Dispelling the Myth Surrounding Bats

Saving Bats from the Emergence of White-Nose Syndrome

Tag Words: Bats; White Nose Syndrome; Nature through Nurture Authors: Marco Carvello, Patrick Dziamba, Alyssa Britton with Julie M. Fagan, Ph.D Summary Bats are incredibly misunderstood and shrouded in mystery. Our goal is to dispel the undeserved myths surrounding bats as being nothing but blood-sucking, disease- carrying monsters. The fact of the matter is that bats provide many, many services in promoting healthy, balanced ecosystems across the globe. It may sound as surprise, but without bats, our lives would be very different and quite uncompromising. Bats are our friends, and they now need our help more than ever. We thought this was an important issue, so we set out to enthusiastically teach the youth about the environmentally important roles of bats, the hardships bats are currently facing, and what they can do to help. We taught an after-school science program named Nurture through Nature as part of our service project. The goal is to raise awareness of a globally important environmental issue that affects us all, but is hardly understood. (MC) Video Link http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=igoSkv1x1t4&list=UUts4_1WyqXMmVDfu9 ZffstA&index=1&feature=plcp Introduction (MC)Bats are incredibly important animals that provide numerous benefits to ecosystems across the Earth and directly to humans as well. Bats are responsible for drastically reducing the numbers of disease-carrying insects such as mosquitoes, as well as numerous pest species that are detrimental to crop yields all across the globe. Bats also play important roles in pollinating fruits that many humans depend on for vital nutrients. Unfortunately, these marvelous creatures have been shrouded in mystery and are highly misunderstood. Myths that they are all blood-sucking, rabid monsters are highly unreasonable and undeserved. They have been exceedingly misrepresented for quite some time now, and they now need our help more than ever. For the last five to six years, bats in the northeastern United States and southern parts of Eastern Canada have been battling a serious disease dubbed White-nose syndrome. Geomyces destructans, a fungus that thrives in cold temperatures, has taken over hibernacula and decimated bat populations. Nearly 6-7 million bats have currently been lost to what biologists have deemed “the worst wildlife disease North America has ever seen”. Thoroughly

coordinated efforts of research and rehabilitation are now needed to protect various species from the brink of extinction. This is a difficult problem to solve, and highly creative solutions are going to be needed. If these bats are not saved, humans and the natural balances of Earth are going to face an awfully troublesome future. The Economic and Environmental Importance of Bats (PD) With the decline of many bat species in North America and with the potential for other species to be affected around the world there needs to be a justification for why they are important in terms of their environment and for the human population. “If we lose our bats, we jeopardize the ecosystems upon which many human economies are based.” (batcon.org, 2012) Bats provide innumerable services not limited to pest control, pollination, seed dispersal as well as their droppings, guano. Pollination for certain plants would be almost impossible without the assistance of bats. Bats are essential to the pollination of many wild plants that are economically important including: bananas, mangoes, guavas, balsa, abaca, cashews, figs, coconut palms, ceiba and baobob trees. They are also the primary pollinators in many desert ecosystems for cacti, including the saguaro and organ pipe cacti in Arizona. Many of these fruits and plant products are important to the American industry, not only foreign countries where much of these fruits are produced. Bats help to provide more than 450 economically important products for humans, which have an estimated value in the hundreds of millions of dollars in a year. (Night Friends - American Bats, 2012) Along with pollinating many of the plants that are fit for human consumption, bats also assist in spreading and dispersing seeds, which will inevitably lead to an increase in these species. Fruit eating bats consume fruit seeds and pass them on potentially in midflight so that they may take root. (Taylor, 2010) “Seeds dropped by bats can account for up to 95 percent of forest regrowth on cleared land.” (Night Friends - American Bats, 2012) With the threat of the spread of White Nose Syndrome, many fruit crops are in potential danger of decline. Bat droppings, also known as guano, is another important environmental and economic service that bats provide. Entire micro ecosystems can exist and survive off of bat guano. Unique bacteria can be found in these ecosystems that aid in improving detergents, detoxifying waste and producing certain compounds and antibiotics. (Taylor, 2010) As well as these positive benefits provided from the ecosystems created by guano, the byproduct of bats itself can be used as a potent fertilizer that is rich in phosphates and nitrates making it an effective manure for low organic content soils. Some large bat colonies also provide boosts for local economies by attracting ecotourists. Large colonies are popular with tourists in many areas such as the largest population of bats in the world, the Mexican Free-tailed bats consisting of over 20 million bats. Texas and Florida are the most common states for at ecotourism; however Michigan and New Jersey are also listed in the top ten places to see bats. (Top 10 Places in the U.S. to See Bats, 2010) One of the most important reasons why bats are a vital species is because of their human pest control capabilities. 70% of bat species are insectivorous and these are the number one predators of night flying insects around the world, which leads to an overall decrease in the need and usage of chemical pesticides on crops. (Taylor, 2010) “Herbivorous arthropods destroy approximately 25–50% of crops worldwide.” (Kunz,

