a comparative study of engineering, medical and education students’ soft skills achievement in...

Vol.8 No.2 December 2012 ISSN 1823-7797

A Comparative Study of Engineering, Medical and EducationStudents’ Soft Skills Achievement in Malaysian PublicHigher Education Institutions

Nabilah Abdullah Sidek Mohd Noah

Joharry Othman Wan Marzuki Wan Jaafar

Lihanna Borhan Abdul Malek Abdul Karim

Abdul Malek Abdul Rahman Hamdan Said

Jamaludin Badusah Mohd Majid Konting

Entrepreneurship Education: Insights into Students’Learning Experience

Kaarthiyainy Supramaniam Nalini Arumugam

Acquisition of Numeracy Knowledge through a ComputerGame

Teoh Sian HoonParmjit Singh

Nor Aziah AliasRos Aizan Yahaya

Subject Verb Agreement Errors in Essay WritingAmong Diploma in Culinary Arts Students inUiTM Dungun, Terengganu

Najlaa’ Nasuha binti Mohd Radin

Lee Lai Fong

Integrating English Language into Legal Studies at anOmani College: Inspirations and Aspirations

Ali S.M. Al-Issa

ASIAN JOURNAL OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION A Publication of

the Asian Centre for Research on University Learning and Teaching (ACRULeT) Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Advisor Izaham Shah Ismail

Chief Editors Lee Lai Fong

Gurnam Kaur Sidhu

Editorial Board Chan Yuen Fook

Faizah Abd. Majid Harrini Md Noor

Parmjit Singh Aperapar Abu Bakar Ibrahim

Nor Aziah Alias Roslind S. Thambusamy

Suthagar Narasuman Ros Aizan Yahaya

Editorial Advisory BoardHabibah Ashari (Ohio Universiti, USA)

Angela Yung-chi Hou (Fu Jen Catholic University, Taiwan)Lee Ong Kim (NIE, Nanyang University of Technology, Singapore

Allan White (University of Western Sydney, Australia)Richard Braddock (Macquarie University, Australia)

Frank Hardman (University of York, UK) Richard Holmes ( University Ranking Watch)

Patricia Rogers (CIRCLE, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia)

© UiTM Press, UiTM 2012

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, copied, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means; electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise; without p r i o r p e r m i s s i o n i n w r i t i n g f r o m t h e D i r e c t o r o f U i T M P r e s s , Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. e-mail: [email protected]

Asian Journal of University Education is jointly published by the Asian Centre for Research on University Learning and Teaching (ACRULeT), Faculty of Education and UiTM Press, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.

The views, opinions and technical recommendations expressed by the contributors and authors are entirely their own and do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors, the publisher and the university.

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Vol. 8 No. 2 DECEMBER 2012 ISSN 1823-7797

1. A Comparative Study of Engineering, Medical and Education Students’ Soft Skills Achievement in Malaysian Public Higher Education Institutions 1 Nabilah Abdullah Sidek Mohd Noah Joharry Othman Wan Marzuki Wan Jaafar Lihanna Borhan Abdul Malek Abdul Karim Abdul Malek Abdul Rahman Hamdan Said Jamaludin Badusah Mohd Majid Konting 2. Entrepreneurship Education: Insights into Students’ Learning Experience 19 Kaarthiyainy Supramaniam Nalini Arumugam

3. Acquisition of Numeracy Knowledge through a Computer Game 35 Teoh Sian Hoon Parmjit Singh Nor Aziah Alias Ros Aizan Yahaya

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4. Subject Verb Agreement Errors in Essay Writing among Diploma in Culinary Arts Students in UiTM Dungun, Terengganu 49 Najlaa’ Nasuha binti Mohd Radin Lee Lai Fong

5. Integrating English Language into Legal Studies at an Omani College: Inspirations and Aspirations 69 Ali S.M. Al-Issa

Asian Journal of University Education Vol. 8, No. 2, 1 – 18, 2012

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ISSN 1823-7797© 2012 Asian Centre for Research on University Learning and Teaching (ACRULeT), Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia.

A Comparative Study of Engineering, Medical and Education Students’ Soft Skills

Achievement in Malaysian Public Higher Education Institutions

AbsTRACT

This study aims to compare the soft skills achievement of engineering, medical and education students attending Malaysian public Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). A total of 38,296 final year students from the engineering, medical and education faculties were involved in this study. Data on seven soft skills elements – communication, critical thinking and problem solving, leadership, teamwork, moral and professional, life-long learning and information management, and entrepreneurship - collected using Malaysian Soft Skills Scale (My3S) were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings revealed significant

Nabilah AbdullahUniversiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia

sidek Mohd NoahUniversiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Joharry OthmanUniversiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia, Malaysia

Wan Marzuki Wan JaafarUniversiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Lihanna borhanUniversiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia

Abdul Malek Abdul KarimUniversiti Utara Malaysia

Abdul Malek Abdul RahmanUniversiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia

Hamdan saidUniversiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia

Jamaludin badusahUniversiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Mohd Majid KontingUniversiti Putra Malaysia

E-mail address: Dr Nabilah Abdullah/FPEND17/UiTM@UiTM

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Asian Journal of University Education

differences in the scores for all seven soft skill elements among students from the three fields of study with the exception of teamwork skill scores between medical and engineering students. .

Keywords: Soft skills, engineering student, medical student, education student, Malaysian Soft Skill Scale (My3S)

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Excellent academic qualification, extensive work experience as well as area of expertise are often perceived as important deciding factors that qualify an individual for selection into the workforce. A review of literature related to graduate attributes reveals most employers tend to search for graduates who in addition to possessing required skills and content knowledge to function at work place also possess the right attitude, are proactive and are willing to learn (billing, 2007; Ong, sharma & Heskin, 2007; Crebert et al., 2004). More importantly, graduates ought to be communicatively proficient, have analytic turn of mind, are able to solve problems, can work competently with others, and are flexible (White, 2012; Yorke & Harvey; 2005, Kruss, 2004). In Malaysia, communication, interpersonal, leadership and teamwork skills are among the soft skills emphasized by employers (Ab. Rahim, Shamsiah & Ivan, 2007). More recently, a study by Yuzainee, Azami and Mohd Zaidi (2010) specifically reported the top five “requirement skills” (ranked according to priority) that Malaysian engineering graduates must have for employment purposes are communication, teamwork, professionalism, problem solving and decision making skills, and competency.

The above-mentioned “employability skills” are generic abilities or soft skills cutting across various learning domains encompassing personal aspects and the ability to work in groups. Owing to its importance, the Ministry of Higher Education has identified seven elements of soft skills deemed essential for HEI students (Ministry of Higher Education, 2006). They are communication skills (CS), critical thinking and problem solving skills (CTPS), teamwork skills (TS), moral and professional ethics (EM), leadership skills (LS), life-long learning and information management skills (LL) and entrepreneurial skills (KK). These seven elements are further broken down into 34 sub-elements, 16 of which are categorized as ‘must

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A CompArAtive Study of engineering, mediCAl And eduCAtion StudentS’ Soft SkillS

have’ (MH) and the remaining 18 as ‘good-to-have’ (GH) for students to be considered as competently excellent. A detailed description of the instrument has been reported in an earlier publication entitled “A nationwide comparative study between private and public university students’ soft skills” (Abdul Karim et al., 2012).

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Employers as well as educators frequently complain about the lack of soft skills among graduates from tertiary education institutions. As far back as 40 years ago, the German Engineering Association (VDI) recommended that 20% of the courses offered within the engineering curricula should inculcate soft skills. Ihsen (2003, in Schulz, 2008) pointed out engineering graduates should acquire foreign languages, be culturally aware and sensitive, are team players, and have attended rhetoric courses. Schulz (2008) narrated the story of a German Professor, Dietrich Schwanitz who compared the levels of soft skills between a fictitious newly graduate Mechanical Engineer and a recent graduate of History of Arts. Schwanitz was said to have actually rated the mechanical engineer at the level of a caveman. The british Association of Graduate Recruiters (AGR) and similar agencies also reported that employers tend to find candidates who are seeking employment to be academically proficient but lacking in other aspects of functioning at a work place. Predominantly missing is communication skills. Researchers in the medical field too have lamented that many medication-related errors in hospitals and strained or even damaged patient-doctor relationships are the results of ineffective communication and interpersonal skills (Wright, 2012; Levinson et. al, 2010). Indeed, the situation is a serious concern in the science and engineering programmes.

In Malaysia, discussions on soft skills attainment among university students are similar to those researched in the US, Europe, Africa, Japan and Korea. Across the board, Malaysian employers are far from satisfied with the acquisition of soft skills of Higher Education Institute (HEI) graduates (Hairi et al, 2011; Mohamad sattar et al., 2009; singh & singh, 2008). It is also said that pure science students are found to have better generic abilities compared to their social sciences counterparts, largely due to the fact that they already have the upper hand academic–wise. This study; henceforth, was carried out to answer a number of questions, namely:

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1. What is the achievement of all seven elements of soft skills among engineering students?

2. What is the achievement of all seven elements of soft skills among medical students?

3. What is the achievement of all seven elements of soft skills among education students?

4. How different are the achievements of all seven soft skills elements among engineering, medical and education students?

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to compare the soft skills achievement among engineering, medical sciences and education students. Specifically, the objectives of the study were to:

1. evaluate the achievement of all seven elements of soft skills among engineering students;

2. evaluate the achievement of all seven elements of soft skills among medical students;

3. evaluate the achievement of all seven elements of soft skills among education students; and

4. compare the achievement of all seven soft skills elements among

engineering, medical and education students.

HYPOTHESES

Seven null hypotheses were put forth to answer the four research questions pertaining to differences in soft skills achievements among engineering, medical and education students.

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Ho1 There is no significant difference in the attainment of communication skills (Cs) among engineering, medical, and education students.

Ho2 There is no significant difference in the attainment of critical thinking and problem solving (CTPS) skills among engineering, medical, and education students.

Ho3 There is no significant difference in the attainment of teamwork skills (Ts) among engineering, medical, and education students.

Ho4 There is no significant difference in the attainment of moral and professional ethics (EM) skills among engineering, medical and education students.

Ho5 There is no significant difference in the attainment of leadership skills (Ls) among engineering, medical, and education students.

Ho6 There is no significant difference in the attainment of life-long learning and information management (LLL) skills among engineering, medical, and education students.

Ho7 There is no significant difference in the attainment of entrepreneurship skills (KK) among engineering, medical, and education students.

Ho8 There is no significant difference in the attainment of overall soft skills achievement among engineering, medical, and education students.

METHODOLOGY

This research employed the survey research design. Survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement in applied social sciences, and is roughly divided into two broad areas: questionnaires and interviews. Specifically, this study used the questionnaire known as My3S as the instrument for data collection. My3S has been proven to be significantly valid and reliable. Results from an earlier study during the development of My3S show all items demonstrated alpha value if items less than the standardized item alpha value of .969 were deleted, indicating that all items

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are highly significant. The outcomes thus verify all listed items in My3S as sound and significant. Similarly, findings for the content analysis using expert evaluation resulted in the overall content validity coefficient value of .80. In addition to its valid content, My3S items were also found to be reliable whereby the reliability coefficient values using Cronbach Alpha was .97, Person Reliability (Rasch) was .96, and Item Reliability (Rasch) was1.00.

The My3S was administered to the graduating students of all Malaysian public and private universities during the months of March and April, 2011. A total of 42, 623 students responded out of a graduating population of 55,722 students. This constituted a very high percentage of respondents (76.5%). Out of this total, only 38,296 responses were used for this study (68.7%). These students formed a highly representative sample of the graduating class of 2011. All collected data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics used included mean and standard deviation, while inferential statistics included analysis of variance (ANOVA).

RESULTS

The results were reported according to the research objectives of the study, namely by the attainment of soft skills among engineering, medical students, and education students in that order, followed by the comparison of overall soft skills scores. Findings related to the achievement of soft skills for engineering, medical, and education students are as reported in Tables 1-4 while comparisons of soft skills achievement among students of the three fields of study are displayed in Tables 5 and 6.

Soft Skills Achievement among Students

The descriptive analysis (mean and standard deviation) for all seven elements of soft skills among engineering students is as depicted in Table 1. The table evidently shows that the highest score for soft skills element is for CS (M=8.44, SD=.96), followed by LS (M=8.40, SD=1.11) and LL (M=8.30, SD=1.04). Meanwhile, the lowest soft skill score for the engineering students is for CTPS (M=6.91, SD=.98) and the next lowest is KK (M=7.25, SD=1.46), followed by EM (M=7.40, SD=1.47). The overall soft skills achievement for the engineering sample is (M=7.70, SD=.79).

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Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation of Soft Skills Achievement among Engineering Students

Field of Study CS CTPS TS EM LS LL KK KI

EngineeringMean 8.44 6.91 7.50 7.40 8.40 8.30 7.25 7.70SD 0.96 0.98 1.18 1.47 1.11 1.04 1.46 0.79

Note: Highest possible score is 10

Meanwhile, findings for the soft skills achievement of medical students are presented in Table 2. The highest soft skills score for the doctors-to-be is for CS (M=8.29, SD=1.04), followed by LS (M=8.22, SD=1.24) and LL (M=8.21, SD=1.09). They are found to be weak in CTPS (M=6.58, SD=.87), KK (M=6.61, SD=1.61) and EM (M=7.74, SD=1.31).The overall mean score for the soft skills achievement of the medical students is 7.58, with a standard deviation (SD) of .83.

Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation of Soft Skills Achievement among Medical Students


MedicalMean 8.29 6.58 7.50 7.74 8.22 8.21 6.61 7.58SD 1.04 0.87 1.16 1.31 1.24 1.09 1.61 0.83


Table 3 lists the descriptive analysis of soft skills achievement for education students. Based on the table, the education students’ strong points are with respect to their LS (M=8.65, SD=1.09), CS (M=8.64, SD=0.93), and LL (M=8.52, SD=0.96) abilities. However, their soft skills score are considerably low for EM (M=7.95, SD=1.11), KK (M=7.07, SD=1.56), and CTPS (M=6.78, SD=0.79). The overall soft skills achievement for the education students is (M=7.93, SD=.77).

Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviation of Soft Skills Achievement among Education Students


EducationMean 8.64 6.78 8.04 7.95 8.65 8.52 7.07 7.93SD 0.93 0.79 1.10 1.11 1.09 0.96 1.56 0.77


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The overall descriptive results for all seven elements of soft skills portrayed in Table 4 show the highest score obtained is for CS (M=8.49, SD=0.96), followed by LS (M=8.46, SD=1.12) and LL (M=8.36, SD=1.03) while scores are relatively low for CTPS (M=6.84, SD=0.92), KK (M=7.14, SD=1.51), and EM (M=7.60, SD= 1.37). The respondents’ overall soft skills achievement is (M=7.76, SD=0.80).

Table 4: Average Mean and Standard Deviation of Soft Skills Achievement among Students


TotalMean 8.49 6.84 7.67 7.60 8.46 8.36 7.14 7.76

SD 0.96 0.92 1.18 1.37 1.12 1.03 1.51 0.80Note: Highest possible score is 10

Differences of Soft-Skills Achievement between Groups

Communication skillsThe first null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference

in the communication skills (Cs) achievement among engineering, medical and education students. Results obtained using one way ANOVA reveals a finding of {F(2, 12175) = 73.71, p<.05} (refer Table 5). The findings clearly show the null hypothesis that states there is no significant difference in the communication skills achievement among engineering, medical and education students is rejected. Hence, it is concluded that there is a significant difference in the communication skills achievement among students from the three fields of study. An analysis to find out aspects that contribute to the significantly different findings may be observed via Scheffe Post-Hoc analysis depicted in Table 6. The results clearly show that there exist significant differences in the communication skills between medical and engineering students, medical and education students, and engineering and education students.

