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ED 091 214 SE 017 786

AUTHOR Bates, Gary C.TITLE A Search for Subscales in the "Science Process

Inventory."PUB DATE 17 Apr 74NOTE 74p.; Paper presented at the annual meeting of the

National Association for Research in Science Teaching(47th, Chicago, Illinois, April 1974)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$3.15 PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS Educational Research; *Evaluation; Factor Structure;

*Measurement Instruments; *Physics; *ScienceEducation; *Scientific Enterprise; Secondary SchoolStudents

IDENTIFIERS Research Reports; *Science Process Inventory

ABSTRACTReported are the findings of a research project

designed to identify subscales in the "Science Process Inventory"(SPI) developed by Welch in the 1960's to assess student knowledgeabout the nature and processes of science. Form D of the instrumentwas used with a random subsample of 435 students who were included inthe Harvard Project Physics summative evaluation which used anational random sample of physics classes in the United States.Factor analysis of 43 items selected on the basis of moderatedifficulty level and demonstrated discriminating power did suggestfive factor scales of three to four items each. These "protoscales"are considered to hold promise for developing useful scales of 10-20similar items. Also discussed in this report are several issuesrelated to the construction of a multidimensional instrument formeasuring student knowledge about the nature and processes ofscience. Appendices are also included with the report.(Author/PEB)

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EDUCATIONTrlIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMT -E PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT POINTS Of VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

A Search for

Subscales in the

Science Process Inventory

AloPen444-eehe--419e44-06e81644446.

324 Longfellow HallHarvard UniversityCambridge, Ma. 02138

Gary C. BatesHarvard University

Presented at:National Association forResearch in Science TeachingChicago, April 17, 1974

ABSTRACT: A Search for Subs,:ales 'n the Science Process Inventory

Gary C. BatesHarvard University

National Association for Researchin Science Teaching

Chicago, April 17, 1974

The Science Process Inventory. (SPI) is one of severalinstruments developed during the 1960's to assess student knowledgeabout the nature and prOcesses of science. SPI (form D) has asingle scale comprised of 135 statements to which students "agree"or "disagree". This instrument has been used in a number ofresearch studies.

A single test score does not provide educators and curriculumdevelopers much specific information for modifying instruction.It was hoped that a number of independent subscales might be foundamong the 135 test items. This study used a random subsample of435 students who were included in the Harvard Project Physicssummative evaluation which used a national random sample of physicsclasses in the United States.

Because of the very low correlations between the items, factoranalysis of the total test has not provided interpretable factors.Efforts to group the items into subscales based on the originalconceptual organization of the test items also failed to producereliable scales. However, a factor analysis of 43 items selectedon the basis of moderate difficulty level and demonstrated discrim-inating power did suggest five factor scales of 3-4 items each.These "protoscales" hold promise for developing useful scales of10-20 similar items.

Several issues related to the construction of a multidimensionalinstrument to measure student knowledge about the nature andprocesses of science are also discussed. These include: 1) thephilosophical bias of the test, 2) criteria for levels of difficultyand discriminating power, 3) appropriate response format, 4) needfor a theoretical model, 5) need for development of a series ofinstruments, and 6) criteria for assuring a multidimensionalinstrument will be used by practitioners as well as researchers.

Bates ( i/aq) SP -3-9-Mar-74

Introduction

The Science Process Inventory (SPI) is one of several

instruments developed during the 1960's to assess student

knowledge about the nature and processes of science Since

"knowledge" is prerequisite to higher levels of the Bloom Taxon-

omy, reliable measures of student knowledge in this area should

provide valuable information to both teachers and curriculum

developers. However, the single scale score for all of the

135 items in SPI is a gross measure which provides little

specific guid-ace for modifying instruction.

This study explored the possibility of using items from SPI

to describe student knowledge about several dimensions of the

nature and processes of science. In general, divisions such

as "Classification" or "Theories" did not produce usable subscales;

however, five interpretable "protoscales" each containing 3-5

items with reliabilities of 0.4-0.5 were identified. These

protoscales suggest that relevant dimensions will reflect differ-

ent philosophies of science such as the "Realist" or "Instrument-

alist"; beliefs such as "Nature-Understandable" or "Science-Tentative";

and specific concepts such as "Measurement-Approximate". In

addition to encouraging continued efforts to develop a multi-

dimensional instrument, this study also suggests several guidelines

for future work.

I

Bates ( 2/2/) SPI-3-9-Mar-74

Some Background Information on SPI

The Science Process Inventory (form D) contains 135 state-

ments to which students are asked to "agree" or "disagree", e.g.

25. A theory in science may be modified in Dlight of new evidence.

These statements were drawn from several prominent books on the

history and philosophy of science. Only those concepts which

occured in a majority of the books surveyed were included

in the instrument. A copy of form D of the Science Process

Inventory has been included in Appendix A.

Norms for the 150 item form C were obtained using a sample

of 1283 senior high school students (grades 10-12) in two

Wisconsin high schools. The results as reported by Welch 3

are shown in Table 1. The differences between grades 11 and 12

are significant (p < .05).

TABLE 1 -- Norm Data for SPI (form C)

grade N rel. std. error mean std. dev. range

12 444 .80 4.6 108.8 10.4 77-13211 403 .79 4.8 106.8 10.5 70-13210 436 .78 4.8 107.0 10.4 70-134

1283 107.5 10.4

Welch also used SPI to compare high school students, high

4school teachers, and a group of scientists (see Table 2). The

significant differences (p04.05) among these groups was inter-

4

Bates ( 3/2N) SPI-3- -Mar-74

as an indication of the validity of the instrument.

TABLE 2 -- Comparison of three groups on SPI

---group mean std dev

High School Students 1283 107.5 10.3High School Teachers 16 129.4 6.7Scientists 19 135.0 4.7

A shorter form of SPI was used in the Harvard Project

Physics (HPP) summative evaluation (1967-68) which included

a national random sample of physics classes. Statistics for

a random subsample of approximately 1/4 of the students in the

HPP study are reported in Table 3. The high mean

TABLE 3 -- Norm Data for SPI (form D) (HPP data)

N

435

Irel. std. error mean std. dev.

.76 4.0 1107.0 8.14

of this sample reflects the increased homogeneity of the universe

of students who elect to take physics as compared to all students

enrolled in high school. The physics students in the HPP sample

had a mean IQ of 117 (Henmon-Nelson),6 and SPI has been shown

to be correlated with IQ rAh".61.7

A (2x3) multivariate

of variance (course x IQ) showed a significant IQ effect (p<.01),

Bates ( /2.1 ) SPI-3-9-Mar-74

but no course or interaction effects between the HPP experimental

and the control classes.

SPI has also been used in several other studies including

the evaluation of Physical Science for the Non-Scientist,9

and

Aikenhead has used items from SPI to investigate alternate methods

for assessing student knowledge about the nature and processes

10. of science.

Some General Comments about SPI

There are several general questions relating to tests

which measure student knowledge about the nature and processes

of science. Three areas of concern in this study include

1) the philosophical bias of the instrument, 2) criteria for

the level of difficulty and discriminating power of items, and

3) the choice of paper and pencil response format.

The first of these concerns is the tension which exists

within SPI between two philosophies of science -- the Realist

and the Instrumentalist. A Realist assumes that an external

REALITY actually exists and that the pursuit of science has

helped mankind make successively closer approximations to TRUTH.

This philosophical perspective was characteristic of the physical

models of Newtonian Classical physics which, at the time,

appeared to have resolved the major riddles of the universe.

The "correct" response to several SPI items reflects the Realistic

philosophy, e.g.

Bates ( r/214) SPI-3-Mar-9-74

69. Those people who carry on the practice ofscience assume that: matter is an idea,not reality.

A g

The development of atomic and electromagnetic theory in

the late 19th and 20th Centuries brought the Realistic perspective

into question. The physical models which were proposed to

explain phenomena such as polarization and propagation of

electromagnetic waves became increasingly absurd and were

ultimately replaced by mathematical equations. No longer was

it necessary to provide a physical model to explain how phenom-

ena occurred -- an internally consistant set of equations which

accounted for the phenomena would suffice. Further, the work

11of Thomas Kuhn demonstrated that the major scientific revolu-

tions have resulted in fundamental restructuring of "Reality".

The immobile earth became a fleeting planet. Phlogiston

evaporated. Time and space have been combined and made relative.

This new perspective is reflected in the Instrumentalist12

philosophy which has abandoned the search for "Truth" and is

content with a science which is internally consistant for the

phenomena as scientists currently perceive them. A student

who holds the sophisticated Instrumentalist philosophy will be

penalized in responding to many of the items in SPI.

One of the protoscales identified in this study also suggests

that some students hold a naively "Literal" interpretation of

Bates ( 6/2Y) SPI-3-9-Mar-74

scientific models. For example, they tend to agree with

statements such as

35. [The Bohr model of the atom] is a scaled-up A ®picture of what scientists have seen intheir microscopes.

It is important that instruments intended to measure student

knowledge about the nature and processes of science explicitly

recognize and hopefully measure differences such as those among

the scientific Literalist, Realist, and Instrumentalist.

The second concern is that most of the items in SPI are

very easy (see Table 4). The average item difficulty is approx-

Insert Table 4 about here

imately 0.8 with 45% of the items higher than 0.90.

Figure 1 shows the standard deviation (Cr) of the SPI items

as a function of their difficulty. This is the binomial distri-

bution (solid curve) for which the variance decreases very

rapidly as the probability of the event approaches 0 or 1.

