district of peachland community wildfire protection …peachland - community wildfire protection...

District of Peachland Community Wildfire Protection Plan

Submitted to:

Chief Grant Topham Fire Chief

9 August 2012

Submitted by:

John Davies, RPF Valhalla Environmental Consulting Inc

Mike Coulthard, RPBio Diamondhead Consulting Inc

Nick Zukanovic Geographica Group Ltd

Peachland - Community Wildfire Protection Plan

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Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................6

1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 10

1.1 The Need for a Community Wildfire Protection Plan ..................................................... 10 1.2 CWPP Format ................................................................................................................ 11 1.3 Continuity with Adjacent CWPPs ................................................................................... 11

2.0 PROJECT HISTORY ......................................................................................................... 12

2.1 Wildfire Management Objectives and Initiatives ............................................................ 12 2.1.1 A Vision for Wildfire Management Planning .......................................................... 12 2.1.2 Guiding Principles .................................................................................................. 14 2.1.3 Assessment Criteria and Indicators ....................................................................... 15

2.2 A Living Document – Timing and Adaptive Management ............................................. 19

3.0 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................ 20

3.1 Natural Environment ...................................................................................................... 20 3.2 Community Watersheds ................................................................................................ 21 3.3 Archaeological Features ................................................................................................ 22 3.4 The Historic Role of Wildfire .......................................................................................... 25

3.4.1 Ecosystem Succession .......................................................................................... 25 3.4.2 Succession and Natural Disturbance Regimes ..................................................... 25

3.5 Wildfire and its Effects ................................................................................................... 26 3.5.1 Forest Fuel Layers ................................................................................................. 26 3.5.2 Wildfire Types ........................................................................................................ 27 3.5.3 The Effects of Wildfire on Vegetation .................................................................... 28 3.5.4 The Effects of Wildfire on Wildlife .......................................................................... 29

3.6 Rare and Endangered Species and Plant Communities ............................................... 30 3.7 Local Fuel Types ........................................................................................................... 31

3.7.1 Fuel type C-7 – Open ponderosa pine stands ....................................................... 32 3.7.2 Fuel type C-3 - Mature lodgepole pine .................................................................. 33 3.7.3 Fuel type C-4 – Immature lodgepole pine ............................................................. 33 3.7.4 Fuel type O1b; Open grassland ............................................................................. 34 3.7.5 Fuel type S-1 – Lodgepole pine slash ................................................................... 34 3.7.6 Fuel type D-1 – Deciduous dominated stands and shrub ..................................... 35 3.7.7 Fuel type M-2 – Boreal mixedwood - green ........................................................... 35

3.8 Historic Fire Weather Analysis ...................................................................................... 36

4.0 WILDFIRE RISK ANALYSIS AND FUEL HAZARD METHODOLOGY ........................... 37

4.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................ 37 4.2 Wildfire Risk Analysis .................................................................................................... 37 4.3 Interface Fuel Hazard Assessment ............................................................................... 38

5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................................... 39

5.1 Wildfire Risk Mitigation .................................................................................................. 39 5.1.1 Risk of Ignition ....................................................................................................... 39 5.1.2 Suppression Constraints ........................................................................................ 42 5.1.3 Natural Features at Risk ........................................................................................ 45 5.1.4 Structures and Features at Risk ............................................................................ 47 5.1.5 Potential Fire Behaviour ........................................................................................ 51 5.1.6 Final Wildfire Risk .................................................................................................. 55

5.2 Fuel Hazard Management ............................................................................................. 57 5.2.1 Interface Fuel Treatments ...................................................................................... 59


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5.2.2 Landscape Level Fuel Breaks ............................................................................... 66 5.2.3 Fuels Treatment Effects on Fire Behaviour ........................................................... 70

5.3 District Policies and Guidelines Review ........................................................................ 71 5.3.1 The District of Peachland Official Community Plan ............................................... 71 5.3.2 The District of Peachland Regional Bylaws ........................................................... 74

5.4 Wildfire Development Permit Areas ............................................................................... 77 5.4.1 Establishing WDPAs .............................................................................................. 77 5.4.1.1 Properties Affected ................................................................................................ 78 5.4.1.2 Exemptions ............................................................................................................ 78 5.4.2 Development Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy ..................................................... 78 5.4.3 Wildfire Development Permit Area Guidelines ...................................................... 78 5.4.3.1 Design .................................................................................................................... 79 5.4.3.2 Interface Fuel Management ................................................................................... 79 5.4.3.3 Buildings ................................................................................................................ 79 5.4.3.4 Landscaping .......................................................................................................... 80

5.5 FireSmart Community Planning and Design Guidelines ............................................... 81 5.6 Other Recommendations ............................................................................................... 82

5.6.1 Agency Cooperation .............................................................................................. 82 5.6.1.1 Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations ..................................... 82 5.6.1.2 Ministry of Transportation ...................................................................................... 82 5.6.1.3 Forest Licensees ................................................................................................... 82 5.6.1.4 First Nations ........................................................................................................... 83 5.6.2 Improving Access .................................................................................................. 83 5.6.3 Water Availability ................................................................................................... 85 5.6.4 Reducing Sources of Ignition ................................................................................. 85 5.6.5 The Wildfire Act ..................................................................................................... 86 5.6.6 Initial Attack Preparedness .................................................................................... 86 5.6.7 Transmission and Distribution Agencies ............................................................... 87 5.6.8 Public Information .................................................................................................. 87 5.6.9 Post Fire Evaluation and Rehabilitation ................................................................. 89 5.6.10 Wildfire Emergency Planning................................................................................. 90 5.6.11 Wildfire Detection and Reporting ........................................................................... 90

6.0 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 91

7.0 REFERENCES (INCLUDING APPENDICES) .................................................................. 92

8.0 APPENDIX A - WILDFIRE RISK ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY ..................................... 96

8.1 Component #1 - Fire Behaviour .................................................................................... 96 8.1.1 Fuel Types ............................................................................................................. 96 8.1.2 Weather inputs ....................................................................................................... 96 8.1.3 Fire Intensity .......................................................................................................... 97 8.1.4 Rate of Spread ....................................................................................................... 97 8.1.5 Crown Fraction Burned .......................................................................................... 97

8.2 Component #2 – Risk of Ignition ................................................................................... 98 8.3 Component #3 - Values at Risk ..................................................................................... 98

8.3.1 Structures at Risk .................................................................................................. 98 8.3.2 Natural features at risk ........................................................................................... 98

8.4 Component #4 – Suppression Constraints .................................................................... 99 8.4.1 Proximity to Roads – Access ................................................................................. 99 8.4.2 Proximity to Water Sources ................................................................................... 99 8.4.3 Steepness of Terrain ........................................................................................... 100

8.5 Final Wildfire Risk Rating............................................................................................. 100

9.0 APPENDIX B –INTERFACE WILDFIRE THREAT RATING METHODOLOGY ............ 101


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10.0 APPENDIX C – FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND FUELS TREATMENT OVERVIEW .............. 113

10.1 Fire Behaviour Overview ............................................................................................. 113 10.2 Wildfire Types .............................................................................................................. 114 10.3 Fuel Treatment Options ............................................................................................... 114

10.3.1 Stand Thinning ..................................................................................................... 115 10.3.2 Pruning ................................................................................................................. 116 10.3.3 Prescribed burning ............................................................................................... 117 10.3.4 Residual Material Removal (chipping, mastication, mulching, etc.) .................... 118 10.3.5 Pile and Burning .................................................................................................. 119 10.3.6 Surface fire fuel breaks ........................................................................................ 119

10.4 Treatment Maintenance Schedules ............................................................................. 120

11.0 APPENDIX D - FUEL TREATMENT PRESCRIPTION DEVELOPMENT ...................... 121

11.1 Step 1. Quantify fuel loading through sample plots ..................................................... 121 11.2 Step 2. Model the fire behaviour potential using existing stand conditions ................. 121 11.3 Step 3. Develop preliminary target stand conditions ................................................... 121 11.4 Step 4. Model the fire behaviour potential using target stand conditions .................... 122 11.5 Step 5. Finalize target stand conditions and develop treatment prescriptions ............ 122 11.6 Step 6. Operational treatments .................................................................................... 122 11.7 Step 7. Monitoring of results. ....................................................................................... 122

12.0 APPENDIX E - FIRESMART DEVELOPMENT RECOMMENDATIONS OVERVIEW ... 123

12.1 Vegetation management.............................................................................................. 123 12.2 Community Fire Guard ................................................................................................ 125 12.3 Buildings and Construction .......................................................................................... 126 12.4 Access Management ................................................................................................... 127 12.5 Water supply ................................................................................................................ 129 12.6 Utilities-Electric and Gas.............................................................................................. 129 12.7 Additional Recommendations ...................................................................................... 130 12.8 Post-Development Fire Hazard Review ...................................................................... 130

List of Figures Figure 1. Natural and Cultural Features at Risk ............................................................. 24 Figure 2. Fuel Types percentage of District ................................................................... 32 Figure 3. Risk of Ignition ................................................................................................ 40 Figure 4: Suppression Constraints ................................................................................ 43 Figure 5: Natural Features at Risk map ......................................................................... 46 Figure 6: Structures at Risk map ................................................................................... 48 Figure 7. Type of Developments.................................................................................... 49 Figure 8: Potential Fire Behaviour map ......................................................................... 52 Figure 9. Final Wildfire Risk for the District .................................................................... 56 Figure 10. Prioritized Interface Fuel Hazard Polygons ................................................... 61 Figure 11. A successful example of interface fuel treatments ........................................ 66 Figure 12. A successful example of a landscape level fuel break. ................................. 67 Figure 13. Location of proposed landscape level fuel breaks ........................................ 69 Figure 14. Vehicular accessible trails doubling as surface fuel breaks .......................... 84


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List of Tables

Table 1. CWPP Guiding Principles ................................................................................ 14 Table 2. Assessment Criteria and Performance Indicators - Ecological Factors ............ 15 Table 3. Assessment Criteria and Performance Indicators - Community Factors .......... 16 Table 4. Assessment Criteria and Performance Indicators - Management Factors ........ 17 Table 5. Red listed species recorded within the District of Peachland ........................... 21 Table 6. Contribution of fuel layers to fire behaviour and the potential fire effects ......... 27 Table 7. Potential effect on ecosystem components for the different fire types .............. 28 Table 8. Representative fuel types within the District of Peachland ............................... 31 Table 9. MNRO weather station .................................................................................... 36 Table10. Fire weather indices between the months of May to September ..................... 36 Table 11. Interface Fuel Hazard Priority Treatment List ................................................. 62


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Executive Summary

Over the last century, human activity has altered the natural disturbance patterns and ecological processes that have historically maintained the integrity of our ecosystems. Hazardous fuel accumulations in our forests, and the related threat from wildfires, have become a growing concern across the province. The District of Peachland (District) recognizes this growing threat and has taken the initiative to responsibly assess and manage wildfire risk in and adjacent to its limits. This Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP) is an indication of the District’s desire to abate the wildfire risk to the community. A wildfire risk analysis was completed for the District. Interface fuel hazard assessments were conducted for high-risk polygons and these polygons were ranked according to the site-specific hazard. Appendices are included that provide background information on fire behaviour, fuel management treatments, pre-development fuel hazard reports, fuel treatment development prescriptions, and the methodology associated with all aspects of this CWPP. Fuel treatment prescriptions for altering stand structure for the purpose of mitigating wildfire risk should be done by qualified professionals. Consideration should be given to insist all future development within the District boundary be carried out following FireSmart, or similar, guidelines while maintaining the ecological function of the natural lands. Development permits should require the developer to conduct a ‘Fuel Hazard and Fire Risk Assessment’ of the site, explaining how the developer will address the wildfire hazard and risk on the development site. The District should consider establishing Wildfire Development Permit Areas within which development permits would trigger a need for the aforementioned report. A bylaw, OCP and policy review was conducted and recommendations have been provided to amending and adopting bylaws and policies for increasing wildfire risk reduction through these bylaws and policies. In addition to addressing the wildfire risk through means internal to the District, the District should encourage adjacent landowners, land managers and agencies to address the fuel hazard, and subsequent wildfire risk, that exists on adjacent lands. The District should conduct emergency pre-planning in the event of a wildfire. This would include determining those areas where access will be an issue in the event of a wildfire, assessing local water bodies as water sources for fire suppression purposes (for more remote areas or those areas with no hydrant system), and establishing an evacuation plan or protocol. Additionally, having the District fire department work with the Wildfire Management Branch and other emergency services on joint exercises would allow the District to respond quickly in the event of a wildfire incident. There are many areas within the District for which fuels management would be practical. It is recommended that the District access funding through the Union of BC Municipalities (UBCM) and any other agencies, for a fuels management project. A qualified registered professional forester with experience in wildfire and fuel management should complete the prescriptions necessary to conduct fuels management


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projects. Additionally, prior to engaging in such a project, the District should begin disseminating public information about this report, the existing fuel hazard and wildfire risk, and the need to alter stand structure and surface fuel loading in order to abate this risk through mitigating the fuel hazard. The following Summary of Recommendations provides an overview of the recommendations in this CWPP.

Summary of Recommendations

The following is a summary of the recommendations resulting from the work conducted during the development of this CWPP. The recommendations are listed in the order they occur within the report. The number beside the recommendation corresponds to the number beside the recommendation within the body of the report. If a reader of this summary wishes to obtain further information about a particular recommendation they need only find the corresponding number in the report and read the section following it. The implementation of this CWPP and any associated fuel management projects will be a time consuming process and will require a specific level of knowledge and experience. The District should give consideration to contracting a registered professional forester with extensive practical experience in fire suppression and fuel management to plan, prescribe, implement and monitor fuel management projects within the District. The successful proponent should also be knowledgeable about existing funding sources and capable of utilizing these sources in a way that allows a cost effective fuel management program to be implemented at minimal cost to the District. Key Action Items from this report have been prioritized for initiation in the following table. Initiation of Priority A items should occur within the short-term (1–2 years), Priority B within the mid-term (2-5 years) and Priority C within the longer term (5+ years).

Number Action Item Priority

Rec # 1 Review the Vision Statement at least every five years to ensure that it continues to represent the community’s principles and values.

C

Rec # 2 Evaluate the District’s performance every five years based upon accepted ecological, community and management based criteria.

C

Rec # 3 This CWPP is a living document that should be reviewed and updated every five years.

C

Rec # 4 The natural features at risk map should be reviewed and updated every five years.

C

Rec # 5

Dialogue with the Ministry of Forest, Lands and Natural Resource Operations to ensure they are considering wildfire risk management in the forest management plans for the Peachland watershed.

A


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Rec # 6 The archaeological features map can be updated when information on local inventories is provided by local First Nations.

C

Rec # 7 District camp sites, recreation areas and trail heads should have signs posted during the summer ensuring the public fully extinguishes campfires and discards of cigarettes appropriately.

B

Rec # 8 During the fire season, District of Peachland residents should be reminded through the District web site as to the wildfire danger and common ignition around their homes.

A

Rec # 9 New proposed trails within the community should be designed to allow for suppression access.

B

Rec # 10 District owned interface polygons identified in this report should be treated.

A

Rec # 11 All new developments should require that FireSmart guidelines be considered in the development design.

A

Rec # 12 Use the Fire Behaviour map to determine where fuel hazard mitigation work should accompany development or construction.

A

Rec # 13 The District should apply to the UBCM for funding to pursue fuel management treatments.

A

Rec # 14 The District should make available to local residents when requested, information on the fuel hazard that exists upon their property and how to mitigate the hazard.

A

Rec # 15

The District should discuss with the MoF, WMB, licensees and other interested agencies, the feasibility of constructing the proposed landscape level fuel breaks.

B

Rec # 16 Consider adopting bylaw and policy recommendations to decrease wildfire risk to the community.

A

Rec # 17

Establish Wildfire Development Permit Areas to trigger the need for a Development Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy prior to issuing a development permit. Follow Development Guidelines and FireSmart Guidelines to direct responsible development within the District.

A

Rec # 18

The District should dialogue with a local agencies, licensees and First Nations to ensure their management actions on the landscape and within the District consider wildfire and fuel management and do not increase wildfire risk to the District.

B

Rec # 19 Ensure all future roads constructed in interface areas meet standards required for suppression vehicles

A

Rec # 20 Identify interface areas with one access route or cul-de-sac roads. Explore options to build alternative access to these areas. C

Rec # 21 Encourage strategic recreation trail development to a standard that supports ATV/UTVs or small trucks for suppression purposes.

B


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Rec # 22 Gates should be installed on roads and trails that run through natural areas to minimize access by unauthorized users, especially those using motorized vehicles.

B

Rec # 23 The fire department should develop a map showing known sites where natural water bodies can be accessed by their tenders.

B

Rec # 24 For new developments, consider establishing or enhancing water bodies within the development area that could serve as emergency water sources.

B

Rec # 26 Consider conducting joint interface training exercises with the Wildfire Management Branch.

B

Rec # 27 Ensure that agencies/companies responsible for right of way maintenance abate fuel hazards during their vegetation management operations along their transmission right-of-ways.

B

Rec # 28 Ensure that grass is maintained and that all tree cutting is cleaned up adequately along roadways.

A

Rec # 29 Wildfire awareness signs should be posted along major transportation corridors, at camp sites, recreation areas and high use trail heads that specify how to report a wildfire.

A

Rec # 30 The District should develop a public education and awareness program for wildfire management.

A

Rec # 31 Provide educational or informational material to all private land owners within 100 m of the Wildfire DP areas.

A

Rec # 32 Summaries of this report and associated maps should be posted on the District web site.

A

Rec # 33

A public presentation or Open House should be planned to help disseminate CWPP recommendations once it is adopted. Local developers should be provided with update information on development.

A

Rec # 34 Establish a school education program to engage youth in wildfire management.

B

Rec # 35 Digital media including video and the District’s website should be updated to include this plan. A

Rec # 36 In the event of a wildfire, a post-fire ecosystem impact assessment and rehabilitation plan should be completed on District owned lands.

C

Rec # 37 The District Fire Rescue Service should ensure it has an emergency plan or procedures in place to address a large scale wildfire event.

C

Rec # 38

Consider establishing a Wildfire Risk Reduction Program to be managed by an experience consultant pursuant on that consultant securing UBCM funding to undertake prescriptions, operations and project monitoring and management.

A


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1.0 Introduction

1.1 The Need for a Community Wildfire Protection Plan

Over the last century, human activity has altered the natural disturbance patterns and ecological processes that have historically maintained the integrity of our ecosystems. Urban development, resource harvesting, agriculture, range use, wildfire suppression, and the introduction of non-native species are among some of the influences that have changed natural ecosystem succession. As a result, biological and physical stresses are being expressed across the province, including fuel hazard accumulations, forest insect outbreaks as well as displaced and stressed wildlife populations. Hazardous fuel accumulations in our forests, and the related threat from wildfires, have become a growing concern across the province. This threat has never been made more apparent than during the fire season of 2003 when over 2,500 fires burned more than 265,000 hectares across BC at a cost of $375 million. The most dramatic was the Okanagan Mountain Park fire, which reached a size of 25,600 hectares, caused the evacuation of 33,050 people and damaged or destroyed 238 homes. Similar large scale fires occurred again in the 2009 fire season. Catastrophic fires of this nature threaten structures and human lives, impact wildlife populations, damage soils, contribute to invasive plant propagation, increase erosion, degrade water quality and increase short term air pollution. These events are a stark reminder of how vulnerable our communities are to wildfires.

As we continue to suppress natural fires in fire-dominated ecosystems and leave the accumulating fuels untreated, there is a high probability that a large-scale wildfire is imminent. Compounding this threat is the continuing development of homes into the urban/wildland interface without regard for wildfire risk. As a result, extensive neighbourhoods or whole communities are often at some degree of risk to a wildfire. Wildfire is a fundamental and natural process within the forested landscapes of BC and many ecological communities have evolved and adapted in response to the influence of periodic wildfires. The risk that wildfire poses to our communities is expected to increase in the coming decades as a result of continued development within the interface area, the potential influences of climate change and, in some ecosystems, the impacts from pests and pathogens. While the risk of wildfire cannot be eliminated, we can effectively prepare for wildland fires by reducing wildfire behaviour potential in fire-prone areas. The District of Peachland (hereafter referred to as ‘District’ or ‘Peachland’) recognizes this growing threat and has taken the initiative to responsibly assess and manage wildfire risk within and adjacent to its boundaries utilizing the Union of BC Municipalities (UBCM) Strategic Wildfire Threat Initiative Program. This Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP) has been developed to address the fuel hazard within the wildland/urban interface zone (WUI) and the landscape wildfire risk to the District as a whole.


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1.2 CWPP Format

Our team uses a standard template format for all our CWPP reports. As such, much of the document structure and content for the report is the same as our CWPP documents for other clients. There are several reasons we use the same format for all our reports:

It allows us to ensure continuity between adjacent CWPPs upon which we work. The included material is what we have found to be relevant to all CWPP clients for

whom we have developed these reports (irrelevant material is removed as needed).

It ensures we are meeting or exceeding a standard that has been acceptable in past reports as per UBCM requirements.

It minimizes unnecessary report writing and allows us to concentrate on the site specific needs of the client in the details of the Results and Discussion section.

It greatly reduces costs to the client and allows project money to be spent on field work and site specific reporting.

Although there are structural and content similarities for all our CWPPS, the recommendations within the Results and Discussions section are specific to the client and the subject area.

1.3 Continuity with Adjacent CWPPs

The UBCM requires that there be continuity between adjacent CWPPs. We developed the adjacent CWPP’s for the Regional District of Okanagan-Similkameen and the District of West Kelowna. The CWPP for the District of Peachland does not contradict recommendations within the adjacent CWPPs.


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2.0 Project History

The District previously completed an initial CWPP in 2005. However, due to some deficiencies within this previous report, the report being over 5 yrs old, and the impact from forest pests on the local landscape since the report’s completion, an updated CWPP is being developed. This new CWPP was developed with financial support from the UBCM. It follows standards and methodologies established by the Wildfire Management Branch (WMB) of the Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations (MoF). The CWPP is a guiding document which provides a clear vision of how the risk from wildfire can be managed over the long term within the District. Clear, meaningful and achievable management goals are provided. It is also considered an adaptive plan that will evolve over time to provide a sense of community stewardship for residents.

2.1 Wildfire Management Objectives and Initiatives

Wildfire is a natural process within the forested landscapes of BC. While the risk of wildfire cannot be eliminated, we can effectively prepare for wildland fires by reducing fire behaviour potential in fire-prone areas. In recent years, public awareness of the threat of interface fires has been heightened by wildfire events in our province. This CWPP has been developed to address the threat of wildfires in the Wildland Urban-Interface (WUI) in the District. The overall objective of this plan is to provide recommendations that will reduce the long-term wildfire risk within the WUI and to the District as a whole. Specifically, the objectives are to:

Assess wildfire risk on a landscape level and recommend long term land use planning strategies to reduce this risk.

Assess the fuel hazard within the WUI, prioritize high risk areas to allow for the effective allocation of funds for treatments, and recommend general fuel treatment strategies that will reduce the risk to structures and human lives.

A review of bylaws, official community plans and policies to provide recommendations on improving these documents in order to reduce wildfire risk.

2.1.1 A Vision for Wildfire Management Planning

A long-term, sustainable vision for wildfire management in the District is a prerequisite to the development of appropriate supporting policies, guidelines, and short and long-term management plans. The vision should exemplify an inspired concept for wildfire management in the District, considering both its present state and the future perspective. The vision should respond to the community’s needs while recognizing the management challenges associated with future population growth, fiscal constraints, land use and environmental change.


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The following Vision Statement should be considered by the District and reviewed in the future to ensure that it continues to represent the community’s principles and values:

“The District of Peachland recognizes the potential challenges and risks related to population growth, changing land use patterns and liability. The District is committed to becoming a “FireSmart” community, leading by example towards ensuring the safety of its citizens, buildings and infrastructure. This will be accomplished strategically over time, recognizing both the need to support sustainable development while protecting the natural values that help to define the District.”.


Rec # 1 Review the Vision Statement at least every 5 years to ensure that it continues to represent the community’s principles and values.

C


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2.1.2 Guiding Principles

The following guiding principles form the foundation of this CWPP. Table 1. CWPP Guiding Principles

Guiding Principles

Public Health and Safety

Public safety is the foremost priority. All wildfire management activities must reflect a commitment to public safety.

Protection of infrastructure

The District will consider implementing measures to protect the community infrastructure from wildfire including private property, public structures and facilities.

Sustainable Planning

The District supports a unique diversity of natural features which help to define the character of the community. Protection of these features requires a framework for growth that supports a balance between long term social, economic and environmental values.

Environmental Protection and Enhancement

The ecosystems found within the District support environmentally sensitive features and a high level of biodiversity. This plan recognizes the importance of protecting and enhancing these environmental values.

Interagency Co-operation and Policy

Wildfire management planning, preparedness, prevention, suppression, ecosystem rehabilitation, and education will be conducted in co-operation between the District, the District Fire Department, the Ministry of Forests, and First Nations.