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Table 5: Results of ANOVA Analysis to See the Differences of Soft-Skills Achievement between Group

Element Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

CS Between GroupsWithin GroupsTotal

135.0811156.3811291.47

21217512177

67.54.92

73.71 .00*

CTPS Between GroupsWithin GroupsTotal

116.6810188.5510305.23

21217512177

58.34.84

69.72 .00*

TSBetween Groups 756.04 2 378.02 284.87 .00*

Within Groups 16155.91 12175 1.33

Total 16911.95 12177

EMBetween Groups 786.73 2 393.37 215.64 .00*

Within Groups 22209.53 12175 1.82

Total 22996.27 12177

LS Between Groups 216.14 2 108.07 86.93 .00*

Within Groups 15135.01 12175 1.24

Total 15351.15 12177

LL Between Groups 140.74 2 70.37 67.64 .00*

Within Groups 12667.47 12175 1.04

Total 12808.22 12177

KK Between Groups 365.52 2 182.76 80.89 .00*Within Groups 27509.46 12175 2.26Total 27874.98 12177

KI Between Groups 160.16 2 80.08 128.79 .00*Within Groups 7570.12 12175 .62Total 7730.29 12177

* Significant at α .05.

Critical thinking and problem solving skillsThe second null hypothesis states there is no significant difference in

the critical thinking and problem solving skills (CTS) achievement among engineering, medical and education students. Results obtained using one way ANOVA reveals a finding of {F(2, 12175) = 69.72, p<.05} which

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clearly shows that the null hypothesis is rejected (refer to Table 5). In other words, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in the achievement of critical thinking and problem solving among engineering, medical and education students. The Scheffe Post-Hoc analysis reported in Table 6 reveals significant differences in critical thinking and problem solving ability between medical and engineering students, medical and education students, and engineering and education students.

Table 6: Results of Scheffe Post-Hoc Analysis

Element Field of Study Field of Study Mean Diff. (I-J) Sig.

CS MedicalEngineering -.15 .00*Education -.35 .00*

EngineeringMedical .15 .00*Education -.19 .00*

EducationMedical .35 .00*Engineering .19 .00*

CTPS

MedicalEngineering -.33 .00*Education -.20 .00*

EngineeringMedical .33 .00*Education .14 .00*

EducationMedical .20 .00*Engineering -.14 .00*

TS

MedicalEngineering .00 1.00Education -.54 .00*

EngineeringMedical .00 1.00Education -.54 .00*


EMMedical

Engineering .34 .00*Education -.21 .00*

EngineeringMedical -.34 .00*Education -.55 .00*


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LSMedical

Engineering -.18 .00*Education -.43 .00*



LL

MedicalEngineering -.09 .04*Education -.31 .00*



KKMedical


EngineeringMedical .64 .00*Education .17 .00*

EducationMedical .47 .00*Engineering -.17 .00*

KIMedical




* Significant at α .05.

Teamwork skillsThe third null hypothesis specifies that there is no significant difference

in the teamwork skills (TS) achievement among engineering, medical and education students. The findings of one way ANOVA results in Table 5 {F(2, 12175) = 284.87, p<.05} indicates that the stated null hypothesis is rejected. In other words, there is a significant difference in the teamwork skills among students from the three stipulated fields of study. The Scheffe Post-Hoc analysis (Table 6) carried out to determine aspects that contribute to any significantly different findings reveals there is a significant difference

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in the achievement of teamwork skill between medical and education students, as well as between engineering and education students. However, the achievement for teamwork skills is not significant between medical and engineering students.

Moral and professional ethic skillsThe fourth null hypothesis states there is no significant difference in

the moral and professional ethics achievement (EM) among engineering, medical and education students. One way ANOVA result reveals a finding of {F(2, 12175) = 215.64, p<.05} in Table 5, implying that the null hypothesis is rejected. In other words, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in the achievement of moral and professional ethic skills among engineering, medical and education students. The scheffe Post-Hoc analysis (Table 6) specifically shows there exist significant differences in the moral and professional ethics skill between medical and engineering students, between medical and education students, and between engineering and education students.

Leadership skillsThe fifth null hypothesis expounds that there is no significant difference

in the leadership skills (LS) achievement among engineering, medical and education students. Analysis of one way ANOVA reveals a finding of {F(2, 12175) = 86.93, p<.05} (refer Table 5). The finding clearly shows that the earlier stated null hypothesis is rejected. In short, we can conclude that there is a significant difference in the achievement of leadership skills among engineering, medical and education students. The scheffe Post-Hoc analysis (Table 6) reveals there is a significant difference in the leadership abilities between medical and engineering students, between medical and education students, and between engineering and education students.

Lifelong learning and information management skillsThe sixth null hypothesis asserts that there is no significant difference

in the lifelong learning and information management skills (LL) achievement among engineering, medical and education students. The findings of one way ANOVA in Table 5 is {F(2, 12175) = 67.64, p<.05}, attesting the rejection of the null hypothesis. In other words, there is actually a significant difference in the lifelong learning and information management skills achievement amongst the students. The scheffe Post-Hoc analysis (Table

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6) reveals that the lifelong learning and information management skills achievement between medical and engineering students, between medical and education students, as well as between engineering and education students are significantly different.

Entrepreneurship skillsThe seventh null hypothesis states there is no significant difference

in the entrepreneurship skills (KK) achievement among engineering, medical and education students. Analysis of one way ANOVA indicates {F(2, 12175) = 80.89, p<.05} which clearly shows that the stated null hypothesis is rejected (Table 5). It can therefore be concluded that there is a significant difference in the achievement of entrepreneurship skills among the students. The scheffe Post-Hoc analysis (Table 6) reveals there is a significant difference in the entrepreneurship achievement between medical and engineering students, between medical and education students, and between engineering and education students.

Overall soft skills achievement One way ANOVA analysis was also carried out to determine if there

exists any significant difference in the overall soft skills (KI) achievement among engineering, medical and education students. The result of the analysis in Table 5 is {F(2, 12175) = 80.08, p<.05}, suggesting that significant differences do exist among the students. The Scheffe Post-Hoc analysis (Table 6) also shows that there is a significant difference in the overall soft skills achievement between medical and engineering students, between medical and education students, and between engineering and education students.

DISCUSSION

All students from the three fields of study were found have high scores for communication skills (CS), leadership skills (LS) and lifelong learning and information management skills (LL). The Education students’ mean scores for the three soft skills surpass those of their Engineering and Medical counterparts. As a matter of fact, Education students’ mean scores for CS (8.64), LS (8.65) and LL (8.52) also exceeded the overall shared mean value for the three soft skills: CS = 8.49; LS = 8.46 and LL = 8.36 respectively.

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The Engineering students’ mean scores for all three soft skills elements in turn, are better than the mean scores of the Medical students. Considering the more stringent entrance requirements into the sciences (Engineering, and Medicine) compared to the non-science (Education) academic programmes, it is clear that academic excellence in the form of good grades do not predict communicative capability, leadership ability and lifelong learning and information management know-how.

The contexts in which the students are trained may have possibly contributed to the findings of this study. For the teachers-to-be, the ultimate aim of teaching is not merely limited to transmitting information; they must change students’ conceptual understanding via leading and engaging them in meaningful learning activities. They are also made to understand that managing students in varying contexts may be a real handful especially when students are rowdy or inattentive in class; either refuse or fail to listen to instruction and purposely do not abide to school rules. Most teacher education curriculum would expose trainees to a range of activities that they are expected to eventually carry out in schools, amongst which include planning and carrying out lessons, implementing various classroom management strategies and organizing academic and co-curricular activities. As a result, the Education students’ Cs and Ls are greatly enhanced. The teachers-to-be also believe that they are competent in information search and have the ability to manage school-related data.

Similarly, the engineers-to-be are also possibly trained according to industries’ expectations. They are expected to be adept in presentations of engineering projects and in convincing the higher management and stakeholders of the course of actions to be taken. Project accomplishment necessitates engineers to ensure that jobs are well coordinated between them and other fellow engineers from varying background and technical expertise. Much of engineers’ work scope involves researching information, supervising others and resolving issues at work sites or in the laboratory. The findings herewith are in-line with employers’ expectations reported by Yuzainee et. al (2010).

The doctors-to-be are also trained as per required by the industry. Nonetheless, the trainee doctors’ lower score for communication in comparison to their teacher and engineer counterparts is probably due to

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more emphasis given to developing their critical ability to do the following: identify symptoms, make diagnosis and evaluate prognosis of medical conditions, treat illnesses, attend to minor and major surgical procedures and use medical equipment. Although the ability to communicate well is important, it is perhaps not overtly emphasized since doctors’ nature of communication is usually at a more personal level focusing on the medical issue that a certain patient encounters. Furthermore, doctors may not coordinate activities and make others accomplish tasks as extensively as teachers and engineers; their leadership skills (LS) are based on expertise and specialization in a medical area. Doctors’ relatively less reliance on other people also provides possible explanation for their low teamwork skills (Ts) score.

There are the two elements: critical thinking and problem solving (CTPS) skills and entrepreneurship (KK) skills which all three groups scored the lowest. Low KK scores are not quite surprising since all three academic groups may hold the belief that “entrepreneurship” is merely about marketing or selling of products instead of understanding other aspects of KK which, amongst others, include developing network, sourcing for help if needed, looking for opportunities, taking risks, realising one’s dream without having to depend on others, and accomplishing work according to plan. Meanwhile low scores for CTPS suggest that learning activities and classroom instructions perhaps have not been effective to the level where the respondents are confident about their ability to predict events, solve problems, weigh alternatives, and provide justifications for any actions taken. With regard to the relatively low scores that education and engineering students obtained for moral and professional ethics (EM) element, one possible explanation is that students have yet to internalise and personally experience situations that warrant moral judgement and professional ethics considerations such as questioning others’ decision, values and culture, bending the rules when need be and owning up one’s action and taking the consequences that follow.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The study highlighted a number of implications that HEI instructors and administrators need to address, namely to:

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• have more problem- or project-based learning that is contextualized in settings similar to what students will encounter once they join the industry,

• include assessments of and for learning. The nature of assessments

needs to vary, tapping into students’ cognitive, practical skills and values. The cognitive items must be geared towards promoting analysis, synthesis as well as evaluation of theories, concepts, situations and issues discussed in and out of class,

• show examples of, and provide avenues to inculcate good practices

and values that students need to internalize. This could be done through engaging in community services related to the students’ fields of study. Examples include health awareness drive and blood donation campaigns by medical students, upgrading or repairing of infrastructure such as bridges, and dilapidated buildings or roads by future engineers, and provision of free tuition by teachers-to-be, and

• collaborate with employers in terms of providing work exposure so that students are well aware of what is expected of them when they apply for a job or when they start working.(Lowden et. al, 2011).

Relevant academic and co-curricular engagements do not only add value to graduating students’ knowledge repertoire but also help develop the intended soft skills outlined by the Education Ministry. It is hoped that the above suggestions will help Malaysian HEIs to train and produce graduates who understand their employers’ expectations and who are “work-ready” without having to be closely supervised and guided once they report for duty.

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Abdul Karim, A. M., Abdullah, N., Abdul Rahman, A. M, Mohd Noah, s., Wan Jaafar, W. M., Othman, J., borhan, L., badushah, J. & said, H. (2012) A nationwide comparative study between private and public university students’ soft skills. Asia Pacific Educational Review, Asia Pacific Educational Review, 13(3), 541-548.

Billing, D. (2007). Teaching for transfer of core/key skills in higher education: Cognitive skills. Higher Education, 53, 483-516.

Crebert, G., Bates, M. J., Bell, B. J., Patrick, C. & Cragnolini, V. (2004). Developing generic skills at university during work placement and in employment: Graduates’ perceptions. Higher Education Research & Development, 23 (2), 147-165.

Hager, P., Crowley, S. & Garrick, J. (2000). Soft skills in the construction industry: How can the generic competencies assist continuous improvement? Working paper presented at the Educational Research: AARE, Sydney. Retrieved from http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/22468/20021106-0000/www.uts.edu.au/fac/edu/rcvet/working%20papers/0009HagerCrowlGarr.pdf

Hairi, F., Ahmad Toee, M. N. & Razzaly, W. (2011). Employers’ Perception On Soft Skills Of Graduates: A Study Of Intel Elite Soft Skill Training. Paper presented at the International Conference on Teaching & Learning in Higher Education (ICTLHE 2011), Melaka, 21-22 November 2011.

Knight, P. T. & Yorke, M. (2003). Employability and good learning in

higher education. Teaching in Higher Education, 8(1), 3-16.

Kruss, G. (2004). Employment and employability: Expectations of higher education responsiveness in South Africa. Journal of Education Policy. 19(6), 673–689.

Levinson, W., Lesser, C. S. & Epstein, R. M. (2010), Developing physician communication skills for patient-centered care. Health Affairs, 19(7), 1310-1317.

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Lowden, K., Hall, S., Elliot, D. & Lewin, J. (2011). Employers’ perceptions of the employability skills of new graduates., University of Glasgow: sCRE Center and Edge Foundation.

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Mohamad Sattar Rasul, Md Yusof Ismail, Napsiah Ismail, Rashid Rajuddin, & Rose Amnah Abd. Rauf. (2009).Aspek kemahiran ‘employability’ yang dikehendaki majikan industri pembuatan masa kini. Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia, 34(2), 67-79.

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Yuzainee, M. Y., Azami, Z. & Mohd Zaidi, O. (2010). Enhancing Employability Skills through Industrial Training Programme. EDUCATION’10. Proceedings of the 7th WSEAS international conference on Engineering Education, World Scientific and Engineering Academy and Society (WSEAS). stevens Point, Wisconsin, UsA.


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AbsTRACT

Entrepreneurship education is emerging as an important field that it is timely to closely examine the learning experiences of individuals who are immersed in a formal curriculum to inculcate entrepreneurship. There is a lack of insights into how the teaching methods adopted in the top-down approach affect students’ learning experiences. This paper adopts a case study approach in investigating an event organised by undergraduates at a Malaysian public university as universities in the local context heed the call to produce more entrepreneurs to spur socio-economic activities. Observations and interviews with the student leader and two other students, and their lecturers revealed that while the top-down approach preferred by the university in engaging students to spur them to become entrepreneurs has its merits, the response at the ground level revealed challenges that they faced in participating in the entrepreneurial event. Findings of the study underscore the importance of narrowing the gap between pedagogical prescriptivism and learner readiness to become entrepreneurs.

Keywords: Entrepreneurship education, teaching methods, top-down approach, event, university, entrepreneur

Entrepreneurship Education: Insights into Students’ Learning Experience

Kaarthiyainy Supramaniam, Nalini ArumugamUniversiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

E-mail address: Kaarthiyainy Supramaniam/FPEND17/UiTM

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INTRODUCTION

Entrepreneurship education is widely acknowledged by universities around the world as an important field of study (Mwasalwiba, 2010) as entrepreneurs contribute and change society (Harte & Stewart, 2010; Othman & Faridah, 2010). As economies continue to be volatile in the twenty-first century, individuals can no longer solely depend on governments to provide jobs. In fact, undergraduates need to be trained to be self-employed rather than embark on job hunts to serve in government or private sectors that have limited employment. Hence, many countries have recognised the need for self-employment and have integrated entrepreneurship education in undergraduate curricula to perpetuate enterprise culture and eventually enterprising economies.

Due to the perceived socio-economic advantages, entrepreneurship education has been implemented through various approaches to cater for policymakers, academics and students. On one continuum, entrepreneurship education has been strategically prioritised through the implementation of declared policies such as the Enterprise in Higher Education Initiative (1994) and Developing Entrepreneurial Graduates: Putting Entrepreneurship at the Centre of Higher Education (2008) (Harte & Stewart, 2010) in the UK.

On the other end of the continuum, entrepreneurship education is offered as optional courses focusing on the fundamentals of entrepreneurship, as is the case in many Iranian universities (Arasti, Falavarjani & Imanipour 2012). Whatever fervour of implementation, a prevailing understanding is that entrepreneurship education can be taught and learned (Mwasalwiba, 2010). Research shows that specific programmes of entrepreneurship education have positive links between classroom teaching and subsequent entrepreneurial success (Dickson, Solomon & Weaver, 2008). This raises a need to understand the learning experience of one of the key stakeholders of entrepreneurship education: students, as current literature lacks in-depth understanding of individual learning experience as they participate in related activities.