.6

.4

a-

00 .5 1.0

TABLE 4-- Mean (Difficulty) and Standard

Deviation for SPI items*

Item

100 17 ASUM PST rxPPFNCF vARII1

,100 2? SCTS MK No AsumPTyAP(?)

109 77 ASUM NT AT PRV T VA0(1)

110 69 MATTER InFA NT RL

VA0(4)

110 72 TIME CN

'

MFASMC VAR(9)

110 76 TImF NT RrAL

VAPt6)

110 73 SPACE N FXIST

VAP(T)

110104 REAL WORE!) FxIST; yArfnI

120 74 MIND umnRsTn NTJR VA^(91

120 75 NATUR NVP lIN0RST9 VA0A1(1)

120 77 PBMS 2 CMPLX 7 IX VA!)(11)

130 12 ORDER IN ONTYFRSI VAr:f121

130 61 PRrSNT CLU ? PAST VAP(111

130109 NATU9 CHNG SU00 v vAP(14)

130114 NATUR fS CO4StsTA yAp(16)

130119 EXPMTS colsis'!ANT vAPI1f,1

130126 GRAVITY,FVFRywHk:R yArt171

130127 NATURE PRFIICTARL VAP(18)

140 70 A 1MPLTES 8

VY?(l9)

.140 66 OCCUR N HV CicicFc vA9(2(1)

140 67 ALL FFr.TS HV CAUS VAP( 21)

140 68 A3 SAME TIME -CA9S VAP(27)

140 70 FVNTS HV DISC rAs vAnI?31

140 71 DA -08 - -A cAusrs A yAPC,41

140123 SAME CAUS-S PrFcr yAp(75)

211 10 Gnno SIT ASK PT 0 vAPI761

211 29 OBS 2 ANS SPFCC 0 yA0I'7I

212

5 085 INF' PST ExPI vAPP9I

212 47 SUNRIS DIF 2

P!-.1P VAP(?°)

213 38 TNSTRMTS AID STMS vA4I111

214

2 SCT KEEPS RECORDS VAr(311

215 42 ACUR ORS WASTE TM VAP('2)

216

1 UNEXPTn IMP1

2 SC VAPI17I

216112 SM OISCOV R LUCK

VAP(14)

0.473

0.499

0.694

().461

0.891

n.311

0.878

0.875

0.898

0.99E

'

0.865

0.880

0.938

0.240

0.911

1.285_

0.941

0.231

0.910

0.392

0.909

0.393

0.681

0.466

0.87?

1

0.334

0.780

0.415

Mea

n

0.840

0,964.

0.410

0.893

0.812

0.838

0.972

0.851

0.796

0.840

0.723

0.964

0.969

;

1

0.99

7i

u0.969

0.977

!i0.887 :

SD 0.367

o.492

0.309

0.391

0,369

0.768

0.356

0.410

0.367

0.448

0.185

0.173

0.057

0.173.

0.149

0.317

0.317

.0.330,

0.309

0.491

0.341

0.325

Item

216133 WK 1 P8M-ANS OTHR vAP(75)

220 88 HOT mnR PRECIS 84 VAP(161

220 93 DOS MDR aln Tv PY yA0f371

220 98 15 IN -FXACT TRUTH VAr(71111

720103 MSUR 0-CNT R WRNC VAR('11

220108 THERmTR-usim n;-V i yAr4a)

I220113

MS'

IRWTH 4 ERR1P

VAP(411

220118 WANT LFS TN lUAL VAF(421

230 52 CLASIF-COM01 FCT9 VAP(41)

230 56 COt. ROCKS IS 5CI

VAP(44)

230 61 CLASIF P INHERFNT VAP(491

230 78 CLASIF GO ORGANIZ VAD(46)

,230 83 GRP ORS-PART SCI

VAP(471

1240 26 ExPlmT-coNn 4 nss vAP(49)

!240 30 FXPMT PRY LWS NAT VAP(49)

240 39 FXPMT TEST HYP1T4 VA4(901

I

240 41 CONTROL IV FXPMT

VAR(!))

_240 40_EXPMT N AGREE-WW7,.VAP(52)

1240 57 FXPMT ALLOW CNTRL VAP(51)

250

3 SCTS OIFRNT OPIMS VAP(54)

250

6 SCT SHUt) P1181 15-I

VAP(991

250 11 SCTS ACPT FXPT 40 VAP(E6)

250 16 SCTS SHAPE FINDGF, VAD(571

250 21 RSCH oFsR IN JR4f VAR(5R)

250122 SCTS SFAPCH IMP VAP(59)

261 6? INDUCTION

VAP(51)

262 40 HYP-SEA CNTS SALT VAP(611

262 58 HY0 IS A "HUNCH"

VAP(62)

262 80 HYP-MAY BE WPONr,

VA0(61)

262 85 HYP IS SC! FACT

VAP(64)

262105 HYP-SUG NEW nepmT VAR(65)

262115 HYP-FPM /MAGINATN VAP(66)

t

263.

.09 DE0-.PAR T.- P4 J.K4RL_VAP (67)

1263 99 1FO-SWAN SYLLOGSM vAp(68)

Mea

n

0.968

.0.942

0.953

0.781

0.956

0.976

0.959

0.1'0;

0.921

0.419

0.751

0.17?

0.971

0.98?

0.454

0.161

0.733

0.969

0.669

9.950

0.93?

0.910

0.1199

0.950

0.953

'

0.179

0.699

0.750

0.968

0.916

0.867

0.817

0.831

0.9?1

SD

0.177

0.234

0.212

0.413

0.209

0.154

0.197

0.361

0.270

0.403

0.434

0.16.

0.168

0.1.

0.49.

0.191

0.44-4

0.173

0.47)

0.252

0.255

0.348

0.218

0.21?

0.485

0.491

0.413

0.177

0.278

0.3311

0.387

0.374

0.270

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Bates ( d1 /2'q) SPI-3-9-Mar-74

If an instrument contains only very easy items, the distribution

of scores will be skewed to the right making it difficult to

discriminate among the "better" students. Likewise, a test

composed of very hard items fails to discriminate among the

"less able" students.

For a mastery test, a high difficulty level is desirable

because the purpose of the instrument is to demonstrate that

students exceed some minimum level of competence. There is no

need to discriminate among students who pass the test. However,

discrimination is paramount to an instrument intended to describe

differences among students. It is also desirable that the test

accomplish its purpose in as parsimonious manner as possible.

The norm data for form C of SPI (Table 1) show a range of 70-134.

Nearly half of the items in the test provide little

information about differences among students.

For maximum discrimination,the mean item difficulty

should be around 0.5. Whether the difficulty level of all

items should be 0.5 or represent a range of difficulties with

a mean near 0.5 depends upon the nature of the test. If the

test is assumed to contain independent items which measure a

variety of ,:oncepts, then it is best to include items with

uniform difficulty near 0.5 which provides maximum positive

and negative variation on each item. However, if the scale is

intended to measure a single concept, then the items will be

intercorrelated and a range of difficulties should be included.1 3

Bates (ic,f1';)

Some might argue against choosing a mean difficulty near

0.5 because the "guessing" level for an "agree"-"disagree"

response format is also 0.5. A chimpanzee marking responses

at random would receive an "average score" on the test. However,

contrary to the classroom behavior of some students, the data

do not suggest that many students respond to the items in SPI

as would their hypothetical primate counterpart. If guessing

were a serious problem, then it would be reflected in very low

discriminating power for the items with difficulty levels near

0.5. If fact, many of the most discriminating items in the

subscales are those with modest difficulty levels of 0.4 to 0.6

(see Appendix B).

The fact that a large portion of the SPI items are very

easy for high school students suggests that they already have

an acceptable understanding of many concepts about the nature

and processes of science. Perhaps many of these less difficult

items could be included in a simpler instrument appropriate for

upper grade school and early junior high."

The question of guessing could also be made moot by a change

in the response format. If a four point scale (AA A D DD)

with a confidence scale (L M H) were used, guessing would be

minimized and students would have more latitude in responding15

These concerns preclude generating a multidimensional instru-

ment directly from the existing items in SPI; however, the following

search for subscales was valuable in identifying possible

ctie-N =t-% inc4-rilmemn4-

Bates ( /1/2q)

Approach to the Analysis

Aikenhead factor analyzed SPI in total, but found

factors which could not be readily interpretea.16 However,

his analysis did establish that SPI does not contain a

strong general factor.

The difficulty in factor analyzing the total test arises

from the very low intercorrelations among the items. A portion

of the correlation matrix has been reproduced in Table 5.


Cronback17

notes that for items found in psychometric tests,

the correlation among items is ordinarily below 0.3. Although

several of the items correlate 0.1 to 0.3, the relationships

are too weak to allow meaningful factor analysis of the total

135 items.

Relatively low phi correlations (O..13 ) are to be expected

because the maximum possible correlation between two dichotomous

variables depends upon their relative difficulty and the homo-

geneity of the items as indicated by their tetrachoric correlation

(r,Let

) (see Figure 2).18 If two homogeneous items (r

tet= 1.00)

have identical levels of difficulty (pi

pi= ), then they can be

perfectly correlated. However, as their levels of difficulty

diverge, the maximum possible correlation between them rapidly

decreases.

TABLE 5

-- Portion of CorrelationMatrix

NAME

for SPI items*

__C

DR

VA

R.

(1)

VAR

DESCRIPTION

RIL

AIL

ON

__ C

CIE

EE

KLE

AT

S...

._...

..

-.

