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Coombe, TrevorA Consultation on Higher Education in Africa: AReport to the Ford Foundation and the RockefellerFoundation.London Univ. (England). Inst. of Education.Ford Foundation, New York, N.Y.; RockefellerFoundation, New York, N.Y.Jan 9187p.

Office of Reports, The Ford Foundation, 320 East 43rdStreet, New York, NY 10017.Reports Descriptive (141)

MFOI/FC04 Plus Postage.Change Strategies; College Administration; CollegeLibraries; *Colleges; Donors; Educational Attitudes;*Educational Improvement; *Educational Needs;Educational Trends; *Financial Problems; ForeignCountries; Government School Relationship; HigherEducation; Philanthropic Foundations; *PrivateFinancial Support; *Universities*Africa

This report examines the state of higher education inSub-Saharan Africa, focusing on issues of interest to philanthropicorganizations seeking to assist African colleges and universities.Chapter 1 discusses the impoverished state of most Africanuniversities, due largely to economic and political decline at thenational level, as well as opportunities for change and improvement,especially in South Africa. Chapter 2 looks at the work of theAfrican Association of Universities and other representative bodies.Chapter 3 describes government-university relations, universitygovernance, and student affairs, concentrating on the problems thatAfrican universities face in these areas and possible solutions.Chapter 4 addresses univeLsity marul,ement, discussing ways to reducecosts and enhance revenues. Chapter 5 examines researchopportunities, postgraduate studies, staff development, academicpublishing, library development, and information technology. Chapter6 reviews research on higher education in Africa. Each chapterincludes general and specific proposals for the improvement of highereducation in Africa, including specific areas of neeethat can beaddressed by donor organizations. (Contains approximately 180references.) 01D1.0

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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#t

A CONSULTATIONON HIGHER EDUCATION

IN AFRICA

A Report to the Ford Foundation andthe Rockefeller Foundation

Trevor CoombeDepartment of International and Comparative Education

Institute of Education, University of London

January 1991

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISU.S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION11,c0 at Educational Research and Improvomont

MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

0/This document has been reproduced asreceived from dm person or organizationoriginating it.

Ford Foundation U Minor changes have boon mado toimprove reproduction quality

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES Points of view or opinions staled in thisdocument do not necessarily represent

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." official OERI position or policy.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE: 2

February 5, 1991

Dear Colleague:

In June, 1990, concerned about the many challenges confrontingAfrican higher education, the Ford and Rockefeller Foundationscommissioned a review of issues facing African universities, governments,and donor agencies concerned about higher education. This review wascarried out by Professor Trevor Coombe, former Dean of the College ofEducation at the University of Zambia, now at the Institute of Educationat the University of London. Between June and September, ProfessorCoombe met with some 300 university leaders, government officials,researchers, teachers, students, and donor agency representatives inAfrica, Europe and North America. His exceptionally thoughtful reportwas presented in December to the meeting of the Higher Education WorkingGI:up of the Task Force of Donors to African Education convening at theAssociation of African Universities headquarters in Accra.

At the request of those attending that meeting, we are pleasedto make copies of the report available to the many leaders, universities,donors, students and researchers who contributed to it and to those whomight find it useful. We are deeply grateful to the participants in thisreview. Additional copies of the report can be obtained from the Officeof Reports, the Ford Foundation, 320 East 43rd Street, New York, New York10017, USA. We hope that it will stimulate wide discussion and willserve as a call to action for all those concerned about Africaneducation. We would welcome comments and corrections to any statementsin the report.

Sincerely,

Joyce MoockAssociate Vice PresidentThe Rockefeller Foundation

41VAVA41kAr

Pohn D. GerhartlirectorAfrica and Middle East ProgramsThe Ford Foundation

A CONSULTATION ON HIGHER EDUCATION IN AFRICA

A Report toThe Ford Foundation

andThe Rockefeller Foundation

Trevor Coombe

Department of International and Comparative EducationInstitute of Education University of London

January 1991

PREFACE

This report has been prepared for the Ford Foundation and theRockefeller Foundation. The commission was initially made by theFord Foundation, which has been engaged for some time on aninternal review of its program of support to higher education insub-Saharan Africa. The consultant was asked to recommend astrategy which might be pursued by the Foundation, and/or otherdonors, to strengthen higher education in Africa, particularlyat the university level.

The reference to other donors took into account the establishmentof a Working Group on Higher Education by the Task Force ofDonors to African Education (DAE) which the World Bank has beeninstrumental in assembling. The Ford Foundation has made itpossible for the Bank to appoint a higher education specialist tocoordinate the Working Group's activities for a two year period.It was decided that the present report should be made availableto the Working Group for discussion at its next meeting. This wasdone. The meeting took place in Accra in December 1990, hostedjointly by the Working Group on Higher Education and the Associa-tion of African Universities.

The Rockefeller Foundation had also been reviewing its supportfor African higher education. After discussions between officersof both foundations in Africa and New York, it was agreed thatthe sponsorship of this study would be shared. The RockefellerFoundation has a special, but not exclusive, interest instrengthening quality research and graduate education in Africa,particularly in the sciences, technology, and related socialsciences. It is concerned about the relative capacity and advan-tage of African universities, compared with research institutesand networks, in sustaining high-level research and postgraduateeducation.

The draft terms of reference asked the consultant to pay partic-ular attention to the following areas of activity:

research on higher education, including student and facultydemography, the relationship between higher education andemployment, etc.;

the governance and administrative management of universi-ties, including training programs for higher educationadministrators;

the financing of higher education, including relations withministries of finance and education, the creation of donorconsortia, the creation or strengthening of developmentoffices, income generation, etc.;

the intellectual life of the university, including thedevelopment and retention of faculty, and such related

questions as publishing, research funding, library develop-ment, outside consulting and study, affirmative action, andacademic freedom.

The consultant was advised to 'seek the opinion of African educa-tors, policy-makers, private sector opinion leaders and students'about the value of donor support to 'strengthen African highereducation' in these or other areas, and in so doing to contactthe Association of African Universities and the major regionaland sub-regional research organizations and networks. Likewise,the consultant was asket. to ascertain what research on Africanhigher education was being carried out on these questions, and todiscuss the issues with other donors interested in higher educa-tion.

Finally, the consultant was asked to recommend to the foundationsand other interested donors 'practical intervention strategies'aimed at addressing these and related issues. Where appropriate,the consultant should identify intermediary organizations throughwhich sustained attention to higher education issues in Africacould be directed.

In subsequent discussions between the consultant and thefoundations, it was made clear that the report should be briefand pragmatic, not a formal research study or an inventory ofdonor activities in higher education in Africa.

(Although most of these concerns have been addressed in the re-port, the consultant has honored the spirit rather than theletter of the terms of reference.)

In the light of the time available, and other considerations, itwas decided to restrict the coverage to Anglophone sub-SaharanAfrica, excluding South Africa. A sample of African countries,universities, research organizations, university NG0s, multilate-ral agencies and interested donors was chosen in order to achievea reasonable cross-sectional coverage.

Since the consultant was committed to another assignment inZambia in September, it was decided to undertake the bulk of thefieldwork between July 10 and August 29, 1990. During that periOd,visits were made to New York, Washington, Ottawa, Paris, Bonn,London, Dar es Salaam, Nairobi, Harare, Accra and Lagos.

The consultant was able to attend as an observer the meetings ofthe expert group on the Commonwealth Higher Education SupportScheme at the Commonwealth Secretariat in London in June, themeeting of the Kenya Committee of Vice-Chancellors with thevisiting.World Bank Education Sector Preparation Mission inNairobi in August, and the sub-regional workshop on Cost Reduc-tion and Cost Recovery in African Universities sponsored by theBritish Council in Lusaka in September. The report has alsobenefited from the addresses and discussion at a one-day confer-ence on Higher Education in Africa in the'90s convened on Novem-ber 9 by the Institute of Commonwealth Studies of the Universityof Lond.rn and the Royal Africa Society. The agenda of eachmeeting was highly relevant to this study, and the invitations toattend the meetings are greatly appreciated.

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An early draft of the report was presented to the Ford Founda-tion's Africa and Middle East Program Review meeting in Lagos onOctober 29, 1990, and a revised draft was presented to thesecond meeting of the DAE Higher Education Working Group in Accraon December 13, 1990. Each presentation was followed by a livelydiscussion, which has been taken into account in the iinal ver-sion of the report.

The consultant's first debt of gratitude is to those in Africangovernments, universities, scientific academies, research insti-tutes and networks, in international university associations,intergovernmental organizations and donor agencies, who receivedhim in the course of this consultation. Warm thanks are extendedto all who shared their time and expertise so graciously andoffered such frank and helpful advice.

The staff of the Ford Foundation, New York, particularly EliseScatena and Magdeleine Blachere, have been unfailingly helpful.Faith Coleman's expert assistance in the Ford Foundation Archivesis gratefully acknowledged.

Most of the detailed arrangements for the African itinerary inAugust were made by the Rockefeller Foundation office in Nairobiand the Ford Foundation offices in Harare and Lagos. The con-sultant acknowledges with gratitude the exceptional helpfulness,as well as the professional information and advice on the termsof reference, of David Court (Rockefeller Foundation), DianaMorris, Peter Fry, michael Chege and Mora McLean (Ford Founda-tion) and their colleagues; also of Professor Luta Maliyamkono,Executive Director of ESAURP, Dar es Salaam, and his staff, whomade the arrangements there; also of Professor Donald Ekong,Secretary-General of the Association of African Universities, forhis practical assistance and generosity with his own time andwisdom in Accra; and of William Saint, latterly of the FordFoundation and now Higher Education Specialist in the AfricaTechnical Department of the World Bank, for his help with theprogram in Washington and his support and colleagueship beforeand since.

The author acknowledges the helpful comments on earlier versionsof the report of David Court of the Rockefeller Foundation,William Saint of the World Bank, Kenneth King and Alison Girdwoodof the University of Edinburgh, and John Theakstone of the Brit-ish Council.

The professional and technical support of Carol Coombe of theCommonwealth Secretariat have been invaluable.

The past and present contributions to African higher educationand research of the Ford Foundation and the RockefellerFoundation are highly valued in Africa, and the consultant'spassage was smoothed by being able to travel under their colors.A final word of gratitude is therefore due to Kenneth Prewitt andJoyce Lewinger Moock of the Rockefeller Foundation, and Susan VBerresford, Peter Stanley and (especially) John Gerhart of theFord Foundation, for offering this assignment and backing up theinvitation with challenging advice and logistical support.

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It remains to be said that neither the Ford Foundation nor theRockefeller Foundation, nor any of my informants, nor those whohave been kind enough to comment on my drafts, have responsibili-ty for the content of the report, which rests with the authoralone.

iv

ABBREVIATIONS

AAS African Academy of SciencesAAAS American Association for the Advancement of ScienceAAU Association of African UniversitiesACU Association of Commonwealth UniversitiesADIAP African Dissertation Internship Awards Program

(Rockefeller Foundation)AERC African Economics Research ConsortiumAESAU Association of Eastern and Southern African Univer-

sitiesAGRICOLA Database in Agricultural SciencesANSTI African Network of Scientific and Technological

Institutions (UNESCO)ATOLL Association of University Teachers of Literature

and LanguageCHE Commission for Higher Education (Kenya)CHESS Commonwealth Higher Education Support SchemeCICHE Committee for International Cooperation in Higher

Education (British Council)CIDA Canadian International Development AgencyCOMPENDEX Database in Engineering SciencesCOREVP Conference of Rectors, Vice-Chancellors and Presi-

dents of Universities in West AfricaCVC Committee of Vice-Chancellors (Nigeria)DAAD German Academic Exchange ServiceDAE Donors to African EducationDSE German Foundation for International DevelopmentEC European CommunityECA Economic Commission for Africa (United Nations)ERIC Database in Educational SciencesESAMI Eastern and Southern African Management InstituteESAURP Eastern and Southern African Universities Research

ProgrammeFINNIDA Finnish International Development AgencyGIMPA Ghana Institute of Management and Public Adminis-

trationGTZ Agency for Technical Cooperation (Germany)HEDCO Higher Education Development Cooperation (Republic

of Ireland)IAU International Association of UniversitiesICIPE International Centre of Insect Physiology and

Ecology (Nairobi)ICSU International Council of Scientific UnionsIDA International Development Association (World Bank)IDRC International Development Research Centre (Canada)IFLA International Federation of Library AssociationsIFS International Foundation of ScienceIIEP International Institute for Educational Planning

(UNESCO)IUC Inter-University Council of East AfricaJAMB Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (Nigeria)

MEDLINE Database in Medical SciencesMIS Management Information SystemNAS Nigerian Academy of ScienceNASO Network of African Scientific OrganisationsNGO Non-governmental organizationNORAD Norwegian Agency for International DevelopmentNUC National Universities Commission (Nigeria)NUFFIC Netherlands Universities Foundation for Interna-

tional CooperationOAU Organisation of African UnityODA Overseas Development Administration (United King-

dom)SADCC Southern African Development Coordination ConferenceSAREC Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation in Develop-

ing CountriesSIDA Swedish International Development AuthoritySLB Students Loans Board (Nigeria)UNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural

OrganisationUNU Unid Nations UniversityUSAID United States Agency for International Development

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CONTENTS

PrefaceAbbreviations

1 A Perspective on African Un4mersities 1Introduction 1The condition of the universities 2

Don:Jr policies and African dialog 7

Change in South Africa 10

2 The African Association of Universities andOther Representative University Bodies 11

The AAU 11Proposals on the AAU 12

Other representative university bodies 12Proposals on other representativeuniversity bodies 14

3 Government-University Relations, UniversityGovernance, and Student Affairs 15

Introduction 15Government-university relations 15The proper limits of state intervention 15Mutual comprehension and confidence-

building 16Planning and budgeting for university

systems 17Proposals on government-university

relations 21University governance 22

Proposals on univexsity governance 24Student affairs 24Proposals on student affairs 26

4 University Management 27Introduction 27Management and planning 27Proposals on university managementand planning 29

Cost reduction and revenue enhancement 31Proposals on cost reduction and revenueenhancement 33

The organization of postgraduate studies 34Proposals on the organization ofpostgraduate studies 35

Research management 36Proposals on research management 37

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Equipment maintenance 37Proposals on equipment maintenance 39

5 Research Organization, Postgraduate Studies,Staff Development, Academic Publishing,Library Development and InformationTechnology 40

Introduction 40Research organization and post-graduate studies 40The organization of research 40

Proposals on the organization ofresearch 42

Centers of specialization and post-graduate studies 44Proposals on centers of specializationand postgraduate studies 49

Staff development, subject associationsand academic publishing 49Proposals on staff development, subjectassociations and academic publishing 51

University library development andinformation technology 52Proposals on university librarydevelopment and information technology 53

6 Endnote: Research on Higher Education in Africa 55Items for a research agenda 55Enhancing research capacity 57

Bibliography

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1 A PERSPECTIVE ON AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES

Introduction

The most serious risks run by a report such as this are over-generalization and over-simplification. They are invited by thenature of the assignment, with its inbuilt assumption that sub-Saharan Africa is an identifiable region with common characteris-tics, including a higher education sector in crisis. No doubtthis is so, but anothe: view must be kept constantly in mind.

Sub-Saharan Africa is ndlessly diverse. Conditions vary acrosscountries, within countries, and within universities. The condi-tion of individual universities depends upon such broad factorsas the presence of civil peace, the wealth and resilience of thenational economy, the nature of the national political culture,the policy environment of higher education, and the scope andquality of external assistance. It also depends upon such spe-cific factors as the vision, imagination, courage and managerialskill of Vice-Chancellors and their colleagues, the tenacity withwhich academic staff members are able to sustain academic valuesagainst the odds, the threshold of self-sacrifice among universi-ty people, the level of alienation or identity between studentsand the political leadership--and whether the water system works,power supplies fail, or roofs leak.

A general conclusion from this consultation is that it would beunwise for external agencies to write off the African universi-ties as hopelessly and irretrievably in decline. It would alsobe unfair, considering that the main conditions which havebrought the universities low have not been of their own making.Situations vary so greatly, country by country, university byuniversity, faculty by faculty, and depa-tment by department,that a universal judgment would be simplist:x and absurd.

The damage sustained by under-resourcing the universities duringthe years of economic decline, in almost all sub-Saharan Africancountries, has been massive and in some areas debilitating. Inshort there is a crisis. But crisis does not invariably meancollapse. The universities have shown resilience. Despite thebrains that have drained out of them over the years, and thecompromises they have been compelled to make with their ownstandards, the universities remain great national storehouses oftrained, informed, inquiring and critical intellects, and theindispensable means of replenishing national talent. They haveconsiderable reserves of leadership and commitment on which todraw. Impoverished, frustrated, dilapidated and overcrowded asthey may be, they have no substitutes.

A general recovery in the quality of teaching, learning andresearch throughout the region needs a long-term perspective, butlong-term requirementu should not deter immediate action. There

1

is plenty of evidence that the morale of university communitiesis highly sensitive to well-conceived, constructive action insupport of academic values, such as enabling academics to gainaccess to the tools of their trade, and the means of academiccommunication. Even major improvements in the physical environ-ment of universities, equally vital for students and academicstaff, can be made quite rapidly, given the provision of fundsfor repair and maintenance, and essential furniture and equip-ment, as some governments have recently discovered.

The condition of the universities

One of the abiding impressions of this consultation is the senseof loss, amounting almost to grief, of some of the most seniorprofessors in the older African universities as they compare thepresent state of their universities with the vigor, optimism andpride which the same institutions displayed twenty or thirtyyears ago. It is not just the universal regret of age at thepassing of youth, nor the sad awareness that a generation ofunique academic pioneers has almost run its course. It is alsothe grim knowledge that the nature of the university experiencetoday is profoundly different for many teachers and students, sodifferent and so inferior that some wonder whether it can rightlybe called a university experience at all.