On the other hand, relevant literature shows that there is a lack on the definitive issues and theoretical frameworks as practitioners are yet to reach a consensus on how best to approach entrepreneurship education as

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EntrEprEnEurship Education: insights into studEnts’ LEarning ExpEriEncE

the contexts in which related courses are carried out vary. It is not surprising then that various pedagogical approaches, methods and techniques in teaching such courses exist. Mwasalwiba (2010) has attempted to draw an objective overview of the field by focusing on the generic objectives, teaching methods and impact indicators but has not investigated learners themselves who are key stakeholders in such courses. There is a need to know how the implementation of entrepreneurship education impacts their learning experience as the perception is that it is a boon to society. This study offers a microscopic view of the learning experience of a group of three diploma students, particularly the leader of the project, who was tasked to organise an entrepreneurial event as part of their course.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEwORK

Current trends in literature related to entrepreneurship focus on behavioural or cognitive type of entrepreneurship, converging towards intention-based models instead of new venture creation or personal qualities popular in the 1980s (Mwasalwiba, 2010). Therefore, entrepreneurship programmes at the tertiary level have been generally grouped as educating for, about, through or in based on teaching objectives (Mwasalwiba, 2010), approaches, methods and impact assessments (see Co & Mitchell, 2006; Kirby, 2004; Hytti & O’Gorman, 2004). Mwasalwiba (2010) explains that the objectives are specified in terms of what stakeholders intend to achieve which in turn influences the pedagogical approaches. The categories of “for”, “about”, “in” and “through” are explained as thus:

• to educate for entrepreneurship means to create an entrepreneur; that is, an individual who is destined to start a new venture. It addresses both the present and potential entrepreneurs with the aim of stimulating the entrepreneurial process, equipping them with the tools to start a business. This is seen as the most desired outcome.

• to learn about entrepreneurship is to gain a general understanding about

entrepreneurship as a phenomenon. This objective may also include sensitization activities to different stakeholders including policy-makers, financers and the general public on the role of entrepreneurs in the community.

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• to train individuals in entrepreneurship aims at making individuals become more entrepreneurial (innovative) in their existing firms or place of work where they take more responsibility of their learning and career life.

• to educate through means instructors use new venture creation to help

students acquire a range of both business understanding and skills or competences. It seems that educating through entrepreneurship is more of a teaching approach in educating for entrepreneurship than an objective in itself.

Considering the varying objectives in entrepreneurial education, the study investigated the pre-conception of aims of the educational programmes at the selected university by interviewing the course instructors and examining their respective course information. This was to further understand the expected impact of their programmes and selection of teaching methods.

THE CONTExT

Historical Background

Malaysia has taken a systematic implementation of entrepreneurship programmes since the 70s. The objective was to narrow the economic gap between Malays and non-Malays, specifically the immigrant ethnic Chinese who had settled in Malaya and had a stronghold of the country’s economy through various enterprises in tin mines and other trades. The government perceived the economic dominance as an imbalance in the distribution of wealth and sought to address this through the New Economic Policy where policies were drawn to encourage entrepreneurship among Malays. Various government agencies were also formed to perpetuate a culture of entrepreneurship among Malaysians and these include the Ministry of Entrepreneurial Development, MARA, Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Ministry of Rural Development, Federation of Malaysian Manufacturers, Chambers of Commerce, National Entrepreneur Corporation (PUNB), and also Credit Guarantee Corporation (CGC) . The effort has intensified in the current era to redress issues of national unity and employment among graduates.

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Current Scenario

Entrepreneurship education has been emphasised with renewed rigour in the past two decades as it is perceived to be an instrument in youth development programmes in the nation building agenda. Compared to the pre-independence era where the critical issue was countering a socio-economic imbalance, the current need is addressing unemployment in a globalised world. Graduates who are ready to enter the workforce can no longer be assured a comfortable government job and must be trained to be self-employed before they complete their formal education. In 2000, approximately half of Malaysian youths (2.3 out of 4.37 million) were employed while the rest were in school or were unemployment (Othman & Faridah, 2010). Othman, Hashim and Wahid (2012) investigated the effectiveness of selected entrepreneurship programmes and reported youths lacked planning and management skills, goals and objectives, financial, and problem-solving skills despite being highly interested and motivated in entrepreneurship.

In other words, the Malaysian education system has been also utilised as a channel to nurture, foster and encourage entrepreneurship. In the 9th Malaysian Plan report, universities were required to introduce entrepreneurship education to equip students with the necessary knowledge, skills, ability, attitude, values and cultures (Ahmad, Ramayah & Tuan Muda, 2013). Hence, public universities introduced entrepreneurship as a subject in their curricula while it was taught as an elective in the upper secondary schools. It was perceived that a spirit of entrepreneurship could be fostered among youths while they were at the secondary school and further support could be offered when they transited to the tertiary level. The Ministry of Education acknowledges the efforts of public universities by awarding the prestigious Entrepreneurial University award to the university most prolific in entrepreneurial activities. This emerging trend in the Malaysian university context warrants the need to investigate learners’ experience when required to participate in entrepreneurial events as part of their course. The current study sheds some light on what occurs at the ground level where learners are thrust to participate independently in entrepreneurial projects without the intervention of instructors. Findings of the study, although derived from a single event, shed light on the challenges that novice learners face as they need to learn the ropes within the limited timeframe and constrictions of the formal curriculum.

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METHODOLOGY

Rationale

Data for the study was collected over one semester, approximately four months. A qualitative case study approach was taken as the objective was to gain insights into the learning experiences of the learners as they went about organising a three-day entrepreneurial carnival. Previous studies carried out in the Malaysian context (e.g. Ahmad, Ramayah & Tuan Muda 2013; Othman & Faridah, 2010) applied quantitative approaches which provided a generalised overview of the phenomenon studied but neglected to mine the individual learning experiences which make the collective. The current study, although a single case study, is warranted as much needs to be known about individuals’ learning experience as they are immersed in entrepreneurship education through a formal curriculum enacted by the university; the university itself driven by its entrepreneurial agenda. In other words, this case study unravels the learning experiences of individuals in a top-down teaching curriculum in entrepreneurship education.

The Three-day Entrepreneurial Carnival Event

The entrepreneurial carnival event which had to be carried over three days was compulsory for the semester six Business and Office Management diploma students as the project was part of their coursework which constituted 15% of their overall marks. Although a committee was elected from the two classes of sixty-nine students, the project leader (Sally) and her two coursemates (Nad and Ria) collaborated closely to organise the event as the other committee members did not cooperate. The researcher interviewed and observed the trio as they dealt with tasks that included:

• communicating verbally and in writing with the campus administration in asking permission to organise the event. A thorough proposal on the objectives and funding had to be submitted with the course lecturers’ consent,

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• informing verbally and in writing to the security unit to cordon the lecturers’ parking bay where the event was to be held and to obtain entry passes for the suppliers. A list was submitted with the permission letter obtained from the campus administration,

• dealing with vendors for their own stalls. They also had to ensure that

all the groups had “businesses” or they had to help their peers find vendors,

• dealing with the campus infrastructure unit to erect tents and supply tables and chairs,

• segregating the stall area for each group to put up their stalls,

• ensuring a smooth running of the event, • preparing for the official opening ceremony where the campus head

would officially declare open the event. Invitations to those concerned had to be sent out,

• promoting the event via posters and leaflets to the other students and lecturers, and

• cleaning up after the event.

Apart from the three participants, the researcher also interviewed their course lecturers Mr. Lee and Mr. Az for further insights. They revealed that the Business and Office Management faculties collaborated with the university’s Entrepreneurial Development unit to organise the event simultaneously at all the branch campuses of the university. The unit focused on promoting entrepreneurial culture among students and could be perceived as being driven by the university agenda in rebranding itself from a teaching to an entrepreneurial university in accordance with the government’s effort in producing entrepreneurs. The university has also been acknowledged in the coveted Malaysian Book of Records for the most number of entrepreneurial events organised by a university and this is construed as a milestone in entrepreneurial education.

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FINDINGS

Preparation for The Three-day Entrepreneurial Carnival Event

Sally, the project leader, shared that it took them approximately three weeks to prepare for the event. Although there were sixty-nine students in their cohort, she claimed that she and her two coursemates planned and executed all the tasks mentioned above. They also had to find vendors who would do business with them and look for other vendors for groups who were unsuccessful. Marks were awarded for the outcome of the project and empty lots meant less marks. When asked why they had to plan for theirs and for some other groups, Sally reasoned that it was due to the short duration (three weeks) to organise the event which fell in the middle of the semester. Many students could not cope with juggling other coursework and organising the event. It was the first time that they were required to organise a project of that scale independently.

Many students also perceived that the 15% marks allotted for the

project did not match the effort to be invested and this discouraged some of them from participating actively at the initial stage as they prioritised other coursework with more weightage. Some preferred to wait until they were given their stalls before getting involved in the project while others turned up on the day of the event to help manage or to make up the crowd. Group members had to take turns at the stalls for a few hours as others attended classes. Sally and her group members had to skip some classes as they had to make arrangements for the event. She shared her experience:

Before that (Day 1 of event) there’s a lot of drama, there’s a lot of fighting, it was really hard to push them (the other students). Some students did not give cooperation although everyone was involved, the whole batch, the whole part six students. Some of them, even three days before the event, they didn’t know what to sell. It was a heartache.

When the researcher posed the question of whether students were offered any kind of support, the lecturers replied that they did not intervene in organising the event as it was a student’s project. Furthermore, the students would be assessed based on the actualization of the project. They need to

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carry out the project independently without any intervention in order to be assessed fairly.

Sally’s comments concurred with the lecturers’ feedback that the students did not receive any help from the lecturers and that they “were actually on our own” meeting prospective vendors, coming up with the start-up money and in getting the products for their business. Although it was meant to be a team effort, Sally, Nad and Ria had to carry out the preparatory tasks:

I had to make sure, the parking was already closed by Friday. The tents are up.. Had to make sure the lorries with the correct plate number were registered with the security personnel came in.

Moreover, the participants shared that the 15% marks was not enticing enough in getting all the students to participate, and even when they did, not all of them participated with equal vigour and enthusiasm.

Difficulties in Communicating in English Language

Besides the challenges of dealing with everyone involved in the project, as the project leader, Sally had to prepare the official documents in bahasa Malaysia and some letters to vendors in English Language. she mainly used Bahasa Malaysia when communicating verbally with the university administration but had to switch to English Language when negotiating with vendors. The researcher noted that Sally’s responses during the interview reflected her confidence in using both languages. However, she shared that her peers including those who assisted her were not proficient in English Language; therefore, she had to draft all the relevant documents like proposals, letters and invitations, and communicate with the vendors. In one instance, Sally wrote a letter to apply for permission from the security unit.

I had to do a lot of writing… we came up with our own proposal and then we had to send it to the unit keselamatan (security) to close the parking (to put up the tents). We did everything else...there’s a lot of work to do, letters written to the person in charge, for the whole batch, group, event.

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Due to time constraints, she did not attempt to get other students to help out as she presumed they would be reluctant to do so due to the heavy tasks and course workload. She did not approach the lecturers for help either as they only met them to obtain signatures. Ria added that she could not help Sally in preparing the documents as she was “weak” in her English Language and was reluctant to speak to the vendors. Despite the constraints, the participants unanimously agreed that it was “quite interesting to open up a booth”.

Funding for The Event

Organising the project was particularly difficult for Nad due to the financial constraints it imposed on their student lives. He revealed that students had to come up with their own money as there were no start-up funds given by their faculties. so the students from the same class had to pool their money together in order to carry out the projects in groups. This posed some financial constraints on some students who were beneficiaries of study loans. Although they shared the profits, the initial experience of starting the business was found to be overwhelming. Sally shared that each booth cost RM120 while tents, tables, chairs cost RM670 and the overall cost was shared among the students. A typical booth looked like the one in Figure1.

Figure 1: The students had to rent the tents, banquet tables and chairs to set up their “businesses”

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As the project leader, Sally expected some funding to help them set up their “businesses” but was disappointed. When the researcher sought an explanation from their lecturer, Mr.Az, he explained that the students were not given any financial assistance as they were expected to source for their own funds. Organising the event was supposed to inculcate independent learning and entrepreneurship skills besides the application of theories learned in class. The lecturer revealed that at the end of the three-day event, each booth made a gross profit of RM2000-RM3000 which the students shared among themselves.

The Participants’ Stalls: The Frozen Yogurt Stall and the Paraphernalia Stall

Initially, Sally and her classmates wanted to sell frozen yogurt but opted for “soft ice-cream”. When questioned about how she knew the vendor and the product, she explained:

Actually we asked around, got his phone number and called. At first, he said frozen yogurt was ok, and after that, the machine could not take it.

They started their business selling flavoured yogurt but the machine broke down on the first day due to extensive usage. They quickly contacted the vendor who replaced it with ice-cream. She believed that the venture was “very successful” due to the tropical humid weather as she and her team had to continuously order boxes of ice-cream from the vendor.

In comparison, Nad and his group set up a booth to sell posters, badges, key-chains and printed t-shirts. The badges, t-shirts and key-chains were especially popular as the students could custom-make the designs. They got the vendor’s contact from acquaintances. Unlike the ice-cream venture that required less than RM200 to set up, Nad and his friends spent approximately RM700 to buy their goods which they agreed was “quite high”. Nad shared:

We asked for student prices (for the products) but did not get it. So it was difficult. It was difficult as we couldn’t ask for student price.

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Although their stall was not as busy as the food stalls, they were kept on their feet by prospective customers. Despite the high cost involved in operating their paraphernalia stall, Nad was satisfied with the outcome of their venture as they made some profit.

Lecturers’ and Students’ Perception of The Entrepreneurial Event

Despite Mr.Az’s and Mr.Lee’s perceptions that organising the event was beneficial for students, the participants perceived it to be beneficial “50%-70%” only. Nad remarked that he learned about:

..Personal selling, how to approach customers, how to sell a product, marketing,.. applied what we learned from semester one until now.

Sally concurred that the benefits included learning to prepare for the business world:

We had to be at the booth by eight. We had to open up by nine. We know how to contact people, how to deal with people, how to start up a business.

Ria also agreed that it was an opportunity to use English Language as she sometimes talked to the vendors when accompanying Sally but she did not communicate to her customers in the language. She said that it was a learning opportunity she would not have had had she not participated in the project. However, all the participants agreed that the challenges they encountered were far too overwhelming. Sally commented:

We could not attend classes for three days. We had to be there the whole day. I prefer attending classes than taking care of the booth ... because we had to be there from 9am till 10 pm. the whole time. Some of us did take turns, but some couldn’t make it and we were there.

Her comments echoed Ria’s who thought the experience was “not helpful” as they only learned “part of it” especially in dealing with people.

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When Nad was asked if he would consider “doing this in the future, like marketing”, there was bleak silence. Later, the researcher asked the lecturers if they believed organising the event helped their students learn about entrepreneurship, they replied that the event generally helped the students learn about entrepreneurship and in becoming independent learners. They also had the opportunities to apply the theories they were taught in class.

PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

• To educate for entrepreneurship means to create an entrepreneur; that is, an individual who is destined to start a new venture. It addresses both the present and potential entrepreneurs with the aim of stimulating the entrepreneurial process, equipping them with the tools to start a business. This is seen as the most desired outcome.

• To learn about entrepreneurship is to gain a general understanding about entrepreneurship as a phenomenon. This objective may also include sensitization activities to different stakeholders including policy-makers, financers and the general public on the role of entrepreneurs in the community.

• To train individuals in entrepreneurship aims at making individuals become more entrepreneurial (innovative) in their existing firms or place of work where they take more responsibility of their learning and career life.

• To educate through means instructors use new venture creation to help students acquire a range of both business understanding and skills or competences. It seems that educating through entrepreneurship is more of a teaching approach in educating for entrepreneurship than an objective in itself.

