he was allegedly assisted to emerge and
his poor health condition (Ayobami, 2016; Wikipedia, 2016; Ajomole, 2015 and
Ikubaje, n. d.). Similarly, Jonathan‘s government that followed was also accused of
corruption cases and abuses of the constitutional provision such as pension and
fuel subsidy scams. Presently, the government of Buhari which took over from
2015 till date is also characterized by corrupt practices such as 2016 budget
padding (Vanguard, 2016; Ekweremadu & Ukwuoma et al, in Igiebor, 2014).
Since the perennial corrupt practices of Nigerians (military, politicians and other
civilians) have defiled all the existing anti-corruption measures, in line with
Igiebor (2014) and supported by Transparency International, (n. d.) that advocated
for non-confrontational approaches such as round table discussion and
entrenchment of attitudinal change as the best procedures to curb corruption, the
main thrust of this paper was to present early childhood education for all children
as a feasible alternative to wipe out corruption in Nigeria.
Conceptualization and Application of ECE to Curb Corruption
Given the multifaceted nature of early childhood, it often goes by a number of
names and definitions, in different countries, as well as between different
stakeholders. For example, UNESCO refers to early education as early childhood
care and education (ECCE), the OECD calls it early childhood education and care
(ECEC), and the World Bank calls it early child development (ECD), while
UNICEF calls it early childhood development (ECD). Education International
refers to services for young children as early childhood education (ECE). This
includes all kinds of education taking place before compulsory schooling and
provided in different kinds of settings nurseries, crèches, childcare centres,
kindergartens, pre-schools and other similar institutions, (1998 Congress
Resolution on Early Childhood Education).
It is widely agreed that early childhood education is the most effective means that
society possesses for confronting the challenges of the future. Indeed, early
childhood education will shape the world of tomorrow. Progress depends
increasingly upon the products of educated minds: upon research, invention,
innovation and adaptation. Of course, educated minds and instincts are needed not
only in laboratories and research institutes, but in every walk of life. Indeed, access
to early childhood education is the sine qua non for effective participation in the
life of the modern world at all levels.
Little kids are the blooming buds of our society, and therefore, it becomes
important to nurture these young minds so that they become responsible citizens‘
tomorrow. Hence, it is necessary to start moulding these kids right from childhood
to help them identify the good and the bad, make them understand cultural
differences and form a foundation which will help them in their life journey in
order to become responsible members and thereby establish a free corrupt society.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
The young brains are more susceptible to danger if not given appropriate guidance
and hence it is necessary for the government to support teachers/caregivers who
handles this leaders of tomorrow by teaching them the effect of corruption in the
society in order to have more decent future leaders who will not only shunned
corruption but fight it.
When the kids are young, they are curious about every new thing they see, every
new word, and often have unlimited questions for every unique experience they go
through. Enrolling a child in a school makes him/her adapt to new surroundings
and also contributes to overall development. The early childhood education is
therefore the best means by which we educate the young ones towards making the
child independent, creating a positive and well-balanced self-image and developing
intellectual abilities that is needed for better economic, political development of a
nation.
More importantly, the goal of early childhood education is to make pupils wiser,
more knowledgeable, better informed, ethical, responsible, critical and capable of
continuing to learn. If all childrenwere to possess such abilities and qualities, the
country‘s problems of corruption would be automatically solved. It is therefore
necessary to develop the political will by our leaders to support the early childhood
education in our public school system. Early childhood education also serves
society by providing a critical reflection on the world, especially its failings and
injustices, and by promoting greater consciousness and awareness, exploring new
visions and concepts, and inventing new techniques and tools which will be use to
curb corruption in Nigeria. Early childhood Education, is humanity‘s best hope and
most effective means in the quest to curb corruption in Nigeria.(UNESCO 2019)
Conclusion and Recommendations
From the accessible evidences shown there were no doubt corrupts practices linked
to the successive governments in Nigeria from pre-independence to date. However,
attainment of change has continued to posed a problem to the nation development.
To materialize this change there is need for behaviour and attitude of the citizen‘s
right from childhood education. This paper concludes that for Nigeria to be corrupt
free, achieve great it must identify and acknowledge its major societal problem,
that is, corruption which is born out of negative attitudes. To fight corruption from
the grass root, all citizens must strive in to inculcate good moral behaviours in the
children for a just and egalitarian society. In line with the literature available, the
following suggestions are presented;
1. Government should ensure children of all family background receive sound
and good early childhood education.
2. Early childhood teachers/caregivers should serve as role models in the
society
3. Caregivers/teachers should increase their efforts in inculcating good
behaviours to pupils especially corrupt free society.
4. Government should establish more caregivers centres.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 194
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
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Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 196
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Reducing Unemployment through Entrepreneurial
Development in Nigeria
1Ibrahim Garba,
2Ibrahim U.G. and
3Mukhtar Ibrahim F.
1,3Department of Physics, Zamfara State College of Education,
2Department of Mathematics Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract
This study is on reducing the Unemployment problem in Nigeria through
entrepreneurial development. The study is motivated by the fact that unemployment
problem like corrupt practices in Nigeria, is a very big problem that require the
collective effort of all. This paper is with the opinion that unemployment problem
in Nigeria can be solved through entrepreneurial development and that
government effort in this regard is not sufficient looking at the magnitude of the
unemployed in Nigeria. Therefore, the study recommended that solving the
unemployment problem should not be left in the hands of the government alone
rather we should have employed the public private partnership approach so as to
allow the involvement of private individuals in helping to establish entrepreneurial
development centres as well.
Keywords: Unemployment, Entrepreneurship, Development, Nigeria
Introduction In view of the present state of our country Nigeria the issue of unemployment in
both the educated and the uneducated manpower, has become one of the most
important issue of discussion in Nigeria. The unemployment situation has changed
from previous position marked by prolonged period of unemployment and under-
employment, to one in which graduates of tertiary institutions have to normally
wait for a long time before getting a first job if at all. At the beginning of this
millennium, employment crises have emerged as the most challenging issues
confronting many world economies. The continuing global economic slowdown
and uncertain economic prospects have resulted in a grim global economic
landscape. This plunged many economies into deep recession, the ripple effects of
which have affected the job markets. These effects are more pronounced in the
developing and underdeveloped countries of the world, with increased
unemployment being the outcome. Nigeria has one of the highest levels of youth
unemployment in the world (60-65%) (Federal Ministry of Labour and
Productivity Report, 2008). These are mostly young adults that have graduated
from universities and polytechnics or institutions of higher learning. Available
estimate shows that about 1.6 million persons, mostly young adult, graduate
annually. In addition to this number, about 3.8 million others are certificate
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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carrying youths that have no formal education, or have completed primary or
secondary school, or dropped out from tertiary institutions all of which are
annually poured into an already saturated labour market (Federal Ministry of
Labour and Productivity Report, 2008).
Many of the youths are not productive and have actually been reduced to petty
traders and smugglers; in many instances, the growth in the phenomenon of
trafficking in persons and child labor can be attributed to poverty and joblessness
among the youths. For a few who are able to find their way out of the country to
work in other countries, their departure has contributed to depleting the quality of
human capital resources in the country. This paper has come as a wakeup call to
appropriate authorities to look in the direction of entrepreneurial development
initiatives in the quest to solving unemployment problem in Nigeria. Diverse
economic, social and political problems at different magnitudes facing nations of
the world exist and the third world countries are not excluded. It is possible that
these diverse economic, social and political problems might have adversely
affected the sustainable development of these countries, including the high
unemployment rate they are currently facing (Williams and Michael, 2012).
Unemployment problem in Nigeria is a hydra headed phenomena going by its
many-sided nature.
Though unemployment has become a global phenomenon of the 21st century, the
problem is becoming more gargantuan each passing year in Nigeria.
Unemployment, underemployment and unmitigated rural-urban migration have
come to characterize the Nigerian labour market. This has been compounded by
frightening number of joiners as schools, polytechnics and universities churn out
leavers in a geometric progression. This has impacted on the rate of social vices
like robbery, kidnapping, prostitution, human trafficking, child abuse and unfair
labour practices experienced mostly by the unemployed youths, which are other
noticeable dimensions to the complexities of contemporary Nigerian employment
dynamics. According to the National Manpower Board, (2009) the Nigeria labour
market could barely absorb 10% of the over 3.8 million persons turned out by the
Nigeria educational system on a yearly basis. In brief, the employment trends in
Nigeria indicate that, without a concerted effort to tackle the problems of
unemployment and underemployment the situation could get worse.