A student describes a day in her university life. She risesbefore first light, rolls up her sleeping mat and leaves the roomin the hall of residence which she shares with eleven others.The room had been furnished for two students in the early years,then bunks were installed to permit four to be housed. Thesedays, four students are official occupants and pay the rent. Toshare the cost, they sublet sleeping space to eight squatters.There is a water crisis on campus, not an uncommon event. It isour student's turn to collect water. She takes her bucket andwalks to join the queue at the standpipe. On a bad day it ishours before she is able to fill her bucket and return, to washand make tea. Shc: decides whether to take her single daily mealin the morning (one zero zero), noon (zero one zero) or evening(zero zero one).

She goes to class where it is standing room only. She is lateand joins others who crowd at the windows, looking in. It isdifficult to hear the lecturer, or see the board on which he iswriting notes. Those who cannot see do their best to copy fromthe notebooks of those who can. After class, if the money isthere, a handout can be purchased from the lecturer. It is hissideline, a supplement to his salary, which has been eroded bycurrency devaluation and inflation. The lecturer recommendsreadings, but the titles are not in the library.

These scenes from the life of one African campus cannot be takento represent all, but the elements are familiar enough in mostuniversities: the student accommodation squeeze, the fAilure ordecline of municipal services, the financial privation of stu-dents, crowded classrooms, teaching reduced to chalk and talk,teachers 7ho must hustle for additional income, libraries whose

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acquisition votes have been nominal for years on end.

The African academic community knows intimately what the deterio-ration of their universities has cost. Few African universitypeople dissent from the view that there is a crisis in Africanhigher education, and that it is long-running and shows no earlysign of abating.

A minister of higher education talks about the strangulation ofthe universities in Africa, of universities being given a starva-tion diet. A Dean's monthly take-home pay in one universitytranslates to US $60. Monthly salaries often do not last morethan a week or two. Academic staff make ends meet by growingbananas, keeping chickens or zero-grazing cattle in their back-yards, or by coaching students privately after hours, or taxi-driving, or trading, or a combination of these. A professorremarks matter-of-factly that it is difficult to find some of hisstaff in the afternoons because they are on their second jobs.Consultancies are prized because they pay well, often in forex,and--with some reservations--they are professionally acceptableand may even be academically challenging.

Repeatedly one is told that the universities' gravest problem isto retain able staff. Young lecturers leave because they areunable to advance themselves by research and publication, or byacquiring advanced degrees. Senior lecturers and professors haveobligations to growing families, and may have suffered sharpdeclines in real income and status. Many can exploit theirseniority and academic records in the labour market, at home orabroad.

However important salary levels are, university people do not saymuch to a visitor about their own financial privations, andusually only if prompted. What they will talk about with anima-tion is their inability to do the job they are trained to do,hired to do and want to do. Many African academics suffer a lossof professional self-esteem. Of all the casualties of the yearsof austerity in the African universities, the damage to morale isparticularly serious.

There is much evidence of selfless devotion and perseverance,from the bottom to the top of the academic ladder. Many academicsmake necessity the mother of improvisation, redouble their effortand cope as best they can with the hardship and frustration ofcontemporary African academic life. But one should not romanti-cize the scholarly community in Africa. Inevitably, energy issapped, compromises are made, and productivity falls. The extremeerosion of working and living conditions on many campuses hasdriven some academics to seek refuge in cynicism, venality,actual or psychic truancy, dereliction of duty and opportunism.The wonder is, when so many have to hustle to survive, thatserious intellectual and pedagogical activity persists even inAfrican universities which have been most hard pressed.

This is a community whose intellectual frame of reference isinstinctively international as well as local, which in partexplains their insistence on the necessity of communication withuniversity colleagues abroad, and maintaining currency with

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international scholarship. Much of the malaise from which manyAfrican scholars suffer arises from the sense of being out ofcontact, and of being denied the maans to be up-to-date as schol-ars and teachers. Many African university people, who are alreadyisolated by geography and national borders, dread the prospect offalling irretrievably out of communication with the internationalacademic system.

They have suffered for years the shortage.or absence of foreignexchange for library books and journals, personal subscriptionsto international scholarly associations, up-to-date scientificand computing equipment for teaching and research, spare parts,reagents and other consumables including paper, reprographicfacilities, travel to conferences, professional contact visits,research attachments and sabbatical leaves. The proliferation ofelectronic databases and networks, and the conversion of manyinternational bibliographic and research abstract services tomicrographic and CD/ROM technology, seems about to relegate mostAfrican universities to a communications and information back-water. Another sign of the separation of Africa from the interna-tional academic mainstream is the relative lack of investment onthe continent in emerging areas of knowledge, such as telecommu-nications, biotechnology and materials science.

The decline in the real value of university budgets, increase inundergraduate student numbers, increase in academic staffturnover, and deterioration in research facilities includinglibrary support, have put postgraduate education in Africanuniversities under severe pressure. The number of admissions orcompletions or both has fallen. At the same time the need forlocal postgraduate training has substantially increased, both tomeet specialist manpower requirements in the economy at large,and especially the replacement and expansion demand for teachersin the higher education system itself. Higher degree studyabroad has become less feasible as its costs have increased whilethe number and value of local scholarships, using scarce foreignexchange, have shrunk. Donor support, however significant,represents a fraction of overall requirements.

Few disagree that the intensity of the university crisis inAfrica has been brought about by the combination of prolongedrecession in most national economies and a surge in public demandfor higher education places as opportunities for secondary educa-tion have broadened and the rate of new job openings has dec-lined. Since all public universities are funded overwhelminglyby the public purse, and both secondary and higher educationadmissions are regulated predominantly if not wholly by thestate, the African governments have a unique responsibility formanaging the key factors on both sides of the university equa-tion. Inevitably, the relations between governments and univer-sities, never easy at the best of times, have been extremelydifficult in these times of crisis.

On many campuses the external pressures have ruptured the fragilesense of community within the universities. Many universityadministrations, unable to extract anything like adequate budge-tary cover from government treasuries for their normal opera-tions, and unable to control the level of student intake, have

4

become targets for the daily campus frustrations as well as thepolitical anger of their student bodies, and have forfeited muchof the goodwill of the academic staff.

One highly respected administrator on the government side des-cribed how the economic decline had led to a chaotic situation inthe universities of that country. On the one hand, the absence ofagreed norms of resource allocation had evoked a wholly self-interested response from each institution,.with heavy competitionfor the available funds and no system to manage them. On theother hand, the universities could not comprehend that an era hadended, and lamented past glories like nobles marooned in theircrumbling castles as feudalism declined in Europe.

The imagery is graphic, the analysis might be contested, but thenotion of a university community traumatized by the direct andindirect effects of economic stringency is not far off the mark.As with all traumas, time has been needed for the universities tocome to terms with what has occurred, and to understand (as ahead of department put it), that the crisis is not short-term butstructural. It is equally true, if not more so, that most go-vernments have been slow to analyze the situation and, togetherwith the universit4es and others, devise appropriate policies forthe planning, management, funding, rehabilitation and developmentof the higher education sector.

A senior African international civil servant, reflecting on thesematters, remarked that one has to be a very optimistic personnot to despair. But it is important, he said, to study theuniversities which had maintained a high level of academic staffmorale, staff retention and scholarly output under exceptionallyadverse circumstances. Overall, despite everything, he remainedimpressed by the depth of enthusiasm and commitment of the Afri-can academic community. They deserved not to be abandoned.

The evidence from this consultation supports his viewpoint.Despite the inroads of the crisis in universities, the Africanacademic community of university teachers and researchers main-tains an impressive degree of pride and professional Lelf-aware-ness. All in all, most of the vice-chancellors and senior aca-demic administrators encountered during this study display im-pressive vigor and determination. They manage their institutionsin a political, social and financial environment which wouldbaffle and deter the most seasoned of first world academic lead-ers, with a lack of infrastructural support which more privilegedadministrators would find incredible and intolerable, and for apecuniary reward which they would consider derisory. Neverthe-less, many African university managers and their academic col-leagues have responded to adversity with a remarkable, almostbuoyant creativity, and are experiencing a rebirth of hope.

In a university with chronic resource shortages and a notoriousbrain-drain problem, a former Dean of Engineering remonstratedpolitely as a visitor commiserated with him over the decline inthe quality of education. It had been very difficult, he conced-ed, but his faculty had been committed to maintaining a highstandard of undergraduate education, even if it meant sacrificingsome research time, and by and large they had succeeded. The

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test was the level of satisfaction of the engineering industry,and the faculty had retained the industry's confidence and prac-tical support, both materially and in terms training place-ments. The faculty's international links were intact and contin-ued to provide an invaluable infusion of staff and equipment,while permitting exchange visits by local academics. Academicstaff were under pressure, but they had stayed.

On another campus across the continent,'a Vice-Chancellor de-scribed how he had taken office five years ago, when the nation-al economy had hit rock-bottom and the university was in terribleshape. Despite everything, there were exceptionally good peopleon the ground and his first priority therefore was to restoremorale. He has been tackling the problem on three fronts.First, opportunities have been provided for academic staff to goout and come back, especially for scientists to visit top-classlaboratories and work with top-class colleagues. Second, he hastrawled donors for books, journals and equipment to rehabilitateseveral departments. Third, he is attempting with his colleaguesto revive postgraduate programs, persuading government to switchmore of its scholarships from study abroad to study at home, andassessing departmental capacity for doctoral work, whether whollyat home or split-site.

This Vice-Chancellor is working within a national highereducation policy which has been in evolution for several yearsand which is overseen by a national implementation committee ontertiary reform. Among the keynotes are agreed planning norms,agreed budgetary procedures, and rationalization of academicprograms among the three national universities. The path is notcmooth, but the direction is forward.

This cameo illustrates the proposition that African governmentshave not given up on their universities, and African universitieshave not given up on themselves. It is true, and extremelywelcome, as the Secretary-General of the AAU has remarked, thatthere is a high level of international consensus about the mainelements of a university reform program. The difficulty lieswithin each national political arena, where crucial questionshave to be formulated and resolved, on matters such as the prior-ity accorded to human resource development, priorities within theeducation sector as a whole, rates of access to higher education,the balance of university and non-university systems and theirrelative rates of growth, the labour market absorption of highereducation graduates, the significance and priorities of nationalresearch and postgraduate education, the funding of higher educa-tion, and the executive management of higher education policies.These are hardly new questions, either within Africa or else-where, but in Africa they are having to be formulated afresh andwith urgency within the framework of national macro-economicadjustment policies, especially budgetary and public employmentpolicies.

Some universities have ridden the economic storm batter than themajority, but the majority are still in considerable trouble,and many are in profound distress. Some governments and universi-ties are already well into the implementation of a comprehen-sive, phased reform program. Some have taken the tentative first

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steps in policy change, while among others the analysis may havebarely begun.

This is therefore a pivotal period in African university develop-ment. It happens to coincide with a seismic shift in the balanceof political forces in sub-Saharan Africa. It remains to be seenwhether or not the democratization debate results in radical andpermanent changes in the political topography of individualstates, or merely causes tremors and opens fissures. What isbeyond doubt is that the universities of Africa, to a greater orlesser extent, had been actors in this debate well before it hadformally been declared open by many state authorities, and theyare certain to become more involved, in a variety of ways, as thedebate proceeds. Not for the first time, some African academicsare already paying a heavy price for their democratic convic-tions.

Not only are the universities, as major national institutions andcitadels of opinion, bound to participate in the politicaldebate, but it would be surprising if the policy discussio-s onuniversity reform or restructuring were to be kept separate fromthe wider political issues. Among the questions already beingraised on African campuses is the implications of politicaldemocratization for the governance of universities, both exter-nally and internally. Another question, which is even morespeculative, is how the management of public demand for highereducation might be undertaken under more liberal and competitivepolitical systems.

The crisis in African higher education mirrors the deep crises innational economies and national political systems. Not surpris-ingly, many African academic people are impatient with a merelytechnical response to the university crisis and argue the needfor a re-examination of the developmental mission of Africanuniversities in the 1990s.

Most of this report discusses issues which are directly relatedto the mission of African universities, but there is no system-atic treatment of the debate and no attempt to construct a newmodel of African university development. A single model is inany case inappropriate. In fact, phrases like 'the Africanuniversity' are wide of the mark. Diversity reigns in the Afri-can university community, as in African political economies, andwhat is needed are complex rather than unitary models of Africanuniversity systems and their roles in the rehabilitation, recon-struction and development of their communities, countries andregion.

Donor policies and African dialog

Donors to African higher education, especially those which wishto help governments and universities address the structuralproblems of university systems, are operating on important andsensitive terrain. They are clearly under scrutiny and they havean obligation to declare their own motives and interests explic-itly so that the common ground may be found and acted upon. In

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the era of democratization, an importent body of African academicopinion believes that donors must be pro-active in support ofcivil rights, civil liberties and intellectual freedom in Africa,not only at the verbal level but in monitoring the actions ofgovernments and university administrations, and making clear thattheir support is conditional on the maintenance of international-ly sanctioned human rights, fundamental freedoms and due processof law.

The Ford and Rockefeller Foundations have earned high prestigefor their contributions to the early physical development of manyAfrican universities, their support over many years to academicstaff development and research, and for the high level of profes-sionalism with which their programs are administered. The founda-tions are regarded by many African academics as associates andadjuncts of the university community in Africa, and enjoy remark-able confidence and trust, but this is not given uncritically.Their consideration of a more active role in strengthening theuniversity systems is welcomed, provided that they take suffi-cient time to study the situation, dnd work out their decisionsin dialog with their African partners, making a careful identifi-cation of the areas where their support is likely to be mostacceptable and effective. Then, provided that the right policyenvironment is created by African governments, the foundations'contribution to restoring the health of the African universitysystem could be significant even if the additional funds they areable to deploy are modest.

On the whole, the current multilateral, bilateral and non-governmental donors have a high degree of acceptability in Afri-can university systems. This should not obscure the fact thatthere is a good deal of anger and perplexity among many Africanuniversity people, including some of the most senior, about thereal intentions of the donor community as a whole towards thehigher education sector and universities in particular. Duringthe 1980s, African university managers and government policy-makers experienced a strong sense of donor ambivalence towardsuniversities' role and needs, which was expressed most markedlyin research reports and policy documents from the World Bank.The mobilization of huge rhetorical resources by the donor commu-nity in constructing the international platform at Jomtien inMarch 1990 to campaign for `asic education for all, has rein-forced the anxieties of the Azrican university community.

As is well known, the World Bank's financial pre-eminence andpolicy influence, and its identification with structural adjust-ment and conditionality, make it the donor, or lender, thatpeople love to hate. The Bank is a vast and complex intellectualas well as financial institution, in which issues and policiesare disputed and factions and fashions rise and fall. Few Africanacademics have the opportunity to engage at first hand with theWorld Bank on its home turf and probably fewer learn the dynamicsof its political economy. Despite the many changes over the pastdecade in the Bank's operational policies, including its consul-tative procedures, the pressure of the World Bank Group's finan-cial and macro-economic policies and the Bank's specific involve-ment in adjustment programs in the education sector, are per-ceived by many African university people as oppressive and by

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some, including university leaders, as hostile to the interestsof university development. It may be unwise to exaggerate thissentiment, but it would equally be unwise to dismiss it. The Bankis deeply involved in African education, and it is not in the inter-ests of Africa's universities for the Bank's university opera-tions to occasion serious unease, if not anger. Nigeria'sFederal Universities Development Sector Adjustment Operation(1990-94) is the Bank's flagship investment in the universitysector in Africa. Elsewhere in the report, a proposal is madefor a thorough-going research study of the entire project, frominception to completion. Such a study should illuminate dispas-sionately the troubled, or at least problematic, relationshipbetween the Bank and one of the largest university systems inAfrica and offer lessons to all concerned.

There appears to be a need for donors, in consultation with theAfrican university community, to re-think and re-state theirindividual and (if it can be achieved) collective position onsupport to African university development. This could run paral-lel and contribute to the reconsideration of African universitygoals which the academic community may itself already have en-gaged on. Donors to African education need to dissociate them-selves as emplatically as possible from a dichotomous and adver-sarial mode7 cf educational needs, which in its crudest form ap-pears to pxt the interests of universities against the interestsof basic education. A clear and unqualified recognition of themutual dependence of the various sectors of the education systemdoes not in itself solve the perennial problems of priorities andresource allocation, but it is a prerequisite to constructivediscussion about them.

There is every reason to believe that the coordination of activi-ty among donors in support of higher education should be pursued.It is true that some African university people fear the influenceof a donor cartel. If donor coordination were organized in sucha way as to maximize the donors' interests at the expense of theAfrican education systems, such fears would be justified. Afri-can critics should be mollified by the difficulty with which thepresent minor levels of donor collaboration have been achieved.There is unlikely to be a serious level of opposition to coordi-nated donor action provided the cardinal principles of fulldisclosure, dialog and mutual respect are observed; in fact quitethe contrary. If donor coordination leads to an improvement ininformation, a rationalization of aid procedures, and a moreeffective deployment of resources, recipients will be wellpleased.

The recent efforts at donor coordination following thepublication of the World Bank's Education in Sub-Saharan Africapaper are not well known in the African universities. Notsurprisingly, given its slow start, the existence of a Donors toAfrican Education (DAE) Working Group on Higher Education wasnews to all but a few. Following the successful second meetingof the Working Group in December 1990, co-hosted by the Associa-tion of African Universities in Accra, it is likely to becomebetter known.

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More seriously, perhaps, there is little evidence in Africancountries of a formal arrangement for government consultationwith all education donors and the coordination of donor supportto education at the sector level, or even at the sub-sectorallevel of higher education. Several universities had convened adhoc conferences of donors in order to share information aboutneeds and priorities and invite pledges of support. These wereconsidered to be useful initiatives which had borne fruit, evenif not as much as had been hoped. It is possible that very fewuniversities indeed have set up donor support groups as a perma-nent mechanism of consultation, planning and review, but the ideawas considered interesting and worth further discussion. It wasknown by some that international research institutes, like ICIPEin Nairobi, have a well-developed donor support group system fromwhich much could be learnt.

This report places strong emphasis on the donor support groupmodel, and suggests some ways by which it could be developed atthe regional, sub-regional, national and institutional levels.