The aim of this study was to provide insights into individuals’ learning experiences as they are immersed in entrepreneurship education within a formal curriculum. Although this study is a single case study based on an a entrepreneurial event at a specific site, it is an important one as it sheds light onto individual learning experiences, as literature sorely needs narratives

32


of what individuals learn and experience as they begin to participate in relevant entrepreneurial activities. Such input is seldom captured through quantitative approaches adopted by existing research as highlighted in the early part of this paper. The participants in this research were involved in their maiden entrepreneurship project and what they experienced unravelled some of the challenges that novices experienced at the point of entry into entrepreneurial activities.

Several inferences could be drawn from the students and lecturers’ feedback on the three-day entrepreneurial event held at the campus. The event underscored the importance of carefully designing tasks to allow students with no previous experience to participate by taking “baby-steps” in entrepreneurial events as their initial experience may be overwhelming and turn them away from the target entrepreneurial practices. While it is important to inculcate entrepreneurship culture among youths through entrepreneurship education (Othman & Faridah, 2010), instructors need to be aware that those who do not have the relevant prior experience or do not come from an entrepreneurship culture may lack the motivation to participate. The onus is on the university to take affirmative strategies by creating the appropriate climate to nurture entrepreneurship. Hence, learning about (Mwasalwiba, 2010) entrepreneurship in classroom is insufficient to deal with the realities of the entrepreneurial world.

As the findings revealed, the strategies need to include scaffolding such as in apprenticeship (Aronsson, 2004) that would carefully guide and nurture positive outcomes among learners, instead of creating adverse learning experience that may impinge students’ interest in entrepreneurship. In other words, to educate students through (Mwasalwiba, 2010) entrepreneurial activities where instructors use new venture creations to help students acquire a range of both business understanding and skills or competences is crucial. This seemed to be the approach taken by the instructors but the necessary guidance had not been extended. In fact, the learners perceived participating in the event as being very challenging and exhausting. This concurred with their perception that their efforts and contributions did not match the rewards (15% marks) allocated by the university. Therefore, the university could allocate a more appropriate weightage of marks to match the students’ efforts where they should not be made to compromise attending other classes for participating in the events. Hence, there is a need to create

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a more sensitive impact indicator of learning and assessment; aspects that have not been fully addressed in entrepreneurship literature.

Instructors need to consciously design one that could complement the programme they are teaching rather than expecting their students to embrace entrepreneurship instantaneously without prior training. The findings of the study revealed that the lack of prior training and solely depending on textbook theories, time constraints and assessment did not prepare the students to deal with the real world challenges that emerged during the event. Instructors, learners, teaching context, learning activities and the outcome form a complex system that must be aligned among course objectives, activities and assessment tasks (Biggs, 1999) with consideration to business discourse for second language learner of English. Hence, there is a need to immerse in learners in entrepreneurship education via a training approach to systematically guide learners into the real world. Ideally, learners should be educated for (Mwasalwiba, 2010) entrepreneurship, that is, individuals who are destined to start new ventures. It addresses both the present and potential entrepreneurs with the aim of stimulating the entrepreneurial process, equipping them with appropriate tools to jumpstart a business. In other words, entrepreneurs are not only born but could be nurtured.

REFERENCES

Aronsson, M. (2004). Education matters- but does entrepreneurship education? An interview with David Birch. Academic of Management Learning and Education, 289-292.

Ahmad, N. R., Ramayah, T., Tuan Muda, S. A. D. (2013). Unlocking the Entrepreneurial Propensity among Prime-age Malaysians: A Multi-ethnic Analysis, Researcher’s World: Journal of Arts, Science and Commerce, 15(2), 63-75.

Arasti, Z., Falavarjani, M. K., & Imanipour, N. (2012). A study of teaching methods in entrepreneurship education for graduate students. Retrieved March 14, 2013 from http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/hes.v2n1p2

Biggs, J. (1999). What the student does: teaching for enhanced learning. Higher Education Research and Development, 18(1), 57-75.

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Co, M., Mitchell, B. (2006). Entrepreneurship education in South Africa: a nationwide survey. Education+Training, 48(5), 348-59.

Dickson, P. H., Solomon, G. T. & Weaver, K. M. (2008). Entrepreneurial selection and success: does education matter? Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 15(2), 239-258.

Harte, V. & Stewart, J. (2010). Undertaking HRD research in higher education. Education + Training, 52(8/9), 679-693.

Hytti, U. & O’Gorman, C. (2004). What is ‘Enterprise education’? An analysis of the objectives and methods of enterprise education programmes in four European countries. Education + Training, 46(1), 11-23.

Kirby, D. (2004) Entrepreneurship education: can business schools meet the challenge? Education + Training, 46(8/9), 510-19.

Mwasalwiba, E. S. (2010). Entrepreneurship Education: A review of its objectives, teaching methods, and impact indicators. Education + Training, 52(1), 20-47.

Othman, Norasmah, Hashim, Norashidah & Ab Wahid, Hariyaty . (2012). Readiness towards entrepreneurship education: Students and Malaysian universities. Education + Training, 54( 8/9), 697 – 708.

Othman, Norasmah & Faridah, K. (2010). Entrepreneurship behaviour amongst Malaysian university students. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 18(1), 23-32.


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AbsTRACT

The use of technology in teaching and learning mathematics is not new. The view of how technology should be used in the mathematical classroom is affected, among others, by changes in the community. A form of technological tool that is becoming popular in teaching and learning mathematics is the use of technology-based games. Many educators are interested in developing instructional games in Mathematics to engage today’s children in a fun way of learning. However, the process required for developing a game that is both engaging and instructionally effective remains elusive. This study aimed to investigate pupils’ level of acquisition of numeracy knowledge in a specially developed computer game called Numeraction. The game supports major components in numeracy, namely mental computation, visual thinking and number sense. The game has a response system for recording and displaying the pupils’ scores. Participants of this study were 971 pupils from fifteen primary schools in the state of Selangor in Malaysia. Questionnaires were distributed to the students after they played the Numeraction game. Learners’ perception in terms of motivation and engagement and their views of the game design were scrutinized. The relationship between their perception (in terms of motivation and engagement) and the level of acquisition of knowledge was also examined. Results showed that 34.2% variations in the acquisition of knowledge from the game were reliably explained from the independent variables, namely the game design, motivation and engagement.

Keywords: computer game, numeracy knowledge, mathematics

Acquisition of Numeracy Knowledge through a Computer Game

Teoh Sian Hoon, Parmjit Singh, Nor Aziah Alias, Ros Aizan Yahaya Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

E-mail address: [email protected]

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BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Learners perceive the nature of mathematics differently. Hence, the way they learn and think about Mathematics differs. Their thinking will divert to dealing with operations of numbers if they perceive mathematics to be all about numbers. On the other hand, they challenge themselves to solve problems if they perceive the nature of mathematics as a challenging subject which involves reasoning or thinking. Their perceptions of the nature of mathematics influence their engagement in learning it (Nardi & Steward, 2003). Nevertheless, the learning environment also plays a very important role for learners to be active in the learning process (Aldridge et al, 2000). The learning environment may significantly contribute to children’s numerical competence. If their experiences at home and school are directly related to mathematical knowledge, they are well-exposed to the real practices of mathematics that basically involves number sense. The learning environment ensures children’s numerical competence is attained and hence, acquisition of mathematical knowledge is achieved (LeFevre et al., 2009).

The use of technology in teaching and learning mathematics is not a new issue. The view of how technology should be used in the mathematical classroom is affected, among others, by changes in the community. strong expectations from stakeholders in some ways determine the way mathematics is taught in the classroom. Today, with the support of technology, long and complex mathematical calculations described by mathematical structures can be done using various software available. Computer is seen as an agent of change in supporting teaching and learning of mathematics. Moreover, the integration of mathematical content and technology with the learning environment in a manner that enables pupils to do interesting mathematical discoveries is more effective to engage pupils in their learning (Olkun, Altun & Smith, 2005; Teoh, Toh & Nor Azilah, 2010). Technological tools help to stimulate learners’ familiarity of the mathematical contents which lead to engagement in the learning environment. Technological tools also increase learners’ opportunities to be exposed to social perspective on numeracy through different illustrations and simulations of everyday problems.

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Acquisition of numerAcy Knowledge through A computer gAme

A form of technological tool that is becoming popular in teaching and learning mathematics is the use of technology-based games. Results from various studies reveal that using technology-based games in the classroom is beneficial to learners of all ability levels in learning arithmetic skills (Shin et al., 2012). These research recommend that appropriate games with clear objectives and of appropriate level must be selected for target learners and feedback should be provided too. Technology-based games should also be built in ways that stimulate learners’ various abilities, such as creativity, problem solving, logical thinking as well as build a positive attitude toward mathematics (Wentwortha & Monro, 2011). The importance of real life illustrations and simulations of mathematical numeracy was pointed out by Nunes, Bryant and Watson (2009). Sullivan, Youdale and Jorgensen (2010) and Sullivan and Gunningham (2011) also emphasise that carefully supported and targeted interventions are important to raise learners’ attainment. The engagement helps shape their ideas about the nature of mathematics with an overview of the potential impact on conceptual understanding of mathematics (Brown, Cooney, & Jones, 1990).

Basically, a learning environment that is meaning-focused will elicit learners’ motivation. If the effort to develop children into being literate requires semantic and sensory input to support literacy learning process, the effort to develop children into being numeracy literate requires mathematical senses. Developing mathematical senses involves creating mental objects in the mind or the learners’ eyes which can be manipulated flexibly. The flexibility of the manipulation develop learners’ own understanding of concepts; hence, the environment creates confidence level in the acquisition of the knowledge (Jonassen & Duffy, 1992). The advancement of technology has encouraged pupils’ ability in learning. Hence, the development of mathematical knowledge in numeracy is propagated from the technological perspective. Nevertheless, the success of the use of technology to enhance learning depends on the effort to develop well-designed and encouraging learning environment (Lawrenz, Gravely, & Ooms, 2006). This study aimed to investigate pupils’ level of engagement and motivation in experiencing the practice of mathematical thinking towards acquisition of the numeracy knowledge through a specially developed computer-based mathematical game. Additionally, the design and usability of the learning environment are pertinent; thus, the research questions are:

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1. How do pupils perceive the learning environment design of the technology-based game of numeracy?

2. To what extent can the acquisition of numeracy knowledge be explained by pupils’ engagement level, motivation level and perception of the learning environment design?

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of educating pupils to be numerate is focused on their ability and inclination to use mathematics effectively in daily lives (Hogan, Van Wyke & Murcia, 2004; Stoessiger, 2002). Pupils need to identify and use appropriate contextual knowledge to link mathematics to life experiences from different types of mathematical ideas such as number, space, chance and data, algebra and measurement (Hogan, 2000). Thus, the game in this study was designed in the context of daily life situations.

. The goals for the design of the game include enhancement of the

development of mental images associated with numbers and developing mental computation process in basic computation involving the four basic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) among children. It also aims to enhance children’s sense of number use in daily life applications. Specifically, Numeraction was specially developed to support the major knowledge components in numeracy, namely mental computation, visual thinking and number sense.

The design of the game emphasizes pupils’ speed and precision of getting the answers right. The features of the game were developed from an initial survey among the pupils on their perception of the design of the gaming environment. The game has a response system for recording and displaying the pupils’ scores while they were playing the game. In addition, their time spent in the game was recorded. The environment was designed to engage the pupils in practicing and exploring numeracy knowledge.

This study involved a total of 971 pupils from fifteen primary schools in the state of Selangor in Malaysia. The pupils answered a questionnaire distributed after playing Numeraction. Their perceptions of the design of the

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game, their engagement and motivation as well as acquisition of knowledge were investigated. The main limitation of this study was the measure of perceived acquisition of skills and knowledge rather than testing the users with a separate assessment.

RESULTS

Results of the study provide an insight into pupils’ perspectives on the effectiveness of the numeracy gaming software. It explored various constructs such as design of the game, motivation aspect in playing the game, engagement in playing and the acquisition of skills and competence in playing the game. The respondents were asked to rate the constructs based on a five point scale ranging from 1 for Strongly Disagree to 5 for Strongly Agree. Table 1 shows that pupils in this study generally agree about the design of the game. The pupils indicated a high level of agreement that colours and pictures (mean=4.45), the game’s beginning and introduction (mean=4.30) and the sound of the music (mean=4.02) used in the Numeraction game were quite interesting. The pupils disagreed with the statements that parts of the game were boring (mean = 2.17) and that the amount of repetitive tasks made the game boring (mean = 1.89).

Table 1: Design of Game

Question Mean SDQ7. I like the colours and the pictures used in the game. 4.45 0.85Q8. There is something interesting at the beginning of this game that got my attention.

4.30 0.91

Q9. *I thought some parts of this game are boring. 2.17 0.44Q10.*The amount of repetition of tasks in the game caused me to get bored sometimes.

1.89 0.19

Q11.I like the sound and music in the game. 4.02 0.98*negative items

Table 2, on the other hand, illustrates motivational aspect in playing the game. Pupils indicated a high level of agreement that the scores on the screen helped them to strive harder (mean = 4.35), they were satisfied with their performance (mean = 4.18), they tried hard (mean = 4.28) and they put in effort as they played the game (mean = 4.11). They somewhat disagreed

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with the statement that they felt like giving up when they got the wrong or incorrect answers (mean = 2.56). However, the pupils moderately agreed with the statements that their competency level had increased after playing the game (mean = 3.80) and that they felt that it was important for them to do well in the game (mean = 3.82). Finally, this game posed some challenge as they were somewhat unsure if they did better than others (mean = 3.26).

Table 2: Motivation in Playing the Game

Question Mean SD Q12. I am satisfied with my performance in this game. 4.18 0.99Q13. After playing around with this game for awhile, I felt pretty competent.

3.80 0.93

Q14. The scores on the screen helped me try harder 4.35 0.86Q15. I tried very hard while playing this game. 4.28 0.89Q16.* I felt like giving up when I kept getting the answer wrong.

2.56 1.34

Q17. I put a lot of effort into playing this game. 4.11 0.99Q18. It is important to me to do well in this game. 3.82 1.13Q19. I think I did pretty well in this game compared to other players.

3.26 1.15

Q20. I would like to play against my friends or classmates.

3.98 1.20

*negative items

Next, Table 3 shows that pupils highly agreed to most of the questions (mean range from 4.07 to 4.49) except for Q24 that this game got them engaged as they played the game (refer to Table 3). They strongly agreed that they enjoyed playing the game (mean = 4.49), found it interesting (mean = 4.39) and put in effort (mean = 4.21) in playing the numeracy game. They also agreed that they would want to play this game over and over again (mean =4.07).

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Table 3: Engagement in Playing the Game

Question Mean SDQ21. This game did hold my attention at all time. 4.13 0.94Q22. I would describe this game as very interesting. 4.39 0.89Q23. I enjoyed playing this game very much 4.49 0.77Q24. I lost track of time while playing this game 3.62 1.27Q25. I put much effort into playing this game. 4.21 .97Q26. I want to play this game over and over again 4.07 1.08

Table 4 indicates the high level of agreement among the pupils (mean range from 4.20 to 4.59) in terms of acquiring skills and competency by playing the game. They agreed that this game taught them to be quick (mean=4.59) and accurate (mean=4.53) and developed their mathematics skills (mean=4.56). They somewhat disagreed with the statement that they guessed most of the answers (mean=2.82).

Table 4: Acquisition of Skills and Competence in Playing the Game

Question Mean SDQ27.*I guessed most of the answers. 2.82 0.59Q28. I think the game teaches me to be quick. 4.59 0.79Q29. I think the game teaches me to be accurate. 4.53 0.74Q30. I think the game challenges my thinking skills. 4.52 0.79Q31. I think playing this game could help me develop my Math skills.

4.56 0.76

Q32. I think playing this game could help me with number applications in my daily tasks.