VAR

VAR

L(

6)V

AR

IAB

LE

-VAR

VAR

J2)

VAR

100 17

ASUM PST EXPRENCE

VAR(1)

_15

100 22

SCTS MK NO ASUMPT

VAR(2)

0.035

a...-

100 27

ASUM NT ACT PRV

TVAR(3)

0.050

.0.125**

110 69

MATTER IDEA NT RL

VAR(4)

0.006

-0.010

0.022

110 T2

TIME CN_B_MEASURE_VAR

(5)_

___

0.016

_-..0.003

_0.013

0.048

113 76

TIME NT REAL

VAR(6)

0.047

0.034

0.018

0.204***

0.295*** 1.uu.,

110 73

SPACE N EXIST

VAR(7)

0.038

0.042

0.008

0.076

0.170*** 0.233**1-T;1A,l,-.,

110104

REAL WORLD EXISTS

VAR(R)

0.102*

-0.031

-^0.003

0.017

-0.027

0.050

0.048

120 74

MIND UNORSTO NTUR

VAR(9)

0.030

-0.036

-0.053

0.184 * ** 0.071

0.055

120 75

NATUR NVR UNDRSTU

VAR(10)

0.034

-0.010

.0.005

..-0.019

0.140*** 0.073

-0.016

120 77

P3MS 2 CMPLX 2 EX

VAR(111

0.045

0.024

0.039

-0.025

0.130**

0.051

0.056

130 12

ORDER IN UNIVERSE

VAR(12)

0.075

0.158*** 0.090*

-0.070

0.032

-0.040

-.0.043

133 63

PRESNT CLU 2 PAST

VAR(13)

0.105**

0.005

0.048

0.093*

0.012

-0.014

-0.036

130109

NATUR CHM; SUDDEN

VAR(14)

-0.005

0.033

0.066

0.107**

0.044

0.020

0.037

130114

NATUR IS CONSISTA

VAR(15)

0.071

0.022

0.053

-0.013

-0.012

-0.047

-0.038

130119

EXPMTS COVSISTANT

VAR(16)

0.026

0.019

.0.023

-0.019

-0.0

34-0

.040

-0.0

43130126

4VITYEYER.Y.W.H5-14VAR(17)_

0.020

0.041._ 700044

.0.044

*The appropriate correlation for dichotomous data is the phi coefficient.

However, for dichotomous

variables scored '0' or '1', the phi coefficient is equivalent

to the Pearson Product-Moment

Correlation.

Therefore, it was possible to use the DATATEXT Program to calculate the correlations

between the items.

A sample of 617 students was used in this calculation.

Students of 21 "experienced" teachers

who had taught HPP in previous years and were not randomly selected

are included.

The possible

sample bias is not important for this portion of the analysis.

Bates ( 13/ 214) SPI-3-9-Mar-74

As the items become less homogeneous, the effect of item

difficulty becomes less pronounced, but the maximum correlation

is severely suppressed.

0. 30

get '50 ------\rid 30

40 60 S 0 100

Iv so

0

rt.. moo

-,sso

4.1 .50

114 "0

20 40 $0 0j0 100

61111111Mia

Relation of sbil to pi and pi for Several Levels of Correlation.

Figure 2

Given these constraints, two efforts were made to examine

the SPI items for possible subscales. The first was to hypothesize

a set of subscales based on Welch's classification of the items.

This did not result in useful subscales. The second effort was

to factor analyze a sample of items which met certain criteria

of difficulty and discriminating power. This factor analysis

produced five promising "protoscales".

Bates ( 01/240 SPI-3-9-Mar-74

The 13 Hypothesized Subscales

An effort to increase homogeneity among items was made by

grouping items which appeared to be related into 13 hypothesized

subscales. These subscales are similar to the original organi-

zation suggested by Welch19 (see Table 6) with many of the


subdivisions combined. Fourteen items were not included in any

of the subscales. A list of the items and statistical data for

each subscale is provided in Appendix B. A summary of these

data is presented in Table 7.


Given the homogeneity of the student sample and the reduced

number of items in each subscale, we did not expect them to have

particularly high reliabilities. Indeed, the reliabilities

range from 0.12 to 0.50, too low for the scales to be useful

or to significantly increase their reliability by simply

adding more items. More sophisticated procedures are required.

The first effort to improve the hypothesized subscales

was to select only the "best" items. The resultant sub-subscales

contained only 3-4 items, but it was hoped that they would

provide a strong nucleus of items around which more could be

written. If a scale of three items has a reliability of 0.4,

TABLE 6-- eGnceptual Organization of SPI

--

Code

Concept

Item # (form B=150 items)

Item # (form D=135 items)

100

110

120

130

140

200

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

220

230

240

250

260

261

262

263

264

265

300

310

320

330

340

350

400

410

420

430

140

150

160

I. Assumptions

A. Reality

B. Intelligibility

C. Consistency

D. Causality

II. Activities

A. Observations

1. Selected

3,7

2. Infl. past experien. 2,11

3. Using instruments

8

4. Recording

1

5. Describing accurate

958,59,60

47,65,69,70,74

71,72,73,75

48,49,50,51,53,54,55,56,57

5,52,61,62,63,64,66,67,68

6. Unexpected

B. Measurement

C. Classification

D. Experimentation

E. Communication

F. Mental Processes

1. Induction

2. Formulate hypotheses

3. Deduction

4. Form. theories, pred

5. Many techniques

10,140,147

18,19,20,21,22,23,24

12,13,14,15,16,17

31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38

25,26,27,28,29,30

39,40,46

79,81,82,88,90,102

43,45

44,48,91

41,42,134,139,142,143,145,146,148

(17),22,27

104,69,72,73,76

74,75,X,77

109,114, 119,X,127, 126,X, 63,12

20,123,66,67,68,X,70,71,X

10,29

5,74

38

2 42 1,112,133

88,93,98,103,108,113,118

52,56,61,78,X,83

26,X,X,30,39,43,48,57

122,6,11,3,16,21

62,X,X

58,80,85,105,115,40

89,99

94,95,8

79,84,82,107,121,124,128,130,135

III. Nature of Outcomes

A. Probability

B. Tentativeness

C. Theories

D. Models

E. Laws

IV. Ethics and Goals

A. Goals & motivation

B. Objectivity

C. Anti-authority, skept.

D. Amorality

E. Repeatability

F. Parsimony

111,118,119,120,126

87,114,115,116,117,123,125

78,80,85,89,92,94,104,105,107

96,97,98,99,100,101,106,108,109

77,86,93,95,103,122,124

91,125,X,132,37

25,106,111,116,120,19,28

53,7,100,110,X,18,50,54,64

31,32,33,34,35,36,59,81,X

49,X,13,23,45,14,24

128,129,141,144,130

4,6,132,150

127,131,135,136,137,138,76

133

83,149

110,112,113,121

46,51,117,129,X

15,4,60,131

41,55,87,92,97,102,44

65

90,134

86,96,101,9

TABLE 7-- The 13 Hypothesized SPI Subscales

Name

items

mean

Universe: Orderly and Understandable

10

6.93

Assumptions of Science

86.26

Causality

75.i8

Science is Tentative

15

12.64

Scientific Knowledge-Public and

97.32

Objective

6Scientific Methods

12

10.54

7Experimentation

97.43

8Measurement

97.91

9Observation

98.11

10

Hypotheses

75.29

11

Theories

13

10.77

12

Models

86.57

13

Laws

64.54

Std Dev

1.66

1.15

1.13

1.47

1.22

1.31

1.08

1.20

0.90

1.23

1.46

1.37

1.09

Std Error

1.356

1.028

0.949

1.256

1.060

1.046

1.019

0.903

0.824

1.045

1.284

0.969

0.944

KR Rel

0.333

0.206

0.291

0.267

0.248

0.360

0.116

0.431

0.166

0.281

0.229

0.503

0.246

Bates (17/24) SPI-3-9-Mar-74

then a scale containing ten similar items can be expected to

have a reliability approaching 0.7. The selection criteria

for items was based on the following analysis.

The internal reliability of an instrument can be found

using the general formula:

r ttn

n - 1- 1.1

V.

Vt

Where n is the number of items in the test, Vt

is the variance

ofthetestscores,andV.is the variance of item score after

weighting.

If students respond to the items of the test at random,

then the total observed variance for the test will be the sum

of the item variances, the quantity in the bracket becomes

zero, and the reliability of the test will be zero. However,

if individual students consistently score above or below the

mean for the items of the test, then the observed variance of

test scores will be greater than the sum of the item variances

and the reliability of the test will be 0 1'

Sincetheitemvariance(V) is fixed for a given sample, an

effort was made to increase the test variance (Vt ) by selecting

items which were both discriminating and of moderate difficulty.

The discriminating power was the point biserial correlation

between the item and the subscale. A range of items with modest

Bates (18/2q)

levels of difficulty was desired because the subscales were

assumed to be homogeneous. The following criteria were used

to select items:

1) rtt

> 0.4

2) 0.2-= Diff 0.8

Six of the subscales contained three or more items which met

these criteria. They have been reported in Table 8.


This procedure resulted in groups of highly discriminating

items; however, the reliabilities for all except two of the

sub-subscales are disasterously low. If subscales do exist,

they are not the obvious catagories such as "Laws", "Hypotheses",

etc.

Factor Analysis of Selected SPI Items

Thus far we have shown that if dimensions of knowing about

Lhe nature and processes of science exist, they are considerably

more subtle than might have been expected. We have also

identified a pool of 43 items which have modest difficulty and

demonstrated discrimination. While these items need not repre-

sent all of the "useful" items in SPI, they do provide a reasonable

sample for using factor anal; techniques to discover possible

relations.