Change in South Africa

One final point of general importance must be mentioned beforespecific proposals are discussed. This is the effect on theAfrican universities both north and south of the Limpopo of thedismantling of apartheid laws in South Africa and a politicalsettlement there. It is, of course, common knowledge that SouthAfrican universities, especially homeland universities, arealready part of the wider African academic labour market, even ifin a semi-surreptitious and restricted way. As the barriers comedown the attraction of South Africa's large, varied, troubled,uneven but dynamic university system for African academics willbe substantial. Some heads of departments fear a catastrophicloss of staff. On the other hand, many South African academicsare likely to wish to work elsewhere in Africa. It is by nomeans too early for this matter to be studied thoroughly anddispassionately. The probable effects need to be anticipated sothat if any action is indicated, it may be considered in advanceby all parties concerned.

Along with such prudent anxiety is a sense of anticipation that agreat academic resource for the African continent will be openenwith important implications for staff development, academicvisits and exchanges, research collaboration, and technical as-sistance. Again, there is every prospect of a two-way flow ofexpertise and enquiry. It may not be premature for such possibil-ities to be studied and, as soon as it is judged politicallyacceptable, for exploratory missions to be undertaken so thateffective channels of communication can be established.

The Association of African Universities, together with the South-ern African universities, would seem to be in the best positionto take the lead in these matters. Non-governmental donors withgood political credentials and long experience of developmentalsupport on both sides of the border are well placed to play afacilitative role in such openings to the south.

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2 THE AFRICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITIES ANDOTHER REPRESENTATIVE UNIVERSITY BODIES

The AAU

There was universal support for the African Association ofUniversities, from the African academic community, from otherinternational university associations, and from donors to Africanhigher education. Under its present leadership, the organizationhas won respect for its capacity to articulate the interests andneeds of its member universities, set an agenda for debate onuniversity reform, and facilitate investigations of a range ofimportant questions in academic planning and management.

If the AAU did not exist, it would be necessary to invent it. Itis difficult to exaggerate the need for a continental body torepresent and defend the interests of the African universitycommunity, especially at a time of unprecedented privation, whenthe fortunes of most African states are at a low ebb and theirinternational influence is diminished. The AAU speaks for itsmembers, and indirectly for the academic community of Africa, inthe forums of the OAU, ECA, the Commonwealth and Francophoneassociations, and UNESCO, among others. It is bound to be aninfluential presence at meetings of the Working Group on HigherEducation of the Donors to African Education. It has forged aninteresting triangular alliance with the International Associa-tion of Universities and UNESCO, and collaborates with the ACUand the UNU.

Aside from its representational functions, the AAU manages adatabase and information clearing house on African universities,and has attracted donor support for the four-year Plan ofActivities agreed by its General Conference. This includes aWest African sub-regional project to reinforce scientificand technological capacity in the field of food and nutrition(funded by the EC); a survey of postgraduate training capacity inWest and Central African universities with a view to sharingresources and developing complementary activities (funded byIDRC) in parallel with a similar IDRC-supported program inEastern and Southern Africa; DAAD has promised follow-up supportto the West African project if it is successfully appraised); astudy of links between universities and 'the productive sector'(funded by IDRC); a project to review the curricula of Africanuniversities in development economics, and prepare and publish acollaborative multi-level textbook (UNDP/ECA); this project alsohas components to promote consultancy services and research net-working in African universities; a major study of efficiency andcost-effectiveness in a sample of African universities(NUFFIC/IBRD); and collaboration with UNESCO in running a consul-tation and a workshop on strategic management for African Vice-Chancellors and Rectors. All items in this program are active.

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The AAU also runs, these days on a small scale, a graduate fel-lowship program and an academic staff exchange program. Itpublishes the pirectory of African Universities, AAU Newsletterand occasional reports and papers from its own press.

The association occupies offices and staff housing provided bythe Government of Ghana in Accra, which also accords the AAUdiplomatic status. The Government of Nigeria has provided anannual grant. Subscriptions from member universities deno-minated in US dollars comprise the regular funds of the associa-tion. The annual subscription is modest and has not been in-creased for several years, yet (because of devaluation or forother reasons) many universities do not pay. Consequently theAAU secretariat has not filled two vital posts and the very fewstaff in post are grossly overworked.

Proposals on the AAU

The establishment of a permanent donor support group for the AAUcould be considered in discussion with the association and inter-ested donors. The second DAE Working Group on Higher Educationmeeting in Accra responded warmly to the idea. The most pressingneed is to enable the association to overcome its chronic deficitand achieve a stable framework for its core funding. To this enda management review by African consultants (such as GIMPA) couldbe considered, which among other things could examine the associ-ation's financial base and in particular the subscription policyand administration, and any other potential source of core fund-ing, local or external.

Meanwhile, donors might consider an early grant to enable thevacant posts of Program Officer (Documentation) and Administra-tive Officer to be filled. The justification for a post ofDirector of Research could be established. Such an officer couldexert quality control over the AAU's already wide-ranging re-search portfolio, and in future might have an important part toplay in the coordination of a program of research on Africanhigher education which is discussed below.

Other representative university bodies

There are other representative associations of universities inAfrica whose activities are highly regarded in the sub-regionsthey serve and by the AAU and the ACU. They are the Inter-University Council of East Africa (IUC), a descendant of thedisbanded University of East Africa, which is supported by thegovernments of Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania, and has a permanentoffice and staff in Kampala; the Association of Eastern andSouthern African Universities (AESAU), which does not have apermanent office but whose current chairman is the Vice-Chancel-lor of the University of Zambia; and the Conference of Rectors,Vice-Chancellors and Presidents of Universities in West Africa(COREVP), which is serviced by the AAU secretariat.

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Of the three, the IUC is a permanent organization with regularmeetings of the heads of the member institutions. It has givenbirth to the East African Association of University Administra-tors, and sponsors workshops for the advancement of individualdisciplines (for instance, a collaborative textbook writingproject in Mathematics).

AESAU is emerging from a lean period after a highly active ini-tial few years. In the interim the Network of Deans and Coordi-nators of Graduate Programs in the Eastern and Southern Africanuniversities has been established under IDRC sponsorship butwithout organizational affiliation.

By contrast the third conference of COREVP, West Africa, metrecently and received a report of the Conference of Deans ofPost-Graduate Education in West and Central African Universities,who had considered the AAU's draft consultancy study on postgrad-uate capacity.

The sub-regional bodies follow different principles of organi-zation but have similar mandates, namely, overcoming the iso-lation of universities which are separated by great distances andnational boundaries, sharing the experience and views on commonproblems of the senior officers of the universities, identifyingfields of common interest, and attempting to pool or coordinatetheir universities' intellectual and physical resources for thecommon good. The emphasis on postgraduate cooperation and theemergence of networking activity among university administratorsare particularly significant in relation to the continental prio-rities of the African universities.

The AAU has a benign view of these regional bodies, with which itmaintains communication, if not organizational oversight.However, in the light of its own experience the Secretary-Generalcautions against proliferation, since representative universitybodies must be funded principally by subscription, andsubscription charges in forex are hard for most universities tomeet.

Nigeria is a sub-region in all but name, and it too has developeda significant cluster of related representative associations.The Committee of Vice-Chancellors (CVC) is an independent bodyof independent means (via rental income) which represents theviews of the university community to the government, and in doingso works in close relationship with the National UniversitiesCommission. In turn the Committee of Registrars of NigerianUniversities, the Committee of Bursars of Nigerian Universities,and the Committee of University Librarians of Nigerian Universi-ties attend to their professional business, work closely with theCVC and undertake studies for the CVC on commission from the NUC.A new body, the Committee of University Planning Officers ofNigerian Universities, has been inaugurated, in recognition ofthe priority, and statutory recognition, which the NUC has askedthe universities to attach to this function.

In principle, representative bodies of this nature, whether inthe large Nigerian national system, or on an international scale,have a highly significant role to play at a time of maximum

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institutional stress and reform. They may act as a conduit forprofessional information and innovatory ideas, an investigativeresource, a forum for collaborative action and rationalization,and as overseers of professional standards and best practice.

Proposals OD other representative university bodies

The sub-regional bodies might consider it. to their advantage tomeet together to compare experience and reflect on their objec-tives and organizational requirements. The AAU might agree toplay host to such a gathering. The experience of the Nigeriancommittees might well be of value to the meeting.

It would be presumptuous to anticipate what might come out ofsuch a meeting, but it might be useful for the bodies representedto consider their long-term organizational role and the merit ofdeveloping a common pattern of organization in the sub-regions.This might make for a sensible degree of specialization, andencourage links between relatEd professional bodies in differentsub-rtgions. In such a scheme, the apex organizations of vice-Chancellors would be in direct communication with the AAU.

Clearly the objective would not be to elaborate an unnecessarysuperstructure of organizations, but to reflect on the effective-ness of the present arrangements and consider how they mightevolve. The consultative and developmental functions of all suchbodies should feed back into qualitative improvement on thecampuses of the member universities, as the intention is atpresent.

It would be mistaken to assume that all the Nigerian representa-tive committees were as well-financed as the CVC might be. ThePlanning Officers, for instance, have had difficulty despite thestatus to which the NUC believes they are entitled. All suchbodies are likely to have heavy work-loads in connection with theFederal Universities Development Sector Adjustment Operation (theIDA project). They might welcome consultation with interesteddonors.

There is a clear role for donors in helping to set up theconsultations, if the bodies themselves so desire. What mighttranspire has to be left to the discussions themselves, but somedonors might feel able to contribute to a support fund for thenetworking activities of the sub-regional organizations, and theestablishment of a permanent office for AESAU.

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2C

3 GOVERNMENT-UNIVERSITY RELATIONS, UNIVERSITY GOVERNANCE, ANDSTUDENT AFFAIRS

Introduction

These are bedrock issues for African universities. The term'government' is a misnomer in this context, because the universi-ty's relations with the state authority usually involve at leastthree important systems, political, bureaucratic and security.Each has several sub-systems, like the university itself.Moreover, the boundary between the university and state systemsmay be far from clear, either in law or fact, and transactionsbetween the two may be affected by various cross-boundary coali-tions of interest.

Nevertheless, at the risk of over-simplification, three aspectsof the issue of government-university relations appear to beparticularly important, and they too are inter-related. No doubtthey.have different weight in different countries. The firstconcerns the proper limits of state intervention with respect tothe universities, the second concerns the manner in which thecommon business of governments and universities is conducted, andthe third relates to the planning and budgeting function.

This chapter also discusse,.., two matters ostensibly of internalconcern to universities, namely governance (or the ordering ofuniversity decision-making) and student affairs. In fact, nei-ther matter is distinct from the broader questions relating stateand university--far from it. Each is high on the agenda ofconcern in African universities and has a major influence onwhether the universities sink or swim.

Government-university relations

The proper limits of state intervention

The first aspect concerns the need to catalyze discussion onsecularizing the university system, or de-linking it from thepolitical and security regime, or, to put the issue more neu-trally, establishing the proper limits of the state's interest inuniversity affairs ane the mechanisms through which it is ex-pressed. It has come to the fore on campuses in different coun-tries as a result of a variety of significant events, like mas-sive increases in student intakes decreed by state authoritieswithout adequate consultation, planning or resourcing, the activ-ities of police and security agents and informers on campus, thebanning of student and academic staff unions, the 'compulsoryretirement' or jailing of maverick faculty members, and theexpulsion or detention of students for their opinions.

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This matter is no doubt an aspect of a wider debate on liberali-zation, constitutional restraint and respect for civil liberties,but the issue is also being formulated in terms of the healthand vigor of the university as an institution. It was passion-ately argued, for instance, that the recovery of the universitieswas conditional on 'the taming of the state', that is releasinguniversities from arbitrary intervention by the executive power.The effect of politically-motivated decisions on admissionslevels was particularly deplored, and considered by many to bethe single most damaging influence on the decline of academicstandards and morale. Another symptom of excessive politiciza-tion which drew fierce comment was the harassment and detentionof students and staff members.

In many systems, the chancellor of the public university oruniversities is the head of state. Although this relationshipmay afford unique access by the university management to theexecutive arm of government, it has also been used as a pretextfor intervention by the presidency in university affairs, oftenwithout consultation either with the ministry responsible foruniversity affairs, or with the university itself. It is truethat some such interventions have been benign. Many have not,but instead have put universities in the intolerable position ofbeing dictated to or interfered with by their own titular heads,acting not in terms of authority conveyed by the universitystatutes, but by virtue of their presidential power. It is thusthe arbitrary use of the executive power of the presidency inuniversity affairs, just as much as the infiltration or overtoppression of the security apparatus, against which the universi-ties seek protection.

The problem of state house-university relations is thus very muchalive in African countries and alternative models, or means ofmoderating the relationship, are being sought. On one campuswhich had been closed after student demonstrations against poorconditions on campus, the university's post mortem panel wasconsidering whether to recommend that the office of the presidentshould appoint an adviser to the president on university affairs.In Nigeria, although direct action by the executive arm of gov-ernment in the universities is not unknown, a different statutoryrelationship between the head of state and the federal universi-ties has been developed. The universities have their own chan-cellors, often eminent traditional leaders, but the head of stateis named by statute as visitor to each university, in whichcapacity the government is able to exercise a right of scrutinyover its academic, administrative, financial and physical af-fairs. In July 1986, five federal universities were investigatedin this way. In July 1990, the NUC announced that the visitor hadappointed visitation panels to assess the work of eight universi-ties over the period 1975-85. The federal minister of educationadvised that their appointment should be regarded as part of theroutine of checks and balances between the government as 'pro-prietor' and the universities.

msatual_snmarsh2n2ign_santssatiagngsztuildingThe second aspect of government-university relations concerns the

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need, expressed by many university people, especially administra-tors, for a more effective dialog with government officialsconcerned with university affairs. The normal forums are consid-ered inadequate because they are formal and limited to bureau-cratic or budgetary decisions. One senior university administra-tor thought that civil servants simply did not understand 'whatkind of an animal a university is', and the university had notyet had the opportunity to educate them.

In this spirit, the University of Zimbabwe administration,shocked by police action on campus, set up a liaison committeewith the Ministry of Home Affairs to consider how a repetitioncould be avoided, and was organizing a seminar on universityautonomy and academic freedom jointly with the Ministry of HigherEducation, the Ministry of Home Affairs and student representa-tives.

As if to underscore the necessity of such arrangements for con-sultation and mutual confidence, new university legislation inZimbabwe has in recent weeks galvanized a student march on Par-liament, blocked by police, followed by a student bus convoy anddemonstrations, industrial action by academic staff, and a diplo-matic demarche by the university authorities to the government.Passions had been ignital over the very issues of governmentpower over university affairs and the relations of universitymanagement with the state authorities and with their own academicconstituency. These events have provided graphic testimony tothe inherent volatility of the four-fold relationship betweenstudents, academic staff, university management and government,and indicate that there is a great need to persevere with initia-tives aimed at building mutual comprehension and confidence.

Plannirmg and budgeting for university systems

The third aspect of government-university relations concerns thedetermination and allocation of budgetary resources for universi-ties. A number of intermediary bodies and other instruments havebeen created to handle it. The logic of intermediary bodiesbegins with the proposition that public universities requirelarge resources for needs which are highly specialized. In orderto protect the universities' interests and adjudicate betweencompeting claims, a statutory body outside both the civil serviceand the universities is set up, to provide a bridge between thetwo. The body is staffed largely by university people so thatthe universities can make their case in the confidence that itwill be understood and properly judged. The intermediary bodybecomes the advocate of the universities' needs before govern-ment. It also has the responsibility of consulting the universi-ties and advising government on university policy, and inter-preting policy, once decided, to the universities. It dividesthe budgetary cake between the universities, using the officialpolicy priorities and planning criteria which are known to allconcerned. The universities then receive their grants of publicfunds from the intermediary body, not the government, in order toavoid the suspicion of political bias.

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This is the model on which the Nigerian National UniversitiesCommission has been constructed over the past quarter-century.The Commission is a statutory body governed by a board of 33members dominated by academics representing the main universitydisciplines, and including representatives of industry, commerce,government and the broader community. The secretariat is headedby an Executive Secretary (responsible to the Federal Minister ofEducation) who leads a professional staff establishment of 96 andsupporting technical staff, organized in six departments: Per-sonnel, Finance and Supplies, Physical Planning and Development,Academic Planning, Research and Postgraduate Development, andStatistics and Records. The secretariat works directly with theuniversities as well as through the Committee of Vice-Chancellors, an unofficial body of considerable authority.

The budgetary and planning functions of the Commission havebecome increasingly inter-dependent. In recent years, especiallywithin the framework of the national structural adjustment ef-fort, the Commission has drawn the universities into a dialecti-cal process of re-structuring. The elements of the program, fewif any of which has been transacted without furious controversy,include the rationalization of academic courses, the establish-ment of minimum academic standards, the accreditation of univer-sity programs and the coordination of research. In the process,the universities' internal structures have come under intensescrutiny. The NUC has requested all federal universities to makestatutory provision for planning units in order to enhance theirauthority in analytical and development work.

The Federal Government deals with the universities principallythrough the NUC. Alongside the NUC, however, are two otherstatutory bodies with university functions, the Joint AdmissionsMatriculation Board (JAMB) which runs the university admissionexaminations and acts as the clearing-house for university appli-cations, and the Students Loans Board (SLB). In addition, anoth-er statutory body, the National Manpower Board,has a well-established reputation for monitoring skilled and high-levelemployment trends. The NUC thus functions at the cutting-edge ofuniversity-government relations, especially with respect to plan-ning and funding, within a cluster of related statutory agencies.The NUC has become the pattern for other Nigerian intermediarybodies in the education sector, responsible for federal planningand funding of polytechnics and federal funding and qualityinitiatives in primary education.

Unlike the NUC, the remit of the Kenya Commission for HigherEducation (CHE) runs through the whole post-secondary sector.However, only one of its statutory functions, the accreditationof universities, has been uppermost since the CHE secretariatbecame operational in 1986. The mushroom growth of a privateuniversity sector in Kenya has focussed the Commission's energieson developing accreditation instruments to regulate their qualityand permit the award of charters to those which pass muster. TheCHE's accreditation function applies in principle also to thefive public universities, where the secretariat hopes to be ableto mediate in order to avoid an unnecessary duplication of aca-demic departments. The secretariat of the CHE is also active intwo other areas. One is an inquiry to establish a 'national

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skills pattern', that is the ratios of professionals, technolo-gists, technicians and craftspeople which are considered neces-sary to meet Kenya's high-level and skilled manpower require-ments. The secretariat believes that a national skills patternis a prerequisite to enable the CHE to coordinate non-universityand university development. The other activity in which the CHEsecretariat has become heavily engaged is the popularization ofscience, with the long-term aim of promoting the achievement of aproduction-related scientific culture in.Kenya at all levels ofsociety.