4.20 0.89

Q33. I believe playing this game could be beneficial to me. 4.48 0.83

Q34. I will definitely play this game again. 4.21 0.99*negative items

A regression analysis was conducted to investigate the relationship between pupils’ level of engagement and motivation in experiencing the practice of numeracy mathematical thinking towards their acquisition of the numeracy knowledge. Specifically, the investigation involved a prediction of the percentage of variation in the dependent variable (acquisition of

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knowledge) from the independent variables (the design, motivation and engagement). The result (Table 5) shows that 34.2% variations in the acquisition of knowledge from the game are reliably explained from the independent variables, namely the design, motivation and engagement.

Table 5: Model Summary for the Regression

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square

Std. Error of the Estimate

1 .469a .220 .219 .505492 .570b .325 .323 .470463 .585c .342 .340 .46451

a. Predictors: (Constant), Motivationb. Predictors: (Constant), Motivation, Engagementc. Predictors: (Constant), Motivation, Engagement, Design

The model of the regression is significant since p-value in the testing of the significance of model is less than the level of significance at 0.05 (Table 6). The model is tested significant as further explained by the relationship between the variables.

Table 6: ANOVAa

Model Sum of Squares

Df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 104.578 3 34.859 161.561 .000d

Residual 200.878 931 .216Total 305.456 934

a. Dependent Variable: Acquisitionb. Predictors: (Constant), Motivationc. Predictors: (Constant), Motivation, Engagementd. Predictors: (Constant), Motivation, Engagement, Design

The relationship of the variables is depicted in the regression model. The regression model is illustrated in Table 7. Table 7 shows the regression equation which explains the contribution of different types of variables explicitly known as factors towards the acquisition of numeracy knowledge. The equation is also identified as a model of obtaining the numeracy

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knowledge in the games with the features of games in terms of design, motivation and engagement. The following is the constructed regression equation or namely, the prescribed model.

The predicted acquisition of knowledge = 1.318+0.322 motivation +0.312 engagement +0.148 design

Table 7: Coefficientsa

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

T Sig.

ModelB

Std. Error

Beta

(Constant) 1.318 .143 9.221 .000Motivation .322 .028 .335 11.690 .000Engagement .312 .027 .323 11.606 .000Design .148 .030 .140 5.004 .000

a. Dependent Variable: Acquisition

DISCUSSION

Teachers can teach well in mathematics classrooms, but, how effectively teachers can influence learners’ motivation in learning is another concern in the teaching and learning of mathematics in classrooms. Kersaint (2007) reveals that learners’ perception towards teachers’ teaching in classrooms are different when computer games are integrated into the teaching and learning process.

The results of this study showed that the design of the game supported the learners’ learning from different perceptions. Among its features were different designs which retained their attention especially when doing the practice in the game even though there was repetition of tasks in the game.

The design of the game motivated learning as illustrated in Table 2. The learners were motivated with the scores they gained in the game and they tried very hard without giving up while playing the game. Even though the learners evaluated a lower scale on the importance of the game (average

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score of the scale was 3.82) and also being competent (average score of the scale was 3.80), the learners were motivated to try very hard to complete the game because they were competitive to better themselves in their scores. They perceived that the scores offered an evaluation of themselves and that comparison with their friends was less important (average scores of the scales for comparison with their friends and playing against their friends were 3.26 and 3.98 respectively) as compared to their self-satisfaction (average score of their own performance was 4.18).

The pupils’ motivation to play the game is shown in the results of their perceptions towards engagement in playing the game (Table 3). The perceived scores were at an average of about 4 points which illustrated positive perceptions of engagement in playing the game. Even though their perception also indicated that they lost track of time while playing, they were well engaged in the learning, as indicated that they enjoyed playing the game (average score of the scale was 4.49) and the game was interesting. Thus, the cause of engagement came from interesting features of the game with its well-designed instructions. The pupils played the game properly as there was low score of agreement that they guessed most of the answers (average score of 2.82). Their competence through the game was shown from their perception that they had learned mathematical skills from the game since the indication of developing mathematical skills was high (average score of the scale was 4.56) and they benefitted from the game (average score of the scale was 4.48). The competence in the skills and knowledge came from the perceptions that they were fast in answering (average score of the scale was 4.59) and in being accurate (average score of the scale was 4.53).

The features of the design as discussed in the results contributed to the cognition enhancement of the learners’ acquisition of knowledge in numeracy since the independent variables (design, motivation and engagement) in the regression show significant contribution to the regression equation, namely the model of acquisition of knowledge in mathematics. The results reflect Dede’s (1987) findings on the human mind in gaining information and knowledge of the use of non-linear presentations and self-controlled presentations by the user. Dede (1987) reveals that there are three different ways that computer applications assist cognition. The systems are designed in three different ways, namely to simplify related tasks enabling learners to move on building higher level thinking skills, to

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present information with hypermedia features under the direct control of the learners enabling the information to be portrayed realistically in their mind, and to present artificial realities enabling learners to experience and explore worlds formerly not available in classrooms.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed that a well-thought design of computer-based environment is pertinent to enhance motivation and engage learners in learning. Mathematics is learned through a well-understood and well-practiced environment; hence, more interesting and more features of the game should be included in the design of computer-based learning environment. Learners who are motivated and engaged in their learning in a constructivist computer-based environment always have positive directions in their beliefs and attitudes about knowledge acquisition (Dupagne & Krendl, 1992). Results of this study support the idea that motivation and engagement are the main concerns in a technology-based learning environment. Future research should investigate the suitability of computer-based games in other subject-matter areas.

REFERENCES

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Brown, S., Cooney, T, & Jones, D. (1990). Mathematics teacher education.

In W. R. Houston (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (pp. 639-656). New York: Macmillan.

Choi, B., Jung, J. & Baek, Y. (2013). In what way can technology enhance student learning? : A preliminary study of technology supported learning in Mathematics. In R. Mcbride & M. searson (Eds.). Proceedings of Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education International Conference 2013 (pp. 3-9). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

Dede, C. J. (1987). Empowering environments, hypermedia and microworlds. The Computing Teacher. November, n.p.

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Dupagne, M. & Krendl, K. A. (1992). Teachers’ attitudes towards computers: A review of the literature. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 24 (3), 420-429.

Hogan, J. (2000). Numeracy across the curriculum. Australian Mathematics Teacher, 5(3), 17–20.

Hogan, J., Van Wyke, J., & Murcia, K. (2004). Numeracy Across the Curriculum. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.

Kersaint, G. (2007). Toward technology integration in mathematics education: A technology integration course planning assignment. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 7(4), 256-278.

Jonassen, D. H. & Duffy, T. M. (1992). Constructivism: New implications for instructional technology. In T. M. Duffy & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.). Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction: A Conversation. Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Lawrenz, F., Gravelu, A., & Ooms, A. (2006). Perceived helpfulness and the amount of technology in science and mathematics classes at different grade levels. School Science and Mathematics, 106, 133-139.

LeFevre, J. A., Skwarchuk, S. L., Smith-Chant, B .L., Fast, L., Kamawar, D. & Bisanz, J. (2009). Home numeracy experiences and children’s math performance in the early school years. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 41(2), 55-66.

Nardi, E. & Steward, S. (2003). Is Mathematics T.I.R.E.D? A profile of quiet disaffection in the secondary Mathematics classroom. British Educational Research Journal, 29(3), 4-9.

Nunes, T., bryant, P., & Watson, A. (2009). Key understandings in mathematics learning: Summary papers. London: Nuffield Foundation.

Olkun, S., Altun, A. & Smith, G. (2005). Computers and 2D geometric learning of Turkish fourth and fifth graders. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(2), 317-326.

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Shin, N., Sutherland, L. M., Norris, C. A. & Soloway, E. (2012). Effects of game technology on elementary student learning in mathematics. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43, 540–560.

stoessiger, R. (2002). An introduction to critical numeracy. The Australian Mathematics Teacher, 58 (4), 17–20.

Sullivan, P., Youdale, R., & Jorgensen, R. (2010). A study of pedagogies for teaching mathematics in a remote Australian Indigenous community. In I. Synder & J. Nieuwenhuysen (Eds.), Closing the gap? Improving outcomes in Southern World Societies (pp. 204–216). Melbourne: Monash University Press.

Sullivan, P., & Gunningham, S. (2011). A strategy for supporting students who have fallen behind in the learning of mathematics. Mathematics: Traditions and (new) practices. In J. Clark, B. Kissane, J. Mousley, T. Spencer & S. Thornton (Eds). Proceedings of the 23rd biennial conference of The Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers Inc. and the 34th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group (pp. 673–681). Alice Springs.

Teoh, s. H., Toh, s. C. & Nor Azilah binti Ngah. (2010). Effect of an interactive courseware in the learning of matrices. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 13(1), 121-132.

Wentwortha, N. & Monro, E. (2011). Computers in the Schools. Interdisciplinary Journal of Practice, Theory, and Applied Research, 28(4), n.p.


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AbsTRACT

This study investigated errors in subject verb agreement in the writing of Diploma in Culinary Arts students in UiTM Dungun, Terengganu. 15 students were selected as the sample and 45 essays were collected from them for data analysis. The data collected were analyzed using SPSS software version 18. The findings indicated that the students had problems in four types of subject verb agreement which were subject verb agreement for person, subject verb agreement of number, subject verb agreement of indefinite subject and subject verb agreement of notional agreement and proximity but no error was found for subject verb agreement of coordinated subjects. The students were also found to have problems mostly with subject verb agreement of number, followed by notional agreement and proximity, subject verb agreement of person and subject verb agreement of indefinite subject. This implies that students have problems in different types of subject verb agreement in their writing and the current teaching strategies should be revisited by language instructors to help the diploma students improve in their use of SVA in their writing.

Keywords: subject verb agreement, error analysis, ESL learners, ESL writing

Subject Verb Agreement Errors in Essay writing among Diploma in Culinary Arts Students in

UiTM Dungun, TerengganuNajlaa’ Nasuha binti Mohd Radin, Lee Lai Fong

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia E-mail address: [email protected]

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INTRODUCTION

The role of English language is indisputable in Malaysia as a medium of communication in the country as it is regarded as a second language. Gaudhart (1987) quoted The Third Malaysian Plan (1976) which states that English language needs to be taught as a strong second language in the country so that Malaysia is able to cope with the development in the scientific and technological field and at the same time, contributes to international trade and commerce. Realizing the importance of the language, English language is introduced in formal education as early as at kindergarten level. During the learning process, students are equipped with basic language skills which include reading, writing, listening and speaking. When they further their studies in tertiary education, they are expected to have mastered the necessary skills in the English language as they have been exposed to the language for 11 years at the school level.

However, Naginder (2006) and Nor Hashimah et al. (2008) (cited in Normazidah, Koo and Hazita, 2012) point out that many Malaysian students have problems in achieving reasonable standards in English literacy despite being exposed to 11 to 12 years of formal learning of the English language. Many Malaysian English learners are unable to achieve the targetted level of fluency and accuracy. Previous studies indicated that among the four skills that need to be mastered in language learning, writing is regarded as one of the most difficult skills to be mastered by ESL learners (Abdul Rashid & Norizul Azida, 2012; Neda, Mariann Edwina & Seyyed Hossein Kashef, 2012; Sadiq Abdulwahed, 2011; Surina & Kamaruzaman, 2009). Many ESL learners regard writing as a challenging skill as they need to think, compose and put ideas together and the same time, construct sentences with correct grammatical structure (Sadiq Abdulwahed, 2012; Surina & Kamaruzaman, 2009).

One of the most important components in the writing process is the ability to construct correct sentence structures (surina & Kamaruzzaman, 2009). Thus, writing is regarded as a challenging work for students as they have to master the structures in the targeted language to ensure that they are able to produce a good piece of writing. Tan (2005) mentions that to be competent in English, every learner must acquire basic grammatical knowledge and among it is knowledge about subject verb agreement. Surina

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Subject Verb Agreement errorS in eSSAy Writing Among DiplomA in culinAry ArtS StuDentS

and Kamaruzzaman (2009) support the view by stating that the absence of non verbal communication in writing process requires students to master subject verb agreement rules to ensure that they can express their ideas effectively and clearly to readers.

Among the factors that led students to have problems in writing, subject verb agreement is believed to be one of the major problems faced by ESL learners in producing grammatically correct writing. Previous studies conducted by surina, Latisha, Mahani, Anis, Nazira and suhaimi (2011), siti Hamin and Mohd Mustafa (2010) and surina (2002) on subject verb agreement found that students have problems in five types of subject verb agreement as stated by Corder (1974, cited in Ellis, 1994) which are subject verb agreement of person, number, subject, coordinated subjects and notional agreement and proximity.

There are five types of errors in subject verb agreement which are in line with Corder’s (1974, cited in Ellis, 1994) view. The categories of errors include subject verb agreement of person, subject agreement of number, subject agreement of subject, agreement with coordinated subjects and notional agreement and proximity. They are further explained as follows:

1. Subject-verb agreement of person She dislikes eating cucumber. (S) (Vb)

2. subject-verb agreement of number The student is in good health. (S) (Vb)

3. Subject verb agreement of indefinite subject Every student is required to join co-curricular activities. (S) (Vb)

4. Subject verb agreement with coordinated subjects Tammy and Collins are good friends. (S) (Vb)

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5. Subject verb agreement of notional agreement and proximity The government have broken all their promises. (S) (Vb)

The aim of this study was to investigate the types of errors in subject verb agreement in the essays of Diploma in Culinary Arts students in UiTM. Besides, this study also aimed to find the frequency of errors made by these students in their writing.

This study sought to answer the following research questions:

1. What types of subject verb agreement errors are seen in the essays of the Diploma in Culinary Arts students in UiTM Dungun?

2. What are the frequencies of subject verb agreement errors made by the Diploma in Culinary Arts students in UiTM Dungun in their essays?

LITERATURE REVIEw

Error analysis is one of the approaches used by language teachers to identify and analyze errors which are produced by learners during the process of acquiring a new language. Analyzing learners’ errors in language learning has been long implemented in the teaching and learning process (Ellis, 1994). Ali and Mousa (2012) state that in order to determine the problem of how much the standard of English among non native learners has declined, the first step that can be taken is by looking at the types of errors that they made. Sunardi (2002) clarifies that error analysis is done with the purpose to identify, classify and interpret or describe the errors which are produced by second language learners in both speaking and writing with the purpose to inquire information on the common difficulties faced by language learners. This indicates that analyzing learners’ errors is a beneficial activity in a language classroom.

In analyzing learners’ errors, literature indicates that the five-stage of error analysis procedures as proposed by Corder (1974, cited in Ellis, 1994) is widely used by a number of researchers as a guideline in conducting error analysis studies (Nada, 2003; Vasquez, 2008; Mungungu, 2010; Jie

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& Li, 2010; siti Hamin & Mohd Mustafa, 2010). Corder (1974, cited in Ellis, 1994) identifies a model for error analysis which covers five stages, which are:

1. Collection of a sample of learner language.

2. Identification of errors.

3. Description of errors.

4. Explanation of errors.

5. Evaluation of errors.

These stages have been used as a guideline in conducting error analysis procedures as they provide a strong fundamental in analyzing learners’ errors in language learning.

In writing classrooms, error analysis has long been introduced to complement teaching pedagogy (Ellis, 1994). According to Pongsiriwet (2001), researchers in error analysis do not only study errors committed by language learners in language acquisition, but also in the field of second language writing where linguistic errors have always become a major concern among them. ESL learners are prone to commit errors in writing as they have to put a lot of time and effort in acquiring the language and at the same time, learn to write.

several studies conducted on subject verb agreement errors committed by Malaysian ESL learners indicated that despite the introduction of the English language learning in primary school, ESL learners still have problems with the correct rules of subject verb agreement in their writing in post secondary education (Siti Hamin & Mohd Mustafa, 2010; Sarimah & Nurul Ros Adira, 2010; Roselind et al., 2009; surina & Kamaruzzaman, 2009; surina, 2002). siti Hamin and Mohd Mustafa (2010) state that many Malaysian ESL learners have problems with subject verb agreement while learning the targeted language, English as a second language because their mother tongue does not have any rule on subject verb agreement.