Batas ( 19/24)

TABLE 8 -- Selected Items from Some Subscales

c7PI-3-9-Mar-74

Subscale Dif Dis Mean KR#201-(2) Universe: Orderly & Understandable

3 (120- 74) MIND UNDRST NTUR4 (120- 75) NATUR NVR UNDRSTD5 (120- 77) PBMS 2 CMPLX 2 EX8 (130-119) EXPMTS CONSISTANT

x.75.43

.66G.49

.59

.72

.65

.53

3

2.32 1.18 0.464

2.223-(2) Causality 0.77 0.067

4 (140- 68) AB SAME TIME--CAUS .80 .51

5 (140- 70) EVNTS HV DISC CAUS .73 .68

6 (140- 71) DA-DB--A CAUSES B .69 .58

7 - (2) Experimentation 1.79 6.£35 -.001

3 (240- 30) EXPMT PRV LWS NAT .53 .58

6 (240- 43) CONTROL IN EXPMT .65 .57

8 (240- 57) EXPMT ALLOW CONTROL .61 .59

--4---Hypotheses10-(2) ±2.05

1

0.89 0.261

2 (330- 50) HYP MOP. SUPRT THY .64 .65

3 (262- 58) HYP IS A "HUNCH" .70 .68 .

7 (262-115) HYP-FROM IMAGINATN .71 .58

12-(2) Models 2.08 0.91 0.396

1 (340- 31) MODELS-PIC OF ATOM .60 .74

5 (340- 35) MDL-SCALD UP PICT .67 .71

8 (340- 81) MDLS R DEFECTIVE .81 .56

13- (2) Laws '1.94 '0.81 0.126

1 (350- 13) LAW-DSCB OBSRVTNS

_

.79

.

.55

2 (350- 14) LAW IS PERMANENT .41 .66

6 (350- 49) LAW-NTR MUST DO .74 .59 .

Bates (20/2/) .?I-3-9-Mar-74

The results of the factor analysis are reported in Table 9.

Items with factor loading greater than 0.4 have been circled.


Five of the seven factors can be readily interpreted:

Factor I Nature-UnderstandableII - Scientific LiteralistIII - Measurement-ApproximateIV Mixtures of misconceptionsVVI - Science Tentative

VII Scientific Methods

Items which loaded greater than 0.4 on only a single factor

were grouped into new subscales which were examined by item

analysis. The selected items have been marked with an asterisk

in Table 9. The results are reported in Table 10.


These factor-subscales are encouraging. The homogeneous

scales such as I (Nature-Understandable), IIb (Literalist),

and III (Measurement-Approximate) have reliabilities around

0.4-0.5 for only 3-4 items. These can be expanded to strong

scales by adding 6-7 similar items. The Factor-subscales

VI (Science-Tentative) and VII (Scientific Methods) are more

heterogeneous and would require 15-20 additional items to

produce sufficiently reliable scales. Factor-subscale II

(Literalist) requires further study with the addition of

other examples of literal interpretation.

TABLE

Factor Analysis of Selected SPI Items

code

Ltem

120 74

120 75

120 77

130115

130127

140 65

14C 68

140 7u

140 71

450 90

460101

320120

250

6

-- -

Ces::'PTJ

'44TJA r.

,T,

1=uS 1 Cf0PLX

EX

EXPvIc 0o;4SISTANT

K 170RL

C.CC.14

I.Hy CALSE

4.3

JANL Tr.*:-C;US

rP4IS

AS

1_44-1)L3---% CAUSc_S

r

SCI

16I SP T,A'4

e.YP

SCI

SMrl_

LXfr

SCI

KNAL-TCP.T:cf1,

SCT Si-Jr PUriL:So

430 41 sCI STSL_;',7,

RCT

430 44 4:30'1-CP1.,:

F-;.CT

420131

265107

265121

265130

24C 30

240 43

240 57

310 91

220

95

220113

212

5

'211 2?

,:Lof rrY-uPP..FOT

SCA

INV-.;L:7 P;;CC

L Y

1 SCI

t3NrY

1 SL:4 2

4-0Y

PAV LAS NAT

C3:,;Ti-oL

EXi.MT

rX2'J

CNTP.L

12

I.J.

IS APP)4.7:X

15 14-LxacT 1":-.0TF

vSU:

Ti

A

1I\FL eSi rXPG

J!35 2 P;iS

SPEG07

2112 40 HYP-..4E:-.

330 5,2

1-01fp

(L)259 HYP IC A "Hlii;CH"

262115

264

C

264 94

340 31

340 33

340 35

340 35

343 59

340 81

350 13

350 14

350 23

350 49

1 .53

4 * -J.0i7

-C.137

0.20c

C.C63

0.227

- 0.112

C.Cu7

C.C47

-0.C73

C.CC.

C.14

0.15c,

C.21

-C.C39

C.I25

C.C25

C.C11

0./;12

C.C17

j.164

(:.244

1VATN

THY-TEST PkE;ICTN

C.C16

PREOCTN

THYS

G.C64

-0.

4-.ijoELS-PIC 0F 47TM

MI-15EL-CLe.S CF Wfr

mDL-SCALU UP PICT

C.170

,VIOLS MAY 6 M3oIF

-C.C31

mOLS-EXALT 9E1.'LTY

0.C40

MLLS R 06FECTIV::

-C.C23

LA-0SC8

C.C4S

LAW IS PEP.YANINT

L54-Nam NT DIS_.9.Y

C.C44

CA.r-NTr 1UST

.-C.C61

-0.137

-0.203

-0.045

-0.051

- 6.63n

0.054

-0.137

-6.1-.)7

0.j4i

-3.jI7

0.155

J.J42

0.055

0.057

- J.L7j

-0.012

-0.,1DJ

-0.1/3

= D4*

J.024

- J.LJi

-j.j717

- t,.1.31,

-0.067

0.124

0.171

- C.120

-0.I27

ez.g.41

0.I35

-0.j23

- 0.343

-0.159

0..00

-C.355

0.344

-0.014

- 0.052

0.607

-0.319

-0.033

- 0.195

-0.040

0.320

-G.046

sums of sgur-s

? c9

2.01

-0.364

-001

-6.004

0.316

C.J,J3

- 0.035

J.036

0.172

U.Jo

0.207

J. L94

0.017

- 0.036

A -J.000

*0.137

0.274

0.156

0.299

0.357

0.321

0.155

4

0.003

-0.105

-0.010

0.165

O .181

0.175

-0.20)

J.257

u.065

U .183

- 0.2o9

- 0.130

-0.315

-C.118

3.033

0.103

-0.C82

o.lol

-3.134

0.177

-0.218

J

* -0.0b4

41t.

0.:302

* -0.007

0.124

J.114

U .321

-C.3

9.-o.100

0.223

0115

2P0.000

0.003

-0.034

- 0.037

0.119

0.004

-J.065

3.058

- 0.066

0.028

1.7 *5

1.454

5-------

- 3.J23

0.064

-U.255

0.046

0.257

0.026

- 0.029

J.U33

- 0.027

0.018

- 6.13G

0.020

-0.167

0.131

0.025

0.036

0.072

0.3/2

-0.358

-0.034

- 0.143

-0.056

0.242

-U.310

- 0.160

0.164

-0.063

-0.072

6

0.021

3.116

- 0.136

-0.230

- 0.095

0.176

0.252

0.079

0 124

-0.0

06

7communality

0.129

0.050

-0.126

0.042

0.279

0.147

-0.218

0. /3

0.043

0.35

* 0.101

0.271

3.217

0.148

J.187

.i../;=)-tt -0.075

0.106

-0.171

0.262

-0.267

0.135

-0.137

0.257

0.071

0.077

0.074

0.166

0.196

0.260

-0.159

0.096

0.074

- 0.021

80.037

-0.224

-0.129

0.240

- 0.111

-0.086

0.1.35

-0.071

0.067

-0.131

0.111

-0.158

-0.066

0.064

-0.074

-0.079

-0.056

.7,170

-0.131

-0.267

0.017

-0.058

0.063

0.074

0.121

*-0.050

0.274

-0.031

0.045

-0.225

0.171

-0.144

0.083

0.139

3.288

-0.126

*0.101

0.215

-0.340

0.079

-0.057

-0.100

075

-0.078

-0.144

J.027

1.'348

1.77

2

0.300

0.534

O .37d

0.263

0.294

0.236

0.313

0.344

U.388

0.318

O .234

0.273

J.321

0.271

0.212

0.270

O .217

0.148

0.266

0.240

0.193

O .332

0.553

0.570

0.347

0.186

O .275

0.180

0.364

0.247

0.195

0.418

0.353

0.303

0.278

0.409

0.237

0.415

0.272

0.158

U-259

0.305

0-.256

1.877

13.016

Bates (a2/21)

TABLE 10-- Selected Items from SPI Factor Analysis

SPI- 3 -O- Mar -74

Factor Dif Dis # Mean KR#20I Nature-Understandable 3 1.84 1.01 0.535

(120- 74) MIND UNDRST NTUR .75 .64(120- 75) NATUR NVR UNDRSTD .43 .80(120- 77) PBMS 2 CMPLX 2 EX ,66 .72

II Literalist 5 3.51 1.07 0.237

(340- 31) MODELS-PIC OF ATM(340- 35) MDL-SCALD UP PICT(340- 36) MDLS MAY B MODIF(430- 41) SCI STS&END W FCT(265-130) ONLY 1 SOLN 2 rIBM

3 2.08 0.91 0.396

(340- 31) MODELS-PIC OF ATM .60 .74(340- 35) MDL-SCALD UP PICT .67 .71(340- 81) MDLS R DEFECTIVE .81 .56

III Measurement-Approximate 3 2.39 0.86 0.578

(310- 91) 12 IN. IS APPROX .67 .85(220- 98) 15 IN-EXACT TRUTH .79 .82(220-113) MSUR WTH N ERROR .93 .50

`VI Science Tentative 4 2,95 0.99 0.318

(430- 44) ASSUM - -OPIN NT FACT .62 .60(340- 81) MDLS R DEFECTIVE .81 ,54(450- 90) SCI DISP OWN HYP ,77 .62(320-120) SCI KNWL-TENTATIV .76 .53

F-VII Scientific Methods 4 2.68 1.07 0.341

(211- 29) OBS 2 ANS SPECF Q .81 .51(240- 57) EXPMT ALLOW CNTRL .61 .63(140- 71) DA-DB--A CAUSES B .69 .60(460-101) SCI PREF SMPL EXP ,57 .58

..... ..... _....1._____ ..moar..ma............w.