Many scholars have written widely on entrepreneurship and its potency to generate
employment, thus, underscoring the quintessence, significance and relevance of
this sub-sector in the development of any given economy (Adejumo, 2000). The
experiences of developed economies in relation to the roles played by
entrepreneurship buttresses the fact that the importance of entrepreneurship cannot
be over- emphasized especially among the developing countries. In order to
highlight its significance in relation to the growth and development of a given
economy, entrepreneurship has been variously referred to as a ―source of
employment generation‖. This is because entrepreneurial activities have been
found to be capable of making positive impacts on the economy of a nation and the
quality of life of the people (Adejumo, 2000).
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Studies have established its positive relationship with stimulation of economic
growth; employment generation; and empowerment of the disadvantaged segment
of the population, which include women and the poor (Oluremi and Gbenga, 2011;
Mueller and Thomas, 2000; Reynolds, 1987). The question is; what is the level of
knowledge of entrepreneurship skills by the owners of small scale enterprises?
What are the respective influences of entrepreneurship development programmes
on the poverty level of the citizens? It is in the wake of the above that this study
aimed at examining the possibility of reducing/curbing the unemployment problem
in Nigeria through entrepreneurship development.
Concept of Unemployment
In defining the word unemployment, it appears that there seems to be a consensus
on the definition of unemployment. The International Labour Organization (ILO)
defines unemployment as numbers of the economically active population who are
without work but available for and seeking work, including people who have lost
their jobs and those who have voluntary left work (World Bank, 2008). That is,
people willing to work but not presently working. underemployment is often used
to describe the condition of those who work part-time because full-time jobs are
unavailable or who are employed at less-skilled work than they are qualified to do.
According to the Federal Ministry of Employment, Labour and (FEML&P),
unemployment figures include, those out of work, able to work and looking for a
job, but work is not available to them. This definition should be extended to
include those unemployed persons who give up job seeking out of frustration and
retrenched or laid off persons. Unemployment is usually segmented according to
the following characteristics of the unemployed, age, sex, education, duration of
unemployment period and kind of education and economic activity previously
carried out. Although there seems to be convergence on this concept, its
applications have been bedeviled with series of problems across countries.
Okongwu (1996) points out the problem arising from the concept of labour force.
In most countries, particularly Nigeria, people below the age of 15 years and those
above 55, who are actively engaged in economic activities, are usually excluded
from labour statistical surveys. All these factors have the tendency to result in
under-estimation of unemployment rates thereby making international comparison
very difficult. Factors such as the preponderance of full housewives (but who are
willing to be engaged in paid job) and unpaid family workers also contributed
significantly to the underestimation of unemployment. According to McConnell et
al. (2003) which significantly portrays a Euro-American point of view of
unemployment people are considered officially unemployed if during the survey
week they were 16 years of age older, were not institutionalized, and did not work,
but were available for work and (1) had engaged in some specific job-seeking
activity during the past 4 weeks, (2) were waiting to be called back to job from
which they were temporarily laid off, (3) would have been looking for a job within
30 days. Those, who are 16 years or older and not institutionalized but officially
neither employed nor unemployed are classified as ―not in the labour force‖. The
labour force itself therefore consists of those employed and unemployed.
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The Concept of Entrepreneurship
The word entrepreneur is derived from the French word ―entreprendre‖ meaning
―to undertake‖. The definition of an entrepreneur has evolved over time as the
world‘s economic structure has changed and become more complex. Since its
beginning in the middle ages, when it was used in relation to specific occupations,
the notion of the entrepreneur has been refined and broadened to include concepts
that are related to the person rather than the occupation. Jean-Baptiste, an aristocrat
industrialist, with his unpleasant practical experiences developed the concept of
entrepreneur a little further which survived for almost two centuries. According to
him, an entrepreneur is one who combines the land of one, the labour of another,
and capital of yet another, and thus, produces a product. By selling the product in
the market, he pays interest on capital, rent on land and wages to labourers and
what remains is his/her profit.
The entrepreneur has been described by Collins et al. (1964) as a ―risk taker‖ – a
person who braves uncertainty, strikes out on his own through native wit, devotion
to duty and singleness of purpose somehow creates an industry where none existed
before. Essentially, an entrepreneur fills in the people, financing production and
marketing gaps by acquiring and assembling the necessary resources into newly
created form
The entrepreneur has been described by Collins et al. (1964) as a ―risk taker‖ – a
person who braves uncertainty, strikes out on his own through native wit, devotion
to duty and singleness of purpose somehow creates an industry where none existed
before. Essentially, an entrepreneur fills in the people, financing production and
marketing gaps by acquiring and assembling the necessary resources into newly
created form
The term ―entrepreneur‖ was first used by the early 18th
century French economist
Richard Cantillon who defines the entrepreneur as the agent who buys means of
production at certain prices in order to combine them into a new product
(Schumpeter; 1951; Burnett, 2000). For Drucker (1970), entrepreneurship is about
taking risk. The behavior of the entrepreneur reflects a kind of person willing to
put his or her career and financial security on the line and take a risk in the name of
an idea, spending much time as well as capital on an uncertain venture.
Gana (2001) defines entrepreneurship as the willingness and ability of an
individual to seek out investment opportunities in an environment, and be able to
establish and run an enterprise successfully based on the identified opportunities.
Though Gana‘s definition was based on the managerial perspective, it is important
to mention that the entrepreneur has certain personality traits which influence his
behaviour (psychologists view). He also lives in a society (sociologist view) and he
is obviously affected by the economic opportunities and government incentives
(economist view). Gana therefore cautioned that any attempt to describe the
entrepreneur against only one dimension will be inadequate and would not give a
holistic view of who the entrepreneur is
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Badi et al. (2006) defined entrepreneur as a person with vision, original idea,
decision-making and daring to try. The entrepreneur is also an investor who brings
in new ideas, new commodities, new processes and encourages his team in the new
activities. For Scarborough and Zimmerer (2000), an entrepreneur is a person who
creates a new business in the face of risk and uncertainty for the purpose of
achieving profit and growth by identifying opportunities and assembling the
necessary resources to capitalize on them. Entrepreneurship is the creation of a
new business venture and a new organization for that venture (Stoner et al., 2000).
Mbaegbu reported that Inegbenebor and Osaze (1999) have differentiated various
grades of entrepreneurs on a continuum from craftsman entrepreneurs to
opportunistic entrepreneurs. According to Inegbenebor, the craftsman entrepreneur
generally establishes his own self-employed business which could be a micro
enterprise or a small/ medium enterprise. The number of outside people he
employs depends on the size of the enterprise. The opportunistic entrepreneur on
the other hand has the potential of establishing a business and growing it into a
large scale bureaucratic corporation employing hundreds of people.
Mbaegbu (2008) submitted that there is, therefore, no one-best definition for the
entrepreneur: He however stated, anyone who creates a business, establishes it, and
nurses it to growth and profitability or takes over an existing business because the
founder is dead or has sold it, or who inherited it and continues to build and
innovate on it, or a man who runs a franchise, qualifies as an entrepreneur in our
usage (Nwachukwu, 1990). The bottom line is career in self-employment and
profiting from self-employment.
Who is an Entrepreneur?
Entrepreneurs are individuals who recognize opportunities where others see chaos,
or confusion. One anonymous quote found by Jeffery A. Timmons sums up the
realities for entrepreneurs. Anyone can be an entrepreneur, who wants to
experience the deep dark canyons of uncertainty and ambiguity; who wants to walk
the breathtaking highlands of success‖. Entrepreneurship in the modern
dispensation in Nigeria can be traced to the colonial era due to the problem of trade
by barter of exchanging agricultural products. It means primarily innovation, to
others it means risk-taking. To others, a market stabilizing force and to others it
means starting, or owning and managing small business.
Thus, an entrepreneur is viewed as a person who either creates new combination of
production factors such as new methods of production, new market, find new
sources of supply and organizational form or as a person is willing to take risks or
a person who exploits market opportunities, eliminates disequilibrium between
aggregate demand and supply or a person who owns and operates a business.
Institutions and individuals promoting rural development see entrepreneurship as a
strategic development intervention that could accelerate the development process.
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Entrepreneurs and Nigerian Economy
The role of entrepreneurs in economic development in-volves increasing per
capital output and income, initiating and constituting change in the structure of
business and society; this change is accompanied by growth and increased output.
Entrepreneurship facilitates the use of local raw materials and other resources.
Being relatively labour intensive, enterprise creates substantial employment
opportunities at low capital cost and being resilient, flexible, can better adapt to
unexpected changes in the economic and financial environments. Stimulation of
indigenous entrepreneurship in developing country like Nigeria is made possible.
Private individuals or groups are afforded the opportunity to manage the businesses
with minimal resources requirement.