Braun de Torrez, Bauer, Lobova, & Fleming, 2011) An estimated 400 pest species have evolved resistance to one or more pesticides, and despite an increase in pesticide use, the proportion of crops destroyed by insect pests in the United States has doubled (to13%) since the 1940’s. Predation by bats has an estimated value to the global pest control ecosystem service ranging between $54 billion and $1 trillion. This estimate includes reductions in both crop losses due to pests and direct/indirect costs of pesticide use. (Kunz, Braun de Torrez, Bauer, Lobova, & Fleming, 2011) Statistics:

· A colony of 150 big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) in the Midwestern United States annually consumes approximately 600,000 cucumber beetles, 194,000 June beetles, 158,000 leafhoppers, and 335,000 stinkbugs. Subsequently, assuming that each female cucumber beetle lays 110 eggs, 86 this average- sized bat colony could prevent the production of 33,000,000 cucumber beetle larvae. (Kunz, Braun de Torrez, Bauer, Lobova, & Fleming, 2011) · The 20 million Mexican free-tailed bats at Bracken Cave, Texas, eat approximately 200 tons of insects nightly. (Kunz, Braun de Torrez, Bauer, Lobova, & Fleming, 2011) · A single little brown myotis, a common resident of North American forests, can consume 1,000 mosquito-sized insects in just one hour. (Taylor, 2010) · Estimates suggest that a single little brown bat can consume 4 to 8 g of insects each night during the active season (Boyles, Cryan, McCracken, &

Kunz, 2011) (PD) The Emergence of a Deadly Epizootic Disease: White-Nose Syndrome (MC) White-nose syndrome (WNS) is a crippling disease currently responsible for unprecedented mortality rates in hibernating bat populations living in the northeastern United States and southeastern regions of Canada. Since its initial discovery in January 2007, the previously unrecognized disease has spread quite rapidly and poses a significant threat to hibernating bats across parts of North America. As white-nose syndrome spreads, the challenges for understanding and managing the disease will continue to increase. Biologists have labeled white-nose syndrome as “the worst wildlife disease North America has ever seen”. In order to effectively respond to this devastating epidemic and save our remarkably important bats, highly coordinated efforts involving state, federal and private organizations/agencies are now needed. In the winter of 2006/2007, white-nose syndrome was first observed in four caves approximately 30km west of Albany, New York. Subsequently, photographs taken during the previous winter in Howe’s Cave, then surfaced of bats seemingly infected by the fungus. This is the earliest evidence available of the disease in North America. Prior to the arrival of white-nose syndrome, surveys conducted of over-wintering colonies of all 6 hibernating species of bats in New York yielded results that revealed stable and/or increasing populations in recent decades.

The effects of white-nose syndrome can seemingly vary between species and differ depending on the winter hibernacula. Overall though, mortality rates at closely monitored sites have reached 95 percent within only two to three years of initial detection. As of April 2011, white-nose syndrome has been detected in 6 of the 9 species of hibernating bats. Affected regions include New Hampshire, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Ohio, Maryland, Indiana, Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, and the Canadian provinces: Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario and Quebec. The particular species known to be impacted by white-nose syndrome thus far are, the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis), northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrinalis), eastern small-footed bat (Myotis leibii), tricolored bat (Perimyotis subflavus), and big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus). (U.S. Fish and Wildlife, 2011) In 2010, three additional species were found that tested positive for the presence of Geomyces destructans, the fungus associated with white-nose syndrome, but not with the distinctive pathological invasion of the skin that is characteristic of the disease. These bats, the gray bat (Myotis grisescans), the cave myotis (Myotis velifer), and the southeastern myotis (Myotis austroriparius), were found in Missouri, Oklahoma, and Virginia respectively. This discovery could be a warning sign of the spread of white-nose syndrome into new regions of the southeastern and western United States, and even beyond in the all too near future. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife, 2011) White-nose syndrome appears to affect bats mostly during long periods of torpor, which is characteristic behavior of winter hibernating bats. Therefore, the most notably affected species are the “cave bats” that typically use hibernation as a primary strategy to survive harsh winter conditions. It is currently unknown if white-nose syndrome is mortally affecting bat species that go into states of torpor during winters but do not regularly occur in caves and mines, such as migratory “tree bats” (for example, silver- haired bats [Lasionycteris nictivagans], hoary bats [Lasiurus cinereus], eastern red bats [Lasiurus borealis]. The rapid and widespread mortality associated with white-nose syndrome is highly unprecedented in hibernating bats; moreover, epizootic disease outbreaks such as white-nose syndrome have not previously been documented in bats. Most of the affected bat species are long-lived (~10 to 20 years or more). Hibernating bats typically have only one pup per year, thus population growth depends on high rates of adult survival. Therefore, naturally low reproductive rates combined with the high mortality observed in populations with white-nose syndrome will likely prevent affected bat populations from recovering quickly. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife, 2011) White-nose syndrome was named for the visible presence of a white fungus around the muzzles, ears and wing membranes of affected bats. Scientists have recently identified a previously unknown species of cold-loving fungus, Geomyces destructans, as the consistent pathogen responsible for causing skin infections in the bats at affected