Bates (n/a'-i) SPI-3-9-Mar-74

Conclusion

Although we have failed to find usable subscales in the

Science Process Inventory, this effort has been most encoL jing

for the future development of a multidimensional instrument to

measure student's knowledge about the nature and processes of

science. There are also several guidelines for developing such

an instrument.

1) Theoretical Model A theoretical model which identifies

the important dimensions of kr'wing about she nature and processes

of science must be developed. A model will provide the basis

for both interpreting the scales and for selecting items. This

study suggests that the dimensions will be subtle and that

considerable theoretical and empirical effort will be needed to

identify them.

2) Refinement of Scales The scales need to be quite well

developed separately before techniques such as factor analysis

will prove useful for "purifying" the total instrument.

3) Item Selection Items should meet criteria of difficulty

and discriminating power similar to those suggested in the last

section, i.e. mean difficulty 0.5, discrimination ) 0.4.

4) Response Format The "agree"-"disagree" format provides

little latitude for student response. If the purpose of the

instrument is to describe rather than evaluate student's knowledge

about the nature and processes of science, then a four point

scale (AA A D DD) with a confidence scale (L M H) may provide

Bates (24/260 SPI-3-9-Mar-74

more useful information. Alternate response formats surely

need to be tested and evaluated during the development of

a multidimensional instrument.

5) Test Series The fact that a large portion of the SPI

items are very easy for high school students suggests that they

already have an acceptable understanding of many concepts about

the nature and processes of science. These less difficult

items might be included in a simpler instrument appropriate

for upper grade school and early junior high school.

6) Usefulness An instrument which is too cumbersome,

esoteric, or long will not be of much interest to any but a

few researchers. Although the amount of class time that can

be allocated to testing is severely limited, it is reasonable

to devote one class period to a regular testing program if the

yield is rich enough. Thus, a multidimensional instrument should

include some scales relating to the social aspects of science

and an indication of student attitudes toward science.

This paper has demonstrated that the development of a multi-

dimensional instrument to measure student knowledge about the

nature and processes of science is feasible. What is needed

at this time is a cooperative effort on the pert of several

science education researchers to advance the state of the art.

Bates

FOOTNOTES

SPI-3-9-Mar-74

1 - A number of these instruments are discussed by Glen S.Aikenhead, "The Measurement of High School Students'Knowledge About Science and Scientists", Science Education,57(4) 539-549 (1973).

2-4 Welch, Wayne and Milton 0. Pella, "The Development of anInstrument for Inventorying Knowledge of the Processes ofScience", Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 5(1)64-68 (1967).

5 - Welch, Wayne, "Review of the Research and Evaluation Programof Harvard Project Physics", Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 10(4) 365-378 (1973).

6 - Welch, Wayne, "Some Characteristics of High School PhysicsStudents: circa 1968", Journal of Research in Science Teachincl,6(3) 242-247 (1969).

7 - Welch and Pella (1967).

8 - Welch, Wayne W., Herbert J. Walberg, and Fletcher G. Watson,"A Case Study in Curriculum Evaluation: Harvard ProjectPhysics", University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota,1971, p172 (Unpublished mimeograph).

9 - Welch, Wayne, "Evaluation of the PSNS Course. I: Designand Implementation", and "Evaluation of the PSNS Course,II: Results", Journal of Research in Science Teaching,9(2) 139-156 (1972). Also Tamir, P., "Understanding theProcess of Science By Students Exposed to DifferentialScience Curricula In Isreal", Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 9(3) 239-245 (1972).

10 - Aikenhead, Glen S., "Course Evaluation: The Constructionand Interpretation of Tests", Saskatchewan Journal ofEducational Research and Development, 4, 45-53 (Fall, 1973).Also by Aikenhead, "Course Evaluation I: A New Methodologyfor Test Construction" and "Course Evaluation II: Interpre-tation of Student Performance on Evaluative Tests", Journalof Research in Science Teaching, (in press).

11 - Kuhn, Thomas, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.

Rates SPI-3-9-Mar-74Footnotes (continued)

12 - Nagel, Ernest, The Structure of Science, Chapter 6, NewYork: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1961, R. M. Harrediscusses Realism and Positivism in The Principles ofScientific Thought, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.A. H. Munby studied the teaching implicationsof theRealist and Instrumentalist philosophies in his thesis"The Provision Made for Selected Intellectual Consequencesby Science Teaching: Derivation and Application of anAnalytical Scheme", Unpublished doctors thesis, Universityof Toronto, 1973.

13 - Marshall, Jon Clark and Loyde W. Hales, Classroom TestConstruction, Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1972, p224.

14 - The Test on Understanding_Science (TOUS) has been adaptedfor junior high school and elementary grade levels. SeeKlopfer, L. E. and E. O. Carrier, "Test on UnderstandingScience: Form Jw", Pittsburg, Penn.: Learning Researchand Development Centre, 1970.

15 - Several researchers have used a variety of response formats.In the Nature of Science Scale (NOSS) students may 1) agree,2) disagree, or 3) indicate they are unsure, do not under-stand or feel neutral about an item. The Test on the SocialAspects of Science (TSAS) uses a five point scale from"strongly agree" to "strongly disagree". The WisconsinInventory of Science Processes (WISP) uses a three responseformat similar to NOSS to which students respont 1) accurate,2) inaccurate, or 3) not understood. However, the scoringprocecure combines the last two catagories and is equiv-alent to the scoring system used in SPI. The content ofWISP and SPI are also essentially identical. The Test onUnderstanding Science (TOUS) uses a four-alternative multiplechoice format. The Facts About Science Test (FAS) uses athree-alternative multiple choice format. These instrumentsare discussed in the Aikenhead article (footnote #1).

16 -Personal correspondence with Glen Aikenhead, November, 1973.

17 - Cronback, Lee. J., "Coefficient Alpha and the InternalStructure of Tests", Psychometrika, 16(3) 297-334 (1951).

18 - Cronback, 1951, p 325.

19 - Welch, Wayne W0, "The Development of An Instrument forInventorying Knowledge of the Processes of Science", Unpublisheddoctor's thesis. Madison, Wisconson: University of Wisconson,1966 p79.

APPENDIX A


Form D (Revised 1966)

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WELCH SCIENCE PROCESS INVENTORY


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Directions

The following statements are concerned with the activities, assumptions, pro-ducts, and ethics of science. Read each statement carefully and then mark youranswer on the answer sheet provided. BLACKEN SPACE ONE kl) on the answer sheetif you generally AGREE with the statement; BLACKEN SPACE TWO (2) if yor gener-ally DISAGREE.

Example: A D

1. New York is a city. 1. 3

2. Chicago is a mountain. 2. r

Do not mark spaces 3, 4, or 5. If you change your mind, erase the first markcompletely. Make no stray marks; they may count against you.

Use a pencil to mark your answer sheet. DO NOT USE A PEN. Please supply in-formation concerning name, school, birth date, etc., in the appropriate spaceson the answer sheet. Do not write in the test booklet.

Answer all statements. You will have 40 minutes which should give you suf-ficient time to finish all 135 statements. A scoring key has been establishedfor the Inventory. Slightly more than half of the statements are keyed agreewhile the remainder are keyed disagree.

Note carefully the numbering sequence on the answer sheet.

DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL TOLD TO DO SO.

1

SCIENCE PROCESS INVENTORY

Blacken space 1 on your answer sheet if you generally AGREE with the statement;blacken space 2 if you generally DISAGREE.

Dis-Agree agree

1. Surprising or unexpected observations have played an important 1 2

role in the advance of science.2. The work of a scientist includes keeping a record of observe- 1 2

tions.3. Scientists have differences of opinion about scientific matters. 1 2

4. Careful observation is less important in modern science since 1 2

the development of new instruments like the electron microscope.5. The observations a person makes are influenced by his past ex- 1 2

perience.

6. A scientist should make his findings available to the scien- 1 2

tific community for independent confirmation.7. Theories are usually so well established, they do not require 1 2

experimental testing.8. The essential test of a scientific theory is its use in pre- 1 2

dicting future events.9. If two different hypotheses fit the observed facts, the Limp- 1 2

ler is accepted.10. An essential characteristic of the scientist is the ability to 1 2

ask the right questions.

11. It a researcher accurately reports his experimental procedures, 1 2

other researchers will accept the experimental conclusionswithout question.

12. Scientists assume there is order in the universe. 1 2

13. A law of nature, such as Ohm's Law, is a statement that de- 1 2

scribes what has been observed.14. Although a scientific hypothesis may have to be changed on the 1 2

basis of new data, a physical law is permanent.15. A scientist wishes to make prejudiced observations of nature. 1 2

16. Scientists should be unwilling to share their findings with 1 2

other scientists.17. Assumptions in science are based on past experience. 1 2

18. Theories suggest new relationships among facts. 1 2

19. Science is a series of successively closer approximations to 1 2

the truth.20. A scientist is often interested in finding relationships of 1 2

the type, "when A occurs, then B will also occur."