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bahiyah and basil Wijayasuria (1998, cited in surina and Kamaruzzaman, 2009) state that bahasa Malaysia does not differentiate between persons and it is not necessary for the verb to agree with the subject of a sentence and thus, this creates difficulty among Malay learners in English with its subject verb agreement rules. Surina and Kamaruzzaman (2009) support the view by comparing the rules of subject verb agreement between Bahasa Malaysia and English. They point out that in Bahasa Malaysia, regardless of whether the noun is plural or singular, the same form of verb will be used.

Apart from that, Siti Hamin and Mohd Mustafa (2010) in their studies find that the majority of their respondents produced errors in subject verb agreement of person, followed by subject verb agreement of number, subject verb agreement with indefinite expression of amount, subject verb agreement of notional agreement and proximity and finally, subject verb agreement of coordinated subjects. The respondents were found to be confused in matching plural subjects with plural verbs and to associate singular noun subjects with singular verbs. The second category of errors committed by the respondents was on subject verb agreement of number. The respondents were found to have problems in determining the verb that will follow a subject in a sentence. Agreement with indefinite expression showed that the respondents were unable to recognize the singularity or plurality of a subject, thus causing them to use the wrong form of verbs in their sentence construction. Apart from that, the respondents were also found to have the least errors with notional agreement and proximity and coordinated subjects.

METHODOLOGY

This study was conducted using quantitative approach and the data was gathered from students’ essays. The target population for this sample was the second semester Diploma students in UiTM Dungun who were doing their BEL 260, Preparatory Course for MUET. (BEL 260 is an English language course which is taught to all students at the Diploma level in UiTM and it incorporates grammatical structures, including subject verb agreement.) 15 students with intermediate level of proficiency were chosen to be the sample in this study. They were in their second semester of the programme.

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45 argumentative essays were collected from the 15 students. The types of subject verb agreement errors that the students made and the frequencies of these errors were looked into. The titles of the three essays used in this study were:

1. Many teenagers are involved in various social problems such as illegal racing and drug abuse because they have too much freedom. Do you agree with the statement? State your opinion in not less than 350 words.

2. University graduates are finding it difficult to get jobs because they lack good communication and interpersonal skills. Do you agree with the statement? State your opinion in not less than 350 words.

3. Sports activities should be made compulsory for all university students. Do you agree with this statement? Write an essay stating your point in not less than 350 words. The subject verb agreements errors in the three different essays written

by each student were analyzed and coded by two inter-coders. The inter-coders that were chosen were language instructors who had at least five years of experience in teaching BEL260 (Preparatory Course for MUET). Errors on subject verb agreement were grouped based on the five different types of errors proposed by Corder (1974, in Ellis, 1994) which include subject-verb agreement of person, subject agreement of number, subject agreement of subject, agreement with coordinated subjects and notional agreement and proximity.

The findings on the five types of subject verb agreement errors in essays were then tabulated to determine the frequency of the types of errors in the essays of the students. Findings on the number of errors in subject verb agreement from the three different essays were grouped, and then analyzed using SPSS software version 18. Statistical analysis such as percentage, frequencies, mean and standard deviation for each of the errors produced by the students were conducted. Examples of the subject verb agreement errors were extracted by the researchers to provide examples of the types of subject verb agreement errors that the students made.

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FINDINGS

Types of Errors in Subject Verb Agreement

The first research question investigated the types of errors found in subject verb agreement in the essays of Diploma in Culinary Arts students of UiTM Dungun, Terengganu.

Table 1: Types of Errors in Subject Verb Agreement

Type of Subject Verb Errors SV1 SV2 SV3 SV4 SV5

Essay 1 0 52 3 0 13Essay 2 7 67 0 0 4Essay 3 8 72 1 0 0Total 15 191 4 0 17

*SV1 – Subject Verb Agreement of Person SV2 – Subject Verb Agreement of Number SV3 – Subject Verb Agreement of Subject SV4 – Subject Verb Agreement of Coordinated Subject SV5 – Subject Verb Agreement of Notional Agreement and Proximity

The results in Table 1 indicated the types of errors in the essays of the Diploma in Culinary Arts students of UiTM Dungun. The five types of subject verb agreement errors, as proposed by Corder (1974, in Ellis, 1994) which are subject verb agreement of person (SV1), subject verb agreement of number (SV2), subject verb agreement of subject (SV3) and subject verb agreement of notional agreement and proximity (SV5) were focused on in this study. The results from this study found that students committed errors only in four types of subject verb agreement which were SV1, SV2, SV3 and SV5 while no error was recorded for SV4.

Subject agreement of person (SV1) requires the students to use correct verbs in agreement with the pronouns used as the subjects in their sentences. Some examples of SV1 problems seen in the students’ essay are shown below. The SV1 errors by the students and their corrections which are provided by the researcher are underlined (other types of errors are not corrected in the students’ essay).

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Examples of SV1 errors:

1. “This is because they was shy to speak to each other.” S V (Student 3, Essay 2)

2. “When lack of confident, they also doesn’t confident to speak English.” S V (student 4, Essay 2)

The Correct Version

1. “This is because they were shy to speak to each other.”

2. “When lack of confident, they also do not confident to speak English.”

Subject verb agreement of numbers (SV2) was also a problem area to the students. SV2 requires the students to apply the correct use of verbs according to the number of subjects used in the sentence. Some examples of SV2 problems seen in the students’ essay are shown below. The SV2 errors by the students and their corrections which are provided by the researcher are underlined (other types of errors are not corrected in the students’ essay).

Examples of SV2 errors 1. “Parent also give a lot of pocket money to their children.” S V

(student 1, Essay 1)

2. “Thirdly, graduates finds that the government only provided job S V opportunities that not suitable for them.” (student 10, Essay 2)

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The Correct Version

1. “Parents also give a lot of pocket money to their children.” 2. “Thirdly, graduates find that the government only provided job

opportunities that not suitable for them.”

As for the third type of subject verb agreement; agreement with indefinite subject, (SV3), students also have problems with it. This type of subject verb agreement requires the students to use correct verbs for indefinite pronouns which are used as the subjects in sentences. Below are examples of SV3 errors in students’ essay. The SV3 errors by the students and their corrections which are provided by the researcher are underlined (other types of errors are not corrected in the students’ essay).

Examples of SV3 errors

1. “Besides that, the student skip the class because no one care about them such as their S V

parents not give advise to their children when their children not go to class.”


2. “For example, the student simply skip the class because no one care about them.” S V

(Student 5, Essay 1)

The Correct Version

1. “Besides that, the students skip the class because no one cares about them such as their parents not give advise to their children when their children nit go to class.”

2. “For example, the students simply skip the class because no one cares about them.”

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The students also had problems in determining subject verb agreement of notional agreement and proximity (SV5). This refers to the correct use of collective nouns and plural expressions and agreement with verbs and also with nouns or pronouns that closely precede verbs. The SV5 errors by the students and their corrections which are provided by the researcher are underlined (other types of errors are not corrected in the students’ essay).

Examples of SV5 errors

1. “Besides that, society also take a part in social education”. S V (student 2, Essay 1)

2. “For example, at home we seldom to speak in English because our family always speak in national language”

S V (student 1, Essay 2)

The Correct Version

1. “Besides that, society also takes a part in social education”.

2. “For example, at home we seldom to speak in English because our families always speak in national language”

However, the findings depict that no error was found for the subject agreement of coordinated subject (SV4). The students did not have any problem with it as they managed to use correct verbs in dealing with the subject agreement of coordinated subjects. For instance:

1. Therefore, freedom from the parents, freedom from the society and freedom from school are among the reasons for various social problems such as illegal racing drug abuse to happen.


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2. Easy to get jobs, our body healthy and can educate student more discipline are the major factor why sports activities should be made compulsory for all university students.

(Student 15, Essay 3)

It can be concluded that students had problems with the correct use of subject verb agreement of person (SV1), subject verb agreement of number (SV2), subject verb agreement of subject (SV3) and subject verb agreement of notional agreement and proximity (SV5) in essay writing but they did not have problem with subject verb agreement of coordinated subjects (SV4).

Frequencies of Errors of Subject Verb Agreement

The second research question aimed at looking into the frequencies of subject verb agreement errors in the essays of Diploma in Culinary Arts students of UiTM Dungun. There were five types of subject verb agreement as proposed by Corder (1974, in Ellis, 1994) focused on this study. They were subject verb agreement of person (SV1), subject verb agreement of number (SV2), subject verb agreement of subject (SV3), agreement with coordinated subjects (SV4) and notional agreement and proximity (SV5).

Table 2: Frequency of Subject Verb Agreement Errors

SV1 SV2 SV3 SV4 SV5

F % F % F % F % F %

Essay 1 0 0 52 22.9 3 1.3 0 0 13 5.7

Essay 2 7 3.1 67 29.5 0 0 0 0 4 1.7

Essay 3 8 3.5 72 31.7 1 0.4 0 0 0 0

Total 15 6.6 191 84.1 4 1.7 0 0 17 7.4

*SV1 – Subject Verb Agreement of Person SV2 – Subject Verb Agreement of Number SV3 – Subject Verb Agreement of Subject SV4 – Subject Verb Agreement of Coordinated Subjects SV5 – Subject Verb Agreement of Notional Agreement and Proximity

The results in Table 2 indicated the frequencies of errors produced by the Diploma in Culinary Arts students of UiTM Dungun. Subject verb

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agreement of numbers (SV2) had the highest frequency which was 191 (84.1%), followed by subject verb agreement of notional agreement and proximity (SV5) which was 17 (7.4%), subject verb agreement of pronouns (SV1) which was 15 (6.6%) and finally, subject verb agreement of subject (SV3) which was 4 (1.7%).

The highest frequency was recorded for subject verb agreement type two (SV2), which was subject verb agreement of number. Out of 45 essays written by the students, the total number of errors recorded was 191 errors (84.1%). It contributed to a huge difference in contrast to the other types of errors made by the students in their essays. The students’ errors for SV2 were mostly seen in the third essay, which was “Sports activities should be made compulsory for all university students. Do you agree with this statement? Write an essay stating your point in not less than 350 words” with 72 SV2 errors (31.7%). The second essay; “University graduates are finding it difficult to get jobs because they lack good communication and interpersonal skills. Do you agree with the statement? State your opinion in not less than 350 words.” had the second highest number of SV2 errors, with 67 errors (29.5%). Meanwhile, the first essay; “Many teenagers are involved in various social problems such as illegal racing and drug abuse because they have too much freedom. Do you agree with the statement? State your opinion in not less than 350 words.” had the lowest number of SV2 errors which was 52 errors (22.9%).

Meanwhile, the second highest frequency of subject verb agreement errors was recorded for subject verb agreement of notional agreement and proximity (SV5). The total number of errors recorded for this particular type of agreement was 17 errors (7.4%). Many of the errors were found in essay one, followed by essay two, with 13 errors (5.7%) and four errors (1.7%) respectively. No SV5 error was recorded for essay three.

Subject verb agreement type one; subject verb agreement with pronouns (SV1) had the third highest frequency of errors committed by the students with 15 errors (6.6%). There was only a small difference in SV5 errors committed by the students in their three essays. For this particular type of error, the students committed the most errors in their third essay, with 8 errors (3.5%) and followed by the second essay with seven errors (3.1%). Meanwhile, in the first essay, there was no SV1 error.

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The third type of subject verb agreement, the agreement with indefinite subject (SV3) had the lowest type of errors made by the students with four errors (1.7%). For this particular type of subject verb agreement errors, three errors (1.3%) were made by the students in essay one, zero error was recorded for essay two and only one error (0.4%) was indicated for essay three.

Thus, it can be seen that the students mainly made errors in subject verb agreement of numbers (SV2), followed by notional agreement and proximity (SV5), subject verb agreement of pronouns (SV1) and agreement of indefinite subjects (SV3). However, there was zero error recorded for agreement of coordinated subjects (SV4).

DISCUSSION

The findings from the study showed that students had problems with the correct use of subject verb agreement of person (SV1), subject verb agreement of number (SV2), subject verb agreement of subject (SV3) and notional agreement and proximity (SV5) in essay writing but they did not have problem with agreement of coordinated subjects (SV4).

These findings concur with previous studies on subject verb agreement which indicate that many ESL learners have problems with the correct rules of subject verb agreement in writing. For instance, a study conducted by Bailis et al. (1999) on writing among ESL students found that they mostly committed errors in subject verb agreement in the general category where the subjects and the verbs do not agree with one another.

In the Malaysian context, where English is regarded as a second

language, previous studies also indicate that Malaysian ESL students also have problems with subject verb agreement in their essays. A study conducted by Saadiyah and Kaladevi (2009) found that one of the problems faced by ESL students in their writing was the wrong use of singular and plural forms. Likewise, Surina and Kamaruzzaman (2009) also found that the subjects of their study had difficulties in mastering subject verb agreement in English. Meanwhile, Marlyna, Tan and Khazriyati (2007) concluded that the students in her study were unable to use correct subject verb agreement.

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On the same note, sahirah and Zaidah (2004) found that the students in their research had problems in determining the correct use of subject verb agreement of numbers and subject verb agreement of pronouns. Surina and Kamaruzzaman (2009) in their study found that students had problems with agreement of indefinite pronouns and agreement with numbers. Meanwhile, Touran and Jayakumaran (2012) found that students had problems with subject verb agreement of number and subject verb agreement of pronouns. siti Hamin and Mohamad Mustafa (2010) in their study found that the majority of their respondents produced errors in all the five types of subject verb agreement proposed by Corder (1974, cited in Ellis, 1994), which are subject verb agreement of person (SV1), subject verb agreement of number (SV2), subject verb agreement of indefinite pronouns (SV3), agreement of coordinated subjects (SV4) as well as notional agreement and proximity (SV5).

In this study, the students did not have errors for agreement with coordinated subjects (SV4). This finding is reflective of past research on subject verb agreement in the Malaysian context where it is noted that thus far, this type of subject verb agreement usage has only been identified as problematic by Siti Hamin and Mohamad Mustafa (2010). One reason for this finding in the present study can be linked to how often it is used by the students in writing.

The study depicted that the highest frequency of errors made by the students was on subject verb agreement of numbers (SV2), followed by notional agreement and proximity (SV5), subject verb agreement of pronouns (SV1) and agreement of indefinite subject (SV3). However, there was zero error recorded for agreement of coordinated subjects (SV4).

The study also revealed that the students had problems mainly with subject verb agreement of numbers in their essay writing. It constituted the highest frequency of errors. One reason for this is because this type of subject verb agreement is highly used in the students’ essays. To illustrate, in Essay 1, “Many teenagers are involved in various social problems such as illegal racing and drug abuse because they have too much freedom. Do you agree with the statement? State your opinion in not less than 350 words.”, 68.43% of this pattern was seen. In Essay 2, “University graduates are finding it difficult to get jobs because they lack good communication and

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interpersonal skills. Do you agree with the statement? State your opinion in not less than 350 words.”, there was 66.30% of such usage. As for Essay 3, “Sport activities should be made compulsory for all university students. Do you agree with this statement? Write an essay stating your point in not less than 350 words.”, 64.31% subject verb agreement of number was seen.

However, students were found not to have problem with subject verb agreement of coordinated subjects. One reason for this is it was not widely used in the students’ writing. For instance, in Essay 1, only 2.9% of this pattern was seen, in Essay 2, there was only 0.82% of such usage and in Essay 3, only 1.87% of this usage was seen. This is because the students used agreement of coordinated subjects mainly in combining the three different main ideas used in their essay, in the thesis statement in the introduction and in summarizing them again in the conclusion.

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The key findings of this study indicate that students have problems in different types of subject verb agreement in their writing. Their main errors in subject verb agreement are in the following order: subject verb agreement of numbers (SV2), notional agreement and proximity (SV5), subject verb agreement of pronouns (SV1) and agreement of indefinite subjects (SV3). However, there was zero error recorded for agreement of coordinated subjects (SV4). On the whole, these show that Diploma in Culinary Arts students in UiTM Dungun students still face problems with subject verb agreement in writing. This implies that the BEL courses offered to the diploma students in UiTM Dungun should give more emphasis to rules of subject verb agreement whether directly or indirectly so the students are more aware of the correct rules of subject verb agreement.