Investment in small businesses helps to transform traditional sector. It modernizes
the people‘s perception of life and introduces the use of machines instead of
manual labour. Again, the skills of men are modernized and synchronized with
developments in the new industrial sector. Another function of entrepreneurs in
Nigeria‘s economy is creation of employment. In Nigeria of today, government
cannot provide 100% employment for the citizens; entrepreneurship has helped
many to be gainfully employed. It helps to reduce unemployment problem in the
country i.e., the root of all socio-economic problems. It leads to wealth creation
Gana (2001).
Furthermore, utilization of resources is being accomplished. Resources that might
end up to be idle in the hands of people are effectively mobilized (capital, skills
etc.) and employed productively. More so, it also induces backward and forward
linkages which stimulate the process of economic development in the country. It
helps to link up various sectors of the economy. It constitutes the market for
Agriculture extractive and industrial outputs. Also, it helps in diversifying
economic activities but also in saving foreign exchange for their mother country
(Gana, 2001).
It helps reduce the concentration of economic power, stimulates economic
equitable redistribution of wealth, income and even political power in the interest
of the country. It contributes to regional activity and cooperation. It promotes
Nigeria‘s export trade, reasonable quantity of products or services from Nigeria are
sold in other countries. Trade among member states of ECOWAS is expanding.
Good trades Relationship (import and export) are being fostered due to the factor
of comparative cost advantage (Gana, 2001).
Entrepreneurship as a distinct factor of production contributes to the economic
development of an economy in many significant ways as mentioned above. The
overall role of entrepreneurship in economic development of an economy is put as
―an economy is the effect for which entrepreneurship is the cause.
Problems Facing Entrepreneurs in Nigeria
According to John (2006), entrepreneurship has a lot of problems. Nigeria
entrepreneurship is faced with several constraints which limit its development.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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Among these constraints is financial or capital shortage, infrastructure problems,
technology, organizational constraints, inadequate or lack of skilled manpower,
competition from imported goods and poor administration of government assisted
programs, inadequate information as to business opportunities, inadequate capital,
substandard goods, anxiousness for profit etc. These problems have great
potentials of affecting business operations
Inadequate Capital: As a result of insufficient capital, entrepreneurs are not
able to carry out all the beautiful project /ideas that they may have formulated.
Borrowing from banks and other institutions have not been very easy as very
stringent conditions are required for the entrepreneurs. This has greatly affected
business development.
Lack of Awareness of Business Opportunities: Most often, entrepreneurs are
not aware of business opportunities available to them. This is because most
entrepreneurs do not know how to seek for business opportunities. Rather than
seek information from the Chambers of Commerce, Ministry of Trade and
Industry, foreign and technical partners etc, most entrepreneurs depend on their
intuition and what is obtained within their immediate environment, which may
not be enough.
Quest for High Profit: The quest for high profit can be said to be responsible
for the non-chalant attitude of most entrepreneurs. Because they seek for high
profits, most entrepreneurs resort to reducing standards and quality of their
products. The effect of this is that, the average consumers would prefer
imported products not minding the high cost compared to the locally produced
ones.
Production of Substandard Goods: As a matter of fact, most entrepreneurs are
in the habit of producing substandard goods. This is because they may not have
the technical know-how or the resources to make better products. The
implication is that market is saturated with poorly produced goods and the
consumers are left at the mercy of the entrepreneurs for profit;
Management Control: The employment of incompetent and low quality staff
can affect the features of a business. When a worker is incompetent, his output
would surely be poor. Most entrepreneurs have no effective control over their
workers due to the fact that most of the employees are well known to them. It
must be stated that there is no sentiment in business. An entrepreneur should be
very firm in the running of his business as the success or failure of the business
depends largely on his abilities.
Government Policies: Most times, government came up with certain policies
that may not be in the interest of the entrepreneurs. This could either be in form
of restriction on certain key raw material or outright ban, withdrawal of
subsidies; increase in taxes etc. These policies can affect business operations.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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Recommendations
The discussion above show that government efforts aimed at entrepreneurial
development cannot solve the multidimensional nature of the Nigerian
unemployment problem. As such, it will require the collective efforts of both the
public and private enterprises to mitigate the unemployment problem in Nigeria.
i.e. a public private partnership in reducing the unemployment problem in Nigeria
through entrepreneurial development.
Furthermore, as it is currently being practiced in some Nigeria institutions of
higher learning entrepreneurial programs and curricula should be designed to meet
with the current trends. Its content should be properly designed towards making a
graduate in Nigeria skillful in a particular trade or enterprise of interest before he
or she leaves the school, such that the long years of waiting for the elusive
supposed dream or plum job will be greatly cut-down through practicing the trade
or enterprise learnt about in school.
Finally, adequate fund should be set aside by both the public and private
enterprises and channeled towards assisting graduates with entrepreneurial skills to
set up their own privately owned enterprises in the area of their skill. This also
comes with the possibility of becoming an employer of labour as against the usual
after school long waiting for the never forthcoming dream job.
References
Burnett, D. (2000). Hunting for Haffalumps: The Supply of Entrepreneurship and
Economic Development, Technopreneural.com http://www.geogle.com
Collins, O.F., Moore, D.G. and Unwalla, D.B. (1964). The Enterprising Man. East
Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University.
Drucker, P.F. (1970). Innovation and Entrepreneurship; Practices and Principles.
New York: Harper & Row, Publishers
Federal Ministry of Labour and Productivity Report (2008). The Nigerian
Statistical Fact Sheets on Economic and Social Development, Abuja and
Lagos.
Gana, J.S.S. (2001). Entrepreneurship. Kaduna: Jofegan Associates.
Inegbenebor, A.U. and Osaze, E.B. (1999). Entrepreneurship and the Business
Enterprise In: Approach Benin: Malthouse Press.
Mueller, S.L. and Thomas, A.S. (2000). A case for Comparative Entrepreneurship:
Assessing the Relevance of Culture. Journal of International Business
Studies. 31(2):287.
Mbaegbu, D.G.E. (2008). Entrepreneurship Development Theories: An Overview
and Critique. Proceedings of the First Chike Okoli International Conference
on Entrepreneurship, titled ―Entrepreneurship & Africa‘s Quest for
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Development Published by Chike Okoli Centre for entrepreneurial Studies,
Nnamdi Azikwe University, Awka Nigeria.
Nwachukwu, A.C. (2009). The Role of Entrepreneurship in Economic
Development: The Nigerian Perspective. European Journal of Business.
Management. 4(8).
Oluremi, H. A. and Gbenga, M.A. (2011). Environmental Factors and
Entrepreneurship Development in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable.
Development in Africa. 13(4).
Okongwu, C.S.P. (1996). The Nigerian Economy. Enugu: Fourth Dimension
Publishers.
Reynolds, P.D. (1987). New Firm's Societal Contribution Versus Survival
Potential. Journal Business Venture 2,231-246.
Stoner, A.F., Freeman, R.E. & Gilbert, Jr. D.R. (2000). Management 6th ed.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J; Prentice-Hall Inc.
William, J.U. & Michael, E. (2012). Developing Entrepreneurial Skills through
Business Education Programme to Curb Youth Restiveness for Sustainable
Niger Delta Development, European Journal Business Management, 4(21).
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World Bank (2008). The Economic Development of Nigeria: Baltimore: John
Hopkins University Press. p.63.
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 205
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
The Role of Essay Writing in Resolving National
Conflicts for Economic Recovery and Educational
Development in Nigeria
Samaila Yahaya
Department of English Language and Literary Studies, Zamfara State Collegeof
Education, Maru
Corresponding Author: [email protected] Phone: +2348069214605
Abstract
When human beings come together there is bound to be conflict. This is because
human beings have different background, interest and world views. These lead to
differences in opinion. These differences in opinion could sometimes degenerate
into aggression and violence. Conflict may first be noticed at the individual level,
but may eventually spread to the larger society. But it is important to note that just
as peace and cooperation is desirable, conflict too could be moving forward when
not allowed to become destructive. However, writing is part of the major
instruments that should not be ignored. In all societies of the world it is generally
known that writing is a means of recording experience on paper. Such records of
facts, opinions, observations, etc. provide permanent records which can be
referred to when we can no longer rely on our memory for an undistorted version
of the incident. This paper intends to discuss the role of essay writing in resolving
national conflicts for economic recovery and educational development in Nigeria.
Causes and types of conflicts were also discussed. In the final note the paper shows
that conflict may be favourable so long it leads to solving problems in our
societies. The steps highlighted on how to write a good essay in the paper will
definitely improve the performance of students in writing tasks and enable them to
grasp the idea of writing educative essays that will lead to resolving national
conflicts, economic challenges and enhance educational development in Nigeria.