21. Scientists write articles for professional journals describing 1 2

their research.22. Scientists do not make assumptions. 1 2

23. Nature is not permitted to disobey the laws of science. 1 2

24. Once a statement becomes a law of science, it will not be 1 2

changed.25. A theory in science may be modified in light of new evidence. 1 2

2

Dis-Agree agree

26. An experiment is a set of conditions under which observations 1 2

are made.27. Assumptions are not accepted until they are proven true. 1 2

28. The knowledge of science is final. 1 2

29. Scientists usually make observations of nature to answer spe- 1 2

cific questions.30. Experimentation is principally concerned with proving the laws 1 2

of nature.

(Statements 31 - 36 refer to the following information.) The Bohr model of theatom is a description of the atom similar in form to the solar system. It hasa central nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by electron orbits. State-ments 31 36 are concerned with this model.

31. The model pictures the atom as we actually know it to exist. 1 2

32. The model is a convenient way of representing the atom to help 1 2

us understand it.33. The model presents an effective way of showing the different 1 2

colors of the atomic particles.34. Scientific models are man-made. 1 2

35. The model is a scaled-up picture of what scientists have seen 1 2

in their microscopes.

36. The model of the atom may be modified. 1 2

37. Scientists do not make errors in their conclusions if they 1 2

act "scientifically."38. A characteristic of scientific research is the use of instru- 1 2

ments as aids to the senses.39. Experiments are used to test hypotheses. 1 2

40. "Sea water contains salt," is an example of a scientific 1 2

hypothesis.

41. Science must start with facts and end with facts no matter what 1 2

theoretical structures it builds in between.42. An accurate description of a scientific observation is a waste 1 2

of time.43. A control in an experiment is used to give a check on factors 1 2

not involved in the specific problem being studied.44. The assumptions in science are based on opinion, not fact. 1 2

45. A law of nature is a description of what actually takes 1 2

place, not a prescription of what must happen.

46. It is the task of science to form theories to explain observe- 1 2

tions.47. Two people looking at the same sunrise may see different 1 2

things.48. If the results of an experiment do not agree with the previous 1 2

answer, then the experiment is wrong.49. A law in science describes what nature must do. 1 2

50. Hypotheses have more experimental support than theories. 1 2

3

Dis-Agree agree

51. The main object of basic scientific research is the discovery 1 2

of understanding rather than its practical application.52. A classification scheme, such as the periodic table of the 1 2

elements, is based on common factors and differences notedin observations.

53. Theories in science are often expressed as mathematical re- 1 2

lationships.54. "We are going to have 36 snowfalls this winter" is an example 1 2

of a scientific theory.55. The published results of scientists should be accepted with- 1 2

out question.

56. Collecting rocks is an example of scientific investigation. 1 2

57. The point of an experiment is to set up a situation in which 1 2

the control of variables is greater than it is in the ordin-ary course of events.

58. A hypothesis is a simple guess or "hunch" that tries to ex- 1 2

plain several observations.59. Scientific models are exact duplications of reality. 1 2

60. Scientific conclusions should be based on facts, not opinion. 1 2

61. Classification schemes are inherent in the materials classi- 1 2

fied, rather than imposed on nature by the scientist.62. Induction is the process of generalizing the characteristics 1 2

of a class from observations of all of its members.63. Scientists view events today as clues to events in the past. 1 2

64. The majority of newly suggested theories are accepted by the 1 2

scientific community.65. Investigation of the possibilities of creating life in the 1 2

laboratory is an invasion of science into areas where itdoesn't belong.

(Items 66 - 77 are related to the following statement.) Those people who carryon the practice of science assume that:

66. some mysterious occurrences do not have causes. 1 2

67. all effects in nature have causes. 1 2

68. if events A and B occur at the same time, then one must be 1 2the cause of the other.

69. matter is an idea, not reality. 1 2

70. events in nature are the result of discoverable causes. 1 2

71. if a change in factor A leads to a change in factor B, then 1 2

factor A is a cause of factor B.72. time can be measured. 1 2

73. space does not exist. 1 2

74. the human mind is capable of understanding the events and 1 2

materials of nature.75. some natural things will never be understood. 1 2

76. time is not real. 1 2

77. some problems are too complex ever to be explained. 1 2

78. Classification schemes are a useful means of organizing 1 2

observations.79. Theories and hypotheses are often the result of comparisons. 1 2

80. A hypothesis may be wrong. 1 2

4

Dis-Agree agree

81. All models used in science are somewhat delective. 1 2

82. If a scientist fails to solve a problem, it is probably 1 2

because he did not follow the "scientific method."83. Grouping observations is an important part of scientific 1 2

work.84. The scientist knows that his experiment will be successful 1 2

if he follows the steps of the scientific method.85. A scientific hypothesis is essentially the same thing as a 1 2

scientific fact.

86. One of the aims of science is to work towards more complex 1 2

knowledge.87. A scientist should be skeptical of anything but his own 1 2

work.88. "It's hot in this room," is a more precise observation than 1 2

"It's 84 degrees Fahrenheit in this room."89. Deduction is the process of predicting particular occurrences 1 2

from the general case.90. A scientist should attempt to disprove his own hypotheses. 1 2

91. A measurement expressed as 12 inches is a statement of 1 2

approximation.92. Scientists usually rely on outside authority for their con- 1 2

clusions.93. The use of measurement is more evident in the biological 1 2

sciences than the physical sciences.94. Prediction is an important goal of scientific investigation. 1 2

95. The formulation of a theory is a means of explaining facts. 1 2

96. If a choice is to be made between two theories, the more 1 2

complex is chosen.97. To question the accuracy of Newton's theory of gravity would 1 2

be unscientific.98. A measurement of length expressed as 15 inches is a state- 1 2

ment of exact truth.99. "All swans are white. Penelope is a swan. Therefore, Pene- 1 2

lope is white," is an example of deductive reasoning.100. "All matter consists of molecules," is an example of a 1 2

scientific theory.

101. A scientist prefers simple explanations of phenomena. 1 2

102. Some presently accepted theories were opposed by other 1 2

scientists when first proposed.103. Since a measurement involves the use of numbers, it cannot 1 2

be wrong.104. Scientists assume a real world exists outside of the mind. 1 2

105. A value of a hypothesis is its suggestion of new experiments. 1 2

106. Scientific knowledge is in the process of development. 1 2

107. Scientific investigations must follow definite approved 1 2

procedures.108. A thermometer is an example of a measuring device. 1 2

109. Scientists assume nature is likely to change suddenly. 1 2

11U. A theory with ten supporting and two denying experiments 1 2

is more likely to be accepted than a theory with foursupporting and no denying experiments.

5

Dis-Agree agree

111. The law of conservation of energy is an example of an un- 1 2

changing truth.112. Some scientific discoveries are the result of "luck." 1 2

113. Physics is an exact science because physicists are able to 1 2

make measurements without error.114. When a scientist makes a prediction, he is assuming that 1 2

nature is consistent.115. Hypotheses may arise from imagination. 1 2

116. The statements of science represent the best approximations 1 2

available at the time.117. The basic principle of science is that discoveries and re- 1 2

search should have practical application.118. Knowledge expressed in terms of numbers indicates a lesser 1 2

degree of understanding than that knowledge which is not ex-pressed numerically.

119. A scientist believes that an experiment performed today will 1 2

produce the same results as the same experiment performedlast week.

120. Scientific knowledge is tentative. 1 2

121. There is only one scientific method used by scientists. 1 2

122. When confronted with a new problem, a scientist searches 1 2

the literature to see what similar work has been done.123. A scientist assumes the same cause produces the same 1 2

effect under the same conditions.124. Applying the scientific method to a problem will always 1 2

produce the correct answer.125. Science is essentially statistical in nature and deals 1 2

in terms of probabilities.

126. Scientists assume a force due to gravitation is present on 1 2all bodies of the universe.

127. Scientists believe occurrences in nature are predictable. 1 2

128. Scientists use "trial and error" approaches to problems 1 2

with success.129. The primary objective of science is to develop new and 1 2

improved living conveniences.130. Scientist A used one procedure to solve problem X, and 1 2

scientist B used a different procedure to solve problem X.Both scientists solved the problem. This is impossible.

131. A scientist is more likely to accept a theory on the basis 1 2

of his personal ideas than on the experimental evidenceavailable.

132. It is important to express the "degree of estimate" in the 1 2

findings of science.133. A scientist may be looking for the answer to one problem 1 2

and find the answer to another.134. Experiments should be repeated, if possible. 1 2

135. There are many methods of solving scientific problems. 1 2

6


Scoring Key

1-A 36-A 71-A 106-A2-A 37-D 72-A 107-D3-A 38-A 73-D 108-A4-D 39-A 74-A 109-05-A 40-D 75-D 110-D6-A 41-A 76-D 111-D7-D 42-D 77-D 112 -A8-A 43-A 78-A 113-D9-A 44-D 79-A 114-A

10-A 45-A 80-A 115-A11-D 46-A 81-A 116-A12-A 47-A 82-D 117-D13-A 48-D 83-A 118-D14-D 49-D 84-D 119-A15-D 50-D 85-D 120-A16-D 51-A 86-D 121-D17-A 52-A 87-D 122-A18-A 53-A 88-D 123-A19-A 54-D 89-A 124-D20-A 55-D 90-A 125-A21-A 56-D 91-A 126-A22-D 57-A 92-D 127-A23-D 58-A 93-D 128-A24-D 59-D 94-A 129-D25-A 60-A 95-A 130-D26-A 61-D 96-D 131-D27-D 62-D 97-D 132-A28-D 63-A 98-D 133-A29-A 64-D 99-A 134 -A

30-D 65-D 100-A 135-A31-D 66-D 101-A32-A 67-A 102-A33-D 68-D 103-D34-A 69-D 104-A35-D 70-A 105-A

APPENDIX B

The 13 Hypothesized SPI Subscales

NOTE: The correlations in these tablesis the point biserial correlation.The column titled "Bates" is the corre-lation between the item and the subscale.The column titled "Welch" is the corre-lation between the item and the totalscore on SPI (form B).