Besides, students should be encouraged to practice using English language extensively to help them familiarize themselves with subject verb agreement rules and usage. Therefore, new strategies should be implemented in teaching English language to the students. One way is to incorporate technology in language classroom to enhance English language use among the students. Next, the use of technology can also address the problem of lack of references for subject verb agreement and can help decrease subject verb

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agreement errors in writing among the students. Teachers can use websites as references to model use of subject verb agreement to help students learn. In addition, the existence of various social networking sites can be a place for language instructors to give corrective feedback and encourage students to be aware of their written communication and indirectly, make them aware of the correct structure of the English language.

The following factors should be considered for future research. First, sample from different proficiency levels such as beginner, intermediate and advanced should be included for future research. This is to identify in-depth the problems faced by different ESL learners. Specifically, it can identify the extent of subject verb agreement errors for these different levels of students as well as to see if subject verb agreement error is a main problem for ESL learners irregardless of their level of proficiency. Second, diploma students from other fields of study besides Diploma in Culinary Arts students in UiTM Dungun can be employed in future research. The findings obtained will give a point of comparison as to types of errors in subject verb agreement made by diploma students. Third, the size of the sample can be increased in future research. The results can then be generalized to a wider population.

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Integrating English Language into Legal Studies at an Omani College: Inspirations and

AspirationsAli s.M. Al-IssaCollege of Law

Sultan Qaboos UniversitySultanate of Oman

E-mail Address: [email protected] / [email protected]

AbsTRACT

Ever since its establishment in 1997, the College of Law formerly known as the College of Sharia and Law at Sultan Qaboos University has been heavily criticized for the lack of English language skills of its graduates, who have either failed to impress their employers or struggled to find jobs related to the legal field which has had negative implications for the Omanization process. English language in Oman is the only official foreign language and a significant tool for achieving multiple uses and values. This triggered a strong call for change by Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) and the College of Law administration to integrate English language into various legal courses offered at the college. This article discusses the steps and decisions taken by the decision makers at SQU and the College of Law to introduce the necessary changes to cater for the needs of the job market to help contribute to the development of Oman’s economy. The discussion may have implications for change in other similar contexts around the world.

Keywords: College of Law, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman, International Review and Assessment Committee Report, content language integrated learning, English language

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INTRODUCTION

“You are aware of the extent of the attention we accord to the development of human resources in order to provide our young sons and daughters with wider and better opportunities of education, training and employment… There can be no doubt that the human being is the basic component and the cornerstone of any viable civilisation. We, therefore, once again reaffirm the importance of this element in the development and modernisation of the society.” (Extract from a Speech of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said, the Sultan of Oman before the opening of the Annual Session of the Council of Oman on 14th November 2006)

Education in the Sultanate of Oman is a top priority and considered as a fundamental tool for modernization and nation-building. Education has been a cornerstone for Omanization; a process through which the expatriate labour force is gradually replaced by qualified and skilled Omani manpower, bearing in mind that, according to the 2010 national census, Oman’s population is 2.8 million, including 800,000 foreigners. The opening of the College of Law in Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in 1997, previously known as the College of Sharia (Islamic Law) and Law (1997-2005), came as an important implementation for this national policy.

However, there have been repeated verbal and informally voiced complaints and general consensus amongst stakeholders, high-ranking and key officials, and professionals in the local private and public legal field about the college graduates’ lack of practical skills in various aspects of Law and English language. An example of the practical skills is standing before the court to argue or plead a case and provide evidence or proof. Meanwhile, examples of English language skills are reading and understanding different documents about law such as cases and correspondences, writing different legal texts such as memoirs, correspondences, consultations and pleadings as well as using interactive English for legal and everyday communication purposes, particularly with foreign non-Arabic speaking clients.

It is important to note that there are no statistics of those who have been unemployed until now, as Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) does not keep any record of its alumni. However, such information has informally originated from the college’s graduates who have been in constant touch with

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IntegratIng englIsh language Into legal studIes at an omanI College: InspIratIons and aspIratIons

the researcher. This situation has generated dissatisfaction among graduates and has had negative implications for their recruitment and performance in law-related jobs. This is a concern as Oman, a developing oil-producing country with such a small population has decided to open its doors to foreign businesses and investments and international relationships. Different international law firms thus have branches in Oman and employ foreign lawyers with skills in law and operational command of English, which has undesirable implications for the implementation of Omanization. English in Oman is thus a lingua franca and the only official foreign language and a significant tool for national development and modernization. It has received legislative support from the government and has institutionalized domains like business, education and the media. People in Oman learn English for various purposes: inter-lingual communication, travelling to non-Arabic speaking countries, science and technology acquisition, cultural analysis and understanding, business, finding a white-collar job and pursuing higher education domestically and abroad.

The World Bank development report (2008) on the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries reveals that there is a mismatch between the level of those who exit the current MENA education systems and the development objectives. Maroun, Samman, Moujaes & Abouchakra (2008) criticize the quality of education in the Arab World for falling behind other regions like Asia and Latin America, for example, and argue that it needs urgent reform to tackle the unemployment “crisis”, which this developing part of the world is experiencing (Al-Dhafiry, 2003) and which is comparatively higher than other areas in the world. Maroun et al. (2008) attribute unemployment in the region mainly to lack of skills.

Al-Dhafiry (2003) and Al-Suwaidi (2010) are critical of the educational strategies implemented by the governments of the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries (GCCC) for failing to meet the job market requirements. Al-Suwaidi argues that globalization requires college and university to equip their graduates with skills. He reports that 70% of the jobs available in the GCCC market at present are operated by expatriate labor force and that US $50 billion is earned by the Asian (Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Sri Lankan) labor force annually as a result of occupying jobs which should be filled by the GCCC citizens in the first place. Al-Dhafiry (2003) and Al-Suwaidi (2010) stress that the lack of alignment between the graduates and

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the job market requirements has led to unemployment which has negative implications for the social structure of the GCCC. Al-Suwaidi holds the GCCC governments accountable for failing to develop a strategy and vision to link education with the local job market.

The World Bank development report (2008) acknowledges that high levels of investment in education in MENA countries have failed to positively affect economic growth due to low quality education. The UNESCO Education for All Global Monitoring Report (2007) ranks Oman 82 out of 125 countries on the Education Development Index. This implies that the sultanate’s education investment has failed to translate into the desired outcome.

BACKGROUND

The College of Law was established in 1997 under the name of College of Sharia and Law by a Royal Decree and was supervised by the Ministry of Higher Education. There were two departments then; Sharia and Law. The College used to award a Bachelor degree in Sharia and Law, depending on a student’s major. The normal procedure for establishing a higher educational institution in Oman involved the President of the board of Trustees; the Minister of Higher Education who in 1992 instructed the officials concerned to hire a team of academic experts to plan the program. Experts from Egypt, Jordan, Sudan and Morocco in addition to a few Omanis from SQU were contacted to formulate a plan for the college using their knowledge, expertise and international models. Visits were arranged for the non-Omani team members to collect empirical data from different decision makers and stakeholders about the project. It took the team about four years to produce the first draft of the plan. Another team of Arab experts was then hired to revise and amend the plan produced by the preceding team, prior to its final approval.

However, a decision was made a few years later to abandon the specialization in Sharia and confine the mission of the college to teaching Law for a number of reasons. First, the Institute of Sharia Sciences was already established some time prior to the establishment of the college and it was affiliated to the Ministry of Awqaf and Religious affairs. Upon

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completion of its program, students were awarded a degree in Sharia to work either as Religious Guides or Mosque Preachers (Imam), jobs which are not fit for women under any circumstances in a Muslim and Arab context. Second, the College of Education at SQU accepts students majoring in Sharia in the Department of Sharia and they graduate as teachers of Islamic Studies. It became clear that there was an overlapping of duties among the three places which led to an excess of graduates with a Sharia degree who found themselves unemployed. This was particularly the case with female students who left the College and enrolled in a Diploma in Education program at SQU or Nizwa University (a local private university) at their own expense to be teachers of Islamic Studies.

As a result, the College of Sharia and Law was affiliated to SQU in

2006 by a Royal Decree and its name was changed to the College of Law. Its enrolment capacity increased from 120 students per academic year to 140 students and 160 in the subsequent year. This number rose to 200 students in September 2012. The Dean of the College then, an Egyptian Professor of Administrative Law, who had been in Oman for a few months only was asked by the College Board of Trustees which was chaired by the Chair of SQU Council and the Minister of Higher Education to formulate a new degree plan that would confine the mission of the college to teaching English language across the legal curriculum. The plan was approved by the College Board of Trustees despite the lack of proposal development, staff conference, feedback and external evaluation which were considered as standard application procedures and guidelines for proposal planning and implementation. The faculty at the college was concerned as their voices and opinions were ignored, resulting in a seminar conducted by SQU under the auspices of the Deputy Vice-Chancellor of SQU for Academic and Community Service Affairs. A number of decision makers representing both sectors attended the seminar which was considered as an opportunity by the faculty and guests to make themselves heard. The seminar highlighted the plan to establish three specializations: Public Law, Private Law, and Commercial Law based on examples from Tunisia, Morocco and Ukraine. The plan was viewed as unsuitable due to lack of evidence about the efficiency and success of such programs and it was formulated against internationally recognized and implemented procedures. The plan was however approved by the top management.

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In 2007, three specializations: Public Law, Private Law, and Commercial Law were established and students were required to major in one of these in Year Three of the four-year program. Commercial Law students were taught 16 courses in English spread over the last two years of the program. They graduated with an edge in English language over the students of the other two specializations which helped them to find jobs easier and quicker than their counterparts. As far as graduates of Public Law and Private Law were concerned, there was shocking reaction from the job market regarding the difficulty of hiring graduates of either major due to their evident lack of knowledge in some fundamental aspects and branches of Law and English language. The college found itself in a state of crisis and hence was forced to temporarily and quickly fix the problem. This resulted in opening a fourth section called General Law where instruction was in Arabic. All students majoring in the Public and Private Law withdrew from these two specializations and transferred to General Law, which inevitably lead to the closing down of these two majors. It is noteworthy that all four majors had their flaws and discrepancies with respect to curriculum design and structure and failed to satisfy the requirements and demands of the local competitive job market.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING AT THE COLLEGE

In an earlier study, in fact, the only study conducted about the college so far, Al-Issa (2007) found that students at the College of Law learn English for everyday interactive use in different contexts. They read different texts from a variety of sources, read different texts about Law from different sources, make contact with English for cultural analysis and understanding, pursue their postgraduate education and find a white-collar job in the public and private sector.

English language teaching (ELT) at the College of Law has thus evolved over the past 15 years or so, with six different academic plans being implemented. English has always been taught in its “general” form at the College of Law. “General” here refers to teaching the language for general proficiency and like a “school subject”, where students in many cases do not see the target language’s relevance for their future and their motivation for learning the language is almost entirely driven by passing

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exams. Additionally, problems pertinent to insufficient contact time on the curriculum, class size (45-55 students per class) and lack of printed materials reduced students’ chances significantly of better language acquisition and development also existed (Al-Issa, 2007).

Thus, while in Plan One (1997-2000), English was allocated five “contact” hours but three “credit” hours in the curriculum, English was allocated three “contact” hours and three “credit” hours in the curriculum starting from Plan Two-Six (2001-2010). While the “contact” hour refers to the formal time spent on teaching a particular subject in the classroom on weekly basis (one contact hour is equivalent to 50 teaching minutes), the “credit” hour is related to determining the marks scored and the accumulative average score reached by a student in that subject. In other words, the more credit hours allocated to a particular subject, the more weight that subject carries towards the student’s overall accumulative average score on a scale of four points (four is the highest point and is equivalent to Grade A while one is the lowest and is equivalent to Grade D). For example, if a student scores Grade A in English in one of the semesters, he/she receives 12 points (maximum), which is the result of multiplying the “three” credit hours allocated to English language by Grade A, which is equivalent to four points in the credit point system. The highest number of hours allocated to any subject on the College plan is three, while the lowest in zero. When the subject receives zero credit hour, the student is just required to pass the subject, or score 50 out of 100, as his/her score in this subject does not count towards his/her accumulative average score.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE INTEGRATED COURSES AT THE COLLEGE

English has been integrated in some legal study courses. A course entitled Legal Terminology with three contact hours but zero credit hour in Plan One and Plan Two was taught to all college students intermittently. The same course was then taught again in Plan Four-Six but this time with three contact hours and three credit hours. However, it was confined to those students majoring in Commercial Law in Plan Six. Different English language and Law faculties taught this course over the past years, with each faculty using a different approach and curriculum. However, students generally

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faced difficulties coping with the course due to their English language inadequacies and they resorted to memorizing legal terms, which were taught mainly through translation from English to Arabic. In other words, while the course provided the students with additional legal knowledge, it failed to equip them with any language skills for various contexts requiring natural, genuine and interactive use of the target language.

Moreover, English was integrated in a course entitled Companies

Law and Introduction to Law in Plan Five and was again taught to those majoring in Commercial Law. English language was further integrated in 13-three-contact and three credit-hour courses taught to those specializing in Commercial Law in Plan Five and Plan Six (see Table 1).

Table 1: English Language Integrated Courses

Plan Year Course Title Contact Hours

Credit Hours

Taught to

1 1997-00 Legal Terminology 3 0 All college students2 2001-02 Legal Terminology 3 0 All college students3 2003-04 ----------------------------------------------- - - --------------4 2005 Legal Terminology 3 3 All college students5 2006 Legal Terminology 3 3 All college students

Introduction to Law 3 3Companies Law 3 3

6 2007-10 Legal Terminology 3 3 Commercial Law Maritime Law 3 3Air Law 3 3Banking Law 3 3International Investment Law 3 3Electronic Law 3 3Capital Market Law 3 3Trade Bills 3 3Commercial Contracts 3 3International Trade 3 3Commercial Agencies 3 3Industrial Ownership and Trade Marks 3 3Regional and International Commercial Arbitration

3 3

Bankruptcy 3 3

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THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEw AND ASSESSMENT COMMITTEE (IRAC) REPORT

Given the confusion underlying the policies and practices of the different parties involved in the College then, a decision was taken by SQU Vice Chancellor in late 2007 to invite an International Review and Assessment Committee (IRAC) to conduct a review of the College of Law. The IRAC comprised Professor Ian Holloway, the Chair of IRAC from the University of Western Ontario, three panel members: Dr. Kumar Amirthalingam from the National University of Singapore, Mr. Howard Bennett from the University of Nottingham and Professor Clive Walker from the University of Leeds, and Nenatte Love, as the panel secretary from the University of Ontario. The IRAC members held meetings with different senior leaders and stakeholders at the College and SQU and in the legal profession in the sultanate.

In their report, Holloway et al. (2008) state that they were inspired by a guiding principle, “… that the College of Law must be relevant to the needs of Oman both as they are today and as they are likely to be tomorrow” (p. 1) to aspire to become “the leader among higher education institutions in the region” and “a centre for learning where individuals can develop their capabilities” (p. 1) and “... go on to successful careers not only in Oman, but throughout the Gulf, and in leading commercial centres around the world, including places like London and New York” (p. vi). They stress that “… the College of Law should be viewed partly as an instrument of national development and as a projection of Oman’s culture and values” (p. 6). They emphasize that the College of Law has a significant role to play in the social and economic development and diversification of the Sultanate.

However, Holloway et al. (2008) believe “… that the College of Law is not meeting the needs of either its students or the country in terms of programme design and content” (p. 6). This is in reference to the different simultaneously existing programs or systems which they consider as problematic and confusing to students due to their overlapping nature. Holloway et al. (2008) further disagree with the notion of formal specialization in Year Three and Four and the problem of insufficient places allocated for the Commercial Law stream (19 students only), being “… the most attractive option” (p. 31) which contributed to producing “… deep students discontent” (p. 31).