Keywords: Essay writing, National conflict, Economic recovery and Educational
development.
Introduction
Why would conflict exist at all in the society? Why do men seek peace within and
after conflict in their societies? Politics and Economy are inextricably mixed and in
any society there will be people who inevitably want to achieve their satisfaction
by acquiring power or economic resources, legitimately or illegitimately. Where
interest contradicts, there will be conflict. No society can be said to be conflict
free, except that the severity of conflict varies from one society to the other,
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
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depending on the sophistry of institutions that manage conflict. Conflict stifles
economic development.
Conflicts cannot be totally eradicated in the society. Rather, what is important is
that conflict is part of every society. From sociological point of view, conflict is a
characteristic of every society. People will not accept dull agreement to everything.
If they must show displeasure and disagree in some cases, there must be
opportunity for resolution. Resolution is the most important aspect and it
constitutes the positive side of conflict.
English Language is also used as a medium of instruction right from Primary four
to six, and throughout Secondary and Higher Institutions (National Policy on
Education, 2010). The influence of English language in Nigeria will remain
relevant as a language of education and business transactions. In this case, students
need to be proficient in the language in order to function effectively in the scheme
of affairs of the nation. It is imperative to note that in recent years, interest in
writing has increased among second language learners (L2), and it is the skill of
language that proves to be difficult (Williams, 2004). According to Schmitt
(2002:251) ―writing remains one of the least well-understood, if not misunderstood
subject in applied linguistics.‖ The reason behind the ambiguity of the term
‗writing‘ is because of the way people view it. Some regard writing as an
orthography and written discourse. Schmitt (2002:251) further argues that the
difficulty lies not only in generating and organizing ideas, but in translating these
ideas into readable text. In supporting the above argument, Richards and Renandya
(2005:303) state that ―The skills involved in writing are highly complex; L2
writers have to pay attention to higher level skills of planning and organizing as
well as lower level skills of spelling, punctuation, words choice, and so on.‖ In this
case, the difficulty becomes so pronounced among the learners particularly if their
language proficiency is weak. Organization in whatever one intends doing is very
important hence it helps in producing quality outcome. This illuminates the fact
that when one writes, it is necessary to put ideas in their right places. In writing,
organization refers to the arrangement and ordering of sentences to form
paragraphs and the unity of the paragraphs to make a whole composition. The flow
of thoughts from the opening, through the middle, to the conclusion, as well as
formal features are also considered (Oladimeji, 2014). The above definition
explains how important organization in essay writing is.
Learning to write in L2 (second language) mainly involves linguistic knowledge
and vocabulary choice, knowledge of syntactic patterns, and cohesive device that
comprise the essential building blocks of text (Hyland, 2003). It is imperative to
note that by its very nature, writing is an active process because it involves
commitment towards expressing one‘s opinion. Its physical aspect forces active
involvement upon a writer. Writers perform the actions of picking up a pen and
pencil (or using computer keyboard) and recording their thought (Trimbur, 2008).
In ESL (English as a second language) context, reading and writing are the two
skills used for getting and producing language. Writing as channel of producing
language has always been problematic to students to learn. According to
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Gabrielatos (1993), writing is of two levels: language and organization. In the
former level, the focus is on grammar and vocabulary used in the sentences. In the
later level, focus is on lay out, punctuation and method of organization. (Obanya,
2005).
Writing Academic writing is knowledge-transforming (Kamal, 2001:62). Students
transform the knowledge and skills acquired from their teachers or even from
books or journal articles into their writing. Some higher institutions and
universities adopt product-oriented approach in teaching writing to their students.
As Kamal (2001:63) says ―The teaching of writing at Bayero University Kano is
product-oriented. The teachers assign a number of topics and the students make
choices, write and handover their first draft to the teachers who mark and return the
scripts.‖ This is what White (1988:5) terms ―language focused‖ and students are
―language learners‖. (The teachers‘ concern is mainly on errors and surface
structures) rather than ―developing writers‖ (That is students are not dwelling on
meaning) (Zamel 1986:81-82, quoted by Kamal 2001:63). Thus, students develop
hatred and lack of confidence in writing course since the approach kills their
interest towards the writing activity. This shows that writing is far beyond errors
and surface structure but also dwelling on meaning.
Definition and Characteristics Nature of Conflict
Different scholars have defined conflict in many ways. Conflict could be defined
as the pursuit of incompatibility of goals by individuals or groups as a result of the
inability of social structure to allocate values objectively. (Ball, 1983) situates
conflict as a political process that generates from diversity of choices and
distribution of scarce resources in the society.
(Stagner, 1995) adds that the occurrence of cheat and aggressive behaviour on the
part of individuals or groups that lead to the frustration of others may cause
conflict. It is disagreement that results from the allocation of scarce values or
clashes regarding incompatibility of goals. It can also be regarded as disagreement
that generates from distributive injustice. There are both positive and negative
sides of conflict when it is resolved and when it exist respectively. The positive
side can be used to minimize or resolve conflict.
Similarly, the negative side can be used to exacerbate conflict. To promote conflict
resolution and peaceful co-existence, one important tool is communication. Of
course Otite and Albert (1999) have argued that adequate consultation and
communication is one of the hallmarks of transforming conflict environment to
manageable situation. Where communication is lacking either as a result of the
inability of the mediator to initiate it or the principals‘ blatant refusal to talk to
each other, resolution may be difficult. Consultation and communication aims to
promote the positive side of conflict and deterring the negative side.
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Table 1
Positive side of conflict Negative side of conflict
Clarification of individual view Distance between people increased
Stimulation of interest and creativity Climate of mistrust and hatred
developed
Long-standing problems brought to
surface and resolved
Individuals and groups concentrate
on their narrow objectives
Peaceful Co-existence through
Tolerance and accommodation
Otite and Albert (1999)
Coser in Otite and Albert (1999) provides an elaborate definition: He states that;
Social conflict may be defined as a struggle over values or claims to status power
and scarce resources, in which the aims of the conflicting parties are not only to
gain the desired values, but also to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals. Such
conflicts may take place between individuals, collectivities or between individuals
and collectivities. Intergroup and intra-group conflicts are perennial features of
social life.
However, conflict can be defined as the existence of non-compatibility or
disagreements between two actors (individuals, groups, organizations or nations) in
their interaction over issues of interests, values, beliefs, emotions, goals, space,
positions, scarce resources etc. In his work, Fink, defines conflict as any ―situation
or process in which two or more social entities are linked by at least one form of
antagonistic psychological relation or at least one form of antagonistic interaction‖
(Fink; 1968: 456). The psychological antagonisms are such things as incompatible
goals, mutually exclusive interests, emotional hostility, factual or value dissensions
and traditional enmities; while antagonistic interactions range from the most direct,
violent and unregulated struggle to the subtlest, indirect and highly regulated forms
of mutual interference‖ (Fink; 1968: 456). Coser (1956: 8) also defines conflict as
―A struggle over values and claims to secure status, power and resources, a
struggle in which the aims of opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate
rivals‖.
Causes of Conflict
The causes of conflict in societies where it has occurred and where it may
potentially take place is similar. The available literature on causes of conflict in the
West Africa sub-region, for example, are tied to the struggle for economic
resources, boundary disputes, environmental degradation and struggle for political
power between or among ethnic groups, religious sentiments. Elsewhere in Africa,
Asia, Central and Eastern European countries and the Americas, the story is the
same or similar. For example, the conflict in Liberia in which late Samuel Doe was
accused of dominating the government with members of his ethnic Kahn people is
much related to tribal sentiments and struggle for political power; the conflict
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between Nigeria and Cameroun over the oil rich Bakassi Peninsular, which was
concluded in 2006 was as a result of boundary dispute and the accompanying
natural resources/economic resources located therein.
Types of Conflict
Below are some of the types of conflict: We can begin to determine the causes of
conflict and design resolution strategies that will have a higher probability of
success.
Relationship Conflicts
Relationship conflicts occur because of the presence of strong negative
misperceptions or stereotypes, poor communication or miscommunication,
repetitive behaviours. Relationship problems often fuel disputes and lead to an
unnecessary escalating spiral of destructive conflict. Supporting the balanced
expression of perspectives and emotions for acknowledgement (no one agreement)
is one effective approach to managing relational conflict.
Data Conflicts
Data conflicts arise when two profiles are merged but some of the information did
not match. Instead of discharging any information we allow one to review these
conflicts and choose the correct data to keep. Some of the conflicts may be
unnecessary since they are caused by poor communication between the people in
conflict. Other data conflicts may be genuine incompatibilities associated with data
collection, interpretation or communication. Most data conflicts will have ―data
solutions‖.