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#1 - Universe: Orderly and Understandable

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10

94

Prediction is an important goal of scientific

i.83

.77

.39

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i

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investigation. (A)

I

______ ,...___

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Continued on next page.

(korm D)

SEARCH

page 2/2 Suscale 11 (continued)

....._

af

VM

....%

.....

...,..

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.'4 Items

Mean

11;.(1Dv

Std error

111

KR

,a

1

r,---

WW..../0

040

.....I

MIO

NIM

..0

1....

......

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1s

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iCorrelation

40/2 1

73.1

11

-75-7 The formulation

of a theory is a means of

T.87 1

.81

.39

.30

I1

explaining facts. (A)

1

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---1

45/2 1

98

12

f100

1"All matter consists of molecules", is an example

.80.

.79

1.37

ii

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!of a scientific theory.(A)

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:99

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1110

1A theory with ten supporting and two denying

i

0.

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.74

1.27 -!

.49

experiments is more likely to be accepted than a

i1

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1

..._.....

....)..,,................T._4

....%

theory_with four supporting and n, denying,

1

1experiments. (D)

i 1t

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e

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.t.Por nt I)) SUBSCi!,LE SFcC

12 -- Models

1

Items

Mean

Std Dev

Std erroi71 KR Rel

- -

1

6.57

1.37

0.969

O503

LaI

NO

MIN

IMIP

Dif,h..culty

CorreiatIon

i

.1-

-.

-.:r.: ....7s-7..?..1.:.e.ra

SPI

IDe-scrptior,

1 Bateich 1

Batesp.el

1I

.-1

!The Bohr model of the

atom is a description of the

-I--

!!

1i

.

tatom similar in form to the solar system.

It has

1

.

ia. central nucleus of krotons and neutrons surrounded

1

-4

1I

by electron orbits.

Statements

31-36

are concerned

;1

1

11

. .

vith this model.

44/1 i100;

1!

31

f The model pictures the atom as we actually know it

I.

.60

t:

i1

to exist. (D)

i !

,1

45/1 ,101

21

32

] The model is a convenient way of representing the

i.97

:

1

11

atom to help us understand it.

(A)

$

'-1-

46/1 '102

333

The model presents an effective way of showing the

;.83

;

.i

different colors of the atomic particles. (D)

47/1 ;103

434

: Scientific models are man-made. (A)

i.90

i

$1.

.

,

48/1 .104

5i

35

The model is a scaled-up picture of what scientists

.67

i

.

iI

have seen in their microscopes. (D)

1

49/1 :105,

61

36

1 The model of the atommay be modified. (A)

'.87

1

,i

i

,

!

74/1 1106

7I

59

Scientific models are exact duplications of

;.92

i1

1.

:1

reality. (D)

I1

1

-.

..--,:---.

---/-

26/2 ;107;

8i

81

iAll models used in science are somewhat defective.

i.81

(A)

--Ii

.44

.60

.94

.17

.85

.47

.93

.36

.58

.64

.83

.48

.

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.681

.45

,

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L__

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,__a.

.

eirr

n+I

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,tmid

rim

mum

mor

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FPI (Fortc. ID)

SiZIBSCAL".6 Sc

:.?1::bscal...1,

13 -- Laws

rif Items

NiMeau

1Std Dev

!Std errorFITIT771

4 54

!1.09

i0 944

0 246

SPI 4

Dcscr::.ptiou

Correiation

BatestWelch_latestWiel

II.

26/1

108i

113

,A law of nature, such as Ohm's Law, is a statement r.79

.91

i.46

.20

Ii

I

that describes what has been observed. (A)

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i 101

214

TAlthough a scientific hypothesis may have to be

.411

.50

f.51

i.22

ii

36/1 )110

3.

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i

37/1 ;

111i

4:

24

11

i

.

1

58/1 7 112

51

45

i:

62/1 1 113

6!

49

changed on the basis of new data, a physical

1law is permanent. (D)

.9O1-9S

.89

.86

; 1 : , - e

..1 i . 1

INature is not permitted to disobey the laws of

;

science. (D)

i

Once a statement becomes a-law of science, it will

not be changed.

(D)

,

A law of nature is a description of what actually

takes place, not a prescription of what must

.happen. (A)

A law in science describes what nature must do.

(D)

.81

.74

.80

.55

I=

.47

.2 -1-

.42

.22

i i ,

.35

1.33

1 i

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1.16

};

t

,...

J-.

....-

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wIl

e..*

...M

.O.

;-

APPENDIX A



Wayne W. WelchUniversity of Wisconsin


Scoring Key

1-A 36-A 71-A 106-A2-A 37-D 72-A 107-D3-A 38-A 73-D 108-A4-D 39-A 74-A 109-D5-A 40-D 75-D 110-D6-A 41-A 76-D 111-D7-D 42-D 77-D 112-A8-A 43-A 78-A 113-D9-A 44-D 79-A 114-A

10-A 45-A 80-A 115-A11-D 46-A 81-A 116-A12-A 47-A 82-D 117-D13-A 48-D 83-A 118-D14-D 49-D 84-D 119-A15-D 50-D 85-D 120-A16-D 51-A 86-D 121-D17-A 52-A 87-D 122-A18-A 53-A 88-D 123-A19-A 54-D 89-A 124-D20-A 55-D 90-A 125-A21-A 56-D 91-A 126-A22-D 57-A 92-D 127-A23-D 58-A 93-D 128-A24-D 59-D 94-A 129-D25-A 60-A 95-A 130-D26-A 61-D 96-D 131-D27-D 62-D 97-D 132-A28-D 63-A 98-D 133-A29-A 64-D 99-A 134-A30-D 65-D 100-A 135-A31-D 66-D 101-A32-A 67-A 102-A33-D 68-D 103-D34-A 69-D 104-A35-D 70-A 105-A

APPENDIX B

The 13 Hypothesized SPI Subscales

NOTE: The correlations in these tablesis the point biserial correlation.The column titled "Bates" is the corre-lation between the item and the subscale.The column titled "Welch" is the corre-lation between the item and the totalscore on SPI (form B).

ca.t.,.-

#1 - Universe: Orderly and Understandable

!1

VI

N,

Mean

iStd Dv 1--t.d

..!..r.:ror

XR !lel

10

1435

6.93 ;

1.66

I1.356

.i_0.333

I. .--

iI

7T i

__-.....--..

IT.':2'FiLlity

..,,,/-m,ra- t,:!liit SPI 3

1rict;crirlti

P. ::.:;11."-'-

'7)n-,.:;!We''::7-1

-25/1

12,

1!

12

; Scientists assume there is order in the universe.

(A) l

.83

;.91

'.32

:.55

i I

1

ii !

. .

I .

.!

I

76/1

13

2!

63

Scientists view events today as clues to events Ln

.78

i.81

1.25

1.32

the past.

(A)

I

19/2

j9

3:

74


.75

:.70

.44

:.15

I

!assume that: the human mind is capable of under-

.

:

!

!

..qtaYlcling...th.e.,.evetit.q...4n_4....mte.r...PLAtatur,e,,._..(41....._...____......_...'_____......_,__......___;

_......_

.-

20/2

101

475


.43

i ,

.78

i.56

i.18

;assume that: some natural things will never be

;

_i .

122/2

11

577


.65

!.60

.43

..40

assume that: some problems are too complex ever to

be_explained. OD)

i

52/2

.1.4

6109

;Scientists assume nature is likely to change

.57

1.76

:.32

:.34

suddenly.

(D)

1

59/2

15

7i

64/2

16

114

When a scientist makes a prediction

he is assuming

I.85

.75

.32

I.33

that nature is consistent.

(A)

8119

'A scientist believes that an experiment performed

'.49

1today will produce the same results as the same

_azileringnI_Rerformed last week_ (4)

71/2

Il'V

9i

'1_26

Scientists assume a force due to gravitation is

i ii

1t1 present on all bodies of the universe.

(A)

72/2

;18f

10

j

127

'Scientists believe occurences

...i predictable.

(A)

in nature are

.40

,.46

!.35

.80

.72

.27

.43

i.78

.88

;.36

.45

r

VPT (Form D)

Si:2-41.CH

aT

.-.

1

1 :ubsca.1

8.r

1

2--Assumptions

435

of Science

iMean

1Std Dev F7,1 error

I6.26!

1.15

11.028

KR Rel

.206

Difficulty

1Correlation

I'Jar

.71.

):T

4!-

Description

B1-4t7.2siWcolch j

30/1

!1

17

: Assumptions in science are based on past

r-

.79

;.83

.41

1experience.

(A)

35/1

12

21

22

Scientists do not make assumptions. (D)

.85

I.93

.42

40/1

!3:

14/2

i41

27

!Assumptions are not accepted until they ar

true.

(D)

e proven

.32

J .17

:Those people who carry on the practice of

Iassume that: matter is an idea

not real

17/2

5:

5,

72

;Those people who carry on the practice of

assume that: time can be measured. (A)

18/2

21/2

6.