The secretariat, which has worked thus far with very few profes-sional staff, has begun designing its own long-term structure,which is likely to comprise offices responsible for Administra-tion, Finance, Accreditation, Documentation and Information,Planning and Manpower Development, Post-secondary School Educa-tion and Training, and Science Research and Education.

The CHE is nominally responsible for servicing a UniversityGrants Committee. In practice, Kenya's four public universitiesand one university college continue to argue their individualbudgetary submissions with the treasury, liaising with each otherand collectively through the Committee of Vice-Chancellors, andif necessary carrying their cases to the office of the president,who is chancellor of each of them. The vice-chancellors, who arerepresented on the CHE, and praise its work on the accreditationof private universities, effectively bypass the CHE when it comesto their own plans and budgets. They defend the institutionalautonomy which each university enjoys by virtue of its own stat-ute, and clearly reject the notion of ceding part of it to theCHE. They believe that the rationalization of departments andrelated planning issues are best handled by freely negotiatingthem among themselves. For budgetary control in the publicuniversity sector they favour a statutory University Grants Com-mittee separate from the CHE, and have drafted legislation tothis effect.

Ghana offers a third model of financial relations between govern-ment and universities, which has been developed as part of itseducation sector reform program, and is still evolving. A Nation-al Implementation Committee on Tertiary Reforms meets quarterlyto review the government's action program. In due course astatutory Education Commission with a Committee on Higher Educa-tion might be established to provide a sounding-board for univer-sity opinion.

The government apparently has no intention of establishing aplenary commission on the NUC pattern. For the time being, theNational Council for Higher Education, which has powers of visi-tation and accreditation of courses, is assisting the Divisionof Higher Education of the Ministry of Education. However, theministry concedes that it should not be involved in sensitiveprofessional areas, and is therefore preparing to set up anintermediary Board of Accreditation, with a mandate to rational-ize courses in relation to national requirements and resources.But Ghana appears to be developing a planning and budgetingsystem by direct interaction between the Ministry of Educationand the higher education institutions. Every institution will

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have a planning unit responsible for academic, physical andfiscal planning. National planning norms are being developed bythe Ministry of Education's planning unit in collaboration withthe Ministry of Finance. Exemplar budgets are being drawn up bycollaboration between the national and institutional planningunits, for implementation in 1993. Meanwhile intensive work willproceed with the faculties and departments in order to integratethe national norms with institutional requirements.

In Zambia, a fourth model of financial restructuring is beingimplemented in the two public universities and other colleges andinstitutes. It is contained in a policy document prepared in theMinistry of Higher Education, Science and Technology and an-nounced in parliament by the minister. Among other provisions,including a new system of student finance, it fixes the planningnorms which government will observe in calculating the grants towhich institutions will be entitled. If institutions decide toimplement stricter norms, say in terms of staff-student ratios ornon-academic staff establishments, the government will permitthem to keep the savings which accrue and use the savings attheir own discretion to make qualitative improvements. The newpolicy is being phased in over a period of time, and modifica-tions are being made by consultation between the ministry and theinstitutions. There is no intermediary body in sight.

Of the four models of government-university financing, Kenya'sCHE system has not begun to bite, and its policy for highereducation planning is clearly in disarray. The NUC in Nigeria hasbeen a going concern for many years. Although the new IDA creditfor qualitative improvement in the federal universities hasaroused passions in the academic community, the NUC's writ isprobably strengthened by being the project's executing agency.The other two models are still evolving. Ghana has had a longerlead time and is developing its planning and budgeting system ona considerably more sophisticated scale than Zambia's. However,Zambia's policy has won praise from some neighbouring universi-ties for its boldness and clarity, as well as its built-in incen-tives towards creative budget management. At the least, thesethree offer serious examples of procedures for managing theplanning and budgeting relationship between government and theuniversities, while rationalizing public expenditure accordingto publicly approved norms. In its different way, each illus-trates that a firm and comprehensive government policy for norm-driven university funding, firmly acted upon, is a sine qua nonfor combining cost control with qualitative enhancement.

Neither Ghana nor Zambia has created an intermediary body tohandle the budget process. Their procedures seem to assume thatthe integration of national planning norms in institutional plan-ning processes, and the rationalization of academic programsacross institutions, will largely do away with controversy andcompetition for the available resources. That remains to beseen.

On the other hand, the establishment of intermediary bodies isnot a self-evidently satisfactory solution in all circumstances.To succeed, their mandate must be clear, reasonably acceptableto the universities and legally binding on the executive. They

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require a highly skilled professional staff acceptable to bothsides. In small systems an intermediary body may not be worththe cost and the drain on scarce staff renources. But the ques-tion of how the government conducts its relations with the uni-versities, especially in planning and budgetary matters, willstill need to be resolved. The caliber of the civil servantcresponsible for liaison with the universities on these matters isall-important, particularly in these stressful times when theplanning questions are particularly difficult and feelings areapt to run high.

proposals on government-university relations

Well-considered initiatives, including conferences and research,aimed at illuminating the state's involvement in university sys-tems, deserve donor support. Forums, not necessarily public,which would enable political and university people together toexamine the facts and the issues dispassionately might be par-ticularly helpful. Such forums could include representatives ofthe professions, who are perhaps the universities' natural con-stituency and are likely to be effective interpreters of theirconcerns. The Chief of the Management Development Program Divi-sion of ESAMI indicated his institute's interest in facilitatingnetworking between government and university leaders, in order(for instance) to debate the university autonomy issue. Thegood offices and professional skills of a highly-regarded insti-tution like ESAMI, which stands outside both governments anduniversities, but has strong links with both camps, could beparticularly valuable in helping both sides to establish commonground. Donors might wish to make known their willingness tosupport activities of this nature.

This could also be done in the case of workshops, seminars orretreats involving the university community and government minis-tries with whom they have a regular relationship, such as fi-nance, planning, education and home affairs. For a start, theUniversity of Zimbabwe would welcome support to extend its initi-ative.

Familiarization and confidence-building measures have a chance todefuse suspicion and raise the level of discourse if there is aprior recognition on both sides that a problem exists and shouldbe tackled in a fresh way. Beyond talking together, however,there may well be a need for joint teams of government and uni-versity people to examine state-university relations, includingstatutory provisions, and the political culture of universitygovernance, in countries with a mature tradition of public sectoruniversities. There is scope for donor support for well-plannedstudy visits of this kind by government-university teams fromAfrican countries which embark on a serious effort to re-thinktheir own situations.

There is also considerable scope for donor support in the area ofgovernment-university planning and budgeting, including theintermediary bodies. The Nigerian NUC is now managing the WorldBank's large IDA credit, and ODA is helping the NUC instal amanagement information system. The Bank is negotiating support

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for Ghana's university planning effort, in which the BritishCouncil has an interest. The British Council and Zambia's Minis-try of Higher Education recently hosted an informal workshop forfive university vice-chancellors from the region where the themesof cost-reduction, revenue creation and management restructuringin universities were frankly and animatedly explored. Such work-shops if well prepared are an excellent method for exchanginginformation and stimulating ideas, and could be replicated else-where. The British Council has decided to.sponsor workshops withother groups of vice-chancellors and their deputies, and there isscope for other donors in arranging similar workshops for regis-trars, finance officers and planning officers. Study visits toNigeria and Ghana and any other country where institutionalinnovation is being attempted with imagination and resolutionwould also be particularly rewarding.

The Nigerian system could perhaps benefit by a substantial pro-ject to evaluate the impact of the new, innovative and controver-sial IDA operation. The project document describes the overallobjective as to assist the Nigerian government, through theintermediary of the NUC, to help the federal universitiesimprove their effectiveness and relevance of their teaching andresearch while becoming more cost-effective. Funds will bereleased in three tranches, as the universities comply witheligibility criteria, relating to staff reduction (almost entire-ly non-academic staff) in excess of NUC norms, course rationali-zation, increasing self-financing of student hostels, increasingrevenues from non-government sources, phasing out sub-degreeprograms (to be taken up by non-university institutions), ration-alizing equipment procurement and maintenance, and introducingmanagement information systems.

Under the IDA credit, the NUC will hold a special fund from whichit will contract research from Nigerian universities and insti-tutes in order to illuminate the implementation process. A majorevaluation by independent researchers of the whole experiencedoes not seem to be provided within the project. If the NUC andCVC are supportive, proposals could be invited for such a studyfrom Nigerian research teams on a competitive basis. Provisionshould be made to feed the results back into the policy processafter full discussion in the university community. The earliersuch research could be invited, the better, since the NUC and theuniversities are already well into the first year of the project,which runs until 1993/94. The results should also be shared withother African governments and universities.

University governance

When a senior dean in a first-generation university of a countrywith a functioning intermediary body can say, 'The universitiesare owned by the government, and are told to go in a certaindirection,' it is a symptom of a profound ambiguity about univer-sity governance.

The legal constitution of many universities in the anglophonetradition might read something like this: 'The university is

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incorporated as a statutory body which is governed by a councilwhose composition, powers, and duties are prescribed by law. Thecouncil owns the assets of the university, determines its finan-cial policy, authorizes the creation of faculties and depart-ments, and is the appointing authority for its staff. The aca-demic policy of the university is determined by the senate whosecomposition, powers, and duties are prescribed by law. Thesenate is the admissions and examining authority for the univer-sity and makes its awards. The chancellor.is the titular head ofthe university and the manner of his or her appointment is pre-scribed by law. The chancellor confers the awards of the univer-sity. The vice-chancellor is the chief officer of the universityand the manner of his or her appointment is prescribed by law.The vice-chancellor chairs the senate and is responsible to thecouncil for the academic, financial and administrative managementof the university. The vice-chancellor may consult the chancel-lor about any matter affecting the welfare of the university.'

It is common in many countries for the head of state to be thechancellor of all public universities, whether there is one, two,three or five. It is also common that the appointing authorityfor the vice-chancellor is the head of state, who may also ap-point the chairperson of the university council. The majority ofmembers of council might be either appointed by the government orex officio members who are beholden to the government.

Not surprisingly, given a de jure situation which is a modernmanagement nightmare, and a de facto situation in which statepower and political intervention reign supreme over the universi-ty, many African university people have a strong desire to dragthe entire issue of university governance into the light of day,and treat it to rigorous analysis and debate. This seems highlyappropriate in an era when African political systems are beingsubjected to intense public scrutiny and the liberalization ofthe parastatals has begun.

Apart from the political issue in university governance, there isa good deal of dissatisfaction with the internal structures ofuniversity governance and organization, not just among academicstaff but among university executives as well. A sociologist'scomment, that 'universities are not very interested in under-standing how they operate', may more accurately reflect a passinguniversity tradition of complacency and inertia than the currentmood.

Re-thinking the internal university structures will not be easy,not only because strong vested interests will be challenged, butbecause the dominant currents of thought do not necessarily runin the same direction. One current is aptly summarized by a headof department who commented that 'Democracy and academic deci-sion-making haven't been addressed,' with the implication thatacademic decision-making may be far from democratic. Anothercurrent, prevalent among many university executives, is thatuniversities already suffer from a surfeit of democracy-by-committee, and that much swifter decision-making processes, and amuch sharper definition of the executive role of top management,and accountability at all levels, are essential preconditions forturning the African universities around.

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proposals on university governance

Donors should give every encouragement to well-designed researchproposals on university governance in Africa, including the studyof state intervention in university government (already suggestedin the previous section), university statutes and their applica-tion in practice; the composition and function of universitycouncils; and the structure of academic decision-making, withsuitable recommendations for change. Conferences and workshopson this theme, including sub-regional meetings, could be highlyproductive.

Initiatives within universities to undertake a formal review oftheir internal structure and organization should be given highpriority for donor support. Several donors are already active inthis area, including the British Council, CIDA, NUFFIC, DSE andHEDCO, but the field is by no means saturated and there should begood opportunities for donor support groups at the universitylevel, when they are established, to coordinate their assistance.The professional involvement of senior African management train-ing institutes like ESAMI and GIMPA is strongly recommended.

Student affairs

Considering their importance to the universities and the effectof increased undergraduate numbers on all aspects of universitylife, remarkably little external attention seems to have beenpaid to the needs and conditions of the students themselves, as abody. Student loan schemes may be the exception to prove therule.

Yet the students have made their presence felt. Almost every oneof the universities visited during the course of this studyeither was closed, or had recently been closed, as a result ofstudent unrest. On several campuses the university managementsand academic staff, in some cases with sympathetic governmentsupport, were engaged in reflecting upon the causes and implica-tions of the student outburst, and taking what action they could.

Since the most recent disturbances were only.the latest in arecurring history of campus disruption, it is not surprising thatsome university people regard the relations between the studentbody, the university management, and the government (or rulingpolitical regime) as a fundamental, not an incidental, phenomenonin African university life. It follows, if this is so, that allparties concerned with the recovery of the African universitiesshould treat the issue with respect.

It has been suggested that the students of Africa have for gener-ations accepted a self-appointed mission to speak out on nationalissues on behalf of their parents and the suffering masses oftheir countries. If this is so, periodic conflict with the polit-ical authorities is inevitable. Consideration might be given tothe type of forum which, in times of tranquillity, might beestablished, to enable a round-table dialogue to take place

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between student groups and government officials or leaders. Thehope would be to generate a reasonable mode of discourse as analternative to stone-throwing and police batons.

Unrest occurs these days on campuses where the living and study-ing conditions of university students in Africa are many times,indeed unrecognizably, worse than those of any previous studentgeneration. In the present national economic conditions, withstructural adjustment programs biting deeply into the incomes ofthe poorest, regular investigation needs to be made on eachcampus into the students' economic and social welfare, socialorigins, methods of financial support, accommodation, nutrition,corporate life and organization, views and aspirations. Appropri-ately, under the IDA credit, Nigeria's National UniversitiesCommission will sponsor research to 'monitor the impact of in-creasing user charges on vulnerable groups', so that studentloans and scholarships can be more precisely targeted.

This is welcome, as far as it goes. However, there should be noreason why a student equivalent of a Personal Quality of LifeIndex should not be developed and the student body on everycampus polled annually. It almost goes without saying that theinvestigation should be undertaken by students as a regularresearch exercise under academic supervision. A statisticalseries of this nature would be of value in assessing the materialand psychic condition of the student body, tracking social trendsin the enrolment and attrition of students, and in establishing areliable database for student finance policy.

Student housing is a recurring source of grievance and ranks highamong the chronic insoluble problems of unlversity management.The problem tends to have a very specific character, dependingupon the student housing stock on each campus and its condition,the distance of the campus from the city, public transport, theavailability of rental accommodation and so forth. But it ispossible that some African universities have struck on ways ofcoping with the problems which would be helpful to others.

Through the mechanism of the AAU and the regional associations,it might be profitable for the appropriate officials to pool thisinformation and compare experiences. These might be suitableforums also for the consideration of the radical adjustmentmeasures now being contemplated or already implemented, to removestudent board and/or lodging from the university's annual grant,privatize cafeteria and accommodation services, increase hostelfees and alter student finance arrangements accordingly, or torestructure the university budget to separate municipal fromacademic functions. The recent study of student hostel financingand management, undertaken in terms of the IDA operation by asub-committee of the Nigerian Committee of Vice-Chancellors, maybe a pioneering document in this field and a valuable contribu-tion to any such discussion.

Students' representative organizations have a poor track recordon African campuses, and many of them have been suppressed fromtime to time. It is not clear how many university administra-tions regard student.organizations as a school for citizenship,including the observance of democratic norms, due process, and

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financial fidelity, and it is not clear how much actual tuitionor counselling has been available to student bodies in these artsand disciplines. Certainly the performance of them by successivegenerations of student leaders on many campuses has been poor ifnot worse. It is by no means easy to devise an approach to thisissue which would win the trust and cooperation of the organizedstudent body, but in this age of the democratic opening in Afri-ca, it would be appropriate to consider the matter.

Part of the function of student representative bodies is toprovide working channels of communication with the universityauthorities. Some universities have developed well-establishedroutines to provide an orientation to university affairs forincoming student leaders, and to keep the channels open duringthe academic year. In other universities, the legal framework ofsuch interaction may be unclear, routines of consultation may belacking, and mutual suspicion the norm. The supervision ofstudent affairs may too often be the responsibility of under-resourced dean's or director's offices, with little involvementby anyone else, until confrontation breaks out and crisis manage-ment is the order of the day.

Given the human and political stakes involved, the costs ofinadequate student affairs management will be high. Universitycommunities might welcome help in undertaking internal reviews oftheir student affairs function, including management-faculty-student relations, and the structure and democratic effectivenessof student government.

Proposals on student affairs

It might be helpful if interested donors were to make known theirwillingness to support activities of the type suggested in thepreceding section. Some would be inappropriate to bilateralagencies, but others, particularly those concerning managementand resource issues, and the generation of new knowledge anddata about the conditions of student life, may not be. The AAUand the regional associations should be consulted on their inter-est in participating in consultative meetings on student housingand welfare, should donors be ready to assist with travel sup-

port.

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4 UNIVERSITY MANAGEMENT

Introduction

There is an overwhelming consensus, virtual unanimity, on theurgent need for African universities to overhaul their managementsystems. A highly experienced former registrar called for atransformation of the entire management culture of universities,in order to re-orient them towards cost-effectiveness, efficiencyand accountability. The damage caused by the prolonged economiccrisis, and the implications of macro-economic structural adjust-ment, have created the climate in which such changes have becomepossible, or even mandatory.

The efficiency imperative is not disputed. However, what evokesa furious response from university people is any inference thatefficiency is a sovereign goal. To receive the assent and coop-eration of university faculty, management restructuring must beseen to be the means by which universities can enter the diffi-cult path of reconstruction and quality improvement.