Interest Conflicts
Interest conflicts are caused by competition over perceived incompatible norms.
Conflicts of interest result when one or more of the parties believe that in order to
satisfy his or her needs, the needs and interest of an opponent must be sacrificed. A
variety of interests and intentions underlie and motivate positions in negative and
must be addressed for maximized resolution. Interest-based conflicts occur over
substantive issues (such as money, physical resources, time etc. procedural issues
(the way the dispute is to be resolved); and psychological (perceptions of trust,
fairness, desire for participation, respect, etc.). For an interest based dispute to be
resolved, parties must be assisted to define and express their individual interests so
that all of these interests may be jointly addressed. Interest-based conflict is best
resolved through the maximizing of integration of the parties‘ respective interests,
positive intentions and designating experiential outcomes.
Structural Conflicts
Structural conflicts are caused by forces external to the people in dispute. Physical
resources or authority, geographic constraints (distance or proximity, time too little
or too much) organizational changes and so forth. These can make structural
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conflict seem like a crisis. It can be helpful to assist parties in conflict to appreciate
the external forces and constraints bearing upon them.
Value Conflicts
Value conflicts are caused by perceived or actual incompatible belief system.
Values are beliefs that people use to give meaning to their lives. Values express
what is ―good‖, ―right‖ or ―wrong‖, ―just or ―unjust‖. Differing values need not
cause conflict. People can live together in harmony with different systems. Value
disputes arise only when people attempt to force one set of values on others or lay
claim to exclusive value system that do not allow for divergent beliefs. It is of no
use to try to change value and belief systems during relating short and strategic
mediation interventions. It can, however, be helpful to each participant‘s
expression of their values and beliefs for acknowledgement to the other party.
(Cook, 1956).
Theories of Conflict
Theories of social conflict are interrelated just as much as we cannot separate
politics, economics and social processes. In other words, no matter the degree by
which we attempt to classify theories as structural, biological, economic, political,
psychological or otherwise, their causal inter-relationships are inseparable,
intertwine and interwoven. However, this research was guided by Structural
Theory.
Structural Theory
The structural theory of conflict drives its explanatory content from two sources.
The first is linked to Karl Marx dialectical school of thought with expanded
contributions of Engel and Lenin. The Marxian conflict perspective holds that
there is a structured form of conflict in the society, which generates from the
relationship between those who owns private property and means of production
(the bourgeoisie) and those who are separated from this process of materialism, but
work for the property class under exploitative and subordinated arrangements the
Proletariat: the labouring class; especially the class of industrial workers who lack
their own means of production and hence sell their labour to live (that is the lowest
social or economic class). (Marx, 1959).
Marx takes the argument further that such exploitative and domineering power of
the bourgeoisies will evolve into conflict in which the proletariat will in
revolutionary revolt overthrow the property class to establish socialist order that
put the masses (workers) in control. Workers across national boundaries will
merge and the state will wither away since it is only for the support of production
processes that state exists. Miliband, Lenin etc, have expanded this, but showed
pessimistic view about the liquidation of the state into the advantage possession of
the proletariat (Cook, 1975).
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Resolving National Conflicts through Essay Writing
It is human nature to disagree with people that one encounter with. Conflicts are
common at home, among families, at workplace, between societies and between
countries. It is, therefore, crucial to have the knowhow on how to write an essay on
conflict. The important steps to follow when writing an essay about conflict
include the following:
Plan your Essay: The plan should involve the format of your essay and the key
points to include in the various paragraphs. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-
write-a-conflict-essay 2019
Write your Essay: Start the essay with a detailed introduction that informs the
readers on the contents of your essay. The introduction should have a definition
that explains what an essay is. The paragraph should then include the points that
your essay will address. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-
essay 2019
The body: The body should address all the issues that you want your reader to
know about conflict. Each paragraph should handle a specific issue. The
introductory sentence of each paragraph should inform the reader the contents of
the paragraph. Remember to be elaborated and concise.
https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay 2019
Assume that your audience lacks previous knowledge about conflict and that your
essay is meant to educate the reader about it. Handle all issues in depth while
avoiding ambiguous information. The body should include conflict types, the
reasons, consequences, how to avoid and how to solve a conflict. Explain these
points fully. Your essay should also include your viewpoint concerning conflict.
Ensure that the reader will get your stand on conflict as they read your essay.
https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay 2019
Recommendations Pertaining Conflicts: The recommendations may include
living with conflict in cases where the conflicting parties were unable to solve or
avoid the conflict. The recommendation can also include insight on how to benefit
from a conflicting situation.
Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the major points of your essay. Highlight
the types, reasons, consequences, solution for conflicts and recommendations.
Also, highlight your thesis statement to show your reader that the essay has
achieved the expected objective. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-
conflict-essay 2019
Follow all the requirements provided by the instructor on writing the essay: The
requirements include the word limit, paper format (also includes font type,
margins), the proper referencing style e.g APA, MLA, HARVARD etc.
https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay 2019
Ensure that your Essay Lacks Plagiarism: You avoid plagiarism by citing
information that you borrow from other people. Plagiarism is also avoided by
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reading and understanding the sources and writing your essay using your
understanding. Remember to always cite outside sources in the text and in the
reference page in alphabetical order. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-
conflict-essay 2019
Provide High-Quality Work: Quality involves originality, proper articulation of
ideas, and a good command of the language used.
https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay2019
Avoid Spelling Mistakes and Grammar Errors: You should proofread your work
upon completion. Use the ‗third person‘ unless instructed otherwise.
https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay 2019
Examples of some Essays in Resolving National Conflicts
Nigeria Cattle Feud: Villagers killed in Plateau State by BBC News Africa, 2013
Nigeria: The Wase Crisis and Taroh People: The Truth of the Matter by Miner C.S,
2002
Muslim Ethnic Fulani Mount Attacks in Plateau State; Boko Haram strikes in
Borno by Religious Freedom Coalition, 2013
Path to Economic Recovery in Nigeria
According to Nwanku A. 2016 he painted a rosy economic future anchored on
diversification and enhanced revenue from taxation. According to him, in three to
five years, Nigerians will feel the impact of the present administration‘s policies on
manufacturing, agriculture, entertainment and mining among others, because they
will strengthen the naira and improve foreign reserves (are cash and other reserve
assets held by a central bank or other monetary authority that are primarily
available to balance payments of the country, influence the foreign exchange rate
of its currency and to maintain confidence in financial markets).
Education and Development in Nigeria
The introduction of Western Education in Nigeria was closely bound up with the
activities of various Christian Missionaries who brought this system of education.
By 1877, the British administration was firmly established in Lagos. However,
education was still the monopoly of the Christian Missions. Some scholars
observed that the school‘s curriculum was heavily religion based, internal and
swallow in content. As a result, the missionaries were greatly restricted by Muslim
Emirs in the North and South. https://www.christianpost.com/news/education-and-
development-in-nigeria.html
The concept of development on the other hand is subject to many definitions. For
example, Rodney defined it as a many-sided process. At the level of individual it
implies increase skills and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline,
responsibility and material well-being. In fact, development is elusive; it is
perceived not only as a condition of life but also as a goal to be attained, and as the
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capacity to grow and change and develop. Thus it also involves both a physical
process and a state of mind. The transformation of institution is one aspect; the
other aspect is that the thinking of the people must change.
The importance of education to societal development cannot be overemphasized.
For Plato, the ancient Greek Philosopher, he recommended education as the most
important method of forming the state. And his system of education aims at
equipping the citizens with the training skills needed for whatever position they are
selected for. Aristotle in the same vein argued that education should be strictly
controlled by the state, be senscored and made open to all citizens of the state.
Conclusion
In conclusion, conflict has been considered an obstacle to progress, political
stability, economic prosperity and overall socio-economic development of any
society because of its destructive impact. This therefore means that conflict must
be timely averted or managed properly as failure to do so will reflect a determined
action or struggle over a goal, which may be overt or subtle; manifest or
imaginary. To sum it all we could find out that although there are no generally
acceptable definitions of conflict, but atleast we can identify the causes. Moreso,
there is no particular cause for all conflicts. A particular conflict may have many
issues as contributory factors to the cause such conflicts. One common
denominator among all conflicts is that there is an incompatibility of interest
between two or more contending parties.
References
Cook, J.B. (1975). Compromise, conflict and Perspective. Department of Regional
and Community Affairs, College of Public and Community service,
University of Missouri.
Coser, L. (1956). The Function of Social Conflict. Philadelphia: The Free Press.
Fink, C. (1968). The World Transformed. Ohio State University.
Gabrielatos, C. (1993). Learning how to fish: Fostering fluency and Independence.