Public Awareness, Education and Advocacy

Public awareness, education and advocacy are integral to fostering respect for the risk that exists from wildfire. Agencies will enhance understanding and support of wildfire management policies and practices through internal and external communication and education programs.

Adaptive Management

There are significant challenges in establishing a “FireSmart” community, particularly during a period of rapid growth and changing environmental climate. An adaptive management approach must be adopted that includes a monitoring function to evaluate the effectiveness of initiatives, modify actions as required, and incorporate new approaches and decision-making processes.

Financial Responsibility

The plan recognizes that many of the recommendations to be adopted are costly and will be implemented over time as budgets and funding sources allow. Limited budgets will require that a variety of initiatives be explored to implement all of the recommendations in the plan. Long term success of the plan depends on reliable and sustainable funding strategies within the context of developing innovative partnerships, priority setting and cost/benefit considerations.


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2.1.3 Assessment Criteria and Indicators

Successful implementation and long term monitoring of the CWPP requires that a foundation of assessment criteria and performance indicators be adopted. These are summarized in the following tables which correlate to specific ecological, community or management factors. The key objectives provide guidance to District managers, private industry, and the community as to how the District intends to manage the risk from wildfire. Criteria and indicators provide a measure of the state of the District. These tables are meant to provide a roadmap for achieving an optimal state for wildfire preparedness. The objectives in these tables help to direct and prioritise the recommendations made in the CWPP document. Table 2. Assessment Criteria and Performance Indicators - Ecological Factors

KEY

OBJECTIVES ASSESSMENT

CRITERIA

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

LOW MODERATE GOOD OPTIMAL

Minimize ecological impacts of fuel treatment activities

Ecological integrity of treatment areas

No consideration of ecological sensitivities during planning and operational activities; Impacts are high

General landscape considerations for ecological impacts; Ecological impacts are evident but not high

Site specific ecological sensitivities identified and protected during operational activities; Low impacts to site

Site specific ecological sensitivities identified and protected during operational activities; Site impacts are insignificant

Minimize ecological impacts of suppression activities

Ecological integrity of areas impacted by suppression activities

No consideration of ecological sensitivities during suppression; Impacts including site degradation are high

General landscape considerations for ecological impacts; Ecological impacts are evident but not high

Site specific ecological sensitivities identified and protected during operational activities; Low impacts to site

Site specific ecological sensitivities considered during suppression; Site impacts are insignificant

Restore all natural areas impacted by wildfire management activities

Implementation of restoration plans and programs

No restoration of impacted areas

<50% of degraded areas restored within one year following disturbance

>50% of degraded areas restored within one year following disturbance

Restoration of all degraded areas is initiated within two years following disturbance


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Table 3. Assessment Criteria and Performance Indicators - Community Factors

KEY

OBJECTIVES

ASSESSMENT

CRITERIA



Develop public education programs to support the goals of the CWPP

Public understanding of wildfire planning and suppression

No education programs directed towards wildfire planning and suppression; Little to no public awareness of issues

Public generally aware of CWPP but not detailed recommendations

Education initiatives targeted to priority recommendations in the CWPP

Proactive education initiatives in place; Public highly aware of CWPP goals

Involve the public in the implementation of the CWPP

Public involvement and community stewardship

No public involvement or stewardship in CWPP initiatives

Limited public involvement in CWPP initiatives

Community engaged and participates in implementation of priority recommendations (e.g. risk mitigation) in CWPP

Community actively engaged and participates in implementation of all aspects of the CWPP


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Table 4. Assessment Criteria and Performance Indicators - Management Factors

KEY

OBJECTIVES

ASSESSMENT

CRITERIA



Develop and implement a comprehensive CWPP

Implementation of a CWPP

No CWPP in place

CWPP in place with 50% of recommendations implemented

CWPP in place with all recommendations implemented

CWPP in place with all recommendations implemented; CWPP updated every 5 years

District departments cooperate to implement CWPP goals and objectives

Interdepartmental cooperation

No communication or consultation protocols between departments in place

Relevant departments have general awareness of CWPP management and planning activities

Relevant departments work together to implement the recommendations in the CWPP

Coordinated and cooperative management approach by relevant departments to implement the CWPP

CWPP goals and recommendations are recognized in municipal plans and policies

Integration of CWPP in municipal planning and development process

No recognition of CWPP in municipal planning process

Priority recommendations in CWPP recognized and supported by relevant municipal policy

CWPP goals and recommendations supported by relevant municipal policy and incorporated in development planning process

Municipality and private developers fully cooperate to achieve CWPP goals and objectives

Develop and maintain adequate funding to implement the CWPP

Budget available to support the recommendations in the CWPP

No budget allocation to support the recommendations in the CWPP

Insufficient budget to address more than ad hoc initiatives and demand requests

Sufficient funding available for basic management objectives

Secured, annual funding available to meet all CWPP recommendations

Ensure adequate staff and resources to implement CWPP

District staffing and resources

No staff and/or inadequate resources

No training of existing staff; resources available

Qualified individuals on staff with regular professional development; Sufficient resources available

Multi-disciplinary team; required resources available on demand

Reduce wildfire risk in public owned interface areas

% of high risk public interface areas treated

<25% interface fuel treatment polygons treated and maintained

25-75% interface fuel treatment polygons treated and maintained

>75% interface fuel treatment polygons treated and maintained

All interface fuel treatment polygons treated and maintained

Water supply is available for suppression to all structures within the District

Proximity of water source to structures within the wildland interface

Water sources available to less than 50% of structures within the wildland interface

Water sources available for 50-75% of structures within the wildland interface

Water sources available to greater than 75% of structures within the wildland interface

Water sources available to all structures within the wildland interface


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KEY

OBJECTIVES

ASSESSMENT

CRITERIA



Interface areas with a high risk of ignition are identified

Risk of ignition

No knowledge of the type and location of ignition sources

General understanding of the types of ignition sources; No spatial mapping of high risk areas

Comprehensive understanding of the risk of ignition within interface areas; partial spatial mapping of high risk areas in GIS

Comprehensive understanding for the risk of ignition across the District; spatial mapping of all high risk areas in GIS

There is adequate access, ingress and egress routes to all communities within the interface

Presence of ingress/egress routes in all communities

<60% of communities have greater than one ingress/egress route

60-90% of communities have greater than one ingress/egress route

>90% of communities have greater than one ingress/egress route

All communities have greater than one ingress/egress routes

Implement a monitoring program for wildfire risk in interface areas

Frequency of monitoring

No monitoring program

Infrequent monitoring of high risk interface areas

Regular monitoring of high risk interface areas

Regular monitoring of all interface areas


Rec # 2 Evaluate the District’s performance every 5 years based upon accepted ecological, community and management based criteria.

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2.2 A Living Document – Timing and Adaptive Management

Developing a CWPP within the context of a natural ecosystem is challenging as forest stand conditions are continually changing with growth, regeneration and forest pest and disease influences. The rate of landscape change in urban environments must also be considered as a growing population can put stress on local ecosystems as demand for land, water and resources increases. In addition, future impacts to the landscape resulting from potential climate change scenarios, which are difficult to predict, will likely have a lasting, but as of yet undetermined, impact on the natural forested communities. Many of the recommendations contained within the CWPP are likely not achievable within a short time frame. As such, this plan provides an initial 20 year framework to help guide the District towards becoming a ‘FireSmart’ community. The plan begins with the assumption that it will take the District many years to reach what would be considered an optimal state. As such, this plan is a living document that is based upon a 20 year planning cycle with anticipated updates to the plan every five (5) years. An adaptive management approach is one of continual learning and integrates new management initiatives, scientific research, monitoring results and community input. Specific management initiatives are monitored and the results are used to better inform and strengthen the plan by making necessary adjustments where appropriate. Periodic review and updating of the plan will facilitate integration of an adaptive management approach. This ensures that the plan continually follows best management practices and reflects the current vision of the community.


Rec # 3 This CWPP is a living document that should be reviewed and updated every 5 years.

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3.0 Background

The District of Peachland is located on the western shores of Okanagan Lake in the Okanagan Valley within the province of British Columbia. It has a total land area of 1,596 hectares. The District of Peachland is situated within the Regional District of Central Okanagan (RDCO), approximately 40 kms north of Penticton, 25 kms south of Kelowna and immediately south and adjacent to the District of West Kelowna along Highway 97. Peachland has a population of 5,200 (BC Statistics, 2006) and is a popular tourism destination with increased tourism through the summer months. The District’s town centre is located between Highway 97 and Okanagan Lake. It is surrounded by residential neighbourhoods along Okanagan Lake and upslope of the lake with a perimeter of dense forested lands. Within the residential neighbourhoods homes are accessed on short residential streets with through traffic directed around the edge of the neighbourhoods. Green spaces are abundant within and between residential areas, which contain a system of pedestrian walkways connecting residential and commercial areas. There are several land tenures adjacent to the District, the Westbank Community Forest being the major tenure in the area. Fuel management within the tenure has been identified as an integral part of their work. They have identified 1300 hectares of forested land for treatment. There are also Environment /Conservation and Recreation, Reserve/Conservation and Miscellaneous Land Use tenures adjacent to the District.

3.1 Natural Environment

Peachland is located within the Okanagan Very Dry Hot Ponderosa Pine variant of the BC Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification system (BEC). The Okanagan Very Dry Hot Interior Douglas-fir variant covers a small portion of the upper slopes of the District boundary. The typical climate of this area is characterized by hot summers and mild winters with average low/high annual temperatures ranging from 0 to 27.9oC with an annual average precipitation of about 24cm. The ecological communities in the Peachland area have evolved and adapted to the associated lack of annual moisture. The dominant tree species are ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) with climax stands forming open forests of primarily ponderosa pine. The shrub layer is open or absent on zonal and dry sites. The understory vegetation is predominantly composed of bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum), arrow-leaved balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata), Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) and timber milk-vetch (Astragalus miser). The south-facing, dryer sites consist of open grasslands of bluebunch wheatgrass and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). The cooler north-facing slopes contain less ponderosa pine and increased occurrences of interior Douglas-fir and an understory of snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), Nootka rose (Rosa nutkana), tall Oregon-grape (Mahonia aquifolium) and pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens).


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Historically, low-severity, short interval fire regimes have renewed the landscape in the fire dependent ecosystems of the Okanagan Valley. These stand maintaining fires acted as ecosystem renewal agents within these ecosystems, providing natural fuel management. Over the last century, land management policies such as, timber harvesting policy, the First Nation Reservation system, land development, and cattle grazing have resulted in the suppression of wildfires at a landscape level. The resultant effect of removing wildfire as a disturbance agent on the landscape has been an accumulation of hazardous forest fuels, increased forest pests and diseases, as well as a loss of valuable open forest and native grasslands. The BC Conservation Data Centre (CDC) has identified BC’s most vulnerable vertebrate animals, vascular plants and ecosystems, each of which is assigned to a provincial Red or Blue list according to their provincial conservation status rank. Species or populations at high risk of extinction or extirpation are placed on the red list and are candidates for formal endangered species status. Blue-listed species are considered vulnerable to human activity and natural events. A search of the BC Ministry of Environment Conservation Data Center database confirmed occurrences of one Red-listed plant and two animal species within the District (Table 5). Table 5. Red listed species recorded within the District of Peachland

Common Name Scientific Name Category BC_LIST

Lewis’s Woodpecker Melanerpes lewis Vertebrate Animal Red

Western Screech-Owl

Megascops kennicottii macfarlanie

Vertebrate Animal Red

Owyhee mudwort Limosella acaulis Vascular Plant Red

Significant natural features found within the District of Peachland are illustrated in the Natural and Cultural Features at Risk map. These features must be considered and protected during wildfire suppression efforts and fuel treatment projects. The inventory of natural features should be updated every 5 years to ensure all listed species receive the protection they need.


Rec # 4 The natural features at risk map should be reviewed and updated every 5 years.

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3.2 Community Watersheds

There are two community watersheds located just west of the District: the Peachland Community Watershed and Trepanier Community Watershed. Golder Associates completed a watershed assessment report for drinking water source protection in 2010 specifically referring to the Peachland and Trepanier watersheds (Golder Associates 2010). Intrinsic hazards and land use activities were identified and classified according to the risk they pose to the aforementioned creeks and watersheds. The mountain pine beetle epidemic and the associated salvage harvesting in the watersheds were considered a very high risk to the watersheds and drinking water sources. Wildfires were also considered a significant risk to the watersheds and were given a “High Risk” rating.


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A number of Risk Management Action Plans were developed specific to salvage harvesting and wildfire disturbances. In order to properly protect the water resource, adaptive management plans for salvage harvesting should reflect best management practices emphasizing stem retention where possible. The report suggested developing strategies for the protection of water quality within fuel management project areas. Specifically, fuel management prescriptions should address community or domestic water supplies, riparian management areas and soil characteristics. Fuel management treatments must be implemented in a manner that avoids adverse affects on the watersheds during the treatment and in the event of a wildfire. Wildfire can affect the hydrology, erosion rates, wildlife and fish habitat, vegetation and water quality of a watershed. As stated in the Golder report, there can be an increase in the wildfire risk with increased tree mortality due to insect and disease agents. However, the most significant increase in wildfire risk may be due to forest encroachment and the presence of overstocking or dense stands of trees resulting from intensive wildfire suppression. In the event of a wildfire, a post-fire ecosystem impact assessment and rehabilitation plan should be completed. Due to the stated significant wildfire risk to the community watersheds, and the continuing impact of the mountain pine beetle in the watersheds, the District should dialogue with the Ministry to ensure they are considering the wildfire risk within their forest management plans for the watershed. Management objectives should result in protection of the water resources and the District advised of harvesting and treatment operations scheduled within the reservoir.


Rec # 5

Dialogue with the Ministry of Forest, Lands and Natural Resource Operations to ensure they are considering wildfire risk management in the forest management plans for the Peachland watershed.

A

3.3 Archaeological Features

Features of historical and cultural significance have been identified and should be considered for protection during wildfire planning, fuel management and suppression activities. Of the identified Archaeological features, none occur within the prioritized interface polygons delineated in this report. It should be noted that there is little public information available for these features. Also, First Nation values are often not available through the provincial government data bases due to the sensitive nature of the information. In the event there is a wildfire, or fuel treatments are planned and implemented, the local First Nations should be contacted to ensure the local knowledge of cultural features is obtained. General locations of cultural and natural features found within the District of Peachland are provided in Figure 2 – Natural and Cultural Features at Risk. The location of these features on the map should be considered general at best and better information may be


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provided to project managers or the District from local First Nation governments. The District can update this archaeological database when local inventories are known to have been undertaken or updated by local First Nations.


Rec # 6 The archaeological features map can be updated when information on local inventories is provided by local First Nations.

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Figure 1. Natural and Cultural Features at Risk


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3.4 The Historic Role of Wildfire

3.4.1 Ecosystem Succession

An ecosystem is a broad term used to describe the interactions of living organisms with the physical environment (Meidinger and Pojar 1991). The nature of an ecosystem is influenced by the climate, the local physiography and the physical and chemical properties of the soil parent material. Over time, the ecosystem reaches a condition of dynamic equilibrium known as the climax stage. In a climax ecosystem, a balance is reached between the living components and the physical environment. The plant species are self-perpetuating and are present at all stages of their life cycle. The plant community does not change in composition, only in structure. Ecosystems reach this climax state through a process known as ecological succession. This is a process of change through time where a site is occupied by a series of distinct plant communities, known as seral stages. Each of these seral stages is composed of species best adapted for the existing site conditions. Each seral stage alters its surrounding environment until a better-adapted seral stage takes over. Eventually the climax seral stage is reached. Each seral stage provides certain habitat features required by various animal and plant species. Maintaining a natural and healthy distribution of these seral stages across the landscape ensures a high level of biodiversity and habitat for a variety of wildlife and plant species.

3.4.2 Succession and Natural Disturbance Regimes

All ecosystems are influenced by periodic disturbances that vary in size, severity and occurrence. Examples of common disturbances include: wildfire, wind throw, ice and freeze damage, water, landslides, insect and disease outbreaks, as well as human caused events such as logging. These disturbances change the progress of an ecosystem along its successional pathway. Usually the ecosystem is altered to an earlier stage but occasionally a disturbance can forward its progress towards its climax state. Historically, wildfire as a disturbance agent was viewed as a threat to the forest as a timber resource. As such, it became standard policy to suppress all wildfires. The resultant effect is that fire dependant ecosystems have began to express biological and physical instabilities such as hazardous fuel accumulations and pest outbreaks. While we have almost always had an understanding of the integral role that disturbance agents play in maintaining spatial and temporal diversity in our ecosystems, it has only been since homes were destroyed in catastrophic wildfires that we have engaged in wildfire management through fuel management. Wildfire is often the most dramatic disturbance type and has the ability to significantly and immediately alter the physical and biological characteristics of an ecosystem. It can change the structure and species composition of a forest, remove some or the entire forest floor organic layer and alter the chemical properties of the soil. In ecosystems where natural wildfires are frequent, they help to prepare seed beds, recycle nutrients, alter plant succession, maintain a diversity of seral stages across the landscape, control insect and disease outbreaks as well as reduce fuel accumulations. Many of the native


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plant species in fire-dominated ecosystems rely on fire as part of their reproduction strategy. All Biogeoclimatic subzones have been separated into five natural disturbance types (NDTs) according to the Forest Practices Code Biodiversity Guidebook. These NDTs are classified based on the size and frequency of natural disturbances that occur in those ecosystems as per the following:

NDT 1 - Ecosystems with rare stand-initiating events.

NDT 2 - Ecosystems with infrequent stand initiating events.

NDT 3 - Ecosystems with frequent stand- initiating events.

NDT 4 - Ecosystems with frequent stand maintaining fires.

NDT 5 - Alpine Tundra and Sub-alpine Parkland ecosystems. The ecosystems within the District of Peachland are classified as NDT 4 – ecosystems with frequent stand maintaining fires (BC Biodiversity Guidebook, 1995). Historically, these ecosystems have evolved with frequent low-intensity fire disturbances creating a climax community of grasslands, shrub land and open forest types. In the ponderosa pine zone that surrounds the District of Peachland the most frequent disturbance are periodic surface fires consuming woody fuels, renewing the herb and shrub species, thinning the younger stands and raising the height of the live crowns. During post-European settlement, human activities have resulted in surface fuel accumulation, changes to species composition, forest stand densities and forest encroachment in the low elevation grasslands. Due to fire suppression efforts over the past century, there has been a significant increase in fuel accumulations. The increase in fuel loads and the increased risk of ignition have resulted in a greater probability of crown fires and insect and disease damage throughout the NDT (BC Biodiversity Guidebook, 1995).

3.5 Wildfire and its Effects

3.5.1 Forest Fuel Layers

There are four layers of forest fuels; subsurface, surface, ladder and crown fuels. Each one contributes to fire behaviour and fire effects differently as outlined in the table below.


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Table 6. Contribution of fuel layers to fire behaviour and the potential fire effects

Fuel Layers Description Contribution to Fire

Behaviour Fire Effects

Subsurface The L, F, H organic layers or ‘duff’

Play a role in how difficult the fire will be to ‘mop-up’ or completely extinguish once under control

Hot fires can completely remove the organic layer contributing to regeneration strategies that require mineral soil, increased run-off and associated erosion and invasive plant issues

Surface

Low lying shrubs, grasses fine and coarse woody debris within close proximity of the ground

Generally dictates surface fire intensity and rate of spread of a fire; can directly affect flame length, which can initiate a crown fire under specific circumstances

Heavy fuel loads and associated intense surface fires can result in the volatizing of soil nutrients. The intense heating of the soil can also create hydrophobic layers that contribute to surface erosion

Ladder

Live or dead lower bole branches, taller shrubs and, in some locations, tall grasses

Can transfer fire from the ground to the crown; contributes to rate of spread and surface fire intensity

Fire moving from the ground to the crown can scorch/remove all bark from the trees; complete branch consumption can also occur

Crown The main canopy of the stand

Produces a crown fire, which is the most difficult and dangerous fire to suppress; increase spotting potential

Crown fires have the highest intensity levels, the greatest immediate and long-term ecological effects

3.5.2 Wildfire Types

Three types of fires result from these four fuel layers: subsurface, surface and crown; with a crown fire being either passive or active crown fires. Crown fires are divided in passive and active as defined below (Scott and Reinhardt 2001). Passive Crown Fire “A type of crown fire in which the crowns of individual trees or small groups of trees burn, but solid flaming in the canopy cannot be maintained except for short periods.” Active Crown Fire “A crown fire in which the entire fuel complex is involved in flame, but the crowning phase remains dependent on heat released from surface fuel for continued spread.” The following table illustrates the potential effects on different components of the stand and ecosystem from these fire types.


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Table 7. Potential effect on ecosystem components for the different fire types

Fire Type Forest Floor Vegetation Overstory

Subsurface

Partial to complete combustion depending on moisture conditions and duff depths; consumption increases with intensity

Partial consumption possible; most vegetation mortality will likely be due to root kill from isolated high intensities

Minimal effects. Some mortality as a result of root kill with intense subsurface fires and shallow rooting species

Surface

Partial to complete combustion depending on site conditions, fire intensity and duff depths

As intensity increases vegetation consumption will increase. High intensities may kill fire avoiding species. Fire dependent species should re-sprout vigorously

Root kill may occur with intense surface fires. Lower boles and bark may be scorched or consumed with intense fires or high flame lengths associated with heavy fuel loadings

Intermittent Crown Fire

Complete combustion can occur with shallow duff depths and high fuel loading

Complete combustion is likely. Moist areas may survive

Partial to complete mortality of stems involved. Scorch mortality may occur on non-involved but adjacent stems

Active Crown Fire

Usually complete combustion of soil surface but dependent on surface fuel loading and rate of spread

Complete combustion of vegetation

Complete combustion of overstory

3.5.3 The Effects of Wildfire on Vegetation

Fire dependent forest ecosystems have intricately evolved with the influence of fire. The role that fire has played in these ecosystems includes: seed bed preparation; recycling of nutrients; altering of ecosystem succession; diversification of seral stages across the landscape; pest and disease outbreak control; as well as the reduction of fuel hazards. In these ecosystems, native plant species have evolved with frequent fires and, in many cases, depend on it for their existence. The influence that fire has on vegetation varies depending on the species. Vegetation can either impede or accelerate a fire depending on its flammability characteristics. Consequently, each species reacts and adapts to fire in different ways depending on the intensity and nature of the fire. The survival of plants and trees during a wildfire depends on their ability to tolerate heat, which is largely dependent on the moisture levels of their tissue. Fire resistance refers to the ability of the plant to survive the passage of a fire (DeBano et al. 1989). This depends on the food reserves and fire-adapted traits of the plant, as well as the frequency and characteristics of fires to which the plant is exposed.


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Where wildfires are a regular occurrence, some plant species have developed traits that help them to survive and/or regenerate following wildfire. Some pine trees produce serotinous cones that only open and release seeds after exposure to heat associated with a fire. Other species produce hard-coated seeds that require fire to scarify them. Still others have thick, fire resistant bark that helps the tree survive the passage of wildfires. Certain species have food and bud reserves located between the root and the shoot and therefore are protected from fire. These buds will sprout and use the food reserve to stay alive following a wildfire. Herbaceous species are generally less affected by wildfire largely due to their protected position near or below the ground. The seeds of these plants are also more easily transported and can establish more quickly from adjacent sites than those of shrubs and trees. Wildfires can have a dramatic effect on the soil properties and forest floor, which in turn determines which species can establish and survive. Depending on fire intensity, the organic layers of the forest floor can be burned off and there are changes to the soil’s physical, chemical and biological properties. In the study area, there are two main tree species that have fire-adapted traits. Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and ponderosa/yellow pine (Pinus ponderosae) have very thick bark, deep roots and high crowns that help them survive surface fires. This species also regenerates readily under post-fire conditions. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) does not have fire resistant traits but instead produces serotinous cones that ensure it will quickly re-occupy a site following a fire. The survival and/or re-establishment of these species following wildfire depend on the previous stand composition, site characteristics and fire intensity.

3.5.4 The Effects of Wildfire on Wildlife

Fire effects on wildlife are highly dependent on the wildlife species. In general, fire has a greater impact on critical habitat characteristics than on individual animals, except in the case of those animals that are less mobile for long distance travel. Death directly caused by wildfire is rare for large animals and more common in smaller animals that are not as mobile. The greatest impact to wildlife populations is on the availability of food, cover habitat and the structural diversity of the ecosystem. These changes can be either beneficial or detrimental depending on the species. Fire can drastically change the quality and abundance of available browse by reducing overstory cover and increasing ground forage. A reduction in tree cover affects both protective cover requirements (hiding from and escaping predators) and thermal cover opportunities (preventing body heat loss). Where the overstory cover is removed, there can be an increase in ground cover, which can either be detrimental or beneficial depending on the habitat requirements of the species. Wildfires rarely burn uniformly across a landscape and, consequently, produce patches of unburned forest. This creates important stand edge effects between seral stages (i.e. habitat types). These boundaries between habitat types and stand structure types are critical for wildlife diversity and survivability. They are especially important for many large herbivores since they provide protective cover as well as access to forage. Wildfires tend to leave numerous dead trees standing, which provide critical habitat for a variety of birds, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates.