This chapter covers the response which universities are makingand need to make to the pressures for reform in management,including measures for internal management reviews, and therequirements for management training. The condition of women inuniversity management is considered. Planning capacity, includ-ing the achievement of comprehensive management informationsystems, are at the center of the changes that are already inmotion on many campuses. Attention is given to the effects ofstructural adjustment in university financing, and the scope forcost reduction and revenue enhancement. The second part of thechapter takes up the need to protect postgraduate education inAfrican universities by carefully considered organizational andfunding arrangements. The related issue of research managementfollows, and the chapter closes with a discussion of the vitalmanagement issue of equipment maintenance.

Management and planning

University leaders recognize clearly that old-style administra-tive training for administrative staff no longer suffices, if itever did. Vice-Chancellors are anxious to participate in orien-tation workshops like the recent British Council-sponsored one inLusaka, in order to help them break the mould of thought and openthemselves to new possibilities and sources of advice, help andexample. In the light of the success of the Lusaka workshop, theBritish Council is giving the report wide circulation amongvice-chancellors in sub-Saharan Africa and interested donoragencies. The AAU and UNESCO also have plans for a series ofsensitization meetings in Africa for university executive heads

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on strategic planning and management. Meanwhile the BritishCouncil sponsors African university administrators for interna-tional seminars and short courses at the Universities of Bath,Sheffield and Manchester, and CIDA has a similar programme forsenior African university administrators in partnership with theUniversity of Manitoba.

There is general recognition that the starting point for radicalchange is an internal institutional management assessment. To befully effective, it is widely thought that'such assessments mustbe based on a participatory model, rather than merely investiga-tory or consultative patterns. However, they require expertguidance from professional management consultants, who would workwith the management and staff of the university in helping toidentify institutional objectives and bottlenecks to performance.A new management plan, with revised objectives, manning struc-tures, lines of accountability and performance indicators forevaluating achievement might follow, and then a development plan.In the process, training requirements can be identified and theright package of training elements designed, including in-housetraining, to meet the needs of the new system.

The University of Zambia is undertaking such a management auditwith assistance from a British Council consultant. Increasingly,the expertise and local knowledge of the best African managementconsultants need to be engaged by the African universities,possibly in partnership with specialists from abroad.

The under-representation of women in university management, dis-proportionately low even in relation to the number of academicstaff, ought to be one of the issues under scrutiny in any man-agement audit. It has attracted the attention of the Associationof Commonwealth Universities, which with CIDA support has spon-sored sub-regional meetings of women academic managers in Africa(and elsewhere in the Commonwealth), and is inviting donor sup-port to extend the program. A recent study at the University ofZimbabwe found that the economic squeeze on the university hadresulted in a paradoxical increase in the promotion of womenuniversity teachers and their subsequent elevation to administra-tive positions, since considerable numbers of senior men hadjoined the brain drain. The irony and the difficulty of thissituation is that such women are having to cut their teeth asadministrators at a time when the management and resourcingproblems of the university are most grave.

There is no dispute that the creation of planning capacity withinthe university management system is of critical importance,linked to a computerized management information system servingaccounting, budgeting, procurement, salaries, personnel manage-ment, and student services, as well as statistical analysis,academic planning, course scheduling and physical planning. Therole of planning officers in the Nigerian system has recentlybeen clarified by the NUC, which has urged the universities toprepare the necessary legislation to give effect to their en-hanced status. Ahmadu Bello University is rated as having atpresent the most well developed and authoritative planning unitin the Nigerian system, even in advance of its statutory recogni-tion.

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Proposals on university management and planning

Many donors are already at work in the university managementfield, but by common acknowledgement, the work has barely begun.The recent donor activity in the management and planning area hasbeen well received, but the coverage is patchy. It would makevery good sense for the principal interested donors, through theagency of the DAE Higher Education Working Group, in associationwith the AAU, to take an inventory of their activities against amap of all the African universities, in order better to plan acoordinated response to the need, at the level of general policyand resourcing. An investigation by HEDCO into university man-agement on behalf of the European donors to education groupshould prove helpful.

The take-up of donor offers is likely to be uneven, since bydefinition an institution must be ready for change and committedat the top level to embark on change before assistance in themanagement field can be put to good use. Nevertheless, withstrong support from governments and in collaboration with theregional university associations, there is an excellent opportu-nity for networking on a national and sub-regional basis. Aparticularly good start is being made through the orientationworkshops for vice-chancellors (British Council, AAU/UNESCO).These need to be continued in order to achieve full coverage, anda similar series launched to take in registrars, bursars andplanning officers.

The special case of Nigeria deserves attention in its own right,given the excellent base provided by the IDA project and ODA'sMIS initiative, together with the existing national networks ofuniversity registrars, bursars and planning officers (the latterstill struggling to commence its program). Urgent attention isrequired on two fronts. First, an assessment of the condition ofthe planning units should be undertaken in the light of the NUCrequest to universities to upgrade their planning officers'status. It was pointed out that planning units are at the ful-crum of the IDA/NUC operation, but that their status is stillambiguous, their offices understaffed and poorly equipped, andtheir personnel in dire need of professional training.. Second,help might be needed by the Committee of University Bursars indesigning a uniform accounting system for the federal universi-ties, as they have been commissioned to do by the CVC. For thispurpose, uniform management information systems will be essen-tial. The committee is anxious to develop simultaneously a codeof standards for the federal universities on the lines of thedocument adopted by the relevant professional association in theUnited States.

Institutional management assessments followed by appropriatetraining offer an important field of assistance for donors. Inthis area the comparative advantage of commissioning well-respected management development consultants within the regionwould seem to be overwhelming. ESAMI are ready and eager to maketheir services available, not to provide ready-made diagnoses andsolutions, but t) help universities in working to achieve theirown. No doubt other management development institutes would wish

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to do the same. It must be acknowledged that this is a high-riskarea of activity, in that ill-prepared and poorly-conceivedinterventions by management consultants would cause serioussetbacks to essential management reform. The goal should be for asmall and select group of African institutions to take responsi-bility for management training in the higher education field, anddevelop special expertise in it in collaboration with theiruniversity partners. There would seem to be very good scope forinstitutional partnership between the selected African insti-tutes, and some of the specialist higher.education managementunits in Europe and North America.

The Commonwealth Secretariat's important new initiative, theCommonwealth Higher Education Support Scheme (CHESS), was adoptedby the Commonwealth Education Ministers Conference in late Octo-ber 1990. One of its component projects is a Higher EducationManagement Development Service, which is intended to make avail-able an information service to national planning units, and atechnical advisory service in planning, management and finance toindividual institutions. The concept is expected to be refinedand developed further in consultation with Commonwealth universi-ties and ministries, donors and other specialists, and to belaunched in a pilot phase in mid-1991. Initial funding for CHESShas been pledged by Commonwealth governments, but other donorsupport will be welcome as the scheme becomes operational.

Since the Management Development Service will operate on a sub-contracting basis, there is ample scope for donor collaborationin meeting the needs of individual clients. The concept of aninternational clearing-house for information on higher educationmanagement needs further development before its usefulness can beassessed. However, the second CHESS proposal in the managementfield, for the mobilization of a rapid deployment force of man-agement development specialists, recruited from the Common-wealth's extensive international network, is likely to proveattractive to African universities. Again, the development ofworking partnerships with African management institutions seemsessential.

The Association of Commonwealth Universities' initiative forwomen managers' workshops should receive donor support. Studiessimilar to the Zimbabwe one might be undertaken in other coun-tries, on a competitive research grant basis, in order to assessthe situation of women in university management, the extent ofinstitutionalized discrimination and its causes, and the pros-pects for affirmative action.

The establishment of computer-based management information serv-ices, linked to the development of a professional, integratedplanning capacity in universities, is recognized everywhere asan urgent priority, some say the most urgent of all in achievingthe gains in efficiency which have become imperative. Manyuniversities are making headway in this field with donor support,the ODA/British Council program in Nigerian universities, linkedto the full development of the NUC management information systemand the IDA sector adjustment operation, being perhaps the mostextensive so far. The map of donor assistance in the managementfield, suggested above, should be helpful in determining where

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the needs are being attended to and where the demand is particu-larly pressing, and devising an appropriate respons, which couldaim at the installation of MIS in every African university on arolling program by a target date.

Cost reduction and revenue enhancement

African university managers have an increasingly sharp awarenessof the need for pro-active measures in cost reduction and revenueenhancement, often prompted by new official policies on universi-ty planning and financing. Behind the official policies fre-quently lie the severe disciplines of macroeconomic structuraladjustment, and their application in sectoral policy. As highcost institutions, which also appear to have excessively highunit costs by comparison with primary schools, or national percapita incomes, or other countries' unit costs (comparisonsfrequently made by the World Bank's researchers), the Africanuniversities have been easy prey in recent years to radicalcritiques of their cost structures.

Ironically, the high cost charge has been laid at the very timethat African universities have experienced every kind of dilapi-dation and professional humiliation as a result of budgetarystringency, high inflation and currency depreciation. It is thisvery situation which has compelled many universities to accept,even under protest, the core of the World Bank's logic on univer-sity costs. Few university executives would refuse new fundingpolicies which removed from their budgets, or reduced the subsi-dies of, municipal and food and lodging services, provided theyreceived more funds for staff salaries, rehabilitation and main-tenance, teaching equipment and materials, and books and jour-nals. The rationalization of course offerings, the compulsoryretirement of (mainly non-academic) staff in order to meet newplanning norms, and the reconstruction of student finance, in-cluding increased fee charges and the introduction or revival ofstudent loans systems, are highly controversial but are nonethe-less being proceeded with on many campuses.

The demands made upon the management and planning systems ofuniversities by such changes have already been referred to. Itis very important that the whole transition should be properlydocumented and analyzed, at least in a sample of universities. Asnapshot picture on some campuses will be given by the AAU/NUF-FIC/World Bank study, but a collaborative research project in-volving several universities is called for. Since the changeshave already got under way in many universities, the sooner astart can be made the better.

Reference has already been made to the value of university manag-ers being able to share experience. Such meetings are not lux-uries but necessities, given the heavy demands being made onvice-chancellors and senior administrators by the changes beingimplemented, and the untried nature of many of them. The BritishCouncil's Committee for International Cooperation in HigherEducation (CICHE), following the success of the September 1990Lusaka workshop, will finance others out of a special fund dedi-

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cated to help African universities to reduce or recover costs andfind alternative sources of funding.

African universities have gained considerable experience in costreduction, although on most campuses there still seems scope forfurther saving. (Not that overall costs should be expected tocome down, since the severe underfunding of many academic andrelated functions must be redressed if the universities are torecover.)

In this connection, a brief word is needed about the specialistarea of maintenance management. Effective maintenance managementpresupposes a maintenance culture, which by common account islargely lacking and which will require a sustained program ofsensitization, backed by incentives and sanctions, to overcome.The University of Dar es Salaam, with Swiss development support,has embarked on a complete reorganization of its maintenancesystem which is already recording a threefold increase in produc-tivity. The improvements in the quality of communal living,morale, and efficiency, which ensue from a high-quality mainte-nance regime, hardly need emphasis, not to speak of the savingsaccruing from protecting the value of the university's capitalinvestment and avoiding the high but inevitable long-term costsof rehabilitation or replacement.

It seems that revenue-raising measures have not yet been assuccessful or as widespread as cost reduction. University-industry links for the purpose of R&D, raising revenue from'continuing professional education' courses, gaining industry-endowed staff positions, and arranging staff exchanges withindustry are not well developed on most campuses. The AAU hasundertaken a useful study of universities' links with the 'pro-ductive sector'. Some R&D centers within universities have estab-lished themselves and provide a helpful service to industrial andother clients, especially in the field of appropriate technology.However, the growing number of African universities specializingin agriculture, commerce and technology is a phenomenon in it-self, and suggests the need for the issue of industrial links tobe taken up at a conference or workshop at which all of themcould be represented.

There are few university 'development offices', to promote reve-nue-creating services to industry and alumni. University finan-cial management is still almost wholly administrative. Manyuniversities have woken to the need for promoting links withalumni. However, in several countries in Eastern Africa this isnot seen as a major fund-raising source in the short term. Forthe early period of alumni activity, at least, the concentrationwill be on 'friend-raising', not fund-raising. Nevertheless,some universities, particularly in West Africa, have openedendowment funds and invited contributions from their alumni, withsome success.

Consultancy work, especially organized in university consultancycompanies, offers a potential source of revenue. There has beenan explosion of UN and other donor-commission&d consultancies inAfrican countries, and African academics have been the benefici-aries to a very considerable degree, often acting as sub-contrac-

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tors for local firms. This has been a highly significant factorin academic staff retention. However, consultancy has ambiguousconsequences for academic life. Stories abound of some donor-favoured academics cornering the market, of some (perhaps thesame) taking on more assignments than they can cope with, ofsub-contracting with inadequate quality control, of classesmissed without cover. Whether or not universities have intro-duced rules to regulate personal consultancy work and tax privateincomes from this source, it is highly doubtful if they havesucceeded or can succeed in the present economic conditions.Such rules are more likely to prompt concealment, and attempts toclaw back revenue are likely to be counter-productive. Consultan-cy contracts won by university research outfits or consultancycompanies are a different matter.

The AAU's omnibus project with ECA includes an element on thepromotion of consultancy work in universities, but important workin this area has already been done by the more widely-based UNDPconsultancy development project, funded by the Dutch government,coordinated by the World Bank, and executed by full-time projectdirectors in several African countries, including two based inGIMPA and ESAMI. The project has been working with nationalconsultancy communities to help the formation of responsible,professional consultancy industries, with national professionalassociations and codes of practice backed by law. Assistinguniversities to establish their own consultancy companies hasbeen an important element in the project, in view of the highconcentration of professional talent in universities, the inevi-tability of the involvement of academic staff in consultancywork, and the risks that they might be used and exploited byoff-campus entrepreneurs, with no scientific or other benefitsaccruing to the academic community. The project was evaluatedat a meeting in Abidjan in September 1990.

There is good reason for universities to develop a consultancypolicy governing individual and collective consultancy work, inthe interest of good staff management, to safeguard againstunethical practices, and to protect the academic reputations ofthe institutions. ESAMI in Arusha and GIMPA in Accra have builtup considerable insight and expertise in this work. It wouldmake sense for universities to take advantage of the experienceof ESAMI and GIMPA in developing their consultancy policies andestablishing their consultancy companies, including R&D liaisonwith industry.

proposals on cost reduction and revenue enhancement

There is urgent need for a collaborative research project in asample of universities to monitor the adoption, management andconsequences of structural adjustment measures on a continuousbasis. Some of the studies which will be launched by Nigeria'sNational Universities Commission under the IDA scheme will behighly relevant, but are designed to be thematic and to feed intoimplementation. The current AAU survey of cost-effectiveness ishighly relevant but based essentially on a snapshot approach. Abroader and longer-term research design is needed for the compar-ative study. Donors should be encouraged to launch a research

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competition on an Africa-wide basis, and consider associating theAAU with the work.

The British Council's sponsorship of small-scale, high level-workshops for African vice-chancellors and a few consultantsdeserves support, and (as suggested earlier) extension to univer-sity registrars, planning officers and finance officers. Co-financing should be considered if necessary. The experience ofthe Nigerian networks of vice-chancellors and senior academicofficers should be supported and, if they are willing, tappedinto in a suitable way for the benefit of other sub-regions.

The achievement of a general maintenance culture and preventivemaintenance system is essentially a matter for local universitymanagement and financial allocation, but experience indicates animportant role for technical assistance and training in thisarea, and visits to campuses which have successful systems inoperation. It is worth consideration whether the donors whichhave the advantage of experience in helping to develop mainte-nance systems, like the Swiss and the Nordic agencies, could makethis available to the regional university associations and otherinterested donors for possible application elsewhere.

The AAU's initial work on universities and 'the productive sec-tor' deserves to be disseminated more widely and possibly extend-ed. Individual universities which require assistance in design-ing and managing the establishment of development offices, shouldbe able to call on suitable consultancy support or study visitsboth in Africa and abroad. The University of Lagos has perhapsone of the best developed organizations of this type in Africa(and also a consultancy company of long standing). The existenceof a large number of specialized universities of science andtechnology, agriculture, and business, suggests that a workshopbe sponsored, if the idea has their support, to share theirexperience of their relations with industry across the board.

The UNDP/Dutch government/World Bank project on consultancy deve-lopment in Africa deserves to be consolidated and extended,subject, that is, to the outcome of the evaluation. At anyevent, ESAMI's and GIMPA's exceptional experience in this fieldneeds to be made available to universities which seek advice onhow to deal with consultancy work on their campuses, includingsetting up consultancy companies. There is scope for establish-ing collaborative links between consultancy companies in Africanuniversities and similar companies or centers in universitieselsewhere in Africa or abroad. As the Ghanaian project directorsuggested, such collaboration could benefit the universitiesdirectly, for instance through investigations of postgraduatecapacity and curriculum development, or a project to determinehow to encourage people who have made their mark in industry toreturn to the universities as teachers.

The organization of postgraduate studies

The management of postgraduate studies is an organizational issueof particular importance to the recovery and development of the

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African universities. Postgraduate work has declined as theuniversity resource-base has declined, research facilities havedeteriorated and many senior staff have left, or have had tospend most or all of their time coping with the swollen under-graduate enrolment.

The issue is how to organize the management of postgraduatestudies so that they are not only protected but promoted. As aresearch administrator, himself a former dean, put it: 'Graduateprograms need to be insulated from the 'general pressures onuniversities, in management, organization and budgeting.' A sepa-rate graduate faculty with teaching staff wholly committed tohigher degree teaching is recognized to be totally out of thequestion, not only because of the unthinkable cost, but alsobecause in principle the most senior academics should also con-tribute to undergraduate teaching.

The University of Lagos has tackled the problem by creating aPostgraduate School, an autonomous administrative entity. Thecriteria for appointment as a postgraduate teacher are fixed byregulation. Such staff on appointment as postgraduate teachersremain in their own departments, with teaching loads adjusted totheir dual role. (For instance, by regulation, no postgraduateteacher may supervise more than four research students.) The Deanof the Postgraduate School himself remains a member of his teach-ing department and subject to its discipline as far as his teach-ing duties are concerned. The Graduate School budget is about NImillion, of which N600,000 is spent on hiring graduate assist-ants, an essential response to the shortage of senior academicstaff.