TESOL Greece Newsletter 38. (Also available online:
www.gabrielatos.com/learning how to fish.htm)
Hyland, K. (2003). Second Language Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Kamal, A. (2001). BUK English 2: A Primer for Advance Reading and Writing
Skills. Kano: Myrrh.
Kamal, A. (2001). Language for Academic Purposes: A Learning Centred
Approach. Kano: Myrrh.
National Policy on Education (2010)
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Nwankwo, A. (2016). Path to Economic Recovery in Nigeria. Real news
Magazine.
Marx K. (1959). Social Conflict. International Socialist Review. Vol. 20 No, 4
Obanya, P. (2005). Language Arts Methods: Associateship Certificate in
Education Series. Ibadan: Institute of Education University. Heinemann
Educational Books Nig.
Oladimeji, O. (2014). National Examination Council (NECO). Marking Scheme.
Otite, O. and Albert, I. (1999). Community Conflict in Nigeria. Spectrum Ibadan.
Books Limited
Richards, J. and Renandya, W.A. (2005). Methodology in Language Teaching: An
Anthology of Current Practice. 6th
ed. Cambridge: University Press.
Schmitt, N. (2002). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. Hodder Education,
Part of Hachette UK, London.
Stagner, E. (1995). Union Pacific Steam in Colour. www.amazon.co.uk
Trimbur, H. (2008). Portfolio Assessment in the Reading-Writing Classroom.
Norwood, MA.
White, R. V. (1988). Academic Writing: Process and Product. In Robinson (eds)
1988 (pp. 4-16).
Williams, D. (2004). English Language Teaching: An Integrated Approach.
Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd. Research in Written Composition. In
Freedman et al. (eds.) 2004 (pp. 171- 177) writing. Javanovich University
Press.
Zamel, V. (1987). Responding to Student Writing. TESOL. Quarterly. 19:79-101.
https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay
https://www.christianpost.com/news/education-and-development-in-nigeria.html
Banaga Journal of Educational Studies,
Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019. ISSN:2714-2736 215
(A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru)
Field Study in Geography: Understanding Urban
Morphology, Agriculture, Water and Energy Supplies
in the Desert City of Agadez, Niger Republic
Halliru Yahaya Department of Geography, Zamfara State College of Education Maru
E-mail: [email protected], Mobile: 08065496662
Abstract
Agadez, the largest city found in the largest desert of the world, is located on hyper arid
environment. The field study explores qualitative methodology using geographical
observations and unstructured interviews conducted during the journey from Metropolitan
Kano (Nigeria) through Zinder (Damagaram), Tanoute, Adarbislam to Agadez City all in
Niger Republic. The field study examined urban morphology, agriculture, water and
energy supplies in Agadez city. The results identified eleven (11) important areas/quarters
in the urban morphology of Agadez city. Agricultural practices along Telwa valley, a
route to Dabaga Commune is connected with Ahagar Air Massive of the Sahara Desert,
which leads to emergence of oases landform features along its valley. With fertile soil and
shallow water table of oases, agro forestry and intensive irrigation agriculture are being
practiced. Also, in areas around Air Massif, Irrigated gardening around Telwa River
channel, covering Dabaga, AssalamSalam, Azel and Sabon Gari Villages all practiced
both intensive rain fed and irrigation agriculture. Despite low rainfall in Agadez, (150-
200mm per annum), water supply was observed and rated efficient. The major source of
water for domestic, industrial and irrigational purposes is from highland of Air massive,
located North Western part of Niger Republic. Electricity remained steady throughout the
period of field study in Agadez. The source was from Sonica coal electricity generating
company established in the last 40 years as a joint venture between Nigerien government
(69% shares) and other Banks (31% shares). 19 megawatts of electricity are produced
daily and stored for distribution. The study concludes that human and natural resources
are optimally utilized in the city of Agadez, however, solar energy potentials need to be
harnessed in the desert environment to curtail the stress associated with fuel generators in
irrigation activities and to complement hydro and thermos electricity in Niger. Also, there
is the need for other developing countries to emulate from developments being exhibited in
Agadez region particularly in areas of water supply, food security and energy provision.
Keywords: Touareg, Commune, Department, Gandari, Gendermare
Introduction
Agadez, the largest city found in the largest desert of the world, is located on the
south-eastern fringes of the Sahara Desert in Africa. Geographically, the City is on
the Coordinates of parallels 16.9742o
N and Meridian 7.98650
E located at the
southern fringe of the Aïr Massif. Agadez is the main city of Agadez region in
Niger Republic, the largest of all the eight (8) existing administrative regions in the
Country. The Agadez region, is the largest. Less populated, and the richest in
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mineral resources. It is also the main tourist area of the country par excellence. It
contains the most beautiful desert in the world, which contained several landforms
features of the desert environment.
The study also explores the geographical observations made during the journey
from Kano through Daura, (Katsina State, Nigeria), passed through a border town
of Maimujiya, Zinder (Damagaram), Tanout, Adarbislam to Agadez City. At the
start of the journey, Kano is generally considered as tropical continental climate.
The Climate is characterized by high humidity from May to November (6 months)
with rainfall throughout this period and a single maximum around the month of
August. Rainfall of Kano are between 900-1000mm per annum. These figures
continue to decline Northward position. Therefore, at Maimujiyya, a Boundary of
Nigeria and Niger Republic Sahelian climate with rainfall below 500mm per
annum is experienced. This is manifested from the nature of trees, cultivation and
drier environment.
From Zinder, Tanout, Aderbissalam and Agadez, drier environment can be
observed, From arid towards hyper arid environment. At Agadez, the town‘s
pollution level is low. Vehicles driven in the town raise a fine dust, but this does
not have any particular negative impact on buildings. The impact of dust is far
more intense during sandstorms, but in fact their effects seem to be beneficial for
the conservation of mudbrick buildings, as they deposit a fine coating of mineral
particles on the surfaces.
People of the Sahel, are responding to climate and vegetation through pastoralist
activities. Pastoralism is commonly practiced in areas around Tanout,
Aderbissalam and areas around Agadez. Livestock migrate from destination to
areas southward in search of pasture. People of Agadez and neighbourhood wears
turbans covering their heads to neck leaving only their eyes. This is a protection
from harsh weather and climatic condition. Houses in Agadez are seen to have
small windows as protection from harsh weather and climatic conditions. Another
important human response to environmental conditions was observed in
constructions of a school, called Lecol in Niger. Some schools were built entirely
with mud and some other schools are either local thatch grasses roofing or an open
spaced with a National flag of Niger Republic mounted on a stick, just to give an
impression of official place.
Aim and Objectives of the Field Study
Field study is essential for a better comprehension of geographical phenomena that
are being taught in the classroom environment. Hence, the aim of the study is to
examine urban morphology, agriculture, water and energy supplies in the desert
city of Agadez, Niger Republic. The aim could be achieved through the following
objectives:
Examine urban morphology of Agadez city in Niger Republic
Identify agricultural practices and adaptation to hyper aridity in Agadez
region.
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Determine water supply and distribution in Agadez city and its environs.
Determine households‘ electricity supply in Agadez city.
Data Collection Instruments and Analysis
Geographical field study involves actual geographical study or work carried out in
the field that affords this opportunity. Hence data collection for the field study
involves the close observation and unstructured interviews conducted in the study
of geographical phenomena in the field. Even though the fieldwork begins from
Kano metropolis through Nigeria- Niger boundary at Maimujiya town to
Damagaram (Zinder, Niger Republic), then passing through the road to Tanoute
town, Adarbislam to Agadez city. The main purpose of embarking on such trips is
educational, that is, teaching, learning and researching. This makes the fieldwork
participatory and exciting. Geographical observations made coupled with
responses from unstructured interviewed done to residents, teachers and some
resource persons have been analysed, presented and discussed.
Data Presentation and Discussion
Data collections was made through field study observations, interviews and
discussions with teachers on the field and these notes were carefully studied and
analysed. Therefore, the data analysed were also sequentially presented.
Urban Morphology in Agadez City
From Niger- Nigerian boundary at Daura to Agadez city, the road is characterized
by four (4) urban settlements. They are: Zinder (Damagaram), Tanout,
Adarbisalam and Agadez. All these settlements possessed urban Planning similar
to those in Hausa urban settlements of Northern Nigeria. This is similar to
observations made by Stock (2004) that at the beginning of the ninth century,
Islamic cities were established at the end of trans-Saharan trade routes in West
Africa. These cities flourished for a period, but then were largely abandoned as
external entities wielded increasing power with the onset of the slave trade and the
beginnings of colonization. However, at Agadez city, the settlement can be divided
into eleven major areas/quarters, each possess its peculiar structures and functions.