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Mammals with larger home ranges such as moose, black-tailed deer, grizzly bear, elk and black bear tend to benefit from wildfires that leave a variety of seral stages, a critical habitat requirement for these species. Regular wildfires help to maintain a mosaic of forest types across the landscape and generally increase the short-term abundance of forage on a site. This can be attributed to increased isolation and the subsequent increased temperature, release of nutrients and decreased competition for site resources between shrubs and trees. Wildfires usually kill older and poorly digestible plant parts, which are replaced with younger more succulent parts that contain more digestible proteins, minerals and fiber. The survivability of small mammals during a wildfire depends on the mobility of the animal and the size and intensity of the fire. The amount of coarse woody debris is probably the most important small mammal and amphibian habitat component affected by wildfire. Fires will generally lower small mammal populations for 1 to 3 years before they return to pre fire levels (DeBano et al. 1989). Amphibians and reptiles are more often found in moist ecosystems and may find shelter by burrowing into the soil for protection. The effects on birds tend to vary with the intensity of the fire and the existing populations. In general, birds that feed on herbaceous forage tend to increase following wildfire whereas those which use the forest canopy or the boles of trees tend to decline.

3.6 Rare and Endangered Species and Plant Communities

It is widely agreed that the protection of rare and endangered species is critical for conserving both genetic and species diversity in BC. The Government of Canada has developed a national strategy for species at risk to prevent other species from becoming at risk. The strategy includes the Species at Risk Act (SARA), which came into force in June 2003. SARA is intended to protect the wildlife found on federal lands, as well as their critical habitat. The purposes of the Act are to prevent Canadian indigenous species, subspecies, and distinct populations from becoming extirpated or extinct, to provide for the recovery of endangered or threatened species, and encourage the management of other species to prevent them from becoming at risk. The species assessment process is conducted by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). Based on the status report, they use a committee of experts to conduct a species assessment and assign the status of a wildlife species believed to be at some degree of risk nationally. On a provincial level, the British Columbia Conservation Data Centre (CDC) works along side of the SARA process. It is a part of the Wildlife Inventory Section of the Resources Inventory Branch of BC. This organization is responsible for collecting and storing information on rare and endangered plants, animals and plant communities in BC that have been ranked as red-listed are considered extirpated, endangered, or threatened in British Columbia. The impacts of fuel treatments to these plants, animals and ecosystems should be taken into considerations for future urban development and when prescribing fuel treatments across the study area. Details regarding the management requirements of these entities can be found on the Conservation Data Center website (http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/cdc/) and on the federal Species at Risk website (http://www.speciesatrisk.gc.ca/default_e.cfm).

http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/

http://www.cosewic.gc.ca/

http://www.cosewic.gc.ca/

http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/status/status_e.cfm

http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/status/assess_e.cfm

http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/cdc/

http://www.speciesatrisk.gc.ca/default_e.cfm


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3.7 Local Fuel Types

Sixteen national benchmark fuel types are used by the Canadian Fire Behaviour Prediction System. This system divides fuels into five major groups and 16 more specific fuel types. These groups are used to describe fuels according to stand structure, species composition, surface and ladder fuels and the organic (duff) layer. Fuel types were derived by running the vegetation resources inventory database for this area through an algorithm that converts forest cover to fuel types. Fuel types were updated using air photo interpretation and during fieldwork. It should be noted that each fuel type represents a fire behaviour pattern and may not necessarily match the fuel stand structure described in the classification system. In addition, many of the fuel profiles are not exact matches; however, they are the closest profiles. Table 8. Representative fuel types within the District of Peachland

Fuel Type Classification Total Area

(ha) % of total

area % of natural

area

C3 – Mature Lodgepole Pine 81.7 5.1% 9%

C4 – Immature Lodgepole Pine 4.5 0.3% 1%

C7 – Open Ponderosa Pine 502.3 31.5% 56%

D1 – Leafless Aspen 29.3 1.8% 3%

M2 – Boreal Mixedwood - Green 20.6 1.3% 2%

O1b – Standing Grass 199.1 12.5% 22%

S1 – Lodgepole Pine slash 59.8 3.7% 7%

N – Non fuel areas 698.8 43.8% n/a

Total 1,596.1 100% 100%

The fuel types which posses the great fuel hazard to the District are the grasslands and coniferous fuel types; those labelled as the ‘C’ fuel types. Grasslands can support fast moving fires that can quickly threaten structures before fire professionals can arrive on site and can quickly spread to adjacent heavier fuel types where they can pose suppression issues due to heavier fuel loading. The coniferous fuel types can support high intensity and severity wildfire due to heavier fuel loading. These are the fuel types where fuel management projects can greatly reduce the fuel hazard and improve structure survivability. The flammability of these fuel types varies throughout the year depending on the fuel moisture content of the needles and leaves (Natural Resources Canada 2009).


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Figure 2. Fuel Types percentage of District

The following section describes these fuel types. Photos of examples of these fuel types within the District have been provided where these fuel types existed in the interface fuel hazard polygons assessed. Stock photos have been provided for those fuel types that were not sampled within interface polygons.

3.7.1 Fuel type C-7 – Open ponderosa pine stands

This fuel type is characterized by uneven-aged open stands of mature ponderosa pine. Stands are open with occasional clumpy thickets and individual trees. Canopy closure is less than 15% overall, although thickets are often closed and dense. Woody surface fuel accumulations are light and scattered. Dense pockets of conifers associated with this fuel type have a high fire behaviour potential, but fuel continuity is usually low across a natural stand. These stands present a low to moderate fire behavior potential depending past management activities.


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Photos of C7 fuel type from Polygon 47

3.7.2 Fuel type C-3 - Mature lodgepole pine

This fuel type is characterized by fully stocked stands that have achieved complete crown closure and are dominated by ponderosa pine with a minor component of Douglas-fir. Stands can have a low to very high coverage of shrub and/or grass complexes depending on subzone, aspect and canopy closure. Surface fuel loading can vary depending on management activities and overstory mortality. Height to the main canopy is generally greater than 3 m, but the presence of understory conifers or tall shrubs can contribute to ladder fuels. Canopy fuel loading is variable and can range from moderate and patchy to high and continuous depending on ingrowth. These stands generally pose a high fire behaviour potential.

Photo of C3 fuel type from Polygon 1

3.7.3 Fuel type C-4 – Immature lodgepole pine

This fuel type is characterized by very dense ponderosa pine stand with a minor component of Douglas-fir. Stands have a very high number of stems per hectare (>1000) and are generally less than 50 years old. Trees are not very tall (<25 m in height) and can have branches extending down to or near ground level or have a heavy ladder fuel component from the understory layer. Mortality from natural thinning causes a large quantity of standing dead stems and dead downed woody fuel. The shrub layer is sparse to moderately developed due to high crown closure and there is often a moderate level of surface fuel loading. Crown loading and ladder fuels are high and continuous. These stands pose a high to very high fire behaviour potential.


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Photo of C4 fuel type from Polygon 19

3.7.4 Fuel type O1b; Open grassland

This fuel type includes areas that are dominated by natural, non agricultural grasses. These fuels tend to dry out in the summer months and result in a fuel source that ignites easily, spreads quickly, but has a quick burn out time. These fuels can act as kindling for larger fuels.

Photo of O1b fuel type from Polygon 9

3.7.5 Fuel type S-1 – Lodgepole pine slash

This fuel type includes areas of continuous lodgepole pine slash with a moderate loading and depth due to tops and branches remaining following some harvest methods. There is high foliage retention on downed stems and an absence and/or sparse shrub and herb cover layer. Depending on fuel loading, and curing of material, these fuel types can posses a high to very high potential fire behaviour. However, such slash fuel types can be less dangerous to deal with than closed canopy fuel types due to the lack of a potential for a crown fire.


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No photos of S1 fuel type are available for the interface area of the District

3.7.6 Fuel type D-1 – Deciduous dominated stands and shrub

Within some of the riparian and wetland areas of the District, there are stands with a varying composition of deciduous species. These deciduous species are not as flammable as conifer species. Therefore, they do not usually contribute to a high fire behaviour potential. Understory vegetation can be lush and rich with a high moisture regime throughout the year. These stands pose a low fire behaviour potential and have proven to be effective canopy fuel breaks due to their lower volatility and their association with wetter understory environments.

Stock Photos; no photos of D1 fuel type are available for the interface area of the District

3.7.7 Fuel type M-2 – Boreal mixedwood - green

This fuel type is characterized by a stand mixture consisting of coniferous and deciduous tree species. The diversity of species composition and a wide variability of in stand structure and development can result in variable rates of spread. The rates of spread primarily vary due to the softwood and hardwood components. In the summer, when the deciduous overstory and understory are in leaf, fire spread is greatly reduced.


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Stock photo; no photos of M2 fuel type are available for the interface area of the District

3.8 Historic Fire Weather Analysis

Weather conditions used to calculate fire behaviour were derived from historic records dating back to 1989 for the Fintry MNRO weather station: Table 9. MNRO weather station Station

# Station Name

BEC LAT LONG Elevation Start Year End Year

298 Fintry IDFxh1 50.21 -119.48 670 1989 2006

Historical weather data for the District was statistically analyzed for the months of May to September. The 80th percentile indices were used to represent the worst-case scenario for fire weather conditions (Table 10). Table10. Fire weather indices between the months of May to September

Station

Fine Fuel

Moisture Code

Duff Moisture

Code

Drought Code

Initial Spread Index

Build Up

Index

Fire Weather

Index

Relative Humidity

Precip (mm)

Temp

#289 Fintry

80th

percentile 91.9 89.4 716.1 7.6 129.6 34.6 63 1.0 26.2

Average 80.0 66.8 520.7 4.5 95.1 15.5 48.4 1.1 20.5

Maximum 96.6 372.0 1187.0 35.3 414.0 81.7 100 31.5 35.6

During the fire season, the Wildfire Management Branch collects hourly weather station data and uses it to determine the Danger Class Rating for the entire province. The Danger Class Rating is categorised as: Low I, Moderate II, High III and Extreme IV. When the Danger Class is High or Extreme, forest fuels are very dry and the risk from wildfire is significant. Under these conditions, wildfire can start easily and spread quickly.


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4.0 Wildfire Risk Analysis and Fuel Hazard Methodology

4.1 Overview

The recommendations outlined in this document were based on wildfire risk mapping and interface fuel hazard assessments. The first is a landscape level “Wildfire Risk Analysis.” This GIS based model spatially quantifies the risk and consequences of wildfire across the landscape. Polygons with a fire behaviour potential greater than ‘moderate’ that are within 100 m of structures undergo a more detailed Interface Fuel Hazard Assessment. This ranking system was used to determine where fuel treatments could effectively reduce the wildfire threat and to prioritize these interface areas for treatment. Together, these two assessments provide a foundation for developing treatment strategies on both a broad landscape level, as well as specific treatments adjacent to structures at risk. Detailed methodologies for these risk assessments can be found in Appendix A and Appendix B respectively.

4.2 Wildfire Risk Analysis

The “Wildfire Risk Analysis” is a GIS based model that spatially quantifies and analyzes the relationships that exist between the critical factors affecting wildfire risk. The objective of this model is to provide a decision making tool that spatially identifies the severity of wildfire threat on a landscape level. This information allows planners to analyze and explore the implications of different management activities in relation to wildfire risk. The overall hazard ranking spatially determines wildfire threat by incorporating four key components as follows:

1. Fire behaviour characteristics 2. Risk of ignition 3. Threat to structures, natural features and cultural features of significance 4. Suppression constraints

These four components are in turn calculated from contributing factors, each of which is represented by a layer in the geographic information system. The wildfire hazard of each of the components is calculated by overlaying the relevant contributing factors. The layers representing these four components are subsequently overlaid to produce the final wildfire risk rating. The objective of the WRA is to provide a landscape level overview of the risk posed by a potential wildfire. The WRA provides valuable direction for land use planning on a broad scale. However, due to the coarse scale of the input data, its application to site specific treatments is often limited. The results from the WRA should be used to determine how to reduce the potential for a large scale wildfire using strategies such as land use and building guidelines, fuel modification, forest harvesting, silviculture, and the construction of roads and recreation trails. A more detailed methodology for the WRA is included in Appendix A.


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4.3 Interface Fuel Hazard Assessment

The Wildfire Risk Analysis provides a good coarse filter, at a landscape level, for identifying high-risk areas. However, its utility for providing a detailed stand level analysis or for developing detailed fuel abatement strategies in the urban interface zone is limited. To compliment the WRA and provide more accurate analysis of the fuel hazard within the interface, an interface fuels hazard assessment (IFHA) was completed. The wildland-urban interface (WUI) is defined as the area where urban development meets natural ecosystems. These are the areas where the risks of a wildfire pose the greatest threat to urban development and human lives. Additionally, this is where the greatest risk exists for a human caused fire to spread into natural forest. While the District contains an extensive WUI zone, there are some areas that contain deciduous tree species, which contribute to lower fire behaviour and crown fire potential than coniferous tree species. Similarly, there are agricultural areas or natural grasslands for which fire behaviour would also be low (not including rate of spread in some grassland areas). The objective of the IFHA is to prioritize interface areas for fuels treatment through a standardized fuel hazard ranking system that accounts for the fire behaviour potential, as well as the potential consequences of an interface fire. It provides guidance for determining where fuel treatments could effectively reduce wildfire risk and, subsequently, prioritizes these areas for treatment.

The final wildfire threat rating for this strategy considers both the probability of a fire occurrence and the associated consequence. The probability is determined by the fire behaviour potential while the consequence incorporates the density and type of structures at risk. The rating included analyzing the factors that influence fire behaviour (fuels, weather and topography) as well as a measure of the density, type and location of structures present. A detailed methodology report for this ranking system has been included in Appendix B. Due to the scope of this study, and the limitations associated with the UBCM CWPP funding source, fuels treatment prescriptions cannot be developed for each area that was identified as a treatment priority. Instead, Future Stand Conditions are provided for the typical stand types found across the study area as well as a standardized approach for developing and monitoring fuel treatment prescriptions. The IFHA also contains general, site-specific treatment recommendations. In addition, recommendations are made for the proper planning of future developments, as well as standards for wildfire preparedness and public education.


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5.0 Results and Discussion

5.1 Wildfire Risk Mitigation

The GIS analysis consists of developing five subcomponent layers: Risk of Ignition, Suppression Constraints, Natural Features at Risk, Structures at Risk, and Potential Fire Behaviour. All five of these layers are then combined to produce the Final Wildfire Risk. A complete methodology has been provided in Appendix A. The following is a discussion on the analysis of each of these layers as developed for the District.

5.1.1 Risk of Ignition

Risk of ignition involves the potential locations for which a human caused ignition could occur. It is based on the distance from roadways, recreation and camping areas, industrial sites, rail lines and other locations where human caused ignitions may be prevalent. The further away from these locations the lower the risk. The following figure shows the risk of ignition for the District.


40

Figure 3. Risk of Ignition


41

Analysis for the District shows that the dominant risk of ignition is associated with transportation corridors rather than other features. The risk of ignition associated with these features will likely be from vehicles, equipment and discarded cigarettes. Road side ditches that contain cured grasses in the summer can present an ignition risk from a discarded cigarette or other spark source (i.e. working equipment). The mowing of these ditches prior to the fire season will help reduce the fuel loading (standing cured grass) and reduce the ignition potential associated with these fuels. Depending on the road, the responsibility for roadways will either lie with the Ministry of Highways or the District of Peachland. Camp sites, recreation areas and trail heads that are the responsibility of the District of Peachland should have signs posted during the summer emphasizing the need to fully extinguish campfires, appropriately discard cigarettes and to be vigilant about the wildfire risk. During the fire season, District of Peachland residents should be reminded of the wildfire danger and the aforementioned common risks of ignition through the District of Peachland web site and other local media.


Rec # 7 District camp sites, recreation areas and trail heads should have signs posted during the summer ensuring the public fully extinguishes campfires and discards of cigarettes appropriately.

B

Rec # 8 During the fire season, District of Peachland residents should be reminded through the District web site as to the wildfire danger and common ignition around their homes.

A


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5.1.2 Suppression Constraints

Suppression Constraints indicate areas for which there will be difficulty undertaking suppression activities. These are areas with poor access, steep slopes or where there is a lack of water or an increasing distance from a water source. The following figure illustrates the suppression constraints for the District.


43

Figure 4: Suppression Constraints


44

For the most part, suppression constraints in the District are minimal in the valley bottom where the majority of the developments exist. The areas indicated as high are associated with steep slopes with poor access in the more remote rural locations within the District boundaries. There is not much that can be done with the current suppression constraint condition to reduce this component any further. However, as development moves into areas where the analysis indicates there is a higher level of constraint (orange/red areas on the map), consideration should be given to ensure that new developments in these areas have good access (roadways) and on-site available water (hydrants, natural or man made ponds) as per FireSmart Guidelines. For new developments, constraints associated with water availability can be reduced by installing a local hydrant system, by improving access to natural water bodies or by constructing strategically located water bodies within the development area. Access to these water bodies should be such that fire suppression crews can use them to fill their trucks or set up pumps in the water body to directly action a fire. Constraints associated with access can be reduced by improving existing hiking trails to allow suppression crews and vehicles to reach interface areas with poor access (those indicated in red on the map). Alternatively, these high rated areas could be ‘isolated’ by creating fuel breaks around their perimeter to protect adjacent values from the hazard. This isolation should serve to help contain a wildfire in this area and improve chances for suppression crews to be successful. Lastly, it should be noted that while improving access can reduce suppression constraints, it can increase the recreational use of the area, thereby increasing the potential for human ignition from recreational users.


Rec # 9 New proposed trails within the community should be designed to allow for suppression access.

B


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5.1.3 Natural Features at Risk

The natural features at risk layer illustrates where special natural features are located within the District. Natural features at risk were ranked according to their rarity and sensitivity to human impacts. These features could be negatively impacted by a wildfire or associated fuel hazard abatement treatments. The following map shows the locations of these features.


46

Figure 5: Natural Features at Risk map


47

As can be seen on the maps, there are many locations within the District with Natural and Cultural Features at risk. This layer will be very important when considering urban development and will also need to be referred to when developing fuel management prescriptions. The linear features with ratings of Low and Moderate are generally riparian or lakeshore features while those sites with a High or Very High rating are generally associated with species at risk and First Nation or other archaeological features. It should be noted that First Nation values are often not available through the provincial government data bases due to the sensitive nature of the information and, therefore, this layer should not be considered complete. In the event there is a wildfire, or fuel treatments are planned and implemented, the local First Nations should be contacted to ensure the local knowledge of cultural features is obtained. Consideration should be given to these natural features at risk when planning any fuel mitigation or ecosystem restoration projects. If planned works may negatively impact these natural features at risk and mitigative methods can not be found, alternatives options should be considered, such as creating a fuel break around the area to protect it from an adjacent fire and isolate it as a fuel hazard, reducing suppression constraints by improving access and increasing water availability to the site or by mitigating the risk of ignition by reducing causes of ignition within and adjacent to the area.

5.1.4 Structures and Features at Risk

Developments at risk from a wildfire are indicated in the maps below by the red/yellow/green buffered circles (30 m, 100 m and 2 km respectively). The risk level increases with proximity to structures.


48

Figure 6: Structures at Risk map


49

Generally, development falls into four categories:

Very dense, urban areas that may or may not contain small forested patches within them (bottom of figure below);

Low to moderately dense rural ‘intermix’ areas (>1 structure/ha) with more forested areas between structures and a less defined perimeter (middle of the figure);

A well defined urban/interface complex where the interface perimeter is more clearly defined (top of figure); and

Individual structures remotely scattered within the wildlands (not shown below).

Figure 7. Type of Developments


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Each of these development types has specific implications with regards to structural protection. Urban or densely grouped structures, by their characteristic of being in close proximity to each other, increase the likelihood that the ignition of one home could contribute to the ignition of another. Even though homes in this development type may be some distance from the forest edge they can be prone to ignition through wind borne embers. Homes are best protected through prevention (cleaning roof tops, gutters, yards, etc) and, in some cases, interface sprinkler systems. Ignition is generally from spotting of burning material into the urban area or from adjacent buildings that have become engulfed. Intermix areas have less defined wildland-urban perimeters and are tactically more challenging to protect. They can experience vegetation ignitions on all sides, from nearby adjacent structures and from spotting. Fuel management can be used to reduce adjacent fuel hazards, yards and homes can be maintained and cleaned to provide protection from spotting and sprinkler systems can be employed for further protection. Perimeter interface areas have a more uniform, and potentially less complex, perimeter to defend. Fuel breaks established in preparation for a wildfire can prove effective for reducing the fire behaviour of an approaching wildfire, protect interface structures from radiant heat and provide safe defensible space from which suppression personnel can anchor their suppression activities. Sprinkler systems set up in advance of an approaching wildfire have proved effective at increasing the protection of these breaks. Structures are best protected by treating fuels around them to a distance ranging from 10-100 m or more depending on the fuel characteristics and slope. The FireSmart manual contains a number of guidelines for treating fuels around homes and provides a good baseline of information for homeowners. It should be noted that FireSmart guidelines may not be ecologically accurate for all sites. As such, a qualified professional with experience in wildfire management and an understanding of the ecosystem dynamics should be retained to develop an appropriate treatment prescription. FireSmart also contains numerous suggestions for altering the characteristics of structures in order to improve their survivability. The FireSmart manual should be referred to for these guidelines. Some of these recommendations are summarised in Appendix E of this report. The District should engage in a fuel management program to mitigate fuel hazards within and adjacent to the wildland urban interface. Funding sources, where available, should be utilized to lessen the burden on the District budget and tax base.


Rec # 10 District owned interface polygons identified in this report should be treated.

A

Rec # 11 All new developments should require that FireSmart guidelines be considered in the design.

A


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5.1.5 Potential Fire Behaviour

Fire behaviour is a function of fuel type, fire weather, slope and aspect. It is calculated using a software model developed in Canada that calculates fire behaviour potential based on fuel classification, slope, and aspect as well as high risk weather conditions typical of the District. The following maps shows the potential fire behaviour rating for the District based on the use of this model.


52

Figure 8: Potential Fire Behaviour map


53

For the most part, the areas with high fire behaviour potential are generally located on the steeper slopes while the valley bottom areas and lesser sloped areas show a lower fire behaviour rating. A fire starting outside of the community interface could exhibit aggressive fire behaviour as it approached the wildland urban interface. While there may be areas of low fire behaviour immediately adjacent to the interface perimeter, the potential for spotting into the community is possible. There are several ways in which the above map can be utilized by the District, including but not limited to, the following:

1) Locate high fire behaviour areas that require treatment; 2) Assist in the safe development of future neighbourhoods by demonstrating to

the public and private landowners where fire risk and fuel hazards exist; 3) Promote the targeting of specific stands in the wildland (outside the interface)

for harvesting to reduce landscape level wildfire risk. The District should be most concerned about the High and Very High polygons within and immediately adjacent to the community and target these areas for fuel management projects. Fuel Treatments There are two options for addressing areas with high fire behaviour potential: either isolate the fuel hazard or directly treat the hazardous fuel. Isolating the hazardous fuel unit may be done by treating the area surrounding the fuel hazard and thereby reducing the opportunity that a wildfire within the unit will spread, or to reduce the chance that a fire will move into the high risk fuel hazard. This may be preferable where the high hazard area has high ecological values (wildlife habitat, sensitive ecosystems, riparian areas, etc) and treating the site may significantly damage or otherwise compromise the value. Directly treating the high fire behaviour fuel type itself will require a treatment prescription that is ecologically appropriate and will reduce the fire behaviour to moderate or, preferably, less according to the fuel hazard assessment criteria. Treatments should be oriented towards ecosystem restoration objectives (returning ecosystems to a historical and healthy condition that is more resilient to wildfire) with fuel management and fire behaviour reduction being by-products of the ecosystem restoration objectives. The impact of treatments on natural values at risk must be considered. Professionals should be consulted to ensure fire behaviour reduction can be achieved without negatively impacting sensitive natural features. Treatments should be addressed as per the findings and recommendations within the interface fuel hazard assessment procedure of this project.


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Safe Community Development The second way to use the fire behaviour map is to illustrate the potential risk to proposed developments in the District. When the District receives an application for development, the development footprint can be overlaid with the fire behaviour map to show the potential fire behaviour adjacent to the proposed development site. This is important for two reasons: it shows the District the potential future risk to the proposed neighbourhood and the need to address this risk as part of the development. Secondly, it provides the District with a potential risk from a fire during the construction phase. Additionally, the District should consider using these fire behaviour maps (or the contributing fuel type maps) to establish Wildfire Development Permit Areas that require developers or homeowners to have Interface Fuel Hazard Assessments performed on the subject property prior to a development permit being issued by the District. The District should also require the developer to abate the adjacent risk to the proposed development concurrent with construction, as per the recommendations within the associated interface report, and as part of terms of granting a development permit. To ensure this is completed, the District could request a deposit equal to the estimated cost of completing these treatments that is released when the treatments have been completed. Secondly, the District or local Fire Rescue Department should require all construction contractors, or the developer, to ensure the site has a construction fire management plan in place prior to the fire season.