sites. This particular fungus thrives in low temperatures (5-14 C; 40-55 F) and high levels of humidity (>90%), conditions that are characteristic of many bat hibernacula. Pathologic findings to date indicate that these fungal infections can be detected as early as October. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife)

The membrane of a bat’s wing seems to be the main portal of entry for the fungus. Geomyces destructans aggressively drives through the paper-thin wing tissue. The fungus digests the skin, where rootlike fungal hyphae then migrate their way in and begin to replace all bat tissue in their path. Along the way, the fungal hyphae destroy blood vessels, essentially leading to sudden and complete death of major tissue. It is possible that the wing damage leads to dehydration, causing exceptionally thirsty bats to rouse from hibernation. It takes a great deal of energy to wake under these circumstances, and hibernating bats have little energy to spare.

A bat's wing membranes--85 percent of a bat's surface area—are vital to a bats survival as they regulate body temperature, blood pressure, water balance and gas exchange. It is thought that bats affected with the fungus, are being awakened from their torpid state during hibernation, and then proceed to leave the cave in efforts of foraging for food (insects) in the middle of winter. This causes the bats to expend their vital fat reserves they spent all summer accumulating, in a failed attempt to find nourishment. They then return to the cave depleted of all their resources needed to survive the harsh winter conditions. Being exhausted of their energy and fat reserves, it is believed that this

increases the opportunity for the fungus to take advantage of a weakened immune system. Continuing disturbance of hibernating bats has been known to cause high rates of winter mortality through fat loss, and irregular or abnormal behaviors associated with white-nose syndrome may cause bats to consume critical fat reserves prematurely during the winter months. Unusual behaviors observed at sites affected with white-nose syndrome include shifts of large numbers of bats in hibernacula to locations near the entrances or unusually cold areas; large numbers of bats dispersing during the day from hibernacula, even during mid-winter; a general unresponsiveness to human disturbance; and, on occasion, large numbers of fatalities, either inside the hibernacula, near the entrance, or in the immediate vicinity of the cave entrance. Additionally, recent hypotheses suggest that the characteristic wing pathology associated with white-nose syndrome may cause death by disruption of important wing-dependent physiological functions, such as water balance, thermoregulation, and mechanical function of the wing leading to dehydration, increased thirst-mediated arousals, increased heat loss, and inhibition of flight. Although evidence suggests that skin infection by Geomyces destructans is the primary cause of mortality associated with white-nose syndrome, the exact processes by which skin infection leads to death remain undetermined, and it is unclear the extent to which other conditions may contribute to the susceptibility of species or individuals to fungal infection and/or mortality. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife, 2011) As of May 2011, it has been reported that white-nose syndrome has been discovered in twelve European countries. Unlike the North American epidemic though, the European infection has not been associated with mortality. This suggests that Geomyces destructans has been in Europe for thousands of years, possibly leading the bats to have coevolved with the fungus itself. One report showed a photograph taken of a European bat covered with the fungus and nine days later, the bat had completely groomed itself and showed no signs of infection whatsoever. Identifying why the fungus is not eating its way through the wing membrane of European bats is potentially one of our greatest hopes to fully understanding the underlying dynamics of the disease. Since most bat species generally give birth to only one pup per year, it is unlikely that bat populations of North America affected by enormous mortality rates due to white- nose syndrome, can rely on a few survivors that might be able to adapt to the disease. The current mortality rates among North American bats are highly unprecedented and seem to be outpacing the rate at which survivors can recover, compensate, reproduce and eventually persist. Nothing that is currently known will put an end to the continuing mortality caused by the disease. Preventing the spread of the disease may be the only defense humans can attempt to control, particularly when anthropogenic influences are involved.