The quarters are as follows:
Agar-garin saka (square of the caravans)
This is a very large portion within the city centre where caravans are said to
stationed their camels and products brought to Agadez. The square later
transformed an important ground for learning. In this square, the remnants of ashes
produced by night lightening of fire can still be observed and many people used the
ashes for the cure of some ailments.
Katanga (quarter of the Ramparts and the Sultan’s Palace)
This includes Sultan palace and the grand mosque of Agadez, which took on its
general present-day appearance in the early 16th century. It is located in the north-
west of the old town, very close to the Sultan‘s Palace. This highly symbolic
monument is still used for Friday prayers and five daily congregational prayers. Its
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27-metre-tall minaret is in the form of a truncated pyramid. The minaret is made
entirely of mudbrick, and its surface is covered with projecting wooden stakes used
as permanent supports for scaffolding. The Sudanese-style minaret is held to be the
tallest minaret ever built entirely out of mudbrick, which is its distinctive feature.
The Minaret contained 99 Staircases, which depicts 99 names of Allah. And the
minaret possessed 7 windows that depicts how Allah put priority on ‗Seven‘ figure
as in seven days and ‗‗sab‘a samawat wal Arli‘‘as in holy book of Qur‘an.
It was discovered that the mosque provided with an outstanding minaret by
Zakaria, a sheikh who was an architectural experts for his building prowess. The
mosque and its dependencies, which include two oratories, a tomb and various
courtyards and cemeteries, are surrounded by walls. The group of buildings
occupies an area of 5600sqm. It was extended at various periods, respecting the
traditional techniques and materials, in particular a there has been partial
reconstruction of the minaret in the 19th century and new prayer rooms in the 19th
and 20th centuries.
Figure 1: The Grand Mosque of Agadez with World‘s longest mud minaret.
Two other mosques in the old town date from the 16th century: The Tendé
mosque, with its two decorated monumental central pillars, and the Abawagé
mosque, which is still used. Although These two mosques have no minaret as
noted during field observations.
On the other hand, the sultan‘s people comprise the sultan‘s family, and the
descendants of the various socio-cultural groups directly linked to the history of
the sultanate. In addition to the sultan himself, the sultan has followers such as the
Dangaladima or vice-sultan, the Tourawa, a qadi in charge of justice, the Magagia,
the sultan‘s sister, who is in charge of women‘s issues, and the sultan‘s secretary,
etc. This social group includes the prominent figures and administrators of the
sultanate, of various ranks, such as the head of military functions, and the Dogaris
in charge of the police, etc. The imam is responsible for religious matters, assisted
by the Naibi and other ulamas.
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The Palace of the Anastafidet
The palace dates from the early 20th century. This represents the chieftaincy of a
group of Tuaregs who played a leading role in the management of caravans. The
palace has some twenty rooms and several courtyards, arranged around a large
reception room, covered by a ribbed vault.
The House of Sidi Kâ, or Baker’s House
It is a building with an upper floor and dates from 1917. It was richly decorated, in
a style reflecting a mixture of cultural influences, by its designer, the merchant
himself. The former residence of the Sultan Almoumine is still inhabited by his
descendants; this is a place to stay for the future brides of the sultan‘s house.
The Hotel de l’Aïr
This is a palace built in 1917 for Kaossen, the leader of the rebellion against the
colonial power. It was later converted into a hotel. The hotel restaurant has
remarkable ribbed vaults, supported by four large pillars. Other important places
with important functions are:
Amarewat (potters‘ quarter)
Amdit (quarter of the Igdalen Tuaregs)
Imourdan-Magass, Imourdan-Nafala and Akanfaya (Kel Away Tuaregs)
Oungoual-Bayi (quarters of the servants)
Founé-Imé; Obitara (the exterior market and the craftspeople)
Hougoubéré (the former commercial centre of the grand market
Tamallakoye).
The original street layout, which is quite different from the hierarchical street
system found in traditional Arab-Islamic towns, is linked to the Tuareg origins of
the town, reflected in an urban layout comprising broader streets with many small
squares. Furthermore, the continuous use of mudbrick, since the 15th century, has
resulted in a remarkable level of knowhow which is reflected in the height of the
minaret, held to be the tallest ever erected in the world exclusively with the aid of
this construction technique.
Houses in Agadez are made of Mud with kwungu, a round bricks made from Mud.
Although, this differs from what is known in traditional Hausa construction that
include Ramno. However, there are similarities of architectural designs which
includes dakali, that serve as seats and also protect the base of the buildings from
erosion. Building material is sometimes clayey earth (banco). It is utilised in the
form of conical bricks shaped by hand (Kwungu) or more recently as rectangular
moulded bricks (tubali). The bricks are laid using an earth-based mortar, and the
walls are also plastered with earth.
Agriculture and Food Security in Agadez
Millet production is the only thriving crop in the areas from Nigeria –Niger
boundary through Zinder, Tanoute, Adarbislam to Agadez city. Generally,
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agricultural practices are primarily characterized by subsistence farming, and
production of crops is based largely on rain-fed agriculture. Millet is the strongly
preferred staple food and domestic millet production accounts for about 76 percent
of cereal production in the country. An estimated 90 percent of all cultivated land
is allocated to millet (World Bank, 2009) sandy soil dominates most areas
mentioned. That revealed the facts that 80% of the Nigerien soils are infertile. Only
20% of the soils is cultivable ADBG (2013). Most of these fertile soils of Niger are
at the southern part of the country and areas around oases in the desert region in
the northern part of the country. However, the reddish- brown to white layers
occurring in the desert soils otherwise known as caliche are observed on transit.
One of the major challenge facing Nigerien people is barred soil, which made large
portion of Niger‘s soil infertile and uncultivatable. Although, Nigerien government
is trying hard to reclaimed and managed their barren soils. As pointed out by
Smyth and Dumanski (1993) under the framework for evaluating sustainable land
management (FESLM) defined sustainable land management as that which
combines technologies, policies and activities aimed at integrating socio-economic
principles with environmental concerns so as to simultaneously maintain or
enhance production/services, reduce the level of production risk, protect the
potential of natural resources and prevent degradation of soil and water quality be
economically viable and Socially acceptable. In this regards, a crescent curve
ditches of 5ft radius was introduced over a large hectares of land aimed at land
reclamation for greening the soils of areas before and after Tanoute Town. These
crescent curves are popularly called Gandari, or Gina Kaci. The naming of the
crescent curve Gandari is connected to the ability of the programme to fertile the
land and green the environment. It is a joint programme sponsored by FAO and
Nigerien Government.
Figure 2: Crescent curves (Gandari) for land reclamation and greening of the soil
areas before and after Tanoute Town, Niger.
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Areas after Zinder, moving towards Tanoute, Adarbislam and Agadez, only some
portions of land are cultivable, reflecting climate and soil conditions of the area.
Most of these areas are dry or drought affected due to rainfall variability. Most of
the population lacks agricultural practices that provide food stuff for their
livelihood. This can be attested by Beekhuis report in 2005 that Nigeria plays a
dominant role in cereal availability for Nigeriens. An estimated 75-85 percent of
millet/sorghum imports and 35 percent of maize are imported from Nigeria.
Beekhuis, (2005). Therefore, Niger‘s national food system and import needs
depend heavily on key markets in Nigeria, primarily for millet such as Dan Issa,
Mai Adua, Illela, Dammassacki, and Jibia markets. Livestock production are
observed to be practiced by pastoralist and Nomads at various points. Pastoralism
has been the famous practice in dryland areas along the route of Tanoute,
Adarbislam and Agadez. Livestock are mainly red and black cattle, sheep, goats,
camels and donkeys. These livestock are significant in transportation of goods and
people, drawing water from deep wells. One fascinating things about Pastoralists
and nomads is the fact that small villages comprised of a small le col, clinik or
hospital and a deep well. Pastoralists that moves around were provided with mobile
schools with a mobile teacher to provide teaching and learning on their transits.
Livestock production is an important economic activity in Niger as pointed out by
World Bank Report, 2013 that Livestock production contributes about 14 percent
to total GDP, and makes up about 40 percent of agricultural GDP, including goats,
sheep, cattle, and camels. Niger has the largest herd of livestock per head in the
Sahel region, with an estimated total 10.5 million tropical livestock units (TLUs)
as pointed out by World Bank (2013).