This model may well be of interest to other universities. Itssuccess doubtless depends on the level of funding it can attract.A major problem will therefore be that 'Governments,' as oneuniversity administrator remarked, 'do not seem interested inpostgraduate studies'. Their interest has to be aroused. Anotherproblem will be the level of financial support available topostgraduate students themselves. This is a matter which univer-sities have to take up with the potential sponsors, the employ-ers, including government. Since postgraduate studies are almostall vocationally specific, the cost to the sponsor can justifia-bly be linked to benefits. Nigeria is now permitting federaluniversities to charge economic postgraduate fees and has raisedthe postgraduate scholarship accordingly, but the level of per-sonal investment required by postgraduate students is stillconsiderable. As a result, it is difficult for universities toattract some of the brightest students into three-year doctoralprograms when they can complete an MBA in two years and be earn-ing handsomely as soon as they graduate. This situation hasserious implications for the universities' own staff developmentprograms, and by extension the staffing of all other seniorinstitutions in the tertiary sector.

rmoposals on the oraanization of postaraduate studies

Urgent priority should be accorded to university proposals toreorganize the structure, management and resourcing of postgrad-

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uate training. In the selected disciplines in which universitieshave the capacity for postgraduate work of acceptable quality, itis essential that the workloads of qualified postgraduate teach-ers be protected, insofar as they can be, by regulation andorganization.

Government officers responsible for higher education policy andfunding need to be engaged by the universities in a seriousanalysis of the role of postgraduate studies in development, aswell as the current cost structure and the objectives, scale anddistribution of official support through student finance forpostgraduate training at home and abroad. Other employers ofpostgraduate manpower need to be brought into the discussion, toconsider the scope for direct non-governmental investment inpostgraduate training capacity in universities, as well as theirresponsibility for the sponsorship of employees for postgraduatedegrees.

Clearly, such discussions would be better informed by the avail-ability of up-to-date country studies on postgraduate demand,capacity and supply, in which the regional dimension would neces-sarily be important. Donors could assist, as they have in atleast one discipline (Economics, through AERC), by enabling suchstudies to be commissioned.

In this area, as well as the other governance and managementareas, well-considered proposals for study visits within Africa,in other LDCs or elsewhere should be supported.

Research management

The management of research is closely linked with the organiza-tion of postgraduate work in universities, and the two activitiesare frequently discussed in the same breath. This is a criticalbut underdeveloped field where two donors dedicated to researchpromotion, SAREC and IDRC, have been providing some trainingopportunities. IDRC has made it possible for 25 African gradu-ate students in Agriculture, studying in North America, toattend an annual research management program at the University ofManitoba Summer School. As a spinoff, two lecturers from theUniversity of Zimbabwe attended this year's program and returnedwith University of Manitoba staff members to inaugurate a region-al program based in Harare. IDRC supports Sokoine University ofAgriculture's Institute of Research Management in Tanzania, andCISAG's research management center for all disciplines in Dakar.In January 1991, the Eduardo Mondlane University of Mozambique(whose own research administration system is highly regarded)will host a conference on university research management for theSADCC region, funded by SAREC.

It is not clear whether African universities have given suffi-cient attention to the condition of research management in theirinstitutions. No doubt, as in everything else, performancevaries considerably. However, they would do well to take as awarning signal the fact that the reputation of African universityresearch management in the donor community is very low. Several

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representatives of different donor agencies in different Africancountries volunteered views, ranging from frustration to despair,about the poor record of university research bodies and depart-ments in the management of research grants. One key figure inresearch promotion in one of the sub-regions declared categori-cally that, with one exception, he had abandoned grant-making touniversities. The only way, in his view, to achieve results wasto support individual researchers with a proven track-record inresearch completion and financial accountability. Another grantmanager, across the continent, stated that he had written offuniversity grant-making after years of dashed expectations, andwould henceforth direct his grant budget to research networks.

These are not the views of prejudiced or inexperienced individu-als who know nothing about the difficulties under which Africanuniversities and academics are labouring. They indicate a seri-ous problem for universities and donors alike, as well as bodiesresponsible for national science policy and regional scientificorganizations. Many universities claim an absolute shortage ofresearch funds. At the same time, several donors complain thattheir research grants are not spent, or are misdirected, or gounreported.

ELQpnganagementThere appear to be structural problems in research management,and what these are need to be investigated and exposed to scru-tiny if an adequate training response is to be mounted. Like-wise, examples of good practice, by individuals, networks anduniversities, should be examined for the positive lessons theycould offer.

The issue is of sufficient importance for it to be taken up bythe AAU and the sub-regional university associations, with thesupport of interested donors. Considering the millions of dol-lars committed by bilateral donors alone to research in Africa,let alone the foundations and the two dedicated research donors,IDRC and SAREC, donor interest in a more systematic and concertedapproach to the research management problem should be high.There seems to be scope for one or more studies of the problemsand the successes to be commissioned, with support from interest-ed donors. Follow-up workshops should examine the findings anddecide on remedies. Senior African management development insti-tutes might have a role, both in the inquiries and in any train-ing solutions which might be envisaged.

Equipment maintenance

Equipment maintenance is regarded by some university administra-tors and academics as the single area where the greatest gains inacademic productivity, in both teaching and research, could beachieved. Effective equipment maintenance management also re-quires a preventive maintenance culture, but this must be associ-ated with a skilled and realistic procurement policy. Accurateequipment specification, including a high degree of sensitivity

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to local climatic conditions, working environments, and backupservices, the need for compatibility and standardization withininstitutions (and across institutions, wherever possible), and aneffective spare parts ordering program, are pre-requisites for asuccessful long-term planned maintenance system and associatedproductivity gains.

In addition to these requirements, universities and researchinstitutes face peculiar difficulties associated with largebacklogs of defective, obsolete and inappropriate items, much ofit ordered in days of relative plenty or provided by donors,whether or not the suppliers were locally represented. Largeforex outlays are required to bring in spare parts, if they areavailable, or si:.ecialist repair technicians from abroad. Theregion-wide need for viable maintenance, repair and spares serv-ices, coupled with rationalized and realistic procurement poli-cies, is graphically illustrated in an exploratory survey under-taken recently on behalf of the AAU.

Effective maintenance systems are among the 'eligibility crite-ria' which Nigerian universities are required to meet in order toqualify for disbursements under the IDA/NUC credit. The Nigerianuniversities are expected to develop maintenance plans and estab-lish regional equipment maintenance centers. The EC and ODA areexpected to give support to this program.

In the SADCC countries, the International Foundation of Science(IFS), supported by SAREC, has initiated a pilot project whichhas a different organizational base from the Nigerian scheme.The IFS project involves about 35 equipment user groups of re-searchers and technicians, all in the experimental sciences,working in different institutions throughout the region. The aimof the project is to help each group to make maximum use of itsequipment, based on locally available means.

Local ingenuity, within university departments and researchinstitutes, is probably the most obvious local resource on whichto capitalize in addressing the equipment issue. What seemindicated are ways of disseminating to the wider African scien-tific community the region's experience in rehabilitation ofequipment, improvisations and equipment inventions. A valuableSouthern African network, for instance, based in the ComputerStudies Department at the University of Zimbabwe, runs periodicworkshops in appropriate (that is, small-scale, low-cost) comput-er technology design and fabrication, with applications acrossmany disciplines.

A suggestion was made that the African universities might benefitby an examination of low-cost scientific teaching and demonstra-tion equipment for higher education in other LDCs such as India,Indonesia and Malaysia. In addition to helping to fill theserious shortage of such equipment in African university labora-tories, the implication of low-cost items is that they would alsobe inexpensive to repair or replace.

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proposals on egpipment maintenance

The development of sustainable equipment maintenance systems isso fundamental to the quality of teaching and research that asustained and comprehensive donor initiative seems indicated, inassociation with the AAU and the sub-regional university associa-tions. UNESCO, the Commonwealth Secretariat, IFS, SAREC, IDRC,NUFFIC, GTZ and ODA, among others, have all been active in thisfield, but the need is still vast. Appropriate mechanisms for apermanent remedy to the problem on a sub-regional and continentalscale should be seriously entertained.

The Nigerian experience should be assessed as the project pro-ceeds. If possible an early determination should be made as tothe replicability in other sub-regions of Africa of Nigeria'sproposed university-based equipment maintenance system withregional equipment maintenance centers. A CHESS proposal forregionally-organizad technician training could be a valuablevehicle for multi-donor support. The results of the IFS pilotproject in SADCC countries should be instructive, particularly asto whether initiatives are more likely to succeed if based onresearch groups rather than on insti:-utions. Support should bemade available for the generalization of local experience inequipment rehabilitation and appropriate equipment design.Well-researched requests for study visits to other countries inthe South with low-cost laboratory nld workshop equipment indus-tries should be sympathetically considered.

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5 RESEARCH ORGANIZATION, POSTGRADUATE STUDIES,STAFF DEVELOPMENT, ACADEMIC PUBLISHING, LIBRARY DEVELOPMENTAND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter groups together many of the themes that cause mostanxiety on African university campuses and in donor organiza-tions. They represent realms of activity which are to a highdegree mutually dependent and mutually supporting. The robustvigor of one will give others scope and encouragement. If one isin decline, all are losers.

The first section considers rather schematically the pattern ofresearch activities outside and inside universities, and bearsdown on the question of centers of specialization and he organi-zation of postgraduate studies.

The second section considers the questions of staff development(which is used here in the limited sense of measures designed tofoster the academic growth of university teachers and research-ers), academic disciplinary associations, and academic publish-ing.

The third section turns to university library development andassociated information technology.

Research organization and postgraduate studies

Theaxsanization of research

Apart from the universities themselves, African research organi-zations comprise an ever-expanding range of ministries, councils,institutes, centers, networks, associations and academies. Theyoperate at sub-national, national, sub-regional and Pan-Africanlevels, or as African affiliates of world (or Third World)bodies, covering the full spectrum: state-run, parastatal,inter-governmental, independent international, national and localNGO. They are funded by government, single donor, multi-donor,membership subscriptions, or any combination of these. Theirfunctions are equally varied, including research per se, R andD, sponsorship, representation of research bodies, communicationbetween research bodies, and advocacy on behalf of researchcauses. The establishment and maintenance of a database onAfrican research organizations, including development of a taxon-omy and publication of a directory or gazetteer might be a worthyproject for the newly-minted Network of African Scientific Organ-isations (NASO) of the African Academy of Sciences (AAS).

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Within universities there is a less complex but typically diverseorganization of research, around individual scholars, researchpartnerships, departmental research groups of senior scholars andpostgraduate students, long-standing research projects bothdiscipline-based and inter-disciplinary, research centers withinfaculties, free-standing research institutes, and commerciallyrun R&D companies, with a diversity of funding sources to match.

Between the two sets of research structures, university andextra-university, there exists an extraordinary web of recipro-cal, dependent, and perhaps even parasitic, relationships. AsAfrican governments' funding of research in both structures hasdeclined, the proportion of research funds contributed by inter-national agencies has increased, along with the influence of theinternational donor community on the organization and the agendasof African research. The decline in the capacity of universitiesto sustain high-level research has discouraged many donors andpersuaded at least some of them to reduce their direct funding ofuniversity-based research and shift resources into the extra-university, NGO research sector. The high-caliber internationalresearch institutes and (equally international) subject-basedresearch networks seem to have been prime beneficiaries. Therelationship of each of these to the universities is particularlyimportant.

The quality and effectiveness of the research output of theinternational research institutes and the international researchnetworks are the chief justification of their existence. Butwithout scholars there would be no output. It is widely acknowl-edged that both the institutes and the networks have been respon-sible for retaining outstanding scholars in Africa, engaged inproductive scholarship, who might otherwise have sought profes-sional (or economic) satisfaction elsewhere. They have alsoprovided a kind of haven for scholars who have been at oddseither with university managements or with political regimes. Aperceptive senior government official thought that one of theuseful functions of independent research outfits was precisely toprovide a conducive environment for maverick thinkers.

The international research institutes are elite communities ofscholars working collectively on fundamental problems in theirdisciplines, and in the African tradition this has meant problemswhose solution would have a beneficial social or economic impact.These elite scholarly and scientific communities have their rootsin the universities, they maintain collegial relationships withcognate university departments, and their audience ane clienteleis university-educated. The institutes are thus of but not inthe university system. They are able to pursue their own researchprograms by mounting research networks with university scholars,providing research facilities to visiting university scholars,and recruiting postgraduate students from universities as re-search assistants.

These relationships are self-evidently beneficial to both sides,and particularly to the universities in these straitened times.At least one institute, ICIPE, dismayed by the erosion of univer-sity research capacity and proud of its own, would like to incor-porate itself as a teaching company, to offer postgraduate de-

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grees in insect physiology and ecology. It appears that AAS andNASO are hitching their wagons to the same star, advocating thathigh-quality, developmentally-related African research centersshould also take on teaching responsibilities. It would beinteresting to know whether the disciplinary coverage of alltop-rank international African research institutes has ever beenassessed. The proposition, made in some quarters, that interna-tional research institutes should take over postgraduate trainingfrom the declining universities, is discussed at some length inthe next section.

Research networks in Africa have become an increasingly impor-tant channel through which donor funds for research and travelhave reached university faculty. University people readily ac-knowledge how this has benefited morale in a bleak time, butmisgivings are being expressed about some of the side-effects ofthe networks boom. One vice-chancellor emphasized that networkswere no substitute for the rooted development of research capa-city within departments. Research networks had been a savinggrace in helping his university to retain high-caliber facultyduring the worst of the economic crisis, but his main prioritynow was to secure the funds to rehabilitate key departments sothat productive researchers could encourage postgraduate researchto flourish. On the other side of the continent, a researchinstitute director was finding it difficult to maintain a coher-ent research program while members of his research staff, unknownto him, were signing up for network-funded projects on the side.

The head of a successful social science network acknowledged thatnetworks were suffering from the effects of nroliferation. Theywere in competition with each other for the available donor funds,as well as to secure the best researchers. Since networks basedin research NGOs paid better rates than donor-funded universityprojects, they had little difficulty recruiting the universitystaff they wanted. But in the process, the networks were under-cutting or hijacking the universities' own research agendas.

Against these competitive and slightly anarchic tendencies, it is

easy to understand the particular appeal of the African EconomicsResearch Consortium. AERC organizes explicitly in departments ofEconomics, focuses on one field of study within the disciplineand a handful of defined sub-themes, and uses its grant-makingauthority to help lever up research quality through a tough butconstructive process of peer review and expert advice, and theincentive of publication. The consortium has won high praisefrom its academic collaborators and is widely regarded as a modelto be emulated, especially in support of young faculty membersand master's degree candidates.

Proposals on the organization of research

The proliferation in Africa of research organizations of everykind, of which a high proportion is partly or wholly donor-funded, suggests two proposals which donors might consider.

The first is for an African institution, perhaps NASO, to becommissioned to create and maintain a database on African re-

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search organizations, to be published periodically as a work ofreference. (The series of country studies of research capacityand organization which SAREC has commissioned, deserve recogni-tion and may need to be augmented, as companions to the regionalinventory.)

The second proposal is to convene a consultative meeting ofAfrican research networks, perhaps under the auspices of the AAUand AAS, in association with UNESCO and ICSU, to assess thecondition of the networks, their relationship with each other and .the universities, and related matters like donor policy andfunding.

The AERC example has proved compelling, despite its relativeyouth, so that there is every reason to give serious considera-tion to other discipline- or department-based research consortia,run on the same lines. Judging relative priority among the largenumber of academic disciplines in need of assistance is likely tobe somewhat arbitrary. The quality of leadership is pre-eminentin work of this kind, and will have to be assessed along with themerits of each proposal. Two areas have made a distinct impres-sion during the course of the inquiry:

(1) Mathematical Sciences. There is strong evidence that thediscipline of Mathematical Sciences is under particular stress inAfrican universities, with large enrolments and depleted staff.The subject is stereotyped as being exceptionally difficult,especially for girls. Chronic shortages of Mathematics teachersin schools mean that students are not well prepared when theyenter the university. Yet Mathematical Sciences are fundamentaldisciplines, 'so basic that they are invisible' to the universi-ty community, according to a dean of science. Apart from thenurturing support of the International Centre for TheoreticalPhysics in Trieste, there appears to be very little internationalfunding for the discipline in African universities. An AfricanMathematical Sciences Research Consortitm could help to raise thevisibility of the field and give it welcome aid in postgraduatetraining and academic staff development.

(2) Law. This is another discipline in which internationalfinancial support seems to be poorly developed. An area cfspecial need is Public Interest Law, which deals with such issuesas the protection of civil rights and liberties, curbing of thearbitrary use of executive and administrative power, defense ofthe rights of minorities, women and children, and the assertionof the right to legal representation and due process. The eraof the democratic opening in Africa finds most legal systemswithout adequate constitutional and statutory protection for suchrights and liberties, and with an inflated role for the state andthe security apparatus vis a vis the citizen. The legal profes-sion, with notable exceptions, has not developed a tradition ofpublic interest defense. An African Legal Research Consortiumwould provide a timely vehicle for the investigation of some ofthese matters, and the promotion of a new generation of academiclawyers and civil rights practitioners with a specialist interestin the field. In due course, South Africa's highly developedpublic interest law sector, which has been strongly linked touniversity law schools, could offer interesting models of prac-

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tice as well as intellectual resources for an African LegalResearch Consortium.

r e

This inquiry was asked to address the questions whether highquality research and postgraduate studies within African univer-sities were in terminal decline, and should be shifted decisively(with donor support) from universities to non-university researchinstitutes. The questions arise out of the erosion of researchcapacity in many African univeraities, and the pressure underwhich postgraduate education is operating on many campuses.These conditions have been discussed earlier and are well known.

There is full agreement that the deterioration has been severethroughout much of the region, and that even universities withwell-established research cultures and postgraduate programs areholding on with difficulty. However, university people do notconcede that this grave crisis spells the end of research andpostgraduate education in universities, still less that theseactivities should be transported somewhere else. Their responsesto such suggestions take several forms.