Rec # 12 Use the Fire Behaviour map to determine where fuel hazard mitigation work should accompany development or construction.

A


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5.1.6 Final Wildfire Risk

The final threat is a summation of the five subcomponents previously discussed. The following map shows the final wildfire threat for the District.


56

Figure 9. Final Wildfire Risk for the District


57

Since each sub layer contributes to the final threat, one can determine why a specific area has the threat value it does by examining the sub layer maps for the area of interest. Therefore, to reduce the threat for that area, one can develop actions that mitigate the issues posed by the most significantly contributing sub layer (improve water/road access, reduce the ignition potential, reduce fire behaviour, etc). There are some steep and inaccessible areas for which the reduction of this threat would be costly and, possibly, not operationally feasible. Some of these areas may be well outside the District interface area but could still pose a ‘spotting’ hazard during a wildfire. Should a wildfire occur adjacent to the community, the District should provide the maps from the CWPP to the Wildfire Management Branch to ensure the Branch is aware of these areas. The final threat analysis shows mostly a Moderate to a High wildfire threat rating, with minor inclusions of a Very High rating, in some of the interface areas within the District. Many of these areas will likely coincide with the interface polygons that were assessed for interface fuel hazards and prioritized and recommended for treatment. Therefore, through an effectively implemented fuel management program, there could be a significantly reduced wildfire threat to the interface areas. Although some private lands within the District may have lower fire risk according to the GIS analysis, a risk still exists to these lands with regards to the structures, vegetation complex, and impacts from the pine beetle. Private land owners will need to assume responsibility for the fuel hazard that exists on their properties and the abatement thereof. The mapping products of this CWPP can be used to illustrate this hazard to the land owners.

5.2 Fuel Hazard Management

Certain factors that contribute to the overall wildfire risk, such as terrain, weather or location of existing structures, are difficult to change. In order to effectively abate wildfire risk, land use planning strategies should focus on addressing those contributing factors that can be easily modified and will have significant immediate and long term risk reduction impacts. These include ensuring new developments are FireSmart, improving access and egress routes, increasing water availability, reducing ignition sources, and forest fuel management. A fuel hazard can be abated to reduce the potential fire behaviour by changing the structure (fuel loading, size, and continuity) and the species composition (deciduous vs. coniferous species). This can be accomplished through treatments such as harvesting, thinning, pruning and the abatement of surface fuel loading through a variety of techniques (pile burning, prescribed burning, chipping/grinding, etc). These types of operational strategies are best implemented by collaborating with private landowners, tenure holders, First Nations, and the MoF. Prevention of interface fires is more cost effective than fire suppression. Proper planning of future developments improves the survivability of these developments and all future developments should be required to consider FireSmart guidelines or professional recommendations for hazard and risk abatement.


58

For existing structures, survivability can be improved by reducing the fuel hazard around individual structures or along development perimeters through interface fuel treatments. These treatments involve tree removal through thinning or harvesting, pruning, and removal of activity fuels. Generally, these treatments extend out about 100 m from structures. However, actual boundaries should be determined by fire professionals and should follow fuel types, natural breaks, terrain features and also be adjusted in distance for the slope (steeper slopes require larger treatment distances from structures). This abatement of the fuel hazard, and the associated reduction in fire behaviour, can not only improve the survivability of structures but it also produces a safer environment for fire suppression professionals to protect homes. As previously mentioned, the District should undertake a fuel management program to reduce the interface fuel hazard within and adjacent to the District. Prescriptions should be developed by a Registered Professional Forester (R.P.F.) with proven wildfire and fuel management experience, implemented by an experienced crew (if possible) and supervised by the prescribing forester. Fuel mitigation within the District boundaries should be addressed in co-operation with the Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations (MoF), Wildfire Management Branch, Ministry of Environment, First Nations and local community groups. The local communities should be kept informed of projects that are adjacent to the communities and BC Parks should be consulted on any projects that are adjacent to provincial park boundaries. Prior to treatment of crown or municipal areas, a public information meeting should be held to provide treatment information to all affected and adjacent landowners. The UBCM provides funding for local governments to undertake fuel management pilot projects on municipal or crown land, as well as funding for the development of prescriptions and the implementation of operations. The District should apply to this funding source as budgets allow. There is no funding available for private land owners. Additionally, the District may be accepting liability for treatment undertaken on private land and, as such, should not be involved in prescribing or treating private land. However, the District can communicate to landowners the fuel hazard that exists upon their land, as per this report, and direct the landowner to secure a RPF to assist with site specific recommendations to reduce the fuel hazard. Two types of fuel management treatment projects should be undertaken by the District: interface fuel hazard abatement and the development of landscape level fuel breaks. Both projects can be implemented concurrently with some interface polygons likely being contained within the boundaries of the landscape level fuel break locations. As fuel management projects are implemented and completed the overall wildfire risk to the community should be reduced. When all of the identified polygons have been treated and the MPB has run its course, it would be prudent to update the existing CWPP. This would help to evaluate the overall effectiveness of CWPP, the associated fuels management and help the communities maintain relative low exposure to wildfire risk in the future.


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Rec # 13 The District should apply to the UBCM for funding to pursue fuel management treatments.

A

5.2.1 Interface Fuel Treatments

In October 2011, interface fuel hazard assessments were undertaken for all interface polygons, defined as forested areas within 100 m of structures. During this field work, some polygons were discarded based on a number of factors:

Area too small for treatment (<0.1 ha) Already treated No longer forested due to development Deciduous dominated Adjacent polygons with similar fuel type hazard were amalgamated into one larger

polygons Large fuel breaks existed between structures and the polygon

Once assessments were completed, each polygon received a fuel hazard rating value that allowed the polygon to be ranked in a priority sequence for treatment. Ideally, these polygons should be treated in sequence. Although mitigation should occur according to the prioritized rating, polygons in close proximity to each other could be combined and treated out of sequence but concurrently to realize savings associated with proximity and the economies of scale. Polygons may also move up the queue if public support for treatments has been expressed in one location over another. However, the rating system should be followed as much as possible in order to provide justification for treating one area over another when budget constraints only permit limited work. Documentation should occur for any areas that move up the priority sequence. A prioritized list of the interface polygons has been provided in a separate Excel Database, as well as in the spatial database provided to the District GIS department. The interface fuel hazard assessment identified fuel hazard polygons based on the fire behaviour potential and structures at risk with no consideration for land ownership. In many of these areas, the landowner may be private and they will need, and should be encouraged, to treat their own property. However, the majority of these private land polygons will have fuel hazard types that extend beyond the private land boundary and can be used to determine the fuel hazard on adjacent crown land. Additionally, this polygon data can be used to communicate the associated risk to the landowner. This is particularly important where the fuel hazard poses a risk to homes adjacent to the private land. Conversely, polygons located on crown land may extend onto private lots. To maximize the effectiveness, these fuel treatments should be extended up to the edge of structures at risk. This will require consultation with private landowners. It is recommended that in


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these areas, a representative of the District meet with the private landowner(s) to discuss in detail the appropriate treatments on their property. The map below shows the assessed interface fuel hazard polygons that have been prioritized as per their fuel hazard rating.


Rec # 14 The District should provide to local residents information on the fuel hazard that exists upon their property and how to mitigate the hazard.

A


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Figure 10. Prioritized Interface Fuel Hazard Polygons


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Table 11. Interface Fuel Hazard Priority Treatment List

Pri

ori

ty

Fire

_Haz

ar

Wild

fire

Th

reat

Cla

ss

Du

ff_D

ep

th

Flam

Su

rf

Ve

g Fu

el C

om

p

Fin

e W

oo

d

Larg

e W

oo

d

Co

nif

er

Cro

wn

Clo

sure

De

cid

Cro

wn

Clo

sure

Co

nif

er

Cro

wn

Bas

e

Co

nif

er

Lad

de

r Fu

els

Fore

ste

d L

and

Fore

st H

eal

th

BEC

Su

bzo

ne

His

tori

c Fi

re

Asp

ect

Slo

pe

Terr

ain

Po

siti

on

of

Stru

ctu

re

Typ

e o

f D

eve

lop

men

t

General Treatment Rec. Land_Owner

1 165 Extrm 2 1 5 2 2 15 10 10 5 10 4 20 15 12 12 10 15 15 Thin, prune Unknown

2 160 Extrm 1 0 5 5 2 20 10 10 5 10 4 20 15 15 10 5 15 8 Thin, prune Private



5 145 Extrm 2 1 5 2 2 10 10 10 1 7 4 20 15 15 10 7 12 12 Thin, prune, thin dead/dying Private



8 143 Extrm 1 1 5 2 3 15 10 8 4 10 0 20 15 5 10 7 15 12 Thin dead/dying, prune Unknown/District

9 143 Extrm 1 5 5 1 2 2 10 8 1 5 7 20 15 15 12 10 12 12 Thin dead/dying, prune Private



12 140 Extrm 1 4 5 1 0 5 10 2 1 10 4 20 15 15 10 10 15 12 Thin dead/dying, prune Private

13 140 Extrm 2 1 5 5 2 10 10 10 4 2 0 20 15 5 12 10 15 12 Thin patches, prune Private




63

Pri

ori

ty

Fire

_Haz

ar

Wild

fire

Th

reat

Cla

ss

Du

ff_D

ep

th

Flam

Su

rf

Ve

g Fu

el C

om

p

Fin

e W

oo

d

Larg

e W

oo

d

Co

nif

er

Cro

wn

Clo

sure

De

cid

Cro

wn

Clo

sure

Co

nif

er

Cro

wn

Bas

e

Co

nif

er

Lad

de

r Fu

els

Fore

ste

d L

and

Fore

st H

eal

th

BEC

Su

bzo

ne

His

tori

c Fi

re

Asp

ect

Slo

pe

Terr

ain

Po

siti

on

of

Stru

ctu

re

Typ

e o

f D

eve

lop

men

t




18 138 Extrm 1 2 5 2 2 5 10 5 3 10 4 20 15 2 15 7 15 15 Thin patches, prune Private







25 134 Extrm 2 5 5 2 2 2 10 8 1 1 0 20 15 15 15 7 12 12 Prune, clean-up downed fuel Private



28 132 Extrm 2 5 4 5 2 10 10 8 3 1 4 20 15 15 5 3 8 12 Thin Private


30 129 High 1 4 5 2 2 15 7 2 4 10 0 20 15 5 10 7 8 12 Thin, prune Private


64

Pri

ori

ty

Fire

_Haz

ar

Wild

fire

Th

reat

Cla

ss

Du

ff_D

ep

th

Flam

Su

rf

Ve

g Fu

el C

om

p

Fin

e W

oo

d

Larg

e W

oo

d

Co

nif

er

Cro

wn

Clo

sure

De

cid

Cro

wn

Clo

sure

Co

nif

er

Cro

wn

Bas

e

Co

nif

er

Lad

de

r Fu

els

Fore

ste

d L

and

Fore

st H

eal

th

BEC

Su

bzo

ne

His

tori

c Fi

re

Asp

ect

Slo

pe

Terr

ain

Po

siti

on

of

Stru

ctu

re

Typ

e o

f D

eve

lop

men

t


31 128 High 2 4 5 5 2 5 10 8 4 1 0 20 15 5 15 7 15 5 Thin, prune Private/District


33 128 High 2 1 5 5 3 15 10 0 2 2 4 20 15 5 12 7 8 12 Prune Private






39 125 High 2 4 5 5 2 10 10 0 1 10 0 20 15 5 12 7 12 5 Monitor for maintenance Private

40 123 High 2 4 5 2 2 5 10 8 1 5 4 20 15 15 10 5 5 5 Clean-up felled Py Private

41 123 High 1 4 5 1 0 2 10 8 1 10 4 20 15 15 10 7 5 5 Prune and thin Private

42 123 High 1 2 5 2 0 5 10 10 3 2 4 20 15 5 10 5 12 12 Prune only Private

43 123 High 1 2 5 2 0 2 10 10 3 5 4 20 15 5 10 5 12 12 Prune only Private/District

44 120 High 1 0 4 1 0 5 10 2 1 10 0 20 15 5 12 7 12 15 No treatment outside RA RDCO



65

Pri

ori

ty

Fire

_Haz

ar

Wild

fire

Th

reat

Cla

ss

Du

ff_D

ep

th

Flam

Su

rf

Ve

g Fu

el C

om

p

Fin

e W

oo

d

Larg

e W

oo

d

Co

nif

er

Cro

wn

Clo

sure

De

cid

Cro

wn

Clo

sure

Co

nif

er

Cro

wn

Bas

e

Co

nif

er

Lad

de

r Fu

els

Fore

ste

d L

and

Fore

st H

eal

th

BEC

Su

bzo

ne

His

tori

c Fi

re

Asp

ect

Slo

pe

Terr

ain

Po

siti

on

of

Stru

ctu

re

Typ

e o

f D

eve

lop

men

t


46 113 Mdrte 1 2 3 1 2 5 10 8 3 1 0 20 15 5 10 7 12 8 Thin, prune Private

47 111 Mdrte 1 1 5 1 0 5 10 5 1 10 0 20 15 5 5 7 8 12 Monitor for maintenance Private

48 111 Mdrte 1 4 5 1 0 10 10 8 2 10 0 20 15 10 1 1 8 5 Thin, prune Private

49 108 Mdrte 1 2 5 2 0 5 10 10 3 10 0 20 15 5 5 5 5 5 Thin, prune RDCO

50 106 Mdrte 2 1 5 1 0 5 10 5 2 10 0 20 15 5 5 3 5 12 Monitor for maintenance Private

51 104 Mdrte 1 2 5 1 0 10 10 5 3 10 0 20 15 10 1 1 5 5 Thin further Park


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5.2.2 Landscape Level Fuel Breaks

The treatment of fuel hazards within the interface should result in protection of structures and the provision of defensible space for suppression personnel. However, landscape level protection opportunities should also be considered. The development of landscape level fuel breaks adjacent to, or within close proximity of, the wildland-urban interface will provide similar benefits as interface fuel treatments, but will benefit a larger group of people (a whole neighborhood or perimeter development). These fuel breaks should be large scale treatments immediately adjacent to the interface boundary. They would serve to slow a fire’s rate of spread and provide a safer location from which professional forest fire fighters can anchor their suppression activities. The figure below is a real-world example (Wallow Fire, Arizona, 2011) of how interface fuel treatments and landscape level fuel breaks can protect homes from a wildfire (Bostwick et al, 2011).

Figure 11. A successful example of interface fuel treatments


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Figure 12. A successful example of a landscape level fuel break. The result of the above treatments were that the crews were able to safely work amongst the homes in front of the fire due to its reduced behaviour and slower rate of spread and effectively protect homes. Such treatments can often be the difference between firefighters staying to protect homes and their supervisors removing them from the site:

“When the fire came over the ridge toward Alpine it sounded like a freight train. The smoke column was bent over making it difficult to see. Without the fuel treatment effects of reducing flame lengths and defensible space around most houses, we would have had to pull back our firefighters. Many of the houses would have caught fire and burned to the ground.”

Jim Aylor, Fire Management Officer Alpine Forest District

“Without fuel treatments, I would never had a firefighter there”

Rob Lever Springerville District

Fire Management Officer


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The exact location of landscape level fuel breaks should be determined in dialogue with the Wildfire Management Branch, the local fire department and an R.P.F. with operational wildfire management and fuel management experience.


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Figure 13. Location of proposed landscape level fuel breaks


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Highway 97c expands the full length of the northern boundary of the District, roughly separating Peachland from West Kelowna and is an effective crown and surface fuel break. There is a need for a strategically located landscape level fuel break along the western and southern interface boundaries of the District to provide an effective defence against a large scale wildfire event approaching the town from that direction. Proposed locations are a mapping exercise only and are based on the location of structures/values, and a strategic location from which to anchor suppression operations. The locations are intended to provide community wide protection as opposed to interface treatments which are designed to protect specific infrastructure. Actual locations and boundaries will require further field work. Additionally, given these landscape level fuel breaks will require substantial planning and operations, input should be sought from the Penticton Fire Zone staff and the Peachland Fire Rescue Department.


Rec # 15 The District should discuss with the MoF, WMB, licensees and other interested agencies, the feasibility of constructing the proposed landscape level fuel breaks.

B

5.2.3 Fuels Treatment Effects on Fire Behaviour

An understanding of the factors which affect and drive fire behaviour is the foundation to determining how to implement fuels treatments in order to reduce potential fire behaviour. Appendix C “Fire Behaviour and Fuels Treatment Overview” provides background information on these topics. This section should be consulted when developing public information and prior to undertaking fuel management projects. Fuels treatment prescriptions provide recommendations for altering the fuel/stand profile as a means of reducing potential fire behaviour. Each fuel treatment method is specific in how it affects fire behaviour. There is no one specific treatment type or strategy that works in all situations or locations. Treatments should be site specific, ecologically-based, scientifically sound, economically and operationally feasible and socially acceptable. These prescriptions should be developed by Registered Professional Foresters with experience in fire behaviour, fire suppression and forest ecology. The current UBCM CWPP funding accessed for the development of this report does not fund the development of treatment prescriptions. In lieu of this, an explanation for developing fuel treatment prescriptions is included in Appendix D.


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5.3 District Policies and Guidelines Review

The following is a summary of municipal policies and guidelines that relate to wildfire management that have been reviewed as part of the District of Peachland CWPP. Recommendations have been provided to bring District of Peachland OCP objectives, policies and bylaws in line with the recommendations of the CWPP.

5.3.1 The District of Peachland Official Community Plan

The Official Community Plan (OCP), developed in 2001, provides policy framework and direction for future growth and land use within the District. The current OCP was reviewed with regard to policies relating to wildfire management and fuel modification treatments and recommendations are provided below for consideration.

Recommendation: The District should include a statement that all new development must adhere to these bylaws, that all new development requires a pre-development ‘Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy’ be completed prior to the issuance of a permit and that only through recommendations in this report can variances be granted and not to the detriment of the community. District of Peachland OCP Bylaw Number 1600, 2001 The Bylaw sited in the OCP - Bylaw # 1600 and more specifically Section 16.0 Development Permit Areas - 16.11 Industrial Development Permit Area is the most significant bylaw with regards to wildfire management and fuels reductions when dealing with a new development. 16.11.1 Urban Wildfire Interface Development Permit Area - Guidelines (i)(c) All conifers less than 15 cm in diameter are at breast height and that the trees are cut at right angle, as low as possible to the ground to reduce the risk of injury to people and animals moving through the area.

Recommendation: All conifer trees that measure less than 15 cm in diameter at breast height should be removed within 30-100 m of any proposed structure location if they will contribute to ladder fuels to the overstory and not impact ecological values. This will be more in line with FireSmart Guidelines but also allow for future stand recruitment into the overstorey.

o New: (i)(c) All conifers less than 15 cm in diameter at breast height

should be removed within 10 m of proposed building locations. Some of these trees can be left, as prescribed by a wildfire professional, within 30-100 m of proposed building locations. Stems should be cut at a right angle, as low as possible to the ground to reduce the risk of injury to people and animals moving through the area.

(i)(d) Healthy trees within 10 meters of homes and buildings can be retained; however branches should not be within 3 meters of buildings or attachments, such as balconies.


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Recommendation: Amend to include that no new conifers or non fire resistant landscaping are to be planted within 10 m of proposed home locations as per FireSmart Guidelines.

o New: (i)(d) Healthy trees within 10 m of homes and buildings can be

retained; however branches should not be within 3 m of buildings or attachments, such as balconies. No new conifers or non fire resistant landscaping is to be planted or used within 10 m of proposed building locations.

(i)(e) Where possible, that all trees are spaced at a distance of 3 meters between crowns. Healthy trees in clumps can be retained provided there is a space of 3 meters between adjacent tree crowns and the clump of trees to be retained.

Recommendation: This statement should be amended to only apply beyond 30 m from proposed structure locations (i.e. Priority Zone 2, FireSmart) as per FireSmart Guidelines.

o New: (i)(e) Where possible, and outside of Priority Zone 2 (30 m from

proposed structure locations) that all trees are spaced at a distance of 3 m between crowns. Healthy trees in clumps can be retained provided there is a space of 3 m between adjacent tree crowns and the clump of trees to be retained. Clump size/density/composition is to be determined by a wildfire professional.

(i)(f) Trees that are to be retained are pruned so that all tree branches are a height of 2.5 meters to remove ladder fuels.

Recommendation: Amend so that the stated 2.5 m height applies to slopes less than 15% and that pruning should be to a height of 3 m on slopes greater than 15% as per FireSmart Guidelines.

o New: (i)(f) Trees that are to be retained are pruned so that all tree

branches are a height of 2.5 m on slopes less than 15% and to 3.0 m on slopes greater than 15% to remove ladder fuels. The height is to be measured at the lowest part of the branch.

(i)(g) The branches and trees are removed, so that piles of debris do not pose a fire hazard.

Recommendation: Amend to allow for the recruitment of coarse woody debris (CWD) outside of Priority Zone 2 (30 m from proposed structures) if and as prescribed by a wildfire professional. This will allow for this important site attribute and habitat to be recruited or protected without compromising fuel hazard abatement or interface protection.

o New: (i)(g) The branches and trees are removed, so that piles of debris

do not pose a fire hazard. Larger, rotten boles that are appropriate as Coarse Woody Debris can be left to a density and orientation as prescribed by a wildfire professional.


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(i)(j) Any Douglas-fir trees with mistletoe brooms growing more than 3 meters up the trunk are removed.

Recommendation: This should clarify that the mistletoe is to be removed from the tree to a height of 2.5 – 3.0 m depending on slope and not the whole tree is to be removed. This will ensure the presence of mistletoe isn’t being utilized as an excuse for heavy and unnecessary thinning for non fuel management reasons (i.e. viewscapes) and that the habitat provided by infected branches is maintained at a reasonable level in critical habitat areas.

o New: (i)(j) Any Douglas-fir trees with mistletoe brooms growing more than

3 m up the trunk are removed are to be pruned to a height of 2.5 m on slopes less than 15% and to 3 m on slopes greater than 15%. Removal of mistletoe infected trees for forest health reasons can be recommended by a forest professional if its’ habitat values are weighed.

(i)(n) “The use of construction grade vinyl soffit material as acceptable in areas where the surrounding grounds are maintained and irrigated by underground system. Otherwise non combustible materials may be required.”

Recommendation: Amend the statement to ensure that the irrigation system can operate independent of human intervention, will not be affected by a lack of power and is using a reliable water source.

o New: (i)(n) The use of construction grade vinyl soffit material as

acceptable in areas where the surrounding grounds are irrigated by underground irrigation systems that can be left operating in the event of a wildfire (they will not be affected by power outages, require human intervention, have a reliable water source, etc). Otherwise, non-combustible materials may be required.

(i)(t) Where retained trees below a home-site may pose a fire hazard, set homes back to a safe distance.

Recommendation: Correct the term from ‘fire hazard’ to ‘fuel hazard’ and specify distance as expressed in the FireSmart manual or as determined by a wildfire professional based on the existing fuel hazard and associated fire behaviour potential.

o New: (i)(t) Where retained trees below a home-site may pose a fuel

hazard, set homes back to a safe distance as per recommendations in the FireSmart Manual or as prescribed by a wildfire professional based on the potential fire behaviour of the fuel hazard.


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Official Community Plan - Maps Map F09 - Urban Wildfire Interface Development Permit Areas The Urban Wildfire Interface Development Permit Area map (Figure 9) should be updated. This map should be based on mapping completed as part of this CWPP. Options would include using specific levels of potential fire behaviour (i.e. moderate or greater), fuel type (i.e. ‘C’ type fuels) or distance from stands (i.e within 100 m).

5.3.2 The District of Peachland Regional Bylaws

Existing Bylaws relating to wildfire management and fuel modification treatments that were reviewed are listed below with recommendations to incorporate wildfire risk reduction and fuel management.

1) Bylaw #1718 – Fire and Life Safety and Smoke Control 2) Bylaw # 1956 - Subdivision and Development Services 3) Bylaw #1375 - Zoning

1) Bylaw #1718 - Fire and Life Safety and Smoke Control

With the adoption of some of the recommendations in this CWPP, there may be redundancies and contradictions with the Schedule C referred to below. As such, Schedule C should be reviewed after recommended Bylaw, policy and OCP changes have been adopted or rejected.

7.0 Fire Protection and Life Safety

7.3(i) Where an accumulation of flammable, combustible or explosive material or an accumulation of waste materials, litter or vegetation which, in the opinion of the Fire Chief, constitutes a fire hazard exists, such material shall be removed on an Order of the Fire Chief or Bylaw Enforcement Officer within the time specified in the Order.