At Agadez region, the climate is extremely harsh and characterized by low rainfall
around 150-200mm per annum spreads irregularly. In this regards, no any crop
cultivation is observed in the city or its neighbourhood. However, North eastern
oases along Telwa valley, a route to Sonicar coal processing company in
Chenozerin Department, both rain fed and irrigation are practiced. Also, in areas
around Aïr Massif irrigated gardening, following through Telwa River channel,
covering Dabaga, AssalamSalam, Azel and Sabon Gari villages all practiced both
rain fed and irrigation agriculture. Major crops produced are maize, millet wheat,
carrots, Irish potato and onions This is because they lies along the valleys occupies
by oases in the desert of Agadez region. Also, Agroforestry practices is well
established at Dabaga farms with Date palm and other tree species.
Food Security in Agadez Region
The commonly accepted definition of food security as a situation where all people,
at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious
food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life
(FAO, 1996). Domestic production of millet, the most important and preferred
staple crop, has steadily increased to meet the robust demand generated by the
sixth fastest growing population in the world. However, millet consumption in
Niger outpaces available regional stocks and production, and ensuing pressure on
prices has a direct impact on household access to this staple food.
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However, climate-related hazards pose a significant and chronic threat to
household food supplies in Niger, and have direct and often immediate
consequences on food insecurity, because rural households depend on agricultural
production for up to 40 percent of household food consumption.
Generally, Millets, the only staple crop produced through rain fed agriculture
cannot meet the demands of population. Therefore, there is need for importation to
complement the produce. However, Oases Areas of Dabaga in Cherozerin
Department and the valley along Telwa River provides irrigation activity on their
agroforestry practices. Date palm, wheat, maize, millet, carrots, Irish potatoes are
all cultivated using hybrid crops. These irrigation activities are done 3 times in a
year, with 3 harvesting periods. Upon all these efforts, the farmers cannot meet the
demands of Agadez population. Supplies must be complemented through imports
from neighbouring countries.
Hydrology and Water Resource Development
Telwa River is the only water channel that can be observed in Agadez. This river
valley originated from Air Massive highland. The area feed the oases of Dabaga
and other areas along the valley. Since the area is hyper aridity, river channels are
not prominent. Most of valleys are dry and not water course. They are Waddis
otherwise called dry valleys, one of the common landforms feature in Desert
environment. It is important to note that one time Telwa river was a tributary of
River Niger. However, due to geological transformation, the other portion of the
river disappeared. While today, Telwa River is no longer a tributary of Niger, but
drain in a large portion of the desert near Agadez city. However, along the route
from Damagaram (Zinder) through Tanoute and Adarbislam, no signs of drainage
outlet are observed. It is only dry valleys that does not exist due to water
movement. That explains the desert Climate characteristics.
Water Resources Development in Agadez
About 90 percent of the area visited is in the extremely arid zone, almost entirely
desert, and receives less than 150 mm of annual rainfall. Groundwater resources in
oases and wadis (riverbeds that capture seasonal rain) allow for irrigated
cultivation of some cash crops, dates, and fruits. These areas are mostly unsuitable
for rain fed cultivation and more favourable for pastoral activities.
In Niger Republic, approximately 67 percent of the population has access to
improved water source (e.g., household connection, public standpipe, borehole,
protected well or spring, and rainwater collection). According to the 2012 DHS
survey, there is a significant difference in use of improved water resources between
rural (61 percent) and urban populations (97 percent), and in roughly 48 percent of
households‘ country-wide, the average travel time to collect drinking water is
about 30 minutes (NIS,2012).
In Agadez, the major source of water supply for domestic, industrial and
irrigational uses is from highland of Air massive, located North Western part of
Niger. This aquifer has a large reserves of ground water that supplies Agadez city,
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9 important villages and Sonicar thermal electricity generation company in
Chenozerin Department of Agadez. Over 10,000 litres of water is drawn daily from
this aquifer 38 years of the establishment of the Sonicar power generation
company. However, 18 years ago, Water level was measured in the Air Massive
aquifer to determine loss, but it was discovered that only 1 metre was lost over the
20 years of drawing 10,000 litres of water daily for domestic, industrial and
irrigational purposes.
Agadez city is observed to be on adequate supply of potable and domestic water
supply. Running tap water can be observed in virtually all residential, commercial,
industrial and educational land uses visited. Also, recreational land uses as well as
agricultural and religious land uses within the city have access to potable water
supply.
Electricity Supply and Distribution
Niger has significant energy potentials, rich and varied. It consists of biomass
(firewood and agricultural residues, the main source used by households for
cooking), uranium, mineral coal, oil, natural gas, hydroelectricity and solar energy.
Proved reserves of uranium in the north region of Agadez are estimated at about
450 000 tonnes. Also, Niger imports about 86.6% of its electricity consumption
from Nigeria, under an agreement signed in 1972 and renegotiated in 2010
(ADBG, 2013).
Solar energy is possible throughout the territory where the average insolation level
is 5 to 7 kW/ m2/ day with an average of 8.5 hours per day. Wind speeds, ranging
from 2.5 m/s in the south to 5 m/s in the north, are in favour of wind turbines to
pump water
Table 1: Energy Resources in Niger Republic as at 2016
Resources Reserves
Uranium 450 000 tonnes (Reserves proven)
Mineral coal 90 million tons
Crude oil 1.18 billion barrels oil in place
Natural gas 18.6 billion m3
Hydropower 280 MW
Solar energy 6 to 7 kWh/m2/day
Source: Adapted from SIE/MEP (2016)
Electricity is very efficient in Niger Republic. As observed, in the field trip,
Electricity remained steady at Zinder and Agadez, throughout our stay. Even
though, Zinder generates its electricity from Nigeria, and Agadez is receiving its
electricity from Sonicar coal electricity generating company. Mineral coal reserves
located in northern Niger are over 90 million tons. Around 70 million tons are in
Salkadamna (World Bank, 2012).
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Sonicar coal mining and thermo- electricity generating company was established in
the last 38 years ago as a joint venture between Nigerien government (69% shares)
and other banks (31% shares). The company used coal, air and water as raw
materials to generate steam, which in turn turned the turbanes, which produced
electricity. The company uses 10,000 metric tonnes of coal per day, extracted from
the mining site. The company‘s employment capacity is around 130 workers
engaged in different activities, over a 3 shifting periods. The process of generating
thermo-electricity starts from extracting coal and move it to a reservoir. The coal
will be conveyed to grinders through conveyor belt. The coal will be grinded and
sieved using various sieves to a level of 5mm size. The refine coal will now be
shifted to a boiler which will burn and provide enough heat on the boiler. This
boiler carries lot of hot water and full of air, which produce very high steam that is
capable of turning the turbans, which provide electric energy and stored in the
alternator. 19 megawatts are provided and stored in the 3 transformers provided.
The Transformers will have a share of the following electricity.
Table 2: thermo-electricity provision by Sonicar Company.
First Transformer 6,600 Kilovolts
Second Transformer 132,000 Kilovolts
Third Transformer 20,000 Kilovolts
Source: Field Study, 2018.
Although the company is located in the desert, where water availability is a great
challenge, the company received its water from Agarus village, close to Ahaggar
Massive. This water connection has provided 9 communities with potable water for
domestic and irrigational purposes. After the presentation, a mining quarry
manager drove us to the coal quarry a few metres from the plant. Excavation of
the top cover soil is followed by drilling where samples are obtained.
Conclusion Human and natural resources are optimally utilized in the city of Agadez. There
exist a very strong historical and geographical relationships between Niger and
Nigeria in general and particularly between Kano, Sokoto and Agadez City. These
relationships manifested in the existing areas of Agadasawa (People of Agadez) in
Kano and that of Kanawa (People from Kano) in Agadez City. Also, the modern
Market of Agadez portrays linkages between the market and its relationships with
other markets in Kano metropolis. Commodities/ goods were served to the Agadez
market by Kano markets. Also, the history of Sheikh Usman Danfodio is
incomplete without mentioning his Islamic educational pursuits in Agadez. This
equally prompted Sardauna Ahmadu Bello to have built mosque in
commemoration of his grandfather at Agar-garin-Saka area in Agadez.
On entertainment Scene, kannywood have been in Agadez city for some decades.
Posters of Kannywood actors and actresses can be seen in some streets of Agadez.
Radio FMs of Tanout, Aderbislam and Agadez plays so many musical, religious
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cliffs of Nigeria. Marriages have equally continued to flourished between people of
Nigeria and Agadez, Particularly, with Ladies of Touareg (Azbinawa) tribes. No
doubt, the historical relationships between Nigeria and Niger in general and
particularly between Kano, Sokoto and Agadez people will continued to be
strengthened and cemented.
Recommendations
Solar energy need to be harnessed in the desert environment to curtail the stress
associated with fuel generators in irrigation activities and to complement hydro and
thermos electricity in Niger. Also, there is the need for other developing countries
to emulate from developments being exhibited in Agadez region particularly in
areas of water supply, food security and energy provision.
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