Firstly, concerning the diagnosis, it is all too easy to fallinto the trap of over-generalization and believe that because thesituation is bad, it is bad everywhere and without relief. Thisis not the case. For a start, the university landscape in Africais large, complex and various, and there will be exceptions toevery general statement about it. It is impossible, without asystematic investigation, to analyze satisfactorily how someresearchers keep going and how some adequate postgraduate train-ing is offered, because the variables are endless, and many ofthem are personal. Clearly, not every country's economic circum-stances and budgetary policies are the same, not every country isa net loser in the brain drain in every discipline, some facul-ties and departments are better led than others, well-directedaid and link schemes and research networks make a difference,some disciplines are less vulnerable to equipment failure, and soon. Moreover, some universities, having been down, now show manysigns, including self-belief, of bouncing back. The propositionof terminal decline is therefore rejected on the basis that thereis too much life in the system yet.

Secondly, even if the first proposition--terminal decline--isconceded for the sake of argument, the second proposition--shift-ing research and postgraduate education into high-caliber inde-pendent research institutes--fails on the issue of resources andinfrastructure. If resources are to be made available for a newsystem, why should they not be made available for the universi-ties, where so much has already been invested, and the manpowerand backup facilities, if depleted, need only to be revived notnewly established? The idea of independent research institutesreplacing universities as postgraduate schools seems merelyfanciful to many people, given the difference in marginal cost.The institutes' research interests tend to be highly specializedand do not cover the range of core academic disciplines. More-over, the enrolment capacity of the research institutes taken

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together could not match the requirement for postgraduate enrol-ment throughout the region.

Thirdly, it is pointed out by university people that independentresearch institutes recruit their staff from university facul-ties, and rely on scientists and technologists, who are productsof universities and nowhere else, to take up and apply theirresearch findings. It follows that the health and influence ofthe research institutes are totally dependent in the long termupon the quality of both the faculty and the graduate output ofthe universities. It would be delusory to cream off the bestresearch scientists for the independent institutes, run downuniversity-based research, and expect the quality of sciencegraduates to remain the same. Any gains to the research insti-tutes would be short-lived. Moreover, the loss to the universi-ties would be catastrophic, because the best people would becompelled by professional self-preservation to abandon the uni-versities in favour of their competitors.

Fourthly, it is widely recognized that a go-it-alone strategy byeach university makes no sense. There is much evidence that theAfrican university community, often with donor support, has beenengaged for many years in evolving an alternative, sustainablepattern of research and postgraduate development. The evolution-ary process has not been linear, and it has been far from system-atic. In recent years, however, forced to confront hard choices,the African universities have endorsed the policy that highquality research facilities and associated postgraduate educationneed to be built up on a selective basis within the Africanregion. As a senior professor put it, 'The rationalization ofresources is essential. Egalsahil integration is a rationalstrategy of national development. The sub-regional universityassociations and the AAU have thrown their weight behind thepolicy. UNESCO and the World Bank strongly endorse it.

The African experience of intra-regional collaboration goes backmany years, to the proliferation of single national universitiesin late-colonial and newly-independent African states. Suchuniversities, especially very small ones, have acknowledged fromthe outset that self-sufficiency in postgraduate and researchcapacity is out of the question. As a matter of course, there-fore, they have adopted inter-university collaboration acrossnational frontiers as a principle of development. The colonialexperiments with selective development within international fede-ral systems did not endure, but many bilateral and multilateralarrangements between independent universities have done so.

Over the years, many outstanding African departments and univer-sity-based research institutes have become recognized as leadingcenters for research and postgraduate training. This has oc-curred formally through a process of selection by the collaborat-ing universities, under the aegis of sub-regional or regionalbodies like UNESCO's ANSTI, or SADCC, or de facto through inter-national agency support of particular disciplinary programs (forexample, in Statistics, Demography, Marine Biology and Informa-tion Sciences), and the provision of scholarships to enable stu-dents from the region to attend them.

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In multi-university national systems, the same principle ofinter-university collaboration implies the need for rationaliza-tion and selective development of research capacity, sharinghigh-quality staff and encouraging postgraduate student mobility.These procedures not only conserve scarce national resources,but widen the pool of talent and facilities from which academicsthroughout the national system, and for that matter across theregion, can benefit.

In recent years, countries like Nigeria and Ghana have engaged inaccreditation and rationalization exercises at considerable poli-tical cost. The IDA/NUC credit, notwithstanding the sound andfury it has provoked, is aimed at lubricating the adjustmentprocess in the Nigerian federal university system, in favour ofthe rehabilitation and selective support of research and post-graduate capacity. Furthermore, Nigeria has embarked upon a majordifferentiation within its extensive and multi-tiered systemwhich involves converting the first-generation universities bystages into dedicated postgraduate institutions. Ghana's andNigeria's pioneering efforts are no doubt exceptionally instruc-tive for other countries which are engaged in the development ofmulti-university systems, as well as for those which are planningthe prodess of institutional specialization within sub-regionalframeworks.

Reference was made in chapter 2 to the work of sub-regionalnetworks of deans, supported by IDRC, the AAU and the sub-regional associations, who have been mapping postgraduate train-ing capacity by discipline as a precursor to rationalizing fur-ther investment and student recruitment. ESAURP, the inter-university research program based in Dar es Salaam, is 'andertak-ing a detailed study of postgraduate training capacity in easternand southern Africa, in 13 priority disciplines, with supportfrom NORAD.

Despite the very wide agreement of the AAU and the sub-regionalassociations, vice-chancellors, postgraduate deans and departmentheads, that inter-university collaboration is the only rationalpath to follow, it is accepted that the policy of rationalizingresearch and postgraduate capacity within regions is not workingfast enough. Admittedly, a systematic planning exercise, whichthe sub-regional associations favour, involves a lengthy process.The preliminary steps include establishing criteria of researchand postgraduate capacity and performance, appointing specialistpanels, visiting universities, preparing reports, holding sub-regional meetings, and deciding on the designation of centers ofspecialization.

To reach this stage successfully requires objectivity and academ-ic diplomacy of a high order. Only then can domestic and exter-nal resources be mobilized to build up the designated centers andsecure finance for visiting faculty and postgraduate fellowships.The success of the policy may be compromised at the implementa-tion stage by national governments or university authoritiesputting their own ambitions above regional solidarity. More-over, postgraduate student mobility relies upon the consent ofthe students concerned, which cannot be taken for granted. Asone vice-chancellor remarked, no student will willingly take up a

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postgraduate place in a strange country whose political stabilityand economic conditions are rated worse than they are at home.

Few university people have illusions about the difficulties ofrationalizing regional capacity, and making the new system workon a much wider scale than has so far been achieved. The great-est spur to persevere is that the laissez faire alternative isknown to be disastrous.

In pursuing the regional policy, the university associations andmember institutions have no alternative but to work on patiently,establishing their databases, and planning with governments,industrial sponsors and concerned donors the system of invest-ments and incentives which is needed to build up recognizedspecialist centers in an increasing number of disciplines. Thereare already many arrangements in place, some bilateral, somesub-regional, involving many different agencies and sponsors. Itis unwise to expect a sub-continental master plan, but short ofthat there is still great scope for collective action. The AAUand the sub-regional associations of universities are the obviousforums to continue the work on which they are already engaged, inconjunction with disciplinary-based regional and internationalscholarly associations, and the donor community.

Fifthly, and lastly in this list of responses, university peoplebelieve that the long-term future of scholarship in Africa, asone vice-chancellor put it, depends upon the building up of aself-reproducing base. The pressure on the African universitysystem, in the jaws of enrolment increases and forex constraints,is to build postgraduate capacity in order to prepare the next,larger, generation of university staff. The internal dynamicfavouring the development or strengthening of postgraduate pro-grams in universities is therefore, to a large degree, the dynam-ic of the perpetuation of species.

Necessarily, as in all universities of the anglophone model, thefirst priority is to achieve a satisfactory spread of master'sprograms within Africa. For the core disciplines, this ought tobe possible to contemplate within a reasonable time scale on asub-regional basis. For doctoral programs, selectivity willnecessarily be more stringent and the pace of development, evenon a sub-regional basis, will be slower. Universities will needto continue to take realistic funding decisions with respect totheir own staff development programs. For many disciplines inmany universities, as a former registrar pointed out, creatingdoctoral training capacity will not be a cost-effective option,compared with the benefits, academic and otherwise, of sendingtheir academic staff abroad, whether in Africa or elsewhere.

In fact, the present pattern of doctoral education for candidatesfrom the Africa region is quite varied. Many universities alreadyoffer doctoral degrees in a wide variety of disciplines. Qualita-tive erosion and the counter-measures in favour of rationaliza-tion, accreditation and sub-regional selectivity should, inprinciple, thin out the number of departments eligible to enroldoctoral candidates. Collabr ative arrangements among universi-ties within the region and auroad are beneficial as a means ofextending the range of expertise, equipment and other resources

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available to candidates, ind assisting departments new to doctor-al work to consolidate their experience. Inter-university linkswith countries in Europe and North America are of long standing.Institutional links remain exceptionally popular in Africanuniversities, not just for the associated faculty scholarships,but because they often permit short-term relief teaching arrange-ments, research collaboration, periodical, research abstract orphotocopy support, and the reassurance and stimulus of contact.Although there has been a decline of confidence in twinningprocedures in Canada and the United States, the European andScandinavian connections are still strong and valued. New mecha-nisms for designing the agreements between collaborating univer-sities, and the possibility of split-site doctoral programs,offer hope of a revival of interest in university twinning inNorth America.

The concept of split-site doctoral programs is now well estab-lished and such programs are appreciated for their flexibility,intellectual richness and potential cost saving. DAAD offers avirtually open-ended model, through which a combination of re-search experiences in more than one country (in Africa and Germa-ny) can be designed to suit the African candidate's topic andequipment or supervision needs. (DAAD also gives scholarships forMaster's degrees at African universities.) USAID and ODA will bemaking a higher proportion of their graduate scholarships avail-able for in-country and third-country training, including split-site programs.

A sort of post hoc split-site experience inspires the RockefellerFoundation's African Dissertation Internship Awards Program(ADIAP), which is run in collaboration with the African Academyof Sciences. This program enables selected doctoral students whoare already in the United States and Canada to return to Africafor supervised fieldwork in designated developed-related fields.The aim is to improve the developmental relevance and quality ofdoctoral research by enabling candidates to be attached to Afri-can research institutions as interns. It is also hoped that thebonds interns develop with colleagues in their fieldwork environ-ment will make it easier for them to return home when they gradu-ate. The ADIAP program is admired and more like it are needed.

A domestic variant of split-site degree programs is already inplace through collaboration between African university depart-ments and independent African research institutes. Africanuniversities value the opportunity to send postgraduate studentson attachment to institutes like ICIPE for laboratory and fieldresearch. Such relationships are considered natural and mutuallybeneficial, and they are a far cry from the deadly competitionbetween universities and research institutes that was conjured upby the hypothetical propositions considered earlier. If univer-sity-research institute collaboration in postgraduate trainingoccurs at present chiefly in the experimental sciences, thereseems no reason why it should not be extended to the high-qualitysocial science research centers as well. Furthermore, there isevery reason to encourage the establishment of collaborativelinks, or twinning arrangements, between universities withinAfrica, in which collaboration in postgraduate training andresearch would be central.

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Proposals on centers of specialization and postgraduate studies

The upshot of the discussion in this section is that the wayahead for the development of research and postgraduate capacityin African universities is through a selective concentration ofresources within the university system, and the achievement ofcollaborative links among African universities, between Africanuniversities and top research institutes, and between Africanuniversities and universities abroad.

The efforts of the AAU, the sub-regional university associations,and the discipline-based scholarly associations deserve donorsupport as they continue to work with their member universities,both in identifying centers of specialization, and in designingprocedures for implementing inter-university collaboration. Thisis a highly complex planning exercise. As was mentioned before,the AAU and the sub-regional associations need an assured organi-zational base in order to undertake sustained technical andliaison work of this kind. The chosen centers (faculties, de-partments and institutes) will need strengthening in order toequip themselves for their expanded roles.

The financing of student mobility within Africa at the postgradu-ate level is likely to be a practical issue deserving specialstudy, taking into account the variety of currency areas and freetrade agreements in place. There are clear advantages in limit-ing the hard currency requirements of postgraduate student ex-change, but where these are unavoidable, donor finance would behelpful.

There was, in fact, an overwhelming demand from the Africanuniversities for donor support for postgraduate scholarships.The variety of patterns of postgraduate study and research,particularly at the doctoral level, including several types ofsplit-site degree programs, indicate the need for flexible fund-ing on the DAAD model. Fellowships like the Rockefeller Founda-tion's, which enable candidates to undertake well-supervisedfieldwork in Africa, are particularly welcome. In fact, theadvice specifically aimed at the foundations was that they shoulddo what they've always done well--'train people'.

The foundations may be particularly well placed to help developinstitutional links between African universities and Africa'sinternational research institutes, an under-developed aspect ofthe twinning relationship which African universities continue toregard as particularly productive.

Staff development, subject associations and academic publishing

The term 'staff development' is used here in the restricted senseof academic growth. In many African universities the term re-lates primarily to opportunities for academic staff to undertakeadvanced degree study, but this aspect has been covered in theprevious section.

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It is impossible to exaggerate the importance which vice-chancel-lors, deans, directors, librarians and other university peopleplaced on academic mobility. The refrain was insistent: 'Weneed access to stimulation, interchange, nourishment, exposure tonew techniques.' This boils down to three sorts of activity,both within Africa and abroad: conference travel, academiccontact visits, and sabbaticals. Foreign exchange is the mostcommonly cited constraint.

Subject associations are typically organized on a national andsub-regional or regional basis, often linked to world bodies. Atthe national level, the common pattern is that university spe-cialists in the discipline provide leadership to a nationalassociation which includes members from throughout the educationsystem and related professions. The associations serve as avital source of intellectual development for its members and arecapable of catalyzing change within the education system atlarge. Both at national and international levels, the aGsocia-tions operate by organizing meetings and conferences or work-shops, for which papers are prepared and after which proceedingsare published, as well as resource materials for teachers.

The subject associations are clearly an important channel ofmobility and intellectual stimulation for university people, andat their most productive are capable of publishing and dissemi-nating academic work of considerable interest and value withinthe discipline. Unfortunately, the work of the African subjectassociations, with a few notable exceptions, has fallen on hardtimes. Meetings tend to be held less frequently, with fewerattending, and proceedings may be prepared but not published.

The publications of the subject associations, and learned bodieslike the Nigerian Academy of Science (NAS), which is also strug-gling to overcome its backlog, are an important part of theoutput of academic publications in Africa, and in some of thesmaller countries such materials may represent a surprisinglyhigh proportion of university publishing. The sharp decline inthe availability of imported academic books has put the spotlighton the radically under-developed state of academic publishing inAfrica. Not surprisingly, therefore, the building of academicpublishing capacity, whether through university presses or thesubsidization of commercial publishers, is presented as a veryhigh priority for the raising of academic morale, and the revivalof teaching and learning, in African universities.

The complexity of university publishing should not be under-estimated. Before books are puLdished they have to be written.In a situation where imported textbooks are hard to come by,there is a clear advantage in African academics concentrating onwriting essential texts for the core disciplines. The AAU/ECAproject for the development of a standard multi-level text indevelopment economics for Africa is a case in point. One youngsociologist recommended in all seriousness that the best invest-ment by external donors in academic quality, and specifically theretention of able academic staff, would be to support disci-pline-based textbook writing workshops, because no other activitywould give more professional satisfaction to energetic and ambi-tious scholars.

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It should not need emphasis that good writing is as much a craftas good teaching, and craft needs to be learnt. Workshops ofacademic writers and editors would be helpful. Universitiescould draw on the experience of senior African management devel-opment institutes, which have given particular attention to thepreparation of learning materials, including their speciality,the case study. Distance learning specialists could also adviseon the design of books from the standpoint of inter-active learn-ing. Desktop publishing may have put the physical design andcomposition of books within easy reach of most universities, butthe availability of paper and printing and binding capacity aremajor constraints in some countries.

proposals on staff development, subject associations and academicpublishing

If donors were able to provide African universities with a for-eign exchange fund to support academic contact visits and confer-ence travel, they would be striking a blow for improved moraleand productivity.

Sabbaticals are more difficult. For the time being, unavoid-ably, sabbaticals are a much sought-after perk which enableacademics to earn a stipend in hard currency for a while, perhapssave enough to purchase a second-hand car to take home, andsometimes, at least, build the academic contacts which mightresult in a job offer outside the country. Universities may needhelp in working out a sustainable and competitive sabbaticalpolicy, including especially the possibility of a regional sab-batical exchange scheme, and financing it in foreign currency.

DSE has pioneered support for another aspect of staff developmentwhich was referred to appreciatively in participating universi-ties. After many years of support to the improvement of pedagogywithin universities, DSE offered a multi-year program package toten African universities. The program is initiated and imple-mented by the universities, with forex support and some technicalassistance from DSE. It involves inter-university visits, sub-regional workshops, materials preparation, and ultimately theestablishment of lecturer-training centers by the universitiesthemselves. DSE has collaborated with the British Council inthis endeavor, and expects to link with UNESCO and the AAU.

Relatively small forex funds in support of subject associationswould enable them to publish and disseminate their backlogs ofproceedings and lubricate their conference schedules, with anentirely disproportionate payoff in terms of revived morale andacademic production. An academically-savvy government officialstrongly recommended that donor funding to academic conferencesor research projects should always include an element to cover anacademic product, such as a book, tape recording or video.

University publishing generally stands out as a priority fieldfor assistance. Its importance and complexity suggest the needfor a ste.te of the art appraisal, or perhaps several sub-regionalstudies, of the current state of affairs and the prospects for

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development of sustainable academic publishing in Africa. Thestudies should examine the entire process, from writing andediting to composing, printing, marketing and distribution, withspecial attention to the prospects of the new publishing tech-nologies and the economics of academic publishing on a sub-regional and pan-African scale. On the initiative of a sub-regional subject association, the Association of UniversityTeachers of Literature and Language (ATOLL), NORAD has agreed tofund a feasibility study for an academic press for the SADCCregion. The Commonwealth Secretariat's CHESS scheme provides fora pilot project to provide a comprehensive range of services inacademic publishing to one university (not necessarily African),the results of which would be monitored and made available toother universities.