Recommendation: ‘Fire hazard’ should be changed to ‘fuel hazard’ and ‘otherwise contributes to an interface wildfire risk’ could be added. The word ‘exists’ could also be removed.

o New: 7.3(i) Where an accumulation of flammable, combustible or explosive material or an accumulation of waste materials, litter or vegetation, which in the opinion of the Fire Chief, constitutes a fuel hazard or otherwise contributes to an interface wildfire risk, such material shall be removed on an Order of the Fire Chief or Bylaw Enforcement Officer within the time specified in the Order.

7(iii) New combustible building constructed in the Interface Zone, which is within the forest or adjacent to a forest, shall have a fuel modified area which conforms with the requirements of Schedule C to this Bylaw.

Recommendation: Change ‘Interface Zone’ to ‘Wildfire Development Permit Area’ and remove ‘which is within the forest or adjacent to a forest’.


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o New: 7(iii) New combustible building constructed in the Wildfire Development Permit Area’, which is within the forest or adjacent to a forest, shall have a fuel modified area which conforms with the requirements of Schedule C to this Bylaw.

7(iv) Property owners of existing combustible buildings constructed in the Interface Zone, which is within the forest or adjacent to a forest, shall have a fuel modified area between the building and forest as per the recommendations of PFRS. These recommendations are those developed by the Fire Commissioner and British Columbia Forest Service, and as shown in Schedule C.

Recommendation: Change ‘Interface Zone’ to ‘Wildfire Development Permit Area’ and remove ‘which is within the forest or adjacent to a forest’.

o New: 7(iv) Property owners of existing combustible buildings constructed

in the Wildfire Development Permit Area, shall have a fuel modified area between the building and forest as per the recommendations of PFRS. These recommendations are those developed by the Fire Commissioner and British Columbia Forest Service, and as shown in Schedule C.

Schedule C

The following changes should be made to Schedule C. Add: The following regulations should be followed unless a forest professional provides alternatives in a signed and sealed report containing alternative options with rational.

1. Prune tree branches to a height of 2.5 m on slopes <15% and 3.0 m or more on slopes >15%. 3. Remove all coniferous trees…

2) Bylaw #1956 - Subdivision and Development Services

Schedule 7 – Landscaping 7.5 Landscape Plan

The Landscape Designer shall consider, at minimum, the following criteria:

Fire hazard reduction

Recommendation: Change this to address planting fire resistance vegetation as per FireSmart Guidelines. Add that landscaping should not contribute to a fuel hazard within any FireSmart Priority Zone.

o New: Wildfire resistance of planted or maintained vegetation as per

FireSmart guidelines, only wildfire resistant species should be planted or maintained within 10-30 m of structures.

Preference should be given to water conservation and sustainable landscape designs which.


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Recommendation: Add ‘wildfire resistance’ and a bullet on not planting vegetation or using landscape materials that contribute to a fuel hazard or wildfire risk.

o New: Preference should be given to water conservation, sustainable

landscape and wildfire resistance designs which: Plant or maintain vegetation or use landscaping materials that do

not contribute to a fuel hazard or wildfire risk within any of the Priority Zones as per FireSmart guidelines.

7.11 Fire Management At the discretion of the Approving Officer, the Owner may be required to prepare and submit a Fuel Management Plan covering some or all of the proposed Public Land. The Fuel Management Plan shall be prepared by a Forester and shall follow industry standards such as the FireSmart Guidelines endorsed by the BC Ministry of Forests.

Recommendation: Change ‘Fuel Management Plan’ to ‘Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy’. This report should be prepared and signed by a ‘Registered Professional Forester’ with documented related experience. The report should be site specific and consider FireSmart. At the discretion of the Approving Officer, the Owner may be required to prepare and submit a Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy covering some or all of the proposed Public Land.

o New: The Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy shall be prepared by a

Registered Forester Professional with documented and relevant experience operational experience in wildfire and fuel management and community wildfire protection. Recommendations within this strategy should take into account FireSmart guidelines and professional judgement based on site specific conditions, issues and values.

Schedule D – Hillside Development Design Criteria Section 2.0 – Pre-Design Report

2.3(l) Urban Wildfire Protection Plan Recommendations: Change ‘Urban Wildfire Protection Plan’ to ‘Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy’.

o New: 2.3 (l) Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy

3) Bylaw #1600 - Zoning The Zoning Bylaw does not specifically refer to responsible development with regards to wildfire. Between the Urban Wildfire Development Permit Areas referred to in OCP Bylaw #1600 and the other recommendations being offered within this report, additional mentioning of wildfire development guidelines within Bylaw #1375 may have some


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redundancy. However, the District may want to consider some type of reference should they deem it necessary internally.


Rec # 16 Consider adopting bylaw and policy recommendations to decrease wildfire risk to the community.

A

5.4 Wildfire Development Permit Areas

Sec. 919.1(1)(b) of the Local Government Act for the protection of development from hazardous conditions advocates the implementation of development permit areas for the protection of development from hazardous conditions. One strategy for ensuring the protection of development is through the implementation of Wildfire Development Permit Areas (WDPAs) and associated WDPA guidelines. The objectives of Wildfire Development Permit Areas are to:

Prevent loss of life and property;

Protect structures from damage; and

Promote responsible development. The purpose of the WDPAs is to identify the wildfire risk and fuel hazards within the interface and develop a mitigation strategy to abate the site specific risks and hazards prior to the building of any structures or the subdivision of the lands. Adopting WDPA Guidelines will provide direction for the design of buildings, landscaping, interface fuel management and neighbourhood design.

5.4.1 Establishing WDPAs

Since wildfire risk and fuel hazard mapping was completed as part of the CWPP for the whole District of Peachland, it is recommended that the District establish Wildfire Development Permit Areas (WDPAs) based on this mapping. This would best be done by utilizing either the fuel types mapping or the maps for potential fire behaviour. Structures within 100m of specific fuel types (such as the ‘C’ (coniferous), ‘M’ (mixed wood) or ‘O’ (grassland) fuel types or within 100 m of polygons expressing a potential fire behaviour of ‘Moderate’ or greater would be mapped as being within the District Wildfire Development Permit Area. Proposed new development within this zone would require the completion of a Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy prior to the issuance of a Development Permit. This would put the responsibility for wildfire risk reduction fully on the property owner or developer to ensure that wildfire risk mitigation is considered and completed as part of the permit processes for development, re-development or subdivision.


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5.4.1.1 Properties Affected

A development permit addressing the wildfire risk (see Wildfire Interface Guidelines section below) within the WDPA must be approved before:

Subdivision of land,

Construction of, addition to, or alteration of a building structure for the properties shown on the WDPAs map with the OCP, and

New development.

5.4.1.2 Exemptions

The Wildfire Development Permit would not be required when there is no risk of wildfire to the structure as determined and reported by a Registered Forester Professional with experience in wildfire and fuel management and community interface protection.

5.4.2 Development Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy

A ‘Development Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy’ report should be completed for each applicable development within the District Wildfire Development Permit Area. The report should be signed and sealed by a registered professional forester with relevant wildfire and fuel management experience. The report, at minimum, should provide the following:

1. Site Description, including: a. Ecological, stand and fuel type classification b. Wildfire Risk Analysis, including

i. Structural Ecological, Cultural and Archaeological values at risk ii. Suppression constraints iii. Ignition risks iv. Wildfire behaviour

c. Interface Fuel Hazard Assessment (existing and future) 2. Mitigation Recommendations

a. Wildfire risk mitigation recommendations b. Interface fuel hazard mitigation c. Development risk mitigation recommendations

3. Other Mitigation Recommendations (as per FireSmart Development Guidelines or professional judgment)

5.4.3 Wildfire Development Permit Area Guidelines

The Wildfire Development Area Guidelines are based on the BC FireSmart Manual. Section 6.3 FireSmart Community Planning and Design, 6.4 Improving Access and 6.5 Water Availability provide details into the development of the guidelines listed below:


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5.4.3.1 Design

Improve access in isolated areas that have inadequate developed access for evacuation and fire control.

During subdivision design provide access points suitable for evacuation and the movement of emergency response equipment.

Consider requiring roadways, or secondary emergency roads, to be located adjacent to forested lands where they abut to new subdivisions or developments. These roads improve access to the interface for emergency vehicles but can also provide a fuel break between the wildland and the subdivision.

Ensure hydrant locations optimize ability to suppress wildfire in forested areas and grasslands.

Structure locations should be set back a minimum of 10 metres from the top of ridgelines, cliffs or ravines. Variation or exemption requests should be accompanied by a report from a Registered Forester Professional, with documented wildfire and fuel management experience, stating that a variation/exemption will not expose the house to increased wildfire risk.

5.4.3.2 Interface Fuel Management

Require that fuel hazards on forested lands be mitigated to a level deemed acceptable by a Registered Forester Professional, with documented experience in wildfire and fuel management, before they become the property of the District.

Encourage wildfire hazard reduction in a way that is supportive of restoring the natural environment. Such hazard reduction mimics the natural effects of localized fires that once were common but that human settlement has removed from the environment. Typical methods include thinning and spacing trees and vegetation, removal of debris and dead material from the ground, and removal of lower tree branches. Wildfire hazard reduction, done responsibly, can be compatible with habitat conservation and restoration.

The registration of restrictive covenants for areas that have been identified as hazardous may be necessary to ensure preventative treatments are maintained through the life of the property or structure.

5.4.3.3 Buildings

The roof material must conform to Class A or Class B fire resistance as referenced in the BC Building Code.

Any material used for cladding of exterior walls must be fire resistant. Examples include stucco, metal siding, brick, cement shingles, cement board, concrete block, poured concrete, concrete composite (i.e. hardie plank etc), rock and logs or heavy timber construction as defined in the BC Building Code.

Structural components (post & beam) of decks, balconies and porches must be heavy timber construction as defined in the BC Building Code, or should be clad with fire resistant material such as stucco, metal siding, brick, cement shingles, cement board, concrete block, poured concrete, hardie plank or rock.

All chimneys constructed for wood burning fireplaces must have spark arrestors made of 12 gauge (or better) welded or woven wire mesh, with openings not exceeding 12 mm.

All windows must be double-paned or tempered.


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Manufactured homes must be skirted with a fire resistant material as outlined in the previous guideline for exterior wall cladding.

Proposed deviations from the above can be submitted to the District for consideration as an alternative solution if the applicant can verify that the expected level of performance meets or exceeds the level of fire safety conferred by the above measures.

5.4.3.4 Landscaping

The following landscaping modifications within Priority Zone 2 from anticipated building footprints (within a distance of 30 m from structures or greater distance on slopes as per FireSmart Guidelines):

Thin the canopy and understory and prune lower branches to create an environment that reduces the risk of a crown fire;

Space and maintain trees so that canopy spacing is a minimum of 3 metres;

Remove dead and dying trees; and

Dispose of all slash created by treatments through pile and burning or removal from the site.

Where hazard levels are high as a result of fuel loads, fuel management should also be undertaken in Priority Zone 3 (between 30 and 100 m from building footprints or greater distance on slopes as per FireSmart Guidelines). In addition to the landscaping modifications to be addressed prior to subdivision, the following provisions could be registered as a restrictive covenant. The following apply to Priority Zone 1 (within 10 m of the dwelling units): Official Community Plan - Chapter 13 • Hazardous Condition DP • 13.6

Use non-combustible landscaping material.

Ensure there are no coniferous trees, limbs or shrubs overhanging roofs or growing under the eaves of buildings.

Space and maintain coniferous trees so that canopy spacing is a minimum of 3 m between coniferous tree crowns (between individuals or small groups of conifers).

Do not plant any new coniferous trees within this zone.

Prune coniferous trees so that there are no branches to a height of 2.5 m (to a minimum of 3 m on slopes greater than 15%).

Maintain existing hedges below a height of 2.0 m (juniper and cedar hedges are discouraged).

Use native vegetation.

Keep piled debris (firewood, building materials, and other combustible material) out of this zone.

Remove (at least annually) surface litter, downed trees and dead and dying trees.


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5.5 FireSmart Community Planning and Design Guidelines

The sprawl of communities into wildland areas complicates wildfire risk management. Local governments need to ensure proper FireSmart design of developments, homes and landscaping. The FireSmart manual was developed to provide guidelines to individuals, communities and planners on how to reduce the risk of a wildfire to their homes. The guidelines describe interface hazards (structural and vegetative), provide mitigation strategies and techniques, and include regional planning solutions. At the same time, ecological considerations must be considered and addressed to mitigate environmental impacts. New developments have historically been designed and built with little consideration for the potential consequences of a wildfire. A responsible development plan should consider prevention of two types of wildfire interface scenarios. The first is that of a wildfire starting in the forest and spreading into the interface community, the second is that of a fire starting from human activity in the urban environment and spreading into the adjacent forest. Responsible development planning must consider the prevention of both scenarios in the short and long term. Short-term measures during the construction phases include the prevention of potential ignition sources and ensuring suppression resources are available in the case of a wildfire. This can be accomplished by ensuring the developer/contractor has a Construction Fire Management Plan in place prior to commencing operations. Long-term planning includes the strategic placement of structures and roads within the development, as well as treating interface fuels to reduce the fire behaviour potential and creating defensible spaces around structures within the interface. An overview of the general guidelines and recommendations within the FireSmart manual as they pertain to WUI development are summarized in Appendix E. The FireSmart guidelines should be considered as the minimum standard to which any development must adhere. All new areas that are proposed for development should comply with FireSmart Guidelines and the development and fuel management recommendations within this report. Where appropriate, it is important for planners, architects and developers to consider wildfire threat during the planning and design phases of a development since factors such as the location of alternate water sources, road access and hydrant location can have a major influence on the overall design. The FireSmart Guidebook is a good resource and should be referred to at all levels of design and planning (home, yard, subdivision, and community). These guidelines are general and more specific development planning can be provided through site specific assessments and reporting, such as the aforementioned ‘Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy’ document recommended earlier.


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Rec # 17

Establish Wildfire Development Permit Areas to trigger the need for a Development Wildfire Risk Reduction Strategy prior to issuing a development permit. Follow Development Guidelines and FireSmart Guidelines to direct responsible development within the District.

A

5.6 Other Recommendations

5.6.1 Agency Cooperation

5.6.1.1 Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations

The Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations (MoF) is responsible for forest management on crown land. The District should be aware of timber sales and harvesting activities within close proximity to the District interface and ensure these activities are not contributing to a future wildfire risk. All timber harvesting activities that occur in proximity of interface areas should be done in a manner that reduces the interface wildfire risk. The District should work with the Wildfire Management Branch (WMB) on fuel management projects within the District. WMB can provide advice, suggestions and, if available, crews to assist with projects on crown or municipal lands.

5.6.1.2 Ministry of Transportation

The Ministry of Transportation (MoT) may have the responsibility for some of the transportation corridors within the District. The vegetation adjacent to these roadways can contribute to a fuel hazard and the maintenance operations associated with vegetation management (mowing, tree felling) may also be a potential ignition source. The District should ensure that the MoT appropriately abates any roadside fuel hazards. Additionally, all contractors performing this work should have fire suppression capabilities and training if the work is undertaken during the fire season. Grasses within roadside ditches and meridians should be mowed prior to fire season to reduce the fuel loading of these fuels.

5.6.1.3 Forest Licensees

While other licenses may be working near the District, the primary local licensee is the Westbank First Nations. They hold a Community Forest License on the majority of the forested lands adjacent to the District. The District should ensure that if harvesting does occur adjacent to the community, a review of referrals from licensees for harvesting contain fuel abatement methods for reducing surface fuel hazards in their site plans. Additionally, the forest licensees, specifically Westbank First Nation could be partners for abating the fuel hazard in interface areas.


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5.6.1.4 First Nations

There is only one First Nation within close proximity of the District. The Westbank First Nation is located 3.5 km north of the District. The Westbank First Nation should be made aware of any fuel management projects proposed adjacent to their reserves. The District should consider supporting local First Nations forest and fuel management initiatives by working with them to address the wildfire risk associated with existing and future fuel hazards. This can be accomplished by a letter of support for any fuel management funding requests they make, cooperatively treating District fuel hazards adjacent to reserves, and supporting fuel management objectives on their reserves and within the community forest.


Rec # 18

The District should dialogue with a local agencies, licensees and First Nations to ensure their management actions on the landscape and within the District consider wildfire and fuel management and do not increase wildfire risk to the District.

B

5.6.2 Improving Access

The road network into and within a community serves several needs including providing access for emergency vehicles, escape routes for residents and fuel breaks. Communities with narrow driveways and dead-end streets impede fire suppression efforts. Wildfire risk can be reduced by careful planning of access systems (road and trails) within and adjacent to the development. Planning to improve access through the development of roads and recreation trail systems can reduce suppression constraints and, thereby, wildfire risk. Access roads can act as effective fuel breaks for some surface fires (and potentially crown fires depending on the scale of the road) while providing access for equipment during suppression efforts. This should be considered when planning new road or trail systems for harvesting, recreation or new developments. Recreational trails are generally not as effective as fuel breaks when compared to roads and may not necessarily provide emergency vehicle access depending on their width and design. They can, however, facilitate access for ground crews and potentially act as fuel breaks to help stop the spread of low intensity ground fires. In protected areas where tree removal and road building are not options, the establishment of new recreation trails could be considered. Trail-building standards should be wide enough at minimum to provide ATV access where possible and applicable. It should be noted that improving access through the establishment of new roads and trails can also increase the risk of human caused ignitions. Gates or other site access restrictions could be utilized to minimize access by unauthorized users, especially those using motorized vehicles. All trails constructed for risk reduction purposes should be signed at the major access points explaining the function of the trail as a fuel break for wildfire hazard reduction and the need for the public to avoid accidental ignitions (discarded cigarettes, unattended or improperly extinguished camp fires).


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For any proposed landscape level fuel breaks, the District should explore developing trails within these sites to promote recreation and improve access for suppression crews.

Figure 14. Vehicular accessible trails doubling as surface fuel breaks

Following is a list of required road standards that will facilitate suppression vehicles and public evacuation in the case of a wildfire:

Roads should provide safe simultaneous access for emergency vehicles and public evacuation with a minimum width of 6.1 m excluding parking.

Road curvature radius should be at least 30 m, measured from the centre line.

Road gradient should not exceed 10 percent.

Dead-end roads should have a turnaround at the terminus having no less than 36 m outside diameter of traveled way.

District fire service personnel shall be provided with keys to any locking mechanism on any gate restricting access to any road.


Rec # 19 Ensure all future roads constructed in interface areas meet standards required for suppression vehicles

A

Rec # 20 Identify interface areas with one access route or cul-de-sac roads. Explore options to build alternative access to these areas.

C

Rec # 21 Encourage strategic recreation trail development to a standard that supports ATV/UTVs or small trucks for suppression purposes.

B

Rec # 22 Gates should be installed on roads and trails that run through natural areas to minimize access by unauthorized users, especially those using motorized vehicles.

B


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5.6.3 Water Availability

During suppression activities, the availability of water is of fundamental importance to suppression resources. Where fire hydrant coverage is limited or non-existent, particularly in remote interface areas, determining which natural water bodies will suffice as water sources during the dry fire season can improve suppression success. In remote locations with no hydrant systems, potential sites that are suitable as pump sites for suppression crews should be identified by the local fire department and reported to Wildfire Management crews when they attend an interagency incident. This information can be collected and stored in a database within the Peachland Fire and Rescue Services and supplied to the WMB. In addition, when new areas are proposed for developments, adequate fire hydrants should be established in strategic locations in the interface zone. In high-risk areas that have no other water sources, artificial water sources should be designed for the specific purpose of being accessed for suppression use and strategically located for this purpose.


Rec # 23 The fire department should develop a map showing known sites where natural water bodies can be accessed by their tenders.

B

Rec # 24 For new developments, consider establishing or enhancing water bodies within the development area that could serve as emergency water sources.

B

5.6.4 Reducing Sources of Ignition

Causes of ignition can be separated into human caused and lightning caused. Lightning caused ignition is difficult to predict across the landscape (although it tends to the higher elevations). Traditionally, about one half of all wildfires are caused by human activities. Within an urban area there are many human caused ignition sources, including but not limited to:

Camp fires

Industrial activity

Discarded cigarettes and matches

Vehicle traffic

Railways

House related fires

Power lines

Vandalism The most cost effective component of any fire prevention program includes predicting and preventing human caused ignitions. This is best achieved through ongoing public education campaigns. A history of fires within and adjacent to the District, including the


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cause and location should be compiled and updated to identify changing high-risk areas. Public education campaigns should focus on these areas and their related user groups. Tree failure adjacent to power lines is also a potential ignition source. All transmission and distribution lines should be assessed annually for hazard trees. The District should dialogue with BC Hydro, BCTC or another agency to ensure they are removing all hazard trees prior to the fire season.

5.6.5 The Wildfire Act

The Wildfire Act places the responsibility for preventing wildfires clearly on the public, industry, operators, and/or developers and provides an avenue for the provincial government to charge for suppression costs and damages caused by an accidental ignition. It should be noted that the Wildfire Act may not apply within municipalities or may be altered. Most importantly, District’s should ensure that developer’s have construction fire management plans for dealing with accidental workplace ignitions. Local volunteer and municipal fire departments may want to consider site inspections of construction sites to ensure contractors are attempting to reduce ignition starts and are prepared in the event of an ignition. Alternatively, development related permits could only be issued if a Construction Fire Management Plan has been filed with the District.

5.6.6 Initial Attack Preparedness

The closest WMB Fire Crew base is at the Penticton Airport (<50 km). This is an initial attack base only and while it does usually have a helicopter on standby, it does not have a Unit Crew. The closest Unit Crew in in Vernon. The work season for these crews is generally from the beginning of May until the end of August. Every year, prior to the fire season, an information session should be organized to ensure that fire and rescue professionals and park staff members are familiar with the high ignition risk areas within the District. Communication is a critical component of any emergency response and plan. All fire department members and staff should know their role once an interface wildfire is detected or a large-scale wildfire approaches the District or occurs within it. The members of the Peachland Fire and Rescue Service should be trained to the S-100 Basic Fire Suppression level. This will provide them with a basic understanding of wildland suppression that they could use to support wildfire suppression efforts. Fire departments should also ensure they have the necessary equipment to deal with an interface fire. Additionally, they should be provided with the GIS mapping products developed for this report.

Small ATV/UTV suppression vehicles can allow quick access to remote areas along recreation trails and old forest service roads. They can improve the initial attack and suppression capabilities of the District Fire Department in isolated and more remote natural areas.


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Rec # 26 Consider conducting joint interface training exercises with the Wildfire Management Branch.

B

5.6.7 Transmission and Distribution Agencies

Transmission and distribution lines and their associated right-of-ways represent a value at risk, an ignition source and a potential fuel hazard. Vegetation management is required along all transmission right-of-ways. Woody debris left on-site can become a fire risk to both the adjacent community and the transmission lines. The District should ensure that the responsible agency/company abates this fuel hazard during their vegetation management operations. Vegetation adjacent to transportation corridors acts as an ignition source and a fuel hazard. This includes cured grass and woody material from tree removals. The District should ensure that grass is maintained and that all tree cutting is cleaned up adequately along roadways.


Rec # 27 Ensure that agencies/companies responsible for right of way maintenance abate fuel hazards during their vegetation management operations along their transmission right-of-ways.

B

Rec # 28 Ensure that grass is maintained and that all tree cutting is cleaned up adequately along roadways.

A

5.6.8 Public Information

In order to undertake fuels treatment in the interface, it is important to have public support. Although it can be a lengthy and time consuming process, public consultation is a worthwhile pursuit. Following are suggestions for disseminating information to residents. The majority of the hazardous fuel areas within the urban interface are privately owned. Therefore, building public awareness and promoting stewardship of the District’s natural areas and its many values is a key component of an effective wildfire risk reduction program. Chapter 6 of the FireSmart Planner provides detailed recommendations for developing a public communications plan. The following are general recommendations to be considered for development of a public education program. There are two main goals of a comprehensive public education and awareness strategy. These are:

1. Raising knowledge and awareness of wildfire risk and prevention; and 2. Developing and encouraging stewardship opportunities for individuals and

community-based volunteer organizations.