Figure 1 The effects of Geomyces destructans infection on bat wings. (a) Back-lit photograph of wings of a euthanized WNS-positive little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) with subtle circular and irregular areas of pallor (arrows) in wing membrane. (b) Back-lit photograph of the wing of a euthanized little brown with significant visible pathology associated with WNS. Area of wing membrane with relatively normal tone and elasticity (black arrow), compared to an area that has lost tone, elasticity and surface sheen, with irregular pigmentation and areas of contraction (white arrow). (c) Periodic acid Schiff-stained, 4-µm histologic section of wing membrane prepared as previously described from a M. lucifugus showing extensive fungal infection by G. destructans. Fungal hyphae replace muscle bundles (arrows); invasion can become transdermal with associated edema (arrowhead). Figure 2 Photomicrographs of periodic acid Schiff-stained 4-µm sections of wing membrane prepared as previously described from a little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) infected by Geomyces destructans. (a) Fungal hyphae penetrate and replace apocrine gland (white arrow), hair follicle (black arrow pointing to hair shaft), and sebaceous gland (arrowhead). (b) Normal pilosebaceous unit including the apocrine gland (white arrow), hair follicle (black arrow pointing to hair shaft) and sebaceous gland (arrowhead). (c) Infarcted region of wing membrane showing loss of all identifiable vital structures in the dermis, including blood vessels, connective tissue, muscle, elastin fibers and the large bands of connective tissue that traverse and stabilize wing membrane (arrow). No discernable cell structures or nuclei remain, the wing membrane is contracted and hypereosinophilic (intense red staining), and only residual pigment is present on the membrane surface (arrowhead). (d) Microscopic section of normal wing membrane with identifiable blood vessel containing circulating red blood cells (arrow) and nuclei of connective tissue cells (arrowheads).

A Current Soltution: Scientific Research (AB) There has been a fair amount of scientific and social research done on white-nose syndrome and bat populations. The only way for things to get better is if there is studies conducted and people educate themselves on the problem more. If we are unaware of where the problem is coming from or how it is spreading, then there is no way to arrive at a solution. Many well known Universities and non-profit research organizations play a large role in conducting this research. The University of Tennessee located in Campbell County has done a significant amount of studies in its College for Veterinary Medicine and Ecological departments. These studies are as recent as December of 2011. Graduate students and researchers at the University went into the depths of New Mammoth Cave in Tennessee to see if they could get any useful information. (See Image 1) The scientists from the University engage in activities such as swabbing bat wings and taking their body weight for research on early detection of fungal spores that cause the white-nose syndrome (Burgess). A discovery was made by UT biology associate, Justin Boyles, stating that he had found the source of the disease by looking at health bats in a cave compared to the unhealthy ones (Castle). Boyles had also made predictions that the cure to this disease will not come without a struggle. Justin Boyles says that the problem “is going to take something that someone has never thought of before because fungal spores are incredibly resilient and incredibly hard to get rid of. So it will take something unusual to solve it. We just now know what we are aiming for.” (Castle). So as hopefully as the researchers at the University of Tennessee may be, they are still battling against the mystery of the disease. The Conserve Wildlife Foundation, a non-profit organization based out of New Jersey is one organization that strives to protect the wildlife and wild places through New Jersey to benefit our natural ecosystems that still remain. While giving attention to many different species, bats, the Little Brown Bat in particular, is one that has received much concentration over the past couple of years. Mick Valent, of he NJ Endangered and Noname Species Program, is the overseer of the bat research throughout New Jersey (Conserve Wildlife). Valent directed researches in this program to partake in the Summer Bat Count, an event where people inspect bat roosts throughout different areas. The focus of these bat counts is to check for signs of white-nose syndrome, measure and weigh the bats, and band bats for future monitoring (Conserve Wildlife). See Image 2 for an example of the bat bands.

This image shows Mackenzie Hall, a researcher for Conserve Wildlife NJ, holding a little

brown bat to be banded (see right wing) and also check it for evidence of the fungus. In order for bats to be closely observed for signs of white-nose syndrome, they must be

carefully captured and taken care of as to not to harm them. (AB) Winter is the prime season for the white-nose fungus to flourish and affect the hibernating bats in caves (Conserve Wildlife). “As of fall 2011 a majority of the remaining bats inside Hibernia Mine have been banded with their own uniquely engraved bracelet. Noting which survive the winter and which return the following fall is helping us understand survivability after the initial (and most severe) WNS hit.” (Conserve Wildlife). Another tool that the researchers at Conserve Wildlife NJ are beginning to take advantage of is ultra violet light to pinpoint where the fungus is on a bat. “Scanning a bats wings under long-wave UV light can reveal the early stages of fungal infection months beforethe unaided eye would notice anything wrong,” (Conserve Wildlife). See Image 3 for a UV photograph of an infected bats wing.