Meanwhile, as the University of Dar es Salaam has demonstrated,once funds are available (in this case from the Dutch government)there are existing possibilities for rapidly reducing the backlogof unpublished manuscripts (37 titles at the University of Dar esSalaam Press). Moreover, by arrangement with the United Statesand Indian governments, PL140 countervalue funds in India havebeen released to enable some University of Dar es Salaam Presstitles to be printed in India at a fraction of the local cost.This novel solution may be available to other African countries.

University library development and information technology

Along with the need for staff development, the plight of theuniversity library systems drew most impassioned comment fromAfrican university people and donors. The virtual standstill innew book procurement in many libraries, and the running down ofthe journal collections, have come to symbolize the decline inthe African universities. The knock-on effects include a drasticinterference in scholarly production, since African academicsworth their salt are unwilling to write for international jour-nals on the basis of live year old literature, and some declineto attend international conferences for which they are too embar-rassed to prepare papers. Scholars know they are out of touch.Students, by contrast, have no yardstick to measure the deficitin their own learning. Recent African graduates studying abroadhave to struggle to enter the mainstream of current scholarship.

The situation has become substantially more grave in recent yearssince the rapid adoption of new technology for academic communi-cation in the advanced countries. African universities are nownot simply out of date in their library collections, they facethe threat of being marooned on the other side of a technologicaldivide. All the African universities visited for this inquirywere keenly aware of their predicament and anxious to get out of

it at the earliest opportunity.

The Nigerian federal universities are embarking on a major ra-tionalization of their library policy and upgrading of librarytechnology under the IDA/NUC program. The NUC is establishing aDirectorate for Library Affairs to coordinate the process. Alluniversities have been requested to establish core textbook and

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journal collections. The Committee of Vice Chancellors has beenasked to designate selected libraries and disciplines for refer-ral purposes, and they will hold a wider range of specialistvolumes and subscriptions. A union list will give all universi-ties access to the whole collection, and photocopiers are beinginstalled to enable the referral libraries to provide an articlephotocopy service to the others on demand. Computer systems arebeing installed to handle the catalog and circulation, and theCommittee of University Librarians is discussing the need tostandardize on hardware for networking throughout the Nigerianuniversity library system. Meanwhile, librarians are anxious toinstal CD/ROM drives and readers so that they can subscribe bydegrees to the standard research databases and continue toaccess the international scientific abstract services which areswitching to the new technology. Along with the changes and thelibrarians' hopes is a radical sense of unease, a fear that thenew library system will become technologically dependent whileelementary support and backup services, like electric power andtelephones, cannot be trusted.

The University of Zambia library also has plans to upgrade itstechnology, and will be able to do so under a FINNIDA educationsector support program which targets library development andinformation technology. The library will instal a minicomputerto handle an integrated library system and provide access toelectronic networks through the Computer Center's mainframe.CD/ROM drives and readers are also expected to be installed, withsubscriptions to MEDLINE, AGRICOLA, COMPENDEX and ERIC.

CD/ROM technology has exceptional scope as a research and refer-ence resource, partially substituting for conventional researchlibrary collections. Its significance for African universitiesis already high, in terms of access to bibliographical data, butbefore long entire libraries, selected to match programs ofstudy, will be available on disk at affordable cost--once thedevelopment costs have been borne and copyright problems over-come. The evidence points strongly at this stage in favour ofCD/ROM as an attainable and user-friendly technology, and Africanuniversities are eager to be assisted to obtain it.

Proposals on library development and information technology

The necessity for the computerization of African university lib-raries is overwhelming in order to arrest their slide away fromthe electronically communicating academic world. The librariesneed to move from manual to computer-based information systemsfor cataloging and circulation. They need fax machines, minicom-puters for network access and CD/ROM stations to access data-bases: As with the establishment of computer-based managementinformation systems, it would be advisable to map the progress ofall the African universities in this respect, and attempt toachieve a progressive program of donor support for installing thetechnology, acquiring appropriate software and arranging thetraining of library staff. The AAU, together with the Associa-tion of African University Librarians, UNESCO and the Interna-tional Federation of Library Associations (IFLA), would be theappropriate bodies to spearhead the initiative. IFLA has already

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made progress in this matter, and SAREC are supportive. There isevery reason to believe that many other donors would wish toparticipate. IDRC and the Rockefeller Foundation have majorinterests in this area and have recently undertaken studies whichwould throw light on it.

The journal shortage is a pressing need which must be attended toeven while the information technology initiative is under way.Nigeria's approach to rationalization of the journal collectionsmight be illuminating to other parts of the region, although whatNigeria can hope to gain from economies of scale is more diffi-cult to achieve across several countries. Nevertheless, a starthas been made in the Southern African region with support fromUNESCO and /DRC towards the creation of a union list of periodi-cals. Perhaps the next stage would be for the participatinguniversities to decide on core collections and disciplinaryspecializations.

The urgent need to replenish journal and academic book collec-tions has attracted the attention of many agencies includingUNESCO, ICSU, AAAS, IAI, IAU and the Commonwealth Secretariat, toname only some of the most prominent. Some of the proposals havemuch in common. For example, CHESS intends to explore the provi-sion of academic journals to African universities on the basis ofagreements with publishers in all the main journal-producingcountries to sell at run-on cost. IAI has a similar proposal forboth books and journals. ICSU and CHESS intend to compile inven-tories of available schemes of assistance, ICSU in the scientificdisciplines, CHESS across the board, including equipment andtechnical assistance as well as books and periodicals. IAI havealready published a selective directory of book and journalassistance to universities in Africa (Africa, 60, 1, 1990), andlaunched it at a workshop of donors, publishers and Africanists.

The Ford Foundation has grant-aided the AAAS scheme to supplyAfrican university libraries at their request with journalsdonated by American learned societies. The IAI and CHESS propos-als deserve support, so long as they do not overlap. There seemsto be every reason to follow the IAI's lead and bring togetherthe major interested donors, multilaterals and NGOs, along withacademic publishers, in a workshop aimed at concerting resourcesand avoiding unnecessary duplication in book and journal supportschemes.

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6 RESEARCH ON HIGHER EDUCATION IN AFRICA

Items for a research agenda

This consultation was undertaken in order to throw light on thestate of African universities, and to receive advice on whetherand how the Foundations and other donors could help the universi-ties more effectively to safeguard and strengthen their corefunctions in a period of severe economic duress and politicaluncertainty. Research is by universal agreement a core functionof universities. Research on higher education has the addedmerit, if it is well targeted, executed, and disseminated, ofcontributing to the,self-knowledge of university communities andimproving the chances that the options available to decision-makers will be better understood, and debated with more insight.

It is not surprising that proposals for research on the Africanuniversities were made time and again in discussion with univer-sity people, government officials and donor representatives. Theneed to know is acute and the current research output in thisfield by African scholars is low. The topics listed below arenot presented as a comprehensive agenda but bring together theproposals which have been reported in previous chapters:

re-examine the developmental roles or missions of theAfrican universities in the'90s (pp. 7, 9)

re-examine donor policies toward the higher educationsector in Africa (p. 9)

mount a major study of the Nigerian IDA project in thefederal universities, from inception to completion,conceived partly as an analysis of donor-government-university relations, and partly as a means of feedingback information into the policy process (pp 9, 22)

undertake research on university-government relations,including funding mechanisms or intermediary bodies (p.21), and on internal university governance, includingstudies of state intervention (p. 24)

establish an annual series on students' quality oflife, to be monitored by student researchers, as aguide to policy on student affairs including finance(p. 25)

study student housing finance and management, as inNigeria (p.25)

study the experience of women in academic administra-tion, as in Zimbabwe (p. 30)

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mount a major international collaborative researchproject to monitor the consequences for universities ofpersistent underfunding or 'strangulation' and theeffects of Structural Adjustment policies (p. 33)

extend the AAU study on university-productive sectorlinks (p. 34)

- analyze demand for postgraduate 'studies on a discipli-nary basis (as for Economics undertaken by AERC) (p.36)

study problems and successes in research management (p.43)

support the creation, if the right leadership is avail--

able, of discipline-based research consortia on theAERC model, perhaps in Mathematical Sciences and PublicLaw for a start (p. 43)

study the financing of postgraduate student mobility,linked to the selective development of research andpostgraduate training capacity in the sub-regions (p.49)

commission sub-regional studies-of the current state ofacademic publishing and its prospects (p. 52).

It would be invidious to suggest a rank-order among a list oftopics which is itself rather selective and unsystematic, but itshould be said that the proposals for macro-economic policystudies were repeatedly emphasized, especially those on thecontemporary roles of African universities, the re-definition ofdonors' policies toward higher education, the impacts of under-funding and structural adjustment on the universities, and theburning issues of state-university relations, state-university-faculty-student relations, and university governance.

An evaluation of the Nigerian IDA project was considered likelyto illuminate several of these issues, in view of its radicalconception and scope, including innovations such as the accredi-tation of courses and departments, the application of 'minimumstandards', new staffing norms, research and library selectivityor specialization, the computerization of library services andnetworking, and the establishment of MIS in university adminis-trations.

The Nigerian project is seen by many as bearing heavily on theproper limits of donor intervention in national higher educationpolicy through the conditionality mechanisms, and on the questionwhether African universities retain much control over theiraffairs if they are subject to the triple disciplines of interme-diary bodies, powerful donors, and direct political intervention,not to speak of the ever-present discipline of inadequate grantallocations. The IDA project also invites examination of therelationship between management reform, the state's universityfunding policy, the size and distribution of university budgets,

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and the qualitative rehabilitation of the universities.

The December 1990 AAU/DAE Working Group meeting in Accra notedthat it is impossible to make a clinical division between the twobroad areas of governance/management and quality enhancement, soit has chosen to devote its next meeting to these two themes,concentrating on research and postgraduate capacity under the'quality' heading. The need for studies on research and post-graduate capacity received special attention during this consul-tation and generated the second main cluster of topics on theabove list of research proposals. Again, the essential linkbetween the two themes is manifest, since the organizational andmanagerial requirements of achieving a selective development ofdisciplines within a national or sub-regional system is high, asthey are for installing a successful structure of postgraduatework and effective research management.

Although not referred to in the body of the report, several otherresearch needs were suggested during the consultation which havea direct bearing on both qualitative and organizational improve-ment: investigating the appropriate organization of curricula andteaching methods to take account of increased undergraduateenrolments; the development of alternative models of delivery,including part-time night school courses and 'summer schools'with transferable course-credit arrangements to encourage flexi-ble enrolments, and assessing alternative models of distanceeducation at the university level and the pre-requisites forsuccess under present conditions; mounting tracer studies ofuniversity graduates as a means of monitoring both admissionsdecisions and curricular relevance; and analyzing matriculationand admissions data as a guide to course developers.

Finally, in a class of its own is the proposal for a region-widecollaborative study of the academic labor market in Africa inview of the accelerated turnover of academic staff in many uni-versities and the possible effects of the opening of South Africato a legi'Amate trade in university staff.

Enhancing research capacity

It is clear that there is no shortage of research needs and ideasfor projects. What is less clear is where research on highereducation in Africa can best be done, and how African capacityfor undertaking such research can be enhanced.

De facto, much research on higher education is done by or commis-sioned by international agencies, and there are at present sever-al active research programs at this level which involve Africa.The World Bank has embarked on an elaborate world-wide study ofhigher education, which will include case studies from all geo-graphic regions including Africa, and possibly the organizationof regional seminars to discuss them. This initiative might re-'sult in a Bank policy paper on higher education. It might there-fore be a vehicle through which a considerable part of the recon-sideration of donor higher education policies would be transact-ed, in which case it would be appropriate for the African univer-

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sity community, perhaps through the joint good offices of the AAUand the DAE Working Group on Higher Education, to be consultedand make its views known.

UNESCO's division of higher education has also embarked on aprogram of state of the art studies on higher education in eachregion, with the objective of publishing a world report on highereducation. Not for the first time, UNESCO and the World Bankseem to be running on parallel tracks. UNESCO is able to callupon its extensive knowledge of African higher education throughthe Special Programme on African Higher Education under itsPriority Africa program, and its current links with the AAU. TheUNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP)has itself launched a research project on finance, governance andadministration of higher education around the world, concentrat-ing on investisating and analyzing examples of successful innova-tion in management. Cases from Africa will be included.

These three major studies were not necessarily designed to en-hance anyone's capacity for undertaking higher education researchand will probably make little impression on African capacity,except for the individuals engaged as consultants.

SIDA has recently undertaken a rapid and innovatory .'minimumrequirements' study in Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia whicharoused strong critical interest and appreciation at the AAU/DAEmeeting in Accra.

By coincidence, three foundations have sponsored studies of theAfrican universities at the same time. One is the present con-sultation. The other is Professor Alexander Kwapong's historicaland contemporary exploration of nine African universities, sup-ported by the Carnegie Corporation of New York, which should makea significant contribution to the debate on the developmentalmission of the African universities in the'90s.

At the continental or regional level, the AAU has emerged as anactive research promoter with its own portfolio of studies onhigher education, led by its flagship examination of efficiencyand cost-effectiveness in a sample of African universities. TheAAU has also sponsored the sub-regional survey of postgraduatecapacity in West Africa, through COREVP, a study of university-productive sector links, a report on equipment repair and mainte-nance needs, a survey of university curricula in DevelopmentEconomics, in preparation for its textbook-writing project inthis area, and a less elaborate study of university consultingcapacity (pp. 11-12).

The AAU engages African consultants for these tasks on contract.It has no established research staff, and the question ariseswhether it should plan to have one in future. It was suggestedin Chapter 1 that the vacant post of Program Officer (Documenta-tion) be filled (this is essentially a research position), andthat a new post of Director of Research be created, to exertquality control over the organization's current researchprojects. This would in effect create a Research Department oftwo officers plus consultants. The AAU might consider enteringinto a collaborative relationship with an institution like IIEP

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which could give valuable technical support on research methodol-ogy and data analysis, and might wish to mount joint researchprojects from time to time.

There is a case for not turning the AAU into a mini-researchinstitute, but enabling it to develop its leading role as anagenda-setter and coordinator of research done elsewhere. On theother hand, there may be a case for establishing an ,'fricaninstitute of research on higher education, whether attached tothe AAU, a university, or free-standing. The chances of attract-ing capital and core administrative funding for such a venture inpresent circumstances may be remote -- unless, that is, such aproject were to qualify for support under the World Bank-ledAfrican Capacity Building Initiative whose secretariat is nowbecoming operational in Harare.

One or, preferably, more institutional bases in Africa for topquality research on African higher education are certainly need-ed, with sufficient assurance of continuity to be able to handlelongitudinal studies and develop firm partnerships with universi-ty departments or researchers, institutes, intermediary bodiesand university planners around the region and abroad. If donorsupport were forthcoming, existing research institutes could beinvited to bid for funds to establish their capacity in this way.Without prejudging a competitive outcome, the Eastern and South-ern African Universities Research Programme (ESAURP) in Dar esSalaam has many strong credentials to bd a contender for such arole, as its sub-regional organization, longevity, success ingrant-raising and publication record attest. As ESAURP staffwill readily admit, several of their publications have been lessanalytical than descriptive, with the result that some donorshold back. Presumably, however, capacity building means justthat, and ESAURP would seem to have large potential for growth insize and rigor.

Existing disciplinary-based research networks with proven trackrecords should be encouraged to turn their interests to thestudy of higher education in Africa (some expressed interestduring this consultation). This applies not just to Educationnetworks, but Economics and Social Sciences networks as well, inview of the strong focus of many research proposals on labormarkets, structural adjustment, cost-effectiveness, funding,student finance, governance, political intervention, studentwelfare, student politics, and management issues.

Two other institutions remain to be discussed, universities andministries of education or higher education (together with theirintermediary bodies). It should be axiomatic that all universi-ties and all ministries or intermediary bodies need to be assist-ed to'establish computerized MIS if they do not have them al-ready. Once functioning these will generate substantial quanti-ties of statistical data on finance, personnel and enrolmentswhich will in time provide the raw material of much higher educa-tional research all over the region. Each statistical or plan-ning unit should have basic competence in data collection andanalysis. Larger units will in time develop a more sophisticatedresearch capacity, as the Nigerian NUC is doing. Some ministriesmay already have capacity for undertaking studies, like the

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Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology in Zimbabwe,whose Research and Evaluation Unit is undertaking a tracer studyof two cohorts of University of Zimbabwe graduates.

Such studies and others which are not a direct outgrowth of theministry's or intermediary body's data handling or policy func-tion, arE more commonly undertaken by staff members in universityresearch centers, or institutes or faculties of Education.There are endless variations in the organization of such bodiesfor research purposes, which it is unneceSsary to pursue in thiscontext. In any institutional arrangement, it is the individualinitiative that counts above all. A department head in theFaculty of Education at the University of Dar es Salaam, forinstance, is currently working on a project on higher educationfunding, another on 'gender and private monetary benefits amongTanzanian university graduates', and a third major research studyof politically-directed innovations in higher education.

Decisions to concentrate sub-regional research on Education, asin other disciplines, in selected faculties and departments willno doubt give full weight to their members' commitment and pro-ductivity.

Finally, there is once more the attractive model of the AERC, aconsortium of academic departments with donor support, dedicatedto a thematically restricted but rigorous and constructive pro-gram of support for research projects put up by Economics depart-ments, vetted collectively in workshops, and (if successful)nurtured to completion and publication. Earlier in the report itwas suggested that the model should be used to help upgraderesearch in other disciplines, and Mathematical Sciences and Lawwere proposed as candidates (p. 43) . It might not be too fanci-ful to give thought to the establishment of an African HigherEducation Research Consortium, to work with selected universityEducation departments, planning units, research centers, interme-diary bodies and, where appropriate, even ministries of highereducation on an agreed program of research, whether culled fromthe proposals in this chapter or otherwise.

The issues and possibilities sketched in this chapter couldperhaps be taken forward more systematically by the DAE WorkingGroups on Higher Education and on Educational Research and PolicyAnalysis.

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