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Furthermore, they suggest that the undergraduate faculty-student ratio at the College should be 1:20 to 1:25, depending on the various administrative and technical circumstances the faculty may experience throughout the academic year. Holloway et al. (2008) believe that this ratio facilitates engagement in “genuine interactive teaching” (p. 22).

They further report that the college graduates lack an operational

command of English language. This consequently gives graduates of Law from English-speaking countries an edge over their college counterparts in terms of job recruitment and has overall negative implications for the success of the college. They stress the importance of communicating in English language to facilitate “modernization” and “internationalization”, as English is considered a tool for science and knowledge acquisition and finding a white-collar job.

Central to the achievement of the college’s objectives, according to Holloway et al. (2008), is the design and implementation of a bilingual degree programme which considers competence in English a priority. They further suggest that a score between 5 and 5.5 on IELTS, in the preliminary year at the Language Centre on SQU campus and prior to enrolling in the degree program, “… sufficient for the students to operate within the College’s reformed programme of legal study on a bilingual basis” (p. 37). They expect the students “… to use their English regularly … throughout the course of their degree … to be able to raise their level to at least 6.0 IELTS” (p. 37), on completion on their 1+4 model program. They recommend achieving this through teaching 25-40% of the program courses in English. They recommend an additional dimension of skills in the curriculum, i.e. training in learning, researching, writing, presenting and advocating.

Acquisition of such a blend of linguistic and legal skills will thus put the ollege faculty and students in a position to establish active links, partnership, and collaboration with international faculty and institutions for research culture improvement and diversification, and to help “… create opportunities for students to gain international exposure during their law studies” (Holloway et al., 2008, p. 13).

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CONTENT LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING

Marsh (2002) states that Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) refers to “situations where subjects, or parts of subjects, are taught through a foreign language with dual-focused aims, namely the learning of content and the simultaneous learning of a foreign language” (p. 15). Dalton-Puffer (2007) considers CLIL as occurring in “...educational settings where a language other than the students’ mother tongues is used as a medium of instruction” (p. 1). In other words “CLIL involves learning to use language appropriately whilst using language to learn effectively” (Coyle, 2006, p. 9). Sherris (2008) broadly defines CLIL as “...task-based instruction and assessment of knowledge, skills, and academic language within a content area” (p. 1). Lorenzo (2007), cited in Costa and D’Angelo (2011) perceives that CLIL offers a new language focus, learning vision and language teaching methodology.

Through CLIL, the focus changes from language as a vehicle of culture to language as a means of communication in academic settings. A new vision of language called for a new vision of learning. CLIL is linked to experiential views of second language acquisition and consequently a new methodology of language teaching (p.28).

The integration of content and language emerged as a result of significant experiences and discussions in teaching English as a Foreign lLnguage and bilingual education, which view successful language acquisition as best occurring when language is learnt for purposeful and meaningful communication in significant social situations, when content and the target language instruction are integrated to facilitate exposure to and functional use of language learning and when relevant activities lead to successful language learning by positively impacting upon learners’ motivation, exposure to and use of the target language (de Graaff, Koopman, Anikina & Westhoff, 2007).

The world’s preferred target and dominant international language today

is English. It is the language of globalization and internationalization. Nettle & Romaine (2002, p. 190) acknowledge that “in today’s global village, however, increasing bilingualism in a metropolitan language, particularly

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English, is making the majority of the world’s languages in effect minority languages”. In Higher Education (HE), therefore, and as it is the case in this study, “globalization influences both language use and the economics of HE” (Coleman, 2006, p. 1). Coleman comments that “while the global status of English impels its adoption in Higher Education, its adoption of English in Higher Education further advances its global influence” (p. 4). Lasagabaster (2008) acknowledges that CLIL has a socio-economic aim as it helps “... prepare students for internationalization, a key word for all education systems” (p. 32) at present.

According to Coyle (2006), CLIL is built on a number of principles, which consider the learners as a creator of their own knowledge and developers of skills, rather than mere acquirers of knowledge and skills. Moreover, learners should think about creating their own interpretation of the content using the target language. Furthermore, interaction in the classroom is fundamental and has important implications for contexts which operate through the medium of a foreign language. Within this vein, Nordmeyer (2010) acknowledges that “viewing a language as a medium of learning helps to illustrate the interdependent and cyclical nature of English skills and subject matter knowledge” (p. 3). Last but not least, development of intercultural awareness, understanding, and global citizenship is fundamental for today’s students are vital in the growing context of the global job market at present (Coyle, 2006).

Marsh (1994) considers learning a foreign language by studying subject matter content and learning subject matter through a foreign language as one of the features of a CLIL program. Marsh further considers language in CLIL as a tool for learning and communicating, where the four skills are integrated. Furthermore, the interactive nature of language and its manipulation depend on the disciplinary context, language and context. Another feature of the CLIL program is that discourse rules and lexicon are of utmost importance in the task-oriented curriculum. Last but not least, context determines the language to be used.

According to Xanthou (2011), CLIL draws on theories from the

work of Krashen, Vygotsky, Piaget, and Cummins. It combines theories of implicit language acquisition, language development through social interaction, construction of knowledge when linked to prior knowledge

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and the simultaneous acquisition of academic and social aspects of the language. Furthermore, de Graaff et al. (2007) acknowledge that CLIL is “consistent with communicative, task-based and content-based language teaching” approaches through using the target language as a “functional medium of communication and information” in order to achieve fluency (p. 12). Gaballo (2010) points out that “CLIL is not a new form of language education, but it is not a new form of subject education either: it is an innovative fusion of both (p 2).

CLIL has been described as a “flexible”, “adaptable”, and “dynamic” (Coyle, 2006; Gaballo, 2010). It is adaptable and dynamic because it is an educational path and pedagogical approach that suits all contexts, sectors, ages, and educational stages (Coyle, 2006). CLIL is further flexible because it has three exposure proportions through the curriculum (Nowak, 2011). They are: low exposure (5-15%), medium exposure (15-50%), and high exposure (over 50%). CLIL has been also described as a “lifelong concept” (Coyle, 2006) that can introduce and promote deep and lasting educational change, as it “... goes beyond language learning” (Gaballo, 2010, p. 6). CLIL stresses language learning rather than language teaching (Pistorio, 2009) and helps students to reach high levels of competence in the target language, which is at the same time the medium of communication through exposure “... to a considerable amount of language while learning content” (Gaballo, 2010, p. 6). To Pistorio, CLIL powerfully impacts language learning and drives motivation.

From elementary school CLIL classes to university lectures, students can develop valuable thinking skills and build background knowledge in the context of learning English. Content-based language instruction motivates students through the interaction of English with content they need or want to learn; learners become connected to the learning communities in which they are studying (Nordmeyer, 2010, pp. 4-5).

CLIL thus helps to integrate the four skills and improve the target language competence through the use of meaningful tasks and activities related to the content area, which promote collaborative problem solving and evaluating solutions and subsequently, prepare students for a range of academic demands laid by their existing and future programs (Sherris, 2008). Put differently, “CLIL classroom creates a meaningful context for authentic

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academic communication” (Nordmeyer, 2010, p. 3), which includes “... concepts, key vocabulary, grammar, and discourse necessary to accomplish content-area tasks” (Sherris, 2008, p. 1). Gaballo (2010) summarizes CLIL by stating that “... learners are empowered to acquire knowledge while actively engaging their own powers of perception, communication and reasoning” (p. 6). Learning outcomes in CLIL, as explained by Marsh, Cenoz and Hornberger (2007) cited in Nordmeyer (2010), “... tend to focus on achieving higher levels of awareness and skill in using language in real-life situations, alongside the learning of subject matter” (p. 233). The three authors describe this approach as an amalgamation of language learning and subject learning.

Lorenzo, Casal & Moore (2009) investigated the language planning and policy implementation of a CLIL bilingual program in Andalusia in Southern Spain. They found that there was sufficient evidence about CLIL learners showing greater gains than their monolingual peers, content-focused instruction influencing incidental learning and positive transfer of language and the relevance of team teaching between content and language specialists as a means of providing a wider range of discourse input for the learners. Xanthou (2011) further found that teaching content through second language facilitates language learning in purposeful settings, linguistics interaction among teachers and learners and among learners themselves, and social and academic aspects of the target language. According to Wiesemes (2005), CLIL, as viewed by students, raises linguistics competence, confidence, expectations, and cultural and global awareness and develops a wide range of skills. Pinkley (2012) acknowledges that “... proponents of CLIL list several key benefits for students: increased motivation, meaningful use of English to reach immediate, real-life goals, development of multicultural awareness, and preparation for future studies and work in a global context” (p. 2). These are benefits which SQU aims to obtain through adopting the CLIL approach.

THE NEw DEGREE PLAN

In 2009, the College of Law initiated the design of the new bilingual degree plan taking into consideration the need to equip students with English language and legal practical skills to meet the needs and demands of the local

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job market. The new degree plan was inspired by a very limited number of contexts round the world, for example, the Francophone Quebec province in Canada where higher education is bilingual using French and English side by side and where Latin Law or Civil Law system, which focuses mainly on provision of theoretical knowledge is combined with Anglo-American Law or Common Law system, which pays sufficient attention to acquisition of professional skills.

The 18-month process of getting the new degree plan approved in its final form was initiated by the Dean of the College who joined the College in 2009. He prepared the first draft of the plan and sent it to the college faculty with PhD and members of an ad hoc technical committee which included professors representing all specializations in the college. The recipients were given two weeks to submit their feedback. Two months later, the fifth and final draft of the new degree plan, which incorporated all the proposed changes and amendments, was ready and sent to the two Public Law and Private Law departments at the College for their feedback. Further modifications were proposed by the members of the two departments and appraised by the College Board which finalized the plan and sent it to the University Academic Council (UAC). The UAC decided to send the plan to a number of external assessors for evaluation. They were the Ministry of Legal Affairs, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of National Economy, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Public Prosecution, Central bank of Oman, Chamber of Commerce and Industry, University of United Arab Emirates, Pharos University in Alexandria, G.L.E. Oman Law Firm, Said Al-Shahri Office for Legal Consultation and Ian Holloway, Dean and Professor of Law at the University of Western Ontario and Chair of IRAC. The UAC approved the new degree plan and its commencement date (September 2011 which was postponed to September 2012) subject to necessary minor amendments which did not include the bilingual aspect of the plan as suggested by the assessors.

Nine English-medium college core courses (27 credit hours) from the Public Law Department and the Private Law Department have been selected to be taught in English. Two of these nine courses are English For Law One and English For Law Two, with each allocated three credit hours, but six contact hours. The other seven legal courses are Principles of Economy, Principles of International Public Law, International Organizations,

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Commercial Companies, Sale and Lease Contracts, Maritime Law and Banking Law (see Table 2). It is noteworthy that apart from English For Law One and Two, the other seven courses are associated with Economics, Commercial Law and International Law, as knowledge generating from these courses is associated with domestic and international legal relations. In other words, while the domestic judicial context requires the use of Arabic language, the international one, on the other hand, requires English language.

Table 2: English-Medium College Requirement Courses (27 Credit Hours)

Course Title Credit HoursEnglish Language for Law (1) 3Principles of Economy 3Principles of International Public Law 3International Organizations 3English Language for Law (2) 3Commercial Companies 3Sale and Lease Contracts 3Maritime Law 3Banking Law-Trade Bills- Bankruptcy 3Total 27

students are further required to choose four English-medium college elective courses (12 credit hours) out of a total of 14 offered by both Departments. These are Human Rights, International Humanitarian Law, International Relations, International Economy, Criminology, International Penal Law, Intellectual Property Law, International Trade Contracts, Commercial Contracts, Law of Oil and Gas, Law of Capital Market, Law of Arbitration and a Final Project (see Table 3).

Table 3: English-Medium College Elective Course (12 Credit Hours)

Course Title Credit Hours

a) Public Law CoursesHuman Rights 3International Humanitarian Law 3International Relations 3International Economy 3Criminology 3

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International Penal Law 3Final Project 3

b) Private Law CoursesLaw of Intellectual Property 3Law of Oil and Gas 3Law of Capital Market 3Commercial Contracts 3International Trade Contracts 3Law of Arbitration 3Final Project 3

Thus, approximately 30% of the courses offered in the new degree plan are delivered in English. Students are required to complete 132 credit hours spread over eight semesters to be eligible to graduate with a Bachelor of Law degree from SQU. By contrast, students graduated in Plan One after they had completed 140 credit hours, 144 credit hours for Law specialists and 147 credit hours for Sharia specialists in Plan Two and 132 credit hours in Plan Three-the new bilingual degree plan.

Apart from English For Law One and Two, the choice of such legal course to be taught in English is mainly inspired by the practices found in the local job market. In other words, aspects like Conciliation and Arbitration, Diplomatic and Consular Representation, Foreign Legal Affairs, Legal Advising and Registries of International Relations require use of English language in Oman.

English For Law One and Two are thus of a specific nature and aim to consolidate the concepts associated with using English language in international legal relations through helping students to improve their ability to read and prepare legal documents. They further aim at developing students’ research and analytical abilities when using English language for international legal relations. Both courses lead to developing students’ research abilities through collecting data to produce legal written documents. These two courses have been written by in-house experts from the Language Centre at SQU. Al-Issa (2007) found that students at the College of Law perceive learning legal English important for finding a white-collar job in Oman.

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It is noteworthy that SQU students majoring in Medicine, Science, Engineering, business, Agriculture and other humanities-based specializations, which require use of English language, like teaching English at the College of Education and English language literature and translation at the College of Arts, for example, are also required to take core courses of a similar nature serving a similar purpose.

However, prior to taking these two courses at the College of Law and

any other legal courses offered by the new bilingual degree plan, students will be required to attend a General Foundation Program (GFP) which comprises of English language, Applied Mathematics and Computing. The aim of taking English language at the GFP is for the students to extend their ability to become active participants in their post-secondary or higher education. Examples of “ability extension” and “active participation” are paraphrasing information, preparing and delivering a short talk using library resources, participating in discussions of topics relevant to their studies, skimming and scanning, reading texts and extracting specific information in a specific time, reading extensively long texts related to their area of study and answering questions which require analytical skills, taking notes and responding to questions about the topic, and producing written texts of variable nature and length.

For a student to be eligible to attend the College of Law bilingual degree program, he/she has to pass Applied Mathematics and Computing components and score 6 on the IELTS. However, all students sit for a placement test prior to enrolling in the GFP and are eligible to start their bilingual degree program at the College of Law, provided they satisfy the aforementioned requirements in the three components of the GFP.

It is noteworthy that while the GFP is a compulsory entrance qualification for Omani degree programs, meeting additional GFP exit and higher education entrance standards may be required depending on the program offered, which are not synonymous across the continuum as they include locally and internationally sourced diploma and degree programs.

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CONCLUSION

This paper attempted to discuss the change in direction adopted and implemented by SQU and the College of Law policy makers to enhance the English language ability of the College’s graduates in a powerfully English language communication dominated world. The program, if implemented well, can impact students, the college, SQU and the Sultanate. Students will see the relevance of learning an international language like English within a meaningful context and develop the needed adequacy and multicultural awareness which will have psychological, social and economic implications for their future. Proper implementation of the program can impact the College and SQU’s image as providers of quality education and create further opportunities for international collaborative research links and partnerships which can have positive implications for SQU world ranking. As far as Oman is concerned, one can argue that producing leaders in Law with an English language competence advantage and edge is likely to positively impact Oman’s economic development through taking on the different available jobs and the ones which are already occupied by the expatriate labour force due to their linguistic supremacy and legal technical skills. This is in addition to pursuing law-related jobs abroad, particularly in the neighbouring countries which will largely contribute to solving the domestic employment dilemma.

The change in direction is unique and the first of its kind in the Arab World in particular and perhaps, the Developing World in general with respect to the field of Law and in a context where English is a Foreign Language (EFL). It is further inspired by an official bilingual context like Canada and can have positive implications for other similar contexts.

SQU, thus has experience in implementing CLIL programs in other

colleges. However, the integration of English language within legal studies in an EFL context like Oman can potentially pose different kinds of academic, technical and administrative challenges that may unfold with time and provoke further research.

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