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Changes in behaviour often come about when people believe that there is an advantage for doing so and also, that they can achieve it. Therefore, gaining support or acceptance for a specific course of action often relies upon both education as well as persuasion. Furthermore, these types of initiatives are more likely to affect changes in behaviour when they are targeted at the community level using direct engagement. Upon the completion of this CWPP, a public presentation should be considered to summarize the finding and recommendations in this report. Alternatively, in the spring, a Wildfire Interface Open House would be timely to present the CWPP as well as to inspire resident’s to address interface fuels as the fire season approaches. Youth engagement is sometimes overlooked as a public education strategy, but it is a key to meeting long-term management goals. By actively engaging the youth, the District can ensure that the next generation of citizens will be educated and familiar with wildfire planning and management. In addition, educated youth will often effectively pass on this information to older generations in their family that are more difficult to directly engage. The District should explore educating opportunities within the District school system. The fire department could be invited to make classroom presentations. Also, stewardship initiatives such as young wardens programs could be utilized to instill a sense of responsibility to the younger generations. Field trips with school groups can be organized to raise awareness of wildfire risk and strategies for its mitigation. Educational and interactive self walking tours can be established in fuel treatment areas. When a fuel treatment program is planned, an open house should be organized and used as a forum to inform and educate local residents. This will provide an opportunity to be proactive and raise awareness of issues and options that local residents have to mitigate risk on their properties. Technology is an important avenue to communicate ideas and information. This is particularly true of on-line and digital media. The District website should be updated to include this report and associated maps. This site should be updated regularly to include future interface fuels treatments and education events. The webpage functions as a virtual open house giving residents information, and the flexibility to participate on their timeline. This is also an effective means of communicating with individuals who do not have time or cannot physically participate in open house and local events. On-line sources of education that should be considered include videos that can be linked to the webpage. YouTube is a free and effective means to distribute educational material. A variety of videos can be posted to update the public of upcoming events and to showcase successes in the District. Wildfire awareness signs should be placed in and around the District to raise awareness of the risks of wildfire. These should indicate the current Fire Danger level, restrictions during the fire season, as well as the emergency number to call when a fire is detected (1-800-663-5555 or *5555 from a cellular phone). Signs should be bold and placed in clear view, particularly along major routes through the District and at all recreation sites, parks and natural areas.


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Rec # 29 Wildfire awareness signs should be posted along major transportation corridors, at camp sites, recreation areas and high use trail heads that specify how to report a wildfire.

A

Rec # 30 The District should develop a public education and awareness program for wildfire management.

A

Rec # 31 Provide educational or informational material to all private land owners within 100 m of the Wildfire DP areas.

A

Rec # 32 Summaries of this report and associated maps should be posted on the District web site.

A

Rec # 33

A public presentation or Open House should be planned to help disseminate CWPP recommendations once it is adopted. Local developers should be provided with update information on development.

A

Rec # 34 Establish a school education program to engage youth in wildfire management.

B

Rec # 35 Digital media including video and the District’s website should be updated to include this plan.

A

5.6.9 Post Fire Evaluation and Rehabilitation

If a wildfire occurs on District lands, a Wildfire Rehabilitation Plan should be developed by a qualified Registered Professional Forester. The report should include a post-fire ecosystem impact assessment and a rehabilitation plan to minimize long term impacts. Wildland fire may create hazard trees and these should be assessed immediately post fire. Any hazard trees that pose a striking danger to adjacent roads and trails should be removed immediately. If the wildfire causes extensive degradation of the organic horizons on a steep slope or within a riparian area, the site should be assessed for slope stability and the need for erosion control. Wildfire is a natural disturbance agent in most BC ecosystems. If invasive plant species or erosion is not a concern, the site could be left to rehabilitate naturally. The only types of damage that should be addressed are those caused by suppression activities such as the construction of fire breaks and the use of heavy machinery within the stand or as per recommendations within the Wildfire Rehabilitation Plan undertaken.


Rec # 36 In the event of a wildfire, a post-fire ecosystem impact assessment and rehabilitation plan should be completed.

C


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5.6.10 Wildfire Emergency Planning

When a catastrophic wildfire occurs, lack of preparation can quickly lead to panic and disorganization. This greatly increases the risk to human lives, structures and natural resources. Planning to manage a wildfire involves a great deal of uncertainty and it is difficult to predict how the public will behave under varying circumstances. Therefore, it is essential that decision-makers are highly organized and prepared so that evacuation and suppression response can occur as quickly and efficiently as possible. A detailed wildfire action plan or procedures should be developed for the District that includes a communication and evacuation plan for the different areas of the District. Such a plan should be developed in cooperation with the local Fire Department, the local WMB Fire Zone, the Provincial Emergency Program, and the Officer of the Fire Commissioner.


Rec # 37 The District Fire Rescue Service should ensure it has an emergency plan or procedures in place to address a large scale wildfire event.

C

5.6.11 Wildfire Detection and Reporting

Wildfires are generally discovered with the assistance of the provincial lightning locator system, aerial patrols and public observation. In an urban center, a wildfire is most likely to be detected by the public. All fires should be reported to the Provincial Forest Fire Reporting Center in Victoria through their toll free number 1-800-663-5555. The agent will collect detailed information about the fire including:

The exact location

The estimated size

The type of fuel burning and adjacent fuel source

The rate of spread and direction of the fire

The color of the smoke

The values at risk

This provincial wildfire reporting number should be displayed appropriately around the District with the danger class wildfire boards.


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6.0 Conclusion

Wildfires within the District ecosystems have short return interval and the impacts of such a large scale wildfire, or smaller scale interface, are very real. Given the forested landscape within and surrounding the District, the risk and consequences of an interface fire can be very high. However, it is possible to reduce this potential through careful planning and pre-emptive fuel treatment operations. The implementation of a fuel management program can be time consuming and requires extensive experience with wildfire and fuel management, funding sources, and forested ecosystems. The management of such a program will likely be too much additional work for District staff or fire department members to undertake. The District should considering contracting this work out on a longer term basis (3-5 years) to ensure the District continuously moves towards wildfire risk reduction while UBCM funding is still available. The District should commit to becoming a “FireSmart” community and embrace this opportunity to exemplify a model community with regards to wildfire management. The District may wish to initially consider accepting this report as information only. This will allow the District time to review and consider the impacts of adopting all recommendations, with the intention of eventually adopting the recommendations made within it. By implementing the above recommendations, the District will decrease the potential for an interface wildfire, maintain recreational opportunities, and improve the survivability of the developments within its jurisdictional boundaries.


Rec # 38

Consider establishing a Wildfire Risk Reduction Program to be managed by an experience consultant pursuant on that consultant securing UBCM funding to undertake prescriptions, operations and project monitoring and management.

A


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7.0 References (including Appendices)

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DC. Agee, J.K. 1996. The influence of forest structure on fire behavior. Presented at the 17th

Annual Forest Vegetation Management Conference, Redding CA, January 16-18, 1996.

Agee, J.K 1999. Fire Effects on Landscape Fragmentation in Interior West Forest, in

Rochell, J.L. Lehman and J.Wisniewski, eds. Forest Fragmentation: Wildlife Management Implication. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Agee, J.K., G. Bahro, M.A Finney, P.N. Omin, D.B. Sapsis, C.N. Skinner, J.W. van

Wagtendonk, and C.P. Weatherspoon. 2000. The use of shaded fuelbreaks in landscape fire management. Forest Ecology and Management 127 (2000):55-66

Agee, J.K. and M.H. Huff. 1986. Structure and process goals for vegetation in wilderness

areas. Pages 17-25 in Lucas, R.C. compiler. Proceedings-National wilderness research conference: current research, 23-26 July 1985, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-212.

Allen,E, Morrison,D. Wallis,G. 1996. Common Tree Diseases of British Columbia,

Natural Resources Canada Canadian Forest Service Arno, S.F., 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78:

460-465. BC Conservation Data Centre. Retrieved January 2011. URL: http://www.elp.gov.bc.ca/rib/wis/cdc/index.htm BC Ministry of Forests, 1997. A Wildfire Threat Rating System for the McGregor Model

Forest. Forest Practices – 3015. Prepared for the McGregor Model Forest Association BC Ministry of Forests Forest Practices Code Biodiversity Guidebook. Retrieved January

2011. URL:http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/biodiv/biotoc.htm BC Ministry of Forests Forest Practices Code, Riparian Area Management Guidebook.

Retrieved January 2011. URL:http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/riparian/rip-toc.htm

BC Ministry of Forests Forest Practices Code, Silviculture Prescription Guidebook.

Retrieved January 2011. URL:http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/PRE/index.htm

BC Ministry of Forests Forest Practices Code, Silviculture Systems Guidebook.

Retrieved January 2011. URL:http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/system/sstoc.htm

http://www.elp.gov.bc.ca/rib/wis/cdc/index.htm

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BC Ministry of Forests, 2003. Silviculture Systems Handbook for British Columbia, Ministry of Forests Forest Practices Branch, Victoria BC

BC Ministry of Forests Glossary of Terms. Retrieved March 2004.

URL:http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/glossary/ BC Ministry of Forests, Stand level Biodiversity Web Based Training Course. Retrieved

January 2004. URL:http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/fordev/biodiversity/index.htm BC Ministry of Water Land and Air Protection, Biodiversity and Wildlife in British

Columbia. Retrieved January 2004. URL: http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/wld/ BC Ministry of Water Land and Air Protection, Landscape Unit Planning Guide (Forest

practices code of British Columbia). Co-published by Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Resource Stewardship Branch, Environment Regional and District Offices. 1999.

BC Ministry of Water Land and Air Protection, Tree Removal Policy for Parks and

Protected Areas. Retrieved January 2004. URL:http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/bcparks/conserve/cpp_p1/tree_removal_policy_for_ppa.pdf

Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification. Retrieved January 2004. URL: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/research/becweb/becinfo/mapping.htm Biswell,H.H, 1989. Prescribed Burning in California Wildlands Vegetation Management.

University of California Press. London, England. Bostwick, Pam, Jim Menakis, Tim Sexton, Paul Keller, 2011. How Fuel Treatments

Saved Homes from the 2011 Wallow Fire. USDA Forest Service, August 2011. Brown, R. 2000. Thinning, Fire and Forest Restoration: A science-based approach for

national forests in the Interior Northwest for Defenders of Wildlife. West Linn, Oregon. Brown, Daryl. 2002. Performance-based Environmental Management in British

Columbia. Daryl Brown Associates Inc. and Victoria Consulting Network Ltd. Written for MSRM, MWLAP and EAO September 2002.

DeBano,L., Neary,D.F., Folliott,P, 1989. Fire's Effects on Ecosystem. John Wiley and

Sons Inc. New York. DellaSala,D.A. and E. Frost, 2001. An Ecologically Based Strategy for Fire and Fuels

Management in National Forest Roadless Areas. Fire Management Today. USDA Forest Service. Volume 61, No.2

Dunster, Julian and Katherine Dunster, 1996. Natural Resource Management Dictionary.

Univ. of BC. Vancouver, BC. 380 pp.

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http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/bcparks/conserve/cpp_p1/tree_removal_policy_for_ppa.pdf

http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/bcparks/conserve/cpp_p1/tree_removal_policy_for_ppa.pdf

http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/research/becweb/becinfo/mapping.htm


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Feeney, S. R., T.E. Kolb, W.W. Covington, and M.R. Wagner, 1998. Influence of thinning and burning restoration treatments on presettlement pondersosa pines at the Gus Pearson Natural Area. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 28:1295-1306.

Feeney, Shelly, R., Thomas E. Kolb, W. Wallace Covington, and Michael R. Wagner,

1998. Influence of thinning and burning restoration treatments on pre-settlement ponderosa pines at the Gus Pearson Natural Area. Journal of Forestry Research 28:1295-1306.

Feller,M.C. and S.M. Thomson, 1987 Wildfire and Range Prescribed Burning workshop

proceedings, 27-28 October, 1987 Richmond University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry 1988

Filmon, G, 2003. Firestorm 2003. Victoria, BC Golder Associates 2010: Peachland Creek and Trepanier Creek - Watershed Assessment Report for Drinking Water Source Protection. URL: http://www.peachland.ca/cms/wpattachments/wpID164atID555.pdf Graham, Russel T., Dr. Sarah McCaffrey, and Dr. Theresa B. Jain, 2004. Science Basis

for Changing Forest Structure to Modify Wildfire Behavior and Severity. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service. RMRS-GTR-120.

Graham, Russel T., A. Harvey, T.B. Jain and J.R. Tonn, 1999. The Effects of Thinning

and Similar Stand Treatments on Fire Behavior in Western Forests. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-GTR-463.

Hawkes B. Taylor. S.W., Stockdale C., Shore T.L. Alfaro R.I. Campbell R. Vera P, 2003.

Impacts of Mountain Pine Beetle on Stand Dynamics in British Columbia. Pacific Forestry Center, Victoria BC

Hirsch,K.G, 1996. Canadian Forest Fire Behaviour Prediction System: User’s Guide.

Special Report #7 Canadian Forest Service Hirsch K, Pengelly I, 2002 Fuel Reduction in Lodgepole Pine Stands in Banff National

Park. Joint Fire Sciences Conference and Workshop. Poster in Press. Ingalsbee, Timothy, 2004. American Lands proposal for fuels reduction and restoration. URL: http://www.kettlerange.org/salvagelogging/Ingalsbee-restoration.html. McIver, James, Phillip Weatherspoon, and Carl Edminster. 2001. Alternative Ponderosa

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Research Branch. Victoria, BC. URL: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Srs/SRseries.htm Mitchel, W.R. and W.R. Erickson. 1983. Ponderosa pine-bunchgrass zone. In: Forestry

Handbook for British Columbia, Fourth Edition. Published by the Forestry Undergraduate Society, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC pp. 296-301.

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URL: http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/science-update-7.pdf Scott, Joe H.; Reinhardt, Elizabeth D, 2001. Assessing crown fire potential by linking

models of surface and crown fire behavior Res. Pap. RMRS-RP-29. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 59p.

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Idaho’s ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir forest. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 1(1):16-18.

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Restoration on Pre-settlement in Pinus ponderosa in Northern Arizona. Society for Ecological Restoration.

Taylor, S.W., G.J.Baxter, and BC Hawkes, 1998. Modeling the effect of forest

succession on fire behaviour potential in southeastern British Columbia. III International Conference on Forest Research 14 Conference of Fire and Forest Meteorology Vol. II. Pp 205902-72, Luso, Portugal 16/20 November 1998.

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forests in Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project, Final Report to Congress. Chapter 44, Vol. II Assessments and Scientific Basis for Management Options. University of California, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources, Davis,California.

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http://www.nps.gov/yose/planning/fire/index.htm


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8.0 Appendix A - Wildfire Risk Analysis Methodology

The following document is an overview of the methodology followed to produce the landscape level Wildfire Risk Analysis (WRA) for the District and adjacent area. It is meant to provide some base line knowledge of the ranking system structure and how the results are presented. The WRA is a GIS based model that spatially quantifies and analyzes the relationships that exist between the critical factors affecting wildfire risk. The objective of this model is to provide planners with a decision making tool to spatially identify the severity of wildfire threat on a landscape level. This information allows planners to analyze and explore the implications of different management activities in relation to wildfire risk. The overall hazard ranking spatially determines wildfire threat by incorporating four key components as follows:

1. Fire behaviour characteristics (40% of the weighting) 2. Risk of ignition (10% of the weighting) 3. Threat to structures, natural features and cultural features of significance (25% of

the weighting) 4. Suppression constraints (25% of the weighting)

These four components are in turn calculated from contributing factors, each of which is represented by a layer in GIS. The wildfire hazard of each of the components is calculated by overlaying the relevant contributing factors. The layers representing these four components are subsequently overlaid to produce the final wildfire risk rating.

8.1 Component #1 - Fire Behaviour

The fire behaviour component of the WRA measures how wildfire will behave under extreme weather conditions. The Canadian Fire Behaviour Prediction System (FPB) provides quantitative outputs of selected fire behaviour characteristics for the major Canadian fuel types (Hirsch 1996).

8.1.1 Fuel Types

Sixteen national benchmark fuel types, which are divided into five categories, are used by the Canadian Fire Behaviour Prediction System to forecast how wildfire will react. These fuel types were defined using the forest inventory and guidelines developed by the Ministry of Forests. Six fuel types were identified in the study area. It is important to note that these fuel types represent a type of behaviour pattern and their generic names do not accurately describe the type of stand that is found.

8.1.2 Weather inputs

Weather conditions used to calculate fire behaviour were derived from MoFR historic records dating back to 1970. This data was compiled and statistically analyzed to determine the average 80th percentile fire weather indices for the months of May to September. The fire weather inputs were designated based on Biogeoclimatic subzones. The topographical attributes required to predict fire behaviour include slope and aspect.


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The study area was delineated into polygons based on slope breaks of 10% intervals and aspects of 45 degrees. The cardinal wind direction was calculated from the aspect so that it was blowing upslope and the elapsed time was set at 24 hours. All of the data pertaining to fuel types, topographical attributes, and fire weather was compiled for the entire study area. This information was then run through FPB97 to create the three output fire behaviour layers: fire intensity, rate of spread and crown fraction burned.

8.1.3 Fire Intensity

This layer is a measure of the rate of heat energy released per unit time per unit length of fire front. It is based on the rate of spread and the predicted fuel consumption. The units for this layer are kilowatts per meter.

8.1.4 Rate of Spread

This layer is a measure of the speed at which a fire extends its horizontal dimensions. This is based on the hourly Initial Spread Index (ISI) value. It is adjusted for the steepness of slope, the interactions between slope and wind direction and increasing fuel availability as accounted for through the Build Up Index (BUI). The units for this layer are meters per minute.

8.1.5 Crown Fraction Burned

This layer is a measure of the proportion of tree crowns involved in the fire. It is based on the rate of spread, the crown base height and the foliar moisture content. It is expressed as a percentage value. The weightings of the fire behaviour layers were designated as follows with a total maximum value of 40. Table 1. WRA - Weightings of fire behaviour layers

Layer Units Unit Value Weight

Fire Intensity Kilowatts per meter (kW/m)

>0-500 501-1000 1001-2000 2001-4000 4001-10000 10001-30000

>30000

4 – Very Low 8 – Low 10 – Low 12 – Medium 16 – Medium 18 – High 20 – Very High

Rate of Spread Meters per minute (m/min)

>0-5 6-10 11-20 21-40 >40

2 – Very Low 4 – Low 6 – Medium 8 – High 10 – Very high

Crown Fraction Burned

Percent of canopy crown burned (%)

0 1-9

10-49 50-89

90-100

0 – None 3 – Low 6 – Medium 8 – High 10 – Very high


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8.2 Component #2 – Risk of Ignition

Fires are ignited by either human or lightning causes. The most common source of human caused ignition includes the use of motorized machinery, discarded cigarettes and matches from smoking, fires started in houses, campfires lit within natural areas, sparks from railways and accidents along hydro distribution and transmission lines. This is accounted for by buffering all areas where these causes are most likely to occur. A 30 m buffer has been established around all roads, structures, hydro lines and railways. Where these areas run through fuel types that are likely to sustain a fire ignition, the area has been assigned a high-risk ranking. It is difficult to predict the risk of lighting striking across a landscape. Therefore, all fuel types that are likely to sustain a fire ignition due to a lighting strike have been identified and assigned a moderate risk ranking. All deciduous fuel types have been assigned a low ranking and non-fuels have been assigned a weighting of 0. Table 2. WRA - Weightings of Risk of Ignition

Layer Units Weight

Risk of Human Caused Ignition

Areas within 30 m of Structures Roads Trails/Camping areas Hydro Transmission lines Railways

That are not deciduous or non-fuel.

10

Risk of Lightning Caused Ignition

All fuel types except deciduous or non-fuels (C2, C3, C4, C7, M2)

5

All Deciduous fuels (D1/D2) 1

All non-fuels (W, I, U, N) 0

8.3 Component #3 - Values at Risk

The ‘values at risk’ component of the model identifies human and natural resources which are at risk of being damaged or destroyed by wildfire. This includes the risk to manmade structures and the risk that wildfire poses to rare and unique natural features.

8.3.1 Structures at Risk

This layer identifies all human-made structures that have the potential to be destroyed or damaged by wildfire. A structures layer was provided by the District. This was edited using recent orthophotos. 30 m, 100 m and 2 km buffers were then created around these structures. The areas within 30 m of any structures were designated a maximum weighting of 25. Areas further than 30 m but within 100 m were designated a weighting of 20. Areas further than 100 m but within 2 km were designated a weighting of 20.

8.3.2 Natural features at risk

This layer identifies unique natural features that could be detrimentally impacted by wildfire. It includes the locations of key wildlife habitat, rare plants and plant associations. Information pertaining to the rarity, conservation status and locations of animals, plants and plant associations was obtained from the BC MoE, Resources Inventory Branch;


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Forests Conservation Data Center (CDC). This data includes information pertaining to populations and communities, environmental features associated with the species as well as geographical and ecological data. Element occurrence reports were obtained from the CDC which includes verified locations of rare animal species, plant species or plant associations within the study area. The CDC designates buffers to all element occurrences indicating the degree of uncertainty about the exact location. Areas within these polygons were assigned a threat weighting which increased with the elements rarity ranking. In addition, the riparian areas of all ephemeral and perennial streams, lakes and wetlands were accounted for by buffering these features by 30 m. The weightings of the structures and natural features at risk were designated as follows with a total maximum value of 25. Table 3. WRA – Weightings of Natural features at risk

Layer Units Weight

Structures and facilities at risk

Areas within 30 m of any structures 25

Areas within 100 m of any structures 20

Areas within 2 km of any structures 5

Archeological sites All identified archaeological sites 10

Natural features at risk

Red Listed CDC element occurrences (CDC) 10

Blue Listed CDC element occurrences (CDC) Wildlife habitat areas

7

Riparian Habitat – 30 m from all Fish Bearing/Perennial Streams

Old Growth Forests Ungulate winter range (CDC) Record sized trees (CDC)

5

Riparian Habitat – 30 m from all Non-fish Bearing/Ephemeral Streams

3

8.4 Component #4 – Suppression Constraints

The ability to suppress a wildfire depends on a number of factors including terrain characteristics, accessibility and the availability of suppression resources. Four factors were used to determine the overall rating for suppression capability including: proximity to roads, proximity to water sources, initial attack time and steepness of terrain.

8.4.1 Proximity to Roads – Access

This layer accounts for the accessibility of suppression resources to fight a wildfire by creating 100 m, 500 m and 1000 m buffers around all roads in and adjacent to the study area. The area within these buffers was assigned threat weightings, which decreased with their proximity to roads.

8.4.2 Proximity to Water Sources

This layer is a measure of the availability of water sources for fire suppression. It was derived by creating 100 m buffers around all fire hydrants and perennial rivers, creeks and lakes. These water sources were designated a buffer of 100 m. Fire hydrants were


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designated the lowest weighting of 2, perennial water sources (ponds, reservoirs, lakes, rivers) were designated a weighting of 6 and all other areas were designated a weighting of 10.

8.4.3 Steepness of Terrain

Steepness of terrain influences the timely ability of ground crews to access the fire and construct fire lines. Areas were weighted based on their average slope class derived from the municipality DEM database. Designated weights increased relative to the steepness of the slope. The weightings of these four layers were designated as follows with a total maximum value of 25. Table 4. WRA – Weightings of Steepness of Terrain

Layer Units Unit Value Weight

Proximity to Roads

Distance from roads in meters

0-100 from roads 1

101-500 from roads 3

501-1000 from roads 6

>1000 from roads 10

Proximity to Water sources

Distance from water sources

in meters

< 100m from perennial water sources (ponds, reservoirs, lakes, rivers)

5

>100 meters from perennial water sources (ponds, reservoirs, lakes, rivers)

10

Steepness of terrain

% Slope

0-20 1

21-40 2

41-60 3

60-100 4

>100 5

*The entire area was weighted based on distance from roads. Then the risk was reduced by three if the area was accessible by a trail.

8.5 Final Wildfire Risk Rating

The final wildfire hazard rating has been calculated by adding together the ratings of the four primary components to produce a final weighting out of 100.


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9.0 Appendix B –Interface Wildfire Threat Rating Methodology

Introduction of the System Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) assessments in BC have generally involved the utilization of the FireSmart “Wildfire Threat Assessment System” (Chapter Two of the FireSmart manual). The Ministry of Forests and Range – Protection Branch endorse this form as the recognized standard for interface wildfire threat assessments in BC. Professional foresters and other practitioners have modified the FireSmart system to broaden its scope and still others have developed their own form as a means of strengthening the weaker components of the system, particularly the assessing of forest fuels. The primary drawback of the FireSmart system is that it does not address all the components that contribute to a fuel threat. As more and more funding became available for these assessments, an increasing number of professionals utilized their own system or modified the existing FireSmart system to address the fuel threat, and uniformity amongst assessments has decreased. It became apparent that a new system was needed that not only addressed risk to structures but would provide a rigorous review of the forest fuel threat. This new system is scientifically justifiable with proven wildland fire behaviour principles and is closely tied to the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System (CFFDRS). It has been developed to assess from the structure outwards. That is, the system assesses the forest fuel threat immediately adjacent to developments and extends outwards into the wildland. The main focus of this system is fuel, weather and topography, or the fire behaviour triangle. The system does not address issues with the actual structures (building materials, windows, porches, etc). The FireSmart system should still be used to address structural issues. Assessing house or structure survivability is outside the area of practice of most forest professionals and should be left to those specializing in that field, such as structural fire fighting professionals. This system also has a stand-alone capacity to be used solely for fuel threat assessment in the absence of a wildland/urban interface. The system should be considered dynamic. As scientific knowledge increases, the form should be reviewed and updated as required. Format of the WUI Wildfire Threat Assessment System It was decided early in the process, that the system needed to address the three components of fire behaviour: fuel, weather and topography. However, in order to be applicable to interface assessments, it also needed to account for interface characteristics and a ‘structural’ component was added. Therefore, the system is broken down into four categories: fuel, weather, topography and structures. These components are compromised of contributing sub-components. These subcomponents are categorized into five rating levels (labeled from ‘A’ to ‘E’) with each level having a value assigned to it. Table 1 below illustrates the aspects of the system: Component (Topography), Subcomponent (aspect, slope, terrain) and Level (A-E). A Descriptor is found under each Level.