49/2

181

1

6!

73

±Those people who carry on the practice of

assume that: space does not exist.

(D)

.Those people who carry on the practice of

assume that: time is not real.

(D)

71

76

8'~104

1

r-

science

ity.

(D)

;

.37

.44

.47

.04

.92

i.81

j.35

i.45

r

;4

1

science

!.79

i.81

1.38

i.25

i,

1

,!

,

science

science

Scientists assume a real world exists outside o

the mind.

(A)

.95

1.92

.31

.13

.84

!.88

.42

.05

.

.82

1.78

1.36

i.18

II

IiL..... i i

1, 1

1

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D)

sEAR-ZE

;2,vbscal

3--Causality

Ctems

II;

Ivlceon

1Scd Dzir

Std error

1KR Rel

17

33/1

I191

1

33/1

(1.-§

11

i i

L435 I

5778.1_1.13

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j.2

911

20

$A scientist is often interested in finding

IDifficulty

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cpT

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4"'"-

1).:7.-.!siWz,le,

737!tir,,a--11_1

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120

'',A-gaentiSt is often interested-in finding

(.86

.89

.32

,.63

relationships of the type, "when A occurs, then

I!

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.

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,

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. _ .

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cpT

Docriptoi.1

4"'"-

.90

i.85

i.50

I.52

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.

.assume that: some mysterious occurrences do not

........

,..-,

.._...

have.c4use.s2...1P.1._

80/1

i21

3!

,

67


'.94

:.91

.42

i.47

t

;

assume that: all effects in nature have causes.(A);

i

13/2

i22!

4i

68


:.80

!.65

i.43

i.28

-1

.....___ ..................

.._....

.

t:

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,assume that: if events A and B occur at the same

i

__time,tbenone_must be...the cause of thegther,ip14______.k.___.

.________

15/2

.23.

570

: Those people who carry on the practice of science

.73

1.83

t.55

!.33

assume that: events in nature are the result of

....

._.

discoverable causes. (;q

..

.......

.._

.

1i

16/2

24'

671


1.69

!.76

:.42

!.12

assume that: if a change in factor A leads to a

1

t

change in factor Els_theri factor A is a_ cause_of_2__-

L

!i

1factor B.

(A)

;

;1 ,

1

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.._-_....

.__-.

68/2

25-

7;

123

A scientist assumes the same cause produces the

i

i

.86 !

.81

.46

'.49

isame effect under the same conditions. (A)

ti

1I

tI

i 14

11

! 1

.1 1

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11

11

17

33/1

I191

1

33/1

(1.-§

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i i

:1;(1,

;.Forw

..:..):1-;CALE SPARC:A

...Te±11c...n,_

I# Items

NI

t,

4:17i77-7:7

ror

Sr

1KR qol

i

4.---15

14351

12.64

1.47_1_

I

L 0.267

I_

..-,I

mm

t

._23

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ttt

f:l.'Y 4 I

r:f:.:7rin-Ao'o.

1.3,11.-.,21s.V7:_-'1ch 4...,....1t.e31.11.ch

11

1DiZficui t:7

;

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7tar

i

16/1

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24/1

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ff

30/1

;86

41/1

'87 1

68/1

124

32/2

125

!

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130

41/2

134 i

42/2

L27

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).35

i

1t

.---

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11

3

211

325

4!

28

5 T

55

687

790

896

997

10

101

.

!Scientists have differences of opinion about

!.89

.97

.32

.58

iscientific matters.

(A)

.If a researcher accurately reports his experimental 4-.91

.89

.29

procedures, other researchers will accept the

experimental conclusions without question.

(D)

.04

:A theory in science may be modified in light of new

.98

.91

.13.

.64

evidence.

(A)

?(Put in scale 11-Theories)?

I(

.1--

The knowledge of science is final.

(D)

.96

.89

.26

.52

The published results of scientists should be

I-

.95

.85

.29

.63

accepted without question. (D)

A scientist should be skeptical of anything but his

own work. (D)

.21

A scientist should attempt to disprove his own

.77

.74

.43

.22

hypotheses. (A)

If a choice is to be made between two theories, the

.92

.88

.27

?more complex is chosen. (D)

.0o question the accuracy of Newton's theory of

.92

.74

.30

.40

gravity would be unscientific. (D)

ri scientist prefers simple explanations of phenomena.

.57

.51

.36

?

continued -on next page

..L..

D)

page 2/2

st11,:c1-? 4

(continued)

It t_Lems

NPie,an

j

Stcl Dev

Std erro:c

KR Rel

1 4

.:./cva-..,:litej: ilPY. 4

I'. Description

.,---

47/2 1128:r

111

102

Some presently accepted theories were opposed by

!!

iother scientists when first proposed. (A)

I1

:

I1

:4

TAfficulty

;C

orre

iatiD

n

.94

51/2

188i

12i

106

Scientific knowledge is in the process of

.93

.68

idevelopment. (A)

I

56/2

i89;

13

111

The law of conservation of energy is an example of

1.39

.41

!i

:..

;an unchanging truth. (D)

--

61/2

i90!

141

116

The statements of science represent the best

.91

.86

!

i ,!

approximations available at the time. (A)

:

..__________,

...............;_.... ...

......____ ............._

.!

65/2

;

91,

15 ;

120 'Scientificknowledge is tentative. (A)

.76

1.72

..._____.... .:__________._________..............___, -----

.

.21

.51

.33

?

.30

?

.34

?

.43

?

I

;z1P1

(Vorril

SE2iRCEL

13-iq

:subscal.,

5 -- Scientific Knowledge-Public and Objective

1# Items

NIMean

[Std

Dev

1Std error

IKR Rei

11

9435! 7.32

1.22

11.060

L_1222,4248

L7-

----

1Difficul-.7

!Correlation

,--nfrrjvar,iteN,

;API #

IDescription

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.:teslyelch,...

19/1

28/1

29/1

i 55

11 119

23

57

3

34/1

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54/1 122

7/1

123

73/1

120

,

67/2

I59 y

'1

.,....

1.....

76/2

t21

$

61A scientist should make his findings available

to th

.86

.79

1.42

.39

1scientific community for independent confirmation

1

15

(A)

I


.90

.85

1.34

I.51

1

of nature. (D)

16

Scientists should be unwilling to share their

.88

.91

.36

.42

findings with other scientists, (D)

ii

Scientists write articles for professional journals

541

56

!44

760

Scientific conclusions should be based on facts, not 1

.94

1793

$

81 122

has

1 131

describing their research. (A)

Science must start with facts and end with facts

no matter what theoretical structures it builds

in between. (A)

The assumptions in science are based on opinion,

not fact.

(D)

.88

.95

.41

1.22

.49 T-.62

.40

-.22

.62

!.64

.54

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t$

opinion. (A)

),

1

.34

.30

1-1When confronted with a new problem,.a scientist

1

.95

1.91

.20

i.51

searches the literature to see what similar work

4

beendone._1A)

scientist is more likely to accept a theory on the

.80

.69

.37

.35

i

ibasis of his personal ideas than on the experimental

11

evidence

(D)

available.

T.

1 1

i4

1

I

SP' (F)rm D) SUBSCALE SEARCH

page 1/2

tubscale 6--Scientific Methods

Items

NMean

Std

s)-v

10.54

I1.31

Std error

KR

12

435

1,046

0.360

.

cLoLled[var

itemi SPI #

qDesc3:intion

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13atestWelch

I Difficulty

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r-

14/1

,33

11

iSurprising or unexpected observations have played

.96

.94

.25

.40

an important role in the advance of science. (A)

50/1

181

237

IScientists do not make errors in their conclusions

.94

.91

.37

.41

if they act "scientifically". (D)

i

27/2

;73

382

iIf a scientist fails to solve a problem, it is

.92

.91

'.36

.46

ii

probably because he did not follow the "scientific

-4-

;.,--

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_metbod2.,_spi____

29/2 i

74

484

I The scientist knows that his experiment will be

.94

.85

.37

.54

.!

successful if he follows the steps of the

i

'E.-

egientilig _II e t...1191.&--ia)....

---

52/2 !

75

5!

107

,Scientific investigations must follow definite

.57

.56

,51

.13

Iapproved procedures. (D)

57/2

i34.

6112

iSome scientific discoveries are the result of

.84

.83

.36

.31

I;

i"luck". (A)

66/2

i76.

7121

iThere is only one scientific method used by

.83

.91

.41

1,

scientists. (D)

i4

L._

69/2 !

77

8124

Applying the scientific method to a problem will

.95

.94

.37

.80

1I

always produce the correct answer. (D)

:1

73/2

1 :78

9128

Scientists use "trial and error" approaches to

.81

.81

.37

I1

problems with success (A)

.42

,................-.44.4.44.44.4.444.

75/2 I !

791

10

130

I

Scientist A used one procedure to solve problem X,

.89

.29

.87

.48

and scientist B used a different procedure to

------L

4----

---ualm-problAwai

Both..5cientiata_aulmadth_

i...e_

'

iproblem.

This is impossible. (D)

continue

iconext page

1PI OT,Jrm D

SUZSCALE

page 2/2

iSubscF21c

6 (continued)

-1- # ItemsT

Mean

i

SLd Dev

Std error

KR- Rel

!

----1-

1-

-1,----

IDifficulty

Correll.,:ttion

i:1;,./(7d.lrl'.11

SPY

1Description

!3ater.7h

78/2

35

11

133

IA scientist may be looking for the answer to one

.98

ir.62

problem and find the answer to another. (A)

80/2

80!

12 !

135

There are many methods of solving scientific

problems. (A)

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