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Table 1. An example of the format using the topography component

Component /Subcomponent

Level

Topography A B C D E

12 Aspect North

1 East

2

Flat (south exposure)

5

West 7

South 10

13 Slope (%) <15

1 15-29

3 30-44

5 45-54

7 55+ 10

14 Terrain Flat 1

Rolling 2

Consistent Slope

3

Narrow Gully(s)

4

Ridges and Gullies

5

Sub Total

___/25

Assessment Procedure

Define the study area The study area is generally defined by the proponent of the WUI Wildfire Threat Assessment work. It will typically be the area of responsibility for the proponent or a specific area within their responsibility. For example, a Fire Department may wish to access their entire Fire Protection Area (FPA) or may only be interested in certain subdivisions or groups of homes. A Regional District or City may want an overview of their entire area, or an assessment of a specific, closely defined location. A complete assessment will cover the entire area identified by the proponent. The adjacent area must also be considered to ensure all factors that influence wildfire threat are identified. This perimeter may extend out to more than two kilometers from the boundary of the assessment area. A WUI Wildfire Threat Assessment should be completed on the entire study area, regardless of land ownership or status.

Organize the Maps Map scales required for the field assessment component will vary with the size and complexity of the assessment area. Map scales in the 1:5 000 to 1: 10 000 scale range provide the most detail and allow for the most accurate mapping. Map scales greater than 1:20 000 are typically not suitable for WUI Wildfire Threat mapping. Orthographic maps usually provide the most accurate base for WUI mapping. An orthographic (ortho) map is a composite of aerial photographs. They provide detail about the size and shape of forest polygons much better than a topographic or forest cover map. Orthos also allow for the identification of houses and other structures that are sometimes difficult to locate in the field. Overlaying Cadastral data such as private property or lot boundaries and roadways onto an ortho map is valuable for mapping purposes. These boundaries are typically not very accurate, depending on the quality of the ortho map base and the compatibility with the Cadastral data.


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The accuracy of the ortho map will also depend on the age of the map. Land clearing, house construction and other activities that affect the forestland base, conducted after the aerial photographs were taken, will not show up on the ortho map. Older ortho maps will be less accurate than ones developed from more recent aerial mapping flights. WUI mapping can also be completed using TRIM data with forest cover, or topographic style maps. Again, the age of the map will directly affect its accuracy.

Interface Polygons A WUI Wildfire Threat Assessment System is polygon based. The forestland within the assessment area must be divided into polygons for assessment purposes. Polygons are areas of relatively homogenous forest cover, surface plant composition and topography that will likely exhibit similar wildfire behaviour under the same weather conditions. This assessment recognizes that there will always be natural variation within any polygon. The assessment is meant to capture the average conditions within a relatively homogenous area. To complete an assessment of a polygon requires a thorough walkthrough of the area. Most information can be collected informally through visual estimates. Crown closure and surface cover estimates can be aided by the tables included in the Instruction Manual. Polygons can be selected by:

1) Forest Cover – a similar forest cover, whether a homogenous layer of even aged trees, or a relatively consistent mixture of tree species and height and diameter size classes.

2) Topography – significant variations in aspect, slope or terrain can cause a polygon division.

3) Surface vegetation – a significant variation in the surface plant communities can cause a polygon division.

4) Location of the polygon relative to the community. Similar forested areas above and below a community should be treated as separate polygons.

Minimum polygon size will depend on the intensity of the assessment and the size of the assessment area. Assessment of a small, unique area planned for fuel management treatments may be divided into polygons of less than 0.5 hectares. Maps at 1:5 000 would be required for this intensity of assessment. Polygons for an overview assessment of a large area may be in the four to five hectare range using 1:20 000 scale maps. The smaller the polygons, the more accurate the assessment will be. The intensity of the assessment must be discussed with the proponent. Providing the assessor has delineated polygons according to the previous directions, continuity within the polygons shouldn’t vary that much. However, there will be minor components of variability, including gaps in the forest canopy, or areas of dense understory that are too small to identify as a separate polygon. Therefore, the assessor should choose an assessment area within the polygon that is representative of the largest continuous stand/fuel type for that polygon.


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After assessing, each polygon will be given a final rating that follows the basic definitions below:

Wildfire Threat Class Definitions

Very Low (Blue) Lakes and water bodies that do not have any forest fuels. These areas is not a wildfire threat and are not assessed during a WUI Wildfire Threat Assessment. Low (Green)

Developed and undeveloped land that will not support significant wildfire spread.

Examples: Urban, suburban and farm areas with modified forest fuels; Irrigated and managed fields, heavily grazed fields, gravel pits, severely disturbed land, fully developed residential and commercial areas not directly adjacent to forested or undeveloped land. Areas with no readily combustible vegetation on site.

Moderate (Yellow)

Developed and undeveloped land that will support surface fires only. Homes and structures can be threatened. Examples: Unmanaged fields with more than one year of matted grass. Grass fields with shrubs and a deciduous tree overstory. Grass fields with coniferous shrubs and tree overstory below 20% canopy coverage. Patches of isolated coniferous stands less than 1 ha in size.

High (Orange) Forested land with continuous surface fuels that will support intermittent

crown and continuous crown fires. Areas of steeper slopes, rough or broken terrain, with generally southerly aspects. Areas of continuous beetle killed pine trees. Houses and developments down slope but immediately adjacent to forests that will support crown fires. Areas where fuel modification does not meet an established standard. Examples Forested land with coniferous coverage exceeding approximately 40% canopy closure. Steep, gullied slopes above homes. Douglas fir stands with root rot. Open grown coniferous stands with low live branches that would allow candling of large trees.

Extreme (Red) Forested land with continuous surface fuels that will support intermittent

or continuous crown fires adjacent to and within communities, or immediately surrounding individual homes. Areas of live and dead pine beetle attack of greater than 40% and adjacent to structures. Areas of steep slopes, difficult terrain and usually southerly aspects. Examples: Forested land with relatively continuous coniferous canopy closure, in excess of 40%, down slope from homes. Continuous dead pine down slope from homes or developments.

The main definition of the Very Low to Extreme categories should change very little, but local examples of polygons that fit into each category will allow for grouping of similar


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polygons into Wildfire Threat Classes without completing a full assessment form for each polygon. Completing the WUI Wildfire Threat Assessment Form The WUI Wildfire Threat Assessment Form is designed to be completed in the field, with limited office or background work. This Instruction Manual should provide all the background information required to complete the assessment. The following list of equipment and supplies are required in the field to complete an assessment:

1) Suitable maps as described above 2) WUI Wildfire Threat Assessment Forms 3) Digital camera 4) Compass or digital direction locator 5) 3.99m or 5.64 meter plot cord 6) Global Positioning Unit with five meter accuracy 7) Field notebook/pencils/ruler 8) Coloured pencils or felt pens for blue, green, yellow, orange and red 9) Gauge to measure 7 cm diameter surface fuels 10) Tape measure or graduated stick to estimate crown base height 11) Instruction Manual for Biogeoclimatic Zone and Fire Zone information,

plus % surface cover and % crown closure estimation guides 12) Clinometer to measure slopes

Assessment Form Header The header section needs to be completed fully with the best information possible for future reference and relocation of plots or photograph locations for post-treatment assessments or other long term studies. The required information is summarized in the following table.


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Table 2. Description of assessment form components

Item Description

Plot # A unique plot number specific to this assessment area.

Assessor Full Name of the lead person completing the assessment.

Date Full date the data was compiled and the form completed

Pictures

Circle Y for yes or N for no to indicate whether pictures of the polygon are available, and included with the assessment. All attached pictures should have a GPS/UTM grid reference and a direction, shown in degrees, at which the picture was taken.

# Number of pictures attached. This section of the header may have to be completed when the assessment forms are being compiled.

Community Commonly used or official name of the community or area where the assessment is being carried out.

Geographic Location/Street Name

A more specific descriptor to specify the assessment area.

GPS/UTM

A GPS or UTM grid point collected on site with a handheld device. The grid should correspond with the pictures attached to the form, an easy access point to the polygon or a unique feature on the site.

Land Ownership

An indication as to the ownership status of the property. Include a specific name for private ownership or land management responsibilities if possible.

The WUI Wildfire Threat Assessment System provided by the Ministry of Forests and Range is the recognized standard for completing WUI assessments in B.C. This system was developed to allow accurate wildfire threat assessments and ranking of unique areas for treatment. The system has four separate components and eighteen sub-components that require assessment. Each sub-component has five levels of descriptors that attempt to quantify the full range of conditions that fall under the sub-component. The assessor must select the descriptor that most accurately describes the sub-component within the assessment polygon. Each plot location needs to be GPS’d and marked on the final threat map. Each plot number should be located on the final map for future reference. Fuel

The Fuel component of the assessment form has eleven separate sub-components that require assessment.

1) Duff Depth Duff depth is the average thickness, measured in centimeters, of the litter, needles, and semi-decomposed material that constitute the forest floor within the assessment polygon. The duff is often referred to as the LFH layer. The measurements of duff depth should include rotten material that is more the 50% buried in the LFH layer.


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Measurement of the duff can be made by using a shovel or an axe to create a small soil profile in a minimum of four random locations within the polygon. The profile should be measured with a ruler to determine depth to within 0.5 centimeters. The duff depth should be an average depth from at least four measured profiles.

2) Flammable Surface Vegetation Continuity This is the total surface area coverage of all flammable vegetation surface fuels measured in percent. It includes grasses, herbs and shrubs. Low flammability surface fuels, including many noxious weeds, should not be included in the percent cover tally. A list of common B.C. plants and their flammability is included in Appendix D under Flammable Surface Fuel Component.

3) Vegetation Fuel Composition Vegetation Fuel Composition is the quantification of the most common flammable surface cover of low-lying plants, or group of plants, within the assessment polygon. Areas dominated with low flammability plants or noxious weeds should be given the lowest score available.

4) Fine Woody Debris Continuity (<7 cm) Fine Woody Debris Continuity is a measure of the percentage of the area that is covered by dead and down woody debris larger than conifer needles and less than 7 cm in diameter. This includes branches, shrubs, small trees and other woody debris that is lying of the surface of the ground. Deciduous leaves should not be included in the assessment. Debris should be more than the 25% sound (or a solid outer shell) and less than 50% of its circumference buried in the LFH or duff layer.

5) Large Woody Debris Continuity (>7 cm) This is a visual estimate of percent cover and depth of dry, dead material greater than 7 cm in diameter. Debris is more the 25% sound (or a solid outer shell) and less than 50% of its circumference buried in the LFH or duff layer.

6) Coniferous Crown Closure Crown closure is a visual estimate, in percent, of the canopy or crown closure of the veteran, dominant and co-dominant conifer trees in the assessment polygon. Crown closure can be described as the amount of surface area covered by the main forest canopy. Dead standing trees without needles should not be included in this estimate.

7. Deciduous Crown Closure This is another visual estimate, in percent, of the canopy or crown closure, but of all deciduous trees in the assessment polygon. Higher deciduous cover reduces crown fire initiation and spread. In multi-layered, dense stands, the combination of conifer and deciduous crown closure can exceed 100% separately or in combination.

8. Conifer Crown Base Height This is an estimate, in meters above the surface, of the average crown base height of the veteran, dominant and co-dominant conifers in the stand. The suppressed and understory trees are not included.


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NOTE: If the coniferous canopy closure is less than 5%, the score for this category should be that for level ‘A’.

9. Conifer Ladder Fuels An estimate of the number of suppressed and understory coniferous trees measured in stems per hectare. This can also be measured through the use of fixed radius plots when large numbers of trees are involved. The number of plots required to accurately estimate the conifer ladder fuels within a polygon will vary with polygon size and variability. In general, at least four plots are required to estimate the conifer ladder fuels. Additional plots increase the accuracy of the conifer ladder fuel estimate. The plots can be 3.99 meter or 5.64 meter radius which provides 50 square meters or 100 square meters plot areas respectively. To calculate stems per hectare:

3.99 m radius plot (50 m2) Average trees per plot X 200 = Stems/hectare

5.64 m radius plot (100 m2) Average trees per plot X 100 = Stems/hectare

10. Continuous Forest Land

Continuous forestland includes not only the polygon being assessed, but the total area of forestland within which the polygon is located and that is available to a wildfire. A polygon in an area of continuous forestland adjacent to a community would receive a maximum score. Isolated polygons such as greenbelts and small parkland areas would be scored based on their total size. The size of the polygon being assessed does not impact this assessment.

11. Coniferous Forest Health Coniferous Forest Health includes human induced and natural events that increase the overall wildfire threat and are not directly addressed in the other Fuel sub-components. The events include, but are not limited to; windthrow, past wildfire damage, defoliation causing tree mortality, root rot and tree mortality from bark beetles. The assessment is an estimate of the area, in percent cover, that is impacted by the event. This sub-component overlaps with 5. Large Woody Debris Continuity. It is intended to address excessive fuel loadings and crown fire potential that are not accurately assessed in the other sub-components. For example, a pine forest completely killed by pine beetle in the two to three years before the WUI wildfire threat assessment was completed has significantly higher crown fire and spotting potential than a similar forest stand without pine beetle. The same stand five to seven years after the pine beetle mortality has occurred has dropped all of its needles and the crown fire and spotting potential from the dead stems is greatly reduced. This older beetle killed stand will be starting to fall over and add significantly to surface fuel loadings and continuity. Windthrow events include the blowing down of dead or live trees that impact the amount of elevated surface fuels on the site. This often occurs after severe windstorms or site disturbances such as selective or partial harvesting, or fuel management work where the forest stand has been opened up and exposed to new wind forces. Past wildfires have highly variable impacts on present and future wildfire threats. Severe wildfire events can result in large numbers of dead standing and downed trees. These trees can pose a serious fuel loading and safety concern, particularly around


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communities. Dead standing trees can slow wildfire suppression responses due to safety concerns. Low intensity wildfires or prescribed fires that did not cause tree mortality should not be considered. Forest pests and pathogens can cause similar results as severe wildfire damage. Bark beetle mortality is another long term wildfire threat problem that can be directly addressed within this sub-component of the Fuel assessment. Bark beetle mortality can occur in all pine tree species, both native and ornamental, as well as Douglas-fir, Spruce and Balsam Fir. Bark beetles infest healthy, live and in some cases freshly felled trees. The trees dry out after mortality and carry a highly volatile red/brown/grey needle load for one to four years. The dead trees begin to fall out of the stand within 2-5 years and can contribute significantly to surface fuel loadings, danger trees and site access for decades afterwards. NOTE: A Fuel Component score of 25 points or less will end the wildfire threat assessment at this point. A polygon that receives a point rating of 25 or less in the fuel component will not have adequate fuel volume or continuity to support a wildfire. The rest of the assessment is not relevant due to the lack of forest fuel available for combustion. A polygon with a Fuel component score of 25 or less will receive a Low Wildfire Threat Rating, regardless of the Weather, Topography or Structural assessment component scores. Weather The Weather component of the assessment form has two separate sub-components that require assessment.

12. Biogeoclimatic Zone

Biogeoclimatic Zones are the initial stratification of the landscape under the British Columbia Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) system. They represent large geographic areas with a broadly homogeneous macroclimate. Ten year wildfire history data was used to quantify wildfires by Biogeoclimatic Zone. The zones were ranked by number of wildfires that exceeded four hectares in size in that time period. The location of the assessment polygon should be determined using the BEC map in Appendix A. In case of discrepancies between the maps and the field site, access the Ministry of Forests and Range BEC site at www.for.gov.bc.ca/hre/becweb and follow the links to Maps, Cartographic Products and Field Maps Index to get the BEC zones for each Forest District. Classification to the sub-zone and site series levels might be useful for future treatment plans. It is not required for this assessment.

13. Historical Wildfire Occurrence Ten year wildfire data (1998-2007), for fires that exceeded four hectares, was analyzed to determine the number of wildfires per MoFR fire zone. The zones have been area adjusted to determine fires/ha/zone. Use the maps in Appendix A to locate the Fire Zone within which the assessment area lies. Topography The Topography component of the threat form has three separate sub-components that require assessment.

http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hre/becweb


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14. Aspect

The aspect is measured using a compass or other device that provides the direction in degrees or north, south, east and west. The aspect is best measured by facing away from the slope and using the compass to locate the direction you are facing.

North 316 to 45 degrees East 46 to 135 degrees South 136 to 225 degrees West 226 to 315 degrees

The assessment polygon would be rated as Flat if there is minimal slope (less than 5%) and the polygon is open to the southern sky and receives sunlight for a majority of the day during the fire season. Aspect is often referred to as exposure.

15. Slope The slope should be the average slope angle within the polygon, measured in percent with a clinometer or similar slope measuring device. This should be the angle of the main face or a majority of the area. Side slopes in gullies should not be included unless they are their own polygon.

16. Terrain Terrain is the variability and complexity of the forestland within the assessment polygon. It is the measurement of the unevenness or brokenness of the site. Considerations include the texture of the surface and creeks, gullies, ridges and other features that would funnel winds and wildfire and or impact on wildfire spread in some manner. Structural The Structural component of the assessment form has three separate sub-components that require assessment. This component establishes the location of the adjacent community or structures on the landscape and the density and type of development.

17. Position of Structure/Community to Assessment Area A large assessment area may have major portions of the area without any developments. If the assessment polygon does not directly impact on a developed area, the polygon should be identified as having No Developments. Direct impact can be considered within 300 meters of a development. The position of the development on the slope is assessed to determine the exposure that the development has to wildfires. A developed area further up a slope can be impacted by wildfires from all four cardinal directions where as a development at the bottom of a slope is most threatened by a wildfire from above only.

18. Type of Development

The type of development indicates the density of homes or structures and continuity of forest fuels within the development. Perimeter interface is defined as the transition from forestland to urban community. The urban area is fully developed in conventional size lots and the direct wildfire threat is largely limited to the houses and structures directly adjacent to the forestland. No


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unmodified forestland exists in any significant amounts within the community. Uphill side refers to the location of the assessment polygon relative to the community or structures. Intermix refers to a more rural interface condition where larger lots or acreages are prevalent and the forestland extends into the community or around structures. The interface concern extends beyond the perimeter of the community. Number of structures per hectare is an estimate of the density and lot size within the community. Denser communities, with smaller lots, typically have less forest fuels within their boundaries. Infrastructure refers to community assets and developments that play a significant role in public safety or communications. These are locations that could require additional protection from wildfires. These include hospitals, elderly care facilities, pipeline pumping stations, hydro sub-stations, communication towers and other local high value facilities that are immediately adjacent to forestland. Wildfire Threat Rating Numerical Total After assessing and scoring all eighteen sub-components, the total assessment score must be tallied by adding the scores for each of the eighteen factors. This number will fit into one of the four Wildfire Threat Rating Classes at the bottom of the form. The polygon will be rated as a Low, Moderate, High or Extreme Threat Rating to the adjacent development. The polygon can then be delineated and colour coded on the map. The colour code is: Wildfire Threat Rating Colour Code Very Low Blue Low Green

Moderate Yellow High Orange Extreme Red NOTE: Extreme wildfire threat ratings should only occur immediately adjacent to community/structures. A large polygon that scores an extreme wildfire threat rating adjacent to the community will have that threat decrease the farther away from the community the forested land is located. The width of an extreme polygon will vary with specific locations and conditions, but should typically not exceed 300 meters in width, beginning on the edge of the community. This will prevent a large polygon from showing extreme threats at a great distance from any structures. An extreme polygon should be divided into a second polygon at a distance from the community. The no direct impact criteria in the assessment form should lower the extreme threat rating to a high threat rating for the more distant polygon. The Fire Smart Manual states that “An interface building and site or area is not Fire Smart unless it obtains a low or moderate threat assessment score. (Chapter 2-3)” This WUI Wildfire Threat Assessment System is consistent with the Fire Smart standards. For the purpose of this assessment system; An interface site or area is not Fire Smart unless the immediately adjacent forest land obtains a low or moderate threat assessment score. The condition of the building and structures is not factored in this forest fuel based system of wildfire threat assessment.


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This assessment system only quantifies the ability of a forested area to impact on a structure, not the ability of the structure to withstand wildfires.


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10.0 Appendix C – Fire Behaviour and Fuels Treatment Overview

10.1 Fire Behaviour Overview

In order for combustion (fire) to occur, three components are required: fuel, oxygen, and heat. These three components form what is often referred to as the ‘fire triangle’ and is illustrated in Figure 1.

OXYGEN + HEAT + FUEL = FIRE

Figure 1. The three components of the fire triangle

Since all three components are required for a fire to occur, it follows that the removal of one component (side) of the triangle will result in the extinguishment of the fire. This is the basis of fire suppression and fire prevention. Fuels management focuses on the fuel side of the fire triangle. By removing, converting or modifying forest fuels, a manager can greatly reduce the risk of a wildfire, or modify fire behaviour in the occurrence of a wildfire. Similar to the fire triangle, fire behaviour can be broken down into three components: fuels, weather and topography. These three components form what is often referred to as the ‘fire behaviour triangle’ and is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The fire behaviour triangle and its components superimposed on the fire triangle Of these three components, managers can only alter the fuel component of the triangle. Fuels have several attributes that contribute to fire behaviour including: porosity, size,


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quantity and fuel moisture. Fire behaviour increases as fuel bed porosity and fuel quantity increases, and fuel size and moisture decreases. Therefore, managers are able to alter fire behaviour by decreasing the quantity of fuel loadings, increasing the compactness of the fuel layer, and increasing fuel moisture.

10.2 Wildfire Types

There are three general types of fires: subsurface, surface, and crown. Subsurface fires burn beneath the forest floor in the organic layer of a soil. Subsurface fires can require lengthy mop-up operations and can re-emerge months later due to the embers being insulated and undetected below ground. Surface fires are considered to occur within the area above the first two meters of the forest floor. Surface fires, while being easier to suppress, produce soil heating and can result in the volatizing of soil nutrients. The intense heating of the soil can also create hydrophobic layers that contribute to surface erosion. Crown fires occupy the canopy layers of the stand. Crown fires are the most difficult and dangerous to suppress. They have the highest intensity levels (energy output), the greatest immediate and long-term ecological effects and pose the greatest threat to structures. Fuels management, and subsequent treatments, usually involves reducing the potential occurrence for a crown fire and the potential intensity of a surface fire. In order to achieve a decreased fire risk, priorities usually involve reducing surface and ladder fuels and increasing the height to the bottom of the live canopy (Agee et al. 2000; van Wagtendonk 1996). Understanding how fire burns and how fire behaviour is affected allows managers to choose the right treatment option to achieve fuel hazard mitigation objectives.

10.3 Fuel Treatment Options

All resource management activities in fire-dependent ecosystems should aim to strategically restore the natural mosaic of seral stages across the landscape. Ideally these conditions would be achieved over time through the reintroduction of frequent low-intensity surface fires. However, this treatment is difficult to implement within the wildland-urban interface zone. Therefore, the majority of stand objectives are conventionally accomplished through mechanical fuel treatments including thinning, prunning and surface fuel removal. Fuel treatments to reduce the fire behaivor potential in the urban interface are conventionally accomplished through mechanical fuel treatments including thinning, prunning and surface fuel removal.Prescibred burning is a very efficient and natural means of managing fuel accumuations however it is generally not feasible in the urban interface. While there is no fuel treatment that can produce a ‘fireproof’ forest stand, it is feasible to move stands toward a more ‘fire-resistant’ condition by altering species composition, stand structure and the characteristics of the fuel loads such that a crown fire is unlikely to occur.


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Figure 3. The photos show a stand that has undergone thinning (left picture) and than a prescribed fire treatment (right) Performing treatments within the interface zone presents several problems. Residents are usually accustomed to, and desire, an unaltered forested landscape adjacent to their homes and, therefore, disapprove of changing the stand structure and habitat values adjacent to their homes. Although the presence of development means that some valuable forest attributes have already been compromised (Brown 2000) altering stand attributes through treatments requires an informative public education program outlining the benefits of fuel treatments. Fuel treatment objectives should incorporate ecologic, economic, and social values while reducing fire hazard and the risk to development. Prescriptions for fuel treatments should be objective driven. Reasonable objectives would include reducing the potential for a crown fire, not the elimination of a crown fire. Crown fire occurrence and severity is best minimized by: reducing surface fuels; increasing the height to the canopy base; reducing canopy bulk density; and reducing the continuity of the forest canopy (Russel 2004). Managers must understand how different stand management treatments affect certain attributes on the landscape, and how these treatments can be used to alter fire behaviour while achieving specific objectives.

10.3.1 Stand Thinning

Thinning, often called ‘thinning from below’ or ’low-thinning’ is the removal of small trees from beneath the canopy or from within the canopy. These smaller trees act as ladder fuels as they provide a fuel source that carries a surface fire to the crowns. Thinning is often used to reduce the risk of fire spreading into the canopy through the removal of these smaller trees and to reduce crown fire potential by reducing crown fuel availability. The following photos illustrate examples of a low-thinning from Pemberton (left) and the City of Kelowna (right).


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Figure 4. The photos illustrate examples of a low-thinning from Pemberton (left) and the City of Kelowna (right)

The specific tree height, diameter and species to be thinned are dictated by the objectives to be achieved, the existing and target stand conditions. In general, thinning should reduce the stand density enough that a crown fire cannot spread from crown to crown. In addition to removing ladder fuels, thinning reduces crown bulk density; improves the health of the stand; increases the growth rate of residual trees; and may increase the growth of understory vegetation, which can retain moisture longer into the summer (Brown 2000). Thinning operations, without the treatment of residual ground material, can increase the overall fire risk (Waldrop et al. 2004, Agee 1996). Thinning can also increase fire risk by increasing the growth of grass or by opening up a stand to the effects of the sun and wind (van Wagtendonk 1996, Weatherspoon 1996). Ideally thinning operations are combined with prescribed fire to best replicate the ecological effects of fire. If not done properly, mechanical thinning can also cause soil degradation through compaction and exposing the soils to the elements. To avoid these detrimental effects, thinning operations should be prescribed carefully according to strict stand-specific and ecologically based objectives.

10.3.2 Pruning

Live or dead branches on a tree bole act as a ‘ladder’ to carry flames from the ground to the canopy. Pruning involves removing these branches, which eliminates this ladder effect. Pruning of the shrub layers in a forest may also be required where there is a dense or tall shrub component. The following photos show a stand that has not been pruned or thinned (left), as well as an adjacent stand that was thinned and pruned by the private landowner (right). The process of pruning also increases the crown base height (CBH): the height from the ground to the base of the canopy. A high CBH reduces the potential for a crown fire, as a greater surface flame length is needed to reach the canopy. Flame length is a function of ambient air temperature, wind speed, fuel moisture, slope and fuel loading. An understanding of how these components interact will allow managers to determine pruning height requirements.


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Figure 5. The photos show a stand that has not been pruned or thinned (left) as well as an adjacent stand that has been thinned and pruned by the private landowner (right)

It is important to maintain an adequate crown base height to minimize crown fire initiation (Russel et al. 2004). Although topography cannot be altered, pruning higher on steeper slopes will aid in increasing CBH beyond potential flame lengths associated with the fuel loading and slope. Residual pruning material contributes to fuel loading and may produce a large enough flame length, under low moisture conditions and extreme weather conditions, to start a canopy fire. Therefore, residual material should be removed as part of the stand treatment. Prescribed fire and chipping are two of the most common methods to abate surface fuel hazard.

10.3.3 Prescribed burning

Prescribed fire is one of the most practical and natural methods of reducing surface fuels. It produces fire resilient stands and restores sites from the adverse effects of fire exclusion (Ingalsbee 2004). There are numerous natural and social reasons prescribed fire is not utilized more commonly. The re-introduction of fire, after almost a century of fire exclusion on the landscape, is often problematic because fuel loadings are unnaturally high (Agee and Huff 1986). Prescribed fire affects potential fire behaviour by reducing surface fuel loading and continuity, eliminating ladder fuels, and raising live crown base height by scorching the lower branches of the crowns. The effect is to reduce fire intensity and crown fire initiation. Prescribed burning is an art and a science. It requires extensive planning and science-based monitoring, and the operation requires an experienced burn boss and skilled crew. The possibility of an escape must be realized and planned for, and resources and trained personnel must be prepared to suppress the burn at the discretion of the burn boss.


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Figure 6. The photos of prescribed burning within fuel treated areas. Performing prescribed burns within the wildland interface is not rare, but requires more preparation, public confidence, and is often more expensive. Burning with the subject area limits is sometime a contentious issue and may not comply with the requirements of any existing Air Quality Management Plans and/or Clean Air Bylaws. Implementing this treatment is unlikely however it should still be considered as an option under special circumstances.

10.3.4 Residual Material Removal (chipping, mastication, mulching, etc.)

Chipping fuels is the most common method used to remove residual treatment material and involves placing woody debris through a mechanical chipper. The chipper reduces the wood into small pieces and spreads them throughout the site. The ecological effects of these treatments differ with size, composition and location of the remaining fuel load. Thick layers of chips can result in reduced levels of oxygen at the forest floor level, which inhibits decomposition. Moreover, when decomposition does occur, the microorganisms responsible for decomposition require large amounts of nitrogen, thereby reducing nitrogen availability for the plant community. For forest ecosystems with very thin forest floors, consisting of predominantly needle litter, the buildup of wood chips dramatically alters the composition of the forest floor and should be restricted to areas where other options (such as pile and burning) are limited.


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10.3.5 Pile and Burning

Pile and burning is another treatment method that can be employed in the interface zone and can mimic some of the ecological benefits of fire. Woody debris is piled in locations where it is safe to burn and is burnt under safe weather conditions. Burning piles requires planning and an understanding of fire behaviour. An experienced burn boss, or fire suppression personnel, should examine potential site locations, and an experienced crew should perform the piling and burning. Some critical factors to consider when piling and burning are adjacent fuel sources, site degradation through soil sterility and the social impacts of smoke management In areas with poor access and steep slopes, the removal of post-treatment residual material to a roadside chipper is very labor intensive and, therefore, very costly. Piling and burning may prove to be cheaper in these areas and would be worthwhile exploring as a viable option. Piling and burning within subject area limits may be a contentious issue and might not comply with the requirements of any Air Quality Management Plans and/or Clean Air Bylaws. However, it is recommended that exemptions be considered for this treatment in areas with poor access.

Figure 7. The photo is an example of pile and burning completed during ideal burning conditions (minimal smoke)

10.3.6 Surface fire fuel breaks

Once an area has been treated to minimize the potential for a crown fire, there is still the potential for a low intensity surface fire. In the summertime, after grasses cure and shrubs start to dry out, they are easily ignitable and have high spread rates. Although these fuels tend to burn out quickly, they provide resident heat to ignite larger fuels. There is a risk of a surface fire spreading into, or in from, adjacent properties not under control of the local government. In these areas, strategic surface firebreaks can be created to help stop the spread of potential ground fires. Ground firebreaks are continuous areas of exposed mineral soil that are wide enough to stop the spread of a low intensity surface fire. These breaks can be created in parks to establish new trails for recreation. These trails should be developed wide enough to support an ATV to facilitate access for suppression. If these trails are not used


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frequently, grasses will naturally re-establish on the trail surface and as such may require ongoing maintenance.

Figure 8. The photo is of an access trail that serves as an effective surface fire fuel break.

10.4 Treatment Maintenance Schedules

Forest stands are dynamic systems: as they change through time, so will the potential fire behaviour. Changes to potential fire behaviour will be dependent on the changes to the fuel loading within the surface, ladder and crown fuel layers. As loading in these layers increases, treatments will need to be undertaken to reduce potential fire behaviour. Contributions to loading will involve the fall of dead branches, infill of regeneration, vigor of the shrub complex and individual tree death or whole stand break-up due to biotic and abiotic forces. The necessary maintenance schedule will be stand-specific. For areas within the wildland-urban interface, it is better to re-assess the hazard early. This is especially true for new fuel reduction programs. Maintenance treatments may be required every 5-10 years. Re-assessing every 5 or 6 years would allow managers to plan fuel treatment budget requirements for several years ahead. As urban development continues within the forested ecosystems, fire risk will need to be re-assessed. As new developments move into the forested environment, treatment priorities and fire risks outlined in this report will change. FireSmart community planning and design should be undertaken as a requirement of the development permit process. Subsequent recommended fuel reduction treatments should by financed by the developer (to the satisfaction of the District) and should be required by municipal bylaw. Upon completion of the development, the site should be re-assessed to determine where it falls into the maintenance schedule and priority list.


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11.0 Appendix D - Fuel Treatment Prescription Development

The primary goals of interface fuels treatments are to prevent the occurrence of a crown fire, reduce surface fire intensity and to improve suppression capabilities. In addition, treatments should attempt to mimic natural disturbance regimes and re-create historical stand conditions. To achieve these goals it is important that an objective-driven prescription be carefully developed and followed. A proper prescription includes a detailed description of the present stand, the target stand conditions to be achieved, the operational activities to be implemented and a monitoring program to help determine the success of the project. The development of a successful fuels treatment program can be divided into the following seven steps:

1) Quantify fuel loading and establish permanent sample plots 2) Model the fire behaviour potential using existing stand/fuel conditions 3) Develop preliminary target stand conditions 4) Model the fire behaviour potential using target stand conditions 5) Finalize target stand conditions and develop treatment prescriptions 6) Carry out operational treatments 7) Monitor and report on post treatment results

11.1 Step 1. Quantify fuel loading through sample plots

The first step in developing successful treatment prescriptions is to determine the quantity and distribution of the existing fuels on the site. This can be accomplished by through establishing sample plots and measuring such fuel attributes as: surface fuel loading of large and fine woody debris, crown mass loading including vertical and horizontal distribution, canopy base height, ladder fuel loading and duff depth. In addition, each permanent sample plot should include photo stations.

11.2 Step 2. Model the fire behaviour potential using existing stand conditions

The fuel loading and topographical information collected in the field should be entered into a fire behaviour model using the 90th percentile fire weather conditions for the location to determine the fire behaviour potential. An assessment of fire behaviour parameters should include rate of spread, fire intensity and the percentage of the stand canopy that would be burned. Several fire model software programs are available but all require a solid understanding of fire behaviour, fuel loading, field data collection and considerable experience with the program. Suggested software programs would be BehavePlus, FBP97, FARSITE, FOFEM, and Fuels Management Analyst.

11.3 Step 3. Develop preliminary target stand conditions

Specific target stand conditions (TSC) should be developed that will reduce fire behaviour enough to minimize the potential of a crown fire under hazarodus (80-90% percentile) fire weather conditions. These TSCs will vary with each site depending on the existing stand, the ecology of the site, the topography and the presence of structures and natural features at risk.


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In general the stands that were found in the interface can be roughly grouped into three categories. For each type a range of TSCs have been recommended including stand composition, density and opening size distribution. These can be found in the following scetions and should be used as rough guidelines for the development of treatment presciptions.

11.4 Step 4. Model the fire behaviour potential using target stand conditions

The fuel loading for the preliminary target stand conditions should be entered into a fire behaviour model using the same topographical and weather conditions from step two to determine if the fire behaviour potential will be sufficiently reduced following treatment.

11.5 Step 5. Finalize target stand conditions and develop treatment prescriptions

The fire behaviour outputs from step four should be compared to those in step two to determine if the proposed treatments will alter fire behaviour potential enough to achieve the goals of the prescription. If they do not, the target stand conditions should be altered accordingly and step four should be repeated until the goals are achieved. Based on the findings from the fire behaviour modeling, detailed fuel treatment prescriptions should be developed. A standardized prescription template should be used so that consistency is maintained between treatment programs. The prescriptions should not only include target stand conditions but also requirements for spatial distribution. A map should clearly show treatment areas and target stand conditions for each. In addition, details should be provided regarding the operational methods to be used and approximate costs. The results of the initial fuels assessment should be included along with a monitoring strategy to determine the success of the treatments.

11.6 Step 6. Operational treatments

The treatment recommendations specified in the prescription should be carried out under close supervision of a qualified professional. The contract should specify the indicators to be met and payment should be based on meeting the target conditions. Extents of treatment areas and natural features to be protected should be clearly marked in the field.

11.7 Step 7. Monitoring of results.

In order to ensure success in achieving hazard reduction and restoration goals, an effective monitoring program is required. While treatment prescriptions establish objectives, a monitoring program will use measurable indicators to determine if the desired conditions have been met and the treatments were successful.


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12.0 Appendix E - FireSmart Development Recommendations Overview

The FireSmart manual was developed to provide guidelines to individuals, communities and planners on how to reduce the risk of loss from interface fires. The guidelines describe interface issues, evaluate interface hazards, provide mitigation strategies and techniques, and include regional planning solutions.

12.1 Vegetation management

FireSmart recommends treatments around structures in three ‘priority zones’. Treatments in these zones involve fuel removal, fuel reduction, and fuel conversion. The objective in these zones is to create ‘defensible’ space around a home from which to suppress a wildfire. Survivability of a home is often dependent on the distance from the structure to the adjacent forest. Detailed goals and treatments can be found in the FireSmart manual in Chapter 3. Priority zones are based on distance from the structure, and the slope below the structure, and are defined as:

Priority Zone 1 (within 10 m from structures): Remove fuel and convert vegetation to fire resistance species to produce an environment that does not support combustion.

Priority Zone 2 (10-30 m from structures): Increase fuel modified area by reducing flammable vegetation through thinning and pruning and produce an environment that will only support low-intensity surface fires.

Priority Zone 3 (30-100 m+ from structures): Eliminate the potential for a high-intensity crown fire through thinning and pruning, thereby slowing the approach of a fire approach towards structures.

Figure 1. A diagram of the three priority zones (from FireSmart Manual)


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The area within 30 meters of the structures (Priority Zones 1 and 2) should be treated heavily enough to create a defensible space between the structures and the adjacent stand. Treatments in priority zone 3 need not be as intensive as those in adjacent to the structures but should still reduce the potential for a crown fire under 90th percentile weather conditions. The slope of the terrain has a strong influence on fire behaviour. The rate of spread (ROS) of a fire doubles for every 30% increase in slope, up to 60%. The recommended treatment zone distances around structures should be adjusted accordingly. Steeper slopes should be treated to a further distance, thinning should be to a lower density and pruning height should be higher. Typically, slopes of 30% below buildings should have the priority zone 2 extended to 60 m below the structure and to 45 m side slope. On a 55% percent slope, priority zone 2 should be extended to 120 m down slope of the structure and 60 m horizontal. The necessary distance and extent of treatment should be determined by a fire behaviour specialist and clearly described in the fuels reduction prescription. Priority Zone 1-Fuel Free Zone (10 m from buildings)

A fuel free zone should be created around all homes and outbuildings. The fuel free zone should extend 10 m from the structure, or further if the terrain is sloped. The following guidelines should be considered:

There should be enough defensible space to protect buildings from approaching wildfire and to reduce the potential for a building fire spreading to the wildland.

Annual grasses within 10 m of buildings should be mowed to 10 cm or less and watered regularly during the summer months.

Ground litter and downed trees should be removed regularly.

Over mature, dead, and dying trees should be removed.

Structures at the top of a slope will need a minimum of 30 m of defensible space.

Vegetation within this zone should be of a fire-resistant species.

Trees within this zone should be pruned to a height of 2-3 m and not overhang the house or porch.

Remove all piled debris (firewood, building materials, and other combustible material) to outside of the fuel free zone.

Defensible space should be provided by the developer and maintained by the property owner.

Community Strata rules should enforce the maintenance of this zone.

Priority Zone 2-Fuel Reduction Zone (10-30 m from buildings)

Fuel modification in this zone should include thinning and pruning to create an environment that will not support a high intensity crown fire. A surface fire may occur in this zone but it will be of low intensity and easily suppressed. Guidelines for this zone are as follows:

Actions in this zone should be oriented towards fuel reduction rather than removal.

Deciduous composition in the overstory should be promoted (i.e. deciduous species should not be thinned out).


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This zone should be extended as slope increases. The 20 m concentric distance from the boundary with zone 1 should be slope distance.

Thin trees for two tree lengths from buildings.

Treatments within this zone will include thinning out the canopy, thinning the understory and pruning lower branches

Leave trees should be the largest on site and canopy heights should be pruned to a height of 2-3 m.

Remove all dead and dying trees.

Dispose of all slash created by treatments through pile and burning or site removal.

This zone should be constructed by the developer and maintained by the property owner.

Community strata rules should enforce the maintenance of this zone. Priority Zone 3-Fuel Reduction and Conversion (30-100 m from buildings)

The strategies for this zone are similar to those of zone 2 with the distance being slope dependent. This environment should be one that does not support a high-intensity crown fire. A surface fire may occur, but it will be of low intensity and easily extinguished. Vegetation management should concentrate on vegetation conversion and reduction rather than removal. The following are guidelines for this zone:

Fuel management in this zone should only be undertaken if there are high hazard levels from heavy continuous fuels and steep topography.

Deciduous species should be promoted.

On sloped terrain, this zone will need to be extended to 100 m slope distance.

Thinning and pruning

This zone should be constructed by the developer and maintained by the property owner.

Community Strata rules should enforce the maintenance of this zone.

12.2 Community Fire Guard

The concept of defensible space can be applied to whole subdivisions and communities adjacent to wildlands. An example of this would be to construct a community fireguard defined as a wide, fuel free zone with the fuel management strategies found in the priority zones. Fireguards typically consist of a clearing of reduced fuel as well as a trench dug down to mineral soil that would stop surface fire spread. Figure 4 illustrates a typical fireguard.


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Figure 2. A schematic drawing of a fire break with fuel breaks (FireSmart Manual) In association with the crown or other government agencies, priority zones, with the associated treatments, could be designed and constructed around remote developments to reduce wildfire risk. Any recreational trails planned for the Subject area could be located to serve as fireguards. Fireguard locations should be determined prior to construction and actual dimensions determined by a fire management specialist.

12.3 Buildings and Construction

During an interface fire, homes usually burn down as a result of burning embers landing on and igniting the roof. Alternatively, embers land on or in a nearby bush, tree or woodpile and, if the resulting fire is near the home, the walls of the home will ignite through radiant heat. Small fires in the yard can also spread towards the home and beneath porches or under homes. Therefore, the building material and construction techniques are a paramount concern for homes in the wildlands. Guidelines for buildings and construction are as follows: Roofs

Use only fire retardant rate Class A, B or C material on roofs.

Clear, and maintain, roofs of all combustible material. Chimneys

All chimneys should have approved spark arrestors (securely attached and made of 12-guage welded or woven wire mess screen with mesh opening of less than 12 mm)

Chimney outlets should be 0.6 m higher than any part of the roof and should have at least 3 m clearance from all adjacent vegetation


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Siding

Siding material should be a fire resistant material and be at least 12 mm thick.

Siding should extend from the ground level to the roofline.

Windows and Door Glazing; Eaves, Vents and Openings

Remove vegetation from within 10 m of glazed openings unless there are solid shutters to cover the glazing.

Small (<1 m2) thermal pane, tempered windows provide the most protection. Large windows provide less protection and single-pane windows provide minimal protection.

All eaves, attics, and under floor openings need solid, non-flammable, exterior protective shutters (such as 12 mm exterior-grade plywood)

Solid shutters provide increased fire protection and should be made of non-flammable material or 12 mm exterior-grade plywood; in the absence of shutters, metal fire screens with corrosion-resistant mesh no coarser than 3 mm will suffice.

Screens and shutters should be stored when they can be quickly accessed. Balcony, Decks and Porches

Deck material should be of non-combustible or fire-resistant materials.

Enclose eaves, cantilevers, balconies and undersides or overhangs with 12 mm sheathing (ideally a non-combustible material).

Stilts can be built from or encase in non-combustible materials. Heavy timbers offer increased fire resistance.

Slotted deck surface allow needle litter to accumulate beneath the deck. Provide access to this space to allow for removal of this debris.

12.4 Access Management

The road network into and within a community serves several needs: access for emergency vehicles, escape routes for residents, and firebreaks. Emergency vehicles can weigh up to 20 tonnes and require large spaces for turning around. Communities with cul-de-sacs, narrow driveways and dead-end streets impede fire suppression efforts. Smoky conditions or low light can make house numbers and street signs difficult to see and can delay emergency response times. For the purpose of fire suppression, access route standards are divided into roadway standards for an access route that serves three or more dwellings, and fire services access standard, for routes to a building that is located more than 45 m from a road. Guidelines for the design of roads for suppression are as follows: Roadway Standards

Roadways should allow for simultaneous access for emergency vehicles and public evacuation. They should have a travel way of at least 7.5 m horizontally and 4.5 m vertically.

Improved road shoulders should be at least 1.5 m wide on each side of the roadway. If parking is permitted on the shoulder, the width should be increased to 2.75 m

Vegetation on the sides of the road should be maintained below 10 cm.


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Roadway curve radius should be at least 30 from the centerline.

Road gradients should not exceed 10%.

Dead-end roadways longer than 90 m should have a turn-around at the terminus with an outside diameter of no less than 36 m. Fire officials may permit a ‘hammer-head T’ turn around.

Dead-end roads should be posted as such.

Any gated roads should have the gates located 9 m from the public ROW; they should open outward, and should provide an opening of at least 0.6 m wider than the traveled roadway. Fire Service personnel should have keys for all gates.

Roadway material should be all weather and support all emergency suppression.

Bridges should be designed of all-weather material, support the weight of any fire suppression vehicle and have the load limit clearly posted.

Figure 3. A schematic of road standards (FireSmart Manual) Fire Service Access Standards

Fire service access, including bridges, should be at least 3.7 m wide and have 4.5 m vertical clearance.

Gradients should not exceed 15%

Access turns should not restrict access of any emergency vehicle.

Dead-end roadways longer than 90 m should have a turn-around at the terminus with an outside diameter of no less than 36 m. Fire officials may permit a ‘hammer-head T’ turn around.

Dead-end roads should be posted as such.

Any gated roads should have the gates located 9 m from the public right-of -way, they should open outward, and should provide an opening of at least 0.6 m wider than the traveled roadway. Fire Service personnel should have keys for all gates.


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Roadway material should be all weather and support all emergency suppression.

12.5 Water supply

Water is the most effective fire suppression tool. Fire suppression requires large quantities of water to be successful and ensuring an adequate supply for fire suppression may make the difference to saving a community. Most communities have a hydrant system that provides ample water for suppression purposes. However, many rural areas rely on well systems and stem pipes for their water source. During extreme fire conditions, electricity may be shut off for safety reasons and, therefore, water supplies that rely on electrical pumps will be unavailable. Alternative power sources should be considered for this well system. Fire suppression crews are often required to rely on natural water sources or the water carried onboard emergency vehicles when dealing with fires in remote wildland developments. When planning new developments in the wildlands, several man-made water storage areas should be designed and constructed. These water sources should be accessible to emergency vehicles in order to refill onboard tanks. Alternatively, underground cisterns could be constructed to store water for suppression purposes. These tanks could supply homes the development with water that was accessible stem pipes throughout the development and would be restricted to suppression use only. The system could also be used to run sprinkler systems during an interface fire. During the design phase of the remote developments, an experienced fire suppression specialist should be consulted to help determine appropriate locations for man-made water bodies.

12.6 Utilities-Electric and Gas

Overhead transmission and distribution lines are a major ignition hazard. Falling trees or branches can knock a power line to the ground, where it will remain charged and potentially start a fire. Primary distribution lines are the most problematic as they are remote and difficult to inspect and maintain. Secondary lines contain less voltage but are more susceptible to being overgrown by vegetation, which can lead to arcing and ignition. Underground power lines are the most FireSafe. When planning new developments, underground power lines systems should be considered. Where such a system is not feasible, overhead utility lines should have a clearance of at least 3 m from vegetation. Propane tanks surrounded by vegetation are potential hazards. Combustion adjacent to these tanks increases the internal pressure causing the tank to vent through a relief valve. The resulting fire is one of high-intensity and will certainly destroy an adjacent building. Hence, when positioning tanks, the relief valves should point away from buildings. Faulty relief valves will not allow pressure to discharge resulting in a boiling liquid explosion capable of killing anyone within 300 m. Propane tanks should have all vegetation cleared for at least 3 m in all directions. Tanks should be located at least 10 m from any building. Future development around the tank should respect this distance and be monitored by the development strata.


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12.7 Additional Recommendations

Home Sprinkler Systems

When designing new developments, particularly those in remote locations some distance from emergency services, some consideration should be given to the installation of underground sprinkler systems. These systems can serve as both a method of irrigation as well as an interface suppression tool. Sprinklers can be located on the rooftops of homes and outbuildings. In the event of a wildfire, the sprinklers would be engaged and would increase the relative humidity around the house as well as increase the fuel moisture content of any fuel adjacent to the home resulting in lower flammability and fire behaviour potential. Community Planning, Design Review and Construction Operations

Planners, engineers, and landscape architects should refer to both this report and the FireSmart manual during the designing phase of developments. A fire management specialist should be consulted during the design phase of future developments to ensure development is planned in a FireSafe manner and that any potential problems are addressed early on in the development. Additionally, all construction operations should be conducted according to the Wildfire Act and associated regulations. Following these regulations helps reduce liability and protects the development as an investment.

12.8 Post-Development Fire Hazard Review

Forests are dynamic ecosystems that change over time and space. To ensure developments remain FireSafe, a periodic fire hazard assessment should be completed every 5 to 10 years. All interface areas as well as all established fuel breaks should be assessed and recommendations made for their maintenance.

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