The spotting that is seen is the fungus. This is not yet visible to the unaided eye.

In addition to New Jersey organizations conducting studies, a branch off of the United States Geological Survey, the National Wildlife Health Center, located in Madison, Wisconsin, is also initiating some steady research on geomyces destructans. In collaboration with other institutions and research partners, the scientists hope to determine if the fungus is the sole cause of white-nose syndrome (Blehert). It is quite possible that there is some other outlying factor that makes this disease so rapidly spread, whether it may be cave environment, size of the bats, or even bat species. Repeating research and collecting multiple trails of information is a credible way to make conclusions about the disease and “determining if and how bats survive exposure.” (Blehert). Service Project: Nature Through Nurture (PD/AB) For our service we gave a presentation at the Rutgers Nature Through Nurture program about bats, why they’re important and the effects that White Nose Syndrome is having on the populations in North America and Canada. The Nature Through Nurture program is designed to educate New Brunswick elementary school children (ages 8-12) about science and health careers. It is run by Rutgers own Professor Michael Camasso, who felt the need to create this program in response to student’s low-test scores in the science area. We were definitely successful in educating the children about why bats are vitally important to the environment and us. We gave them an engaging presentation in which they were encouraged to ask questions. We even gave them the opportunity to look at some bat specimens to see what they actually looked like close up. The reactions of the children to the bat specimens were quite entertaining. Some of the children were afraid to touch them, but after some enlightenment we got them all to handle the bats. We managed to dispel many of the negative myths that the children had towards bats in general (such as vampire bats feeding on humans). The children were so engaged that we even managed to go twenty minutes over our allotted time to try and answer many of their questions. Hopefully through our presentation we were able to spark something within many of these New Brunswick school children so that their passions for the environment might grow and that they may become more active and care more for bats and the problems that they face. The lesson to the children began with a basic introduction and background on bats including the group of animals that they come from and some basic morphology. Throughout the entire presentation the children were constantly asking questions, good ones in fact. We showed them a few clips from Planet Earth documentaries. The instructor told us that these children are very visual and enjoy watching and listening more than taking notes and being lectured at. This turned out to be true. The children

were extremely engaged in what we had to say and all of our wonderful photographs and video clips. Once we brought out the real bat specimens was when we really captured their attention. With these specimens we got to show the children how small the bats really are, and how delicate and fragile their bodies are. We tied this in with the idea of how white nose syndrome really deteriorates their bodies and makes them unable to fly and survive in the wild. The kids felt deep sympathy for these creatures, and that was one goal that was achieved. We then concluded our presentation with a deeper explanation of white nose syndrome, and tried to put it into a context that was understandable for the children. We believe that it is very important for the youth to become educated on this issue because environmental and ecological issues are the future or the world. Between climate change, global warming, and resource scares, children need to understand why and how wildlife ties into these issues and hopefully get interested enough to want to make a change. The children’s’ interests in the subject of bats and white nose syndrome was really inspiring to us. We felt as if they were boldly impacted by this issue and will possibly spread the world to their friends and family. We also provided the children with some handouts about how to build a bat house, some bat facts, and a fun take home crossword puzzle. These resources can hopefully be useful to them in the future, or when they are telling others about what they had learned. Outreach is a vital part of science education, especially when it comes to a species that is in serious danger. It is important that we as humans do not neglect bats and it is important that we do not forget how much they help our earth’s ecosystems.

Letters To the Editor Hello, My name is Marco Carvello. I am currently a senior in my last semester at Rutgers University, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences. I am an Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources major. I am currently enrolled in an Ethics in Sciences class and have chosen to present a research project about an issue close to my heart; the importance of bats, attempting to dispel the myths of these marvelous creatures that are shrouded in mystery, and the devastating impact of the fungal disease, White Nose Syndrome. Biologists have called this the worst wildlife disease in the history of North America. Bat populations are currently declining at an unprecedented rate, and the impacts to the environment and humans as well, are quite severe. Bats need to be seen in a new light, as the precious, interesting and valuable creatures that they truly are, not the blood sucking monsters depicted in myths and horror stories alike. It is an increasingly pressing issue that I believe immediately demands much more attention. Raising awareness of this disease and also the importance of bats is a necessary component of finding solutions to this massive problem. I believe it would be a great idea to present an article about this problem in an issue of the targum. If you have any questions, feel free to email me. Thank You. Marco

To Whom It May Concern: My name is Alyssa Britton, a 4th year student at Rutgers studying Ecology and Natural Resources. I am a current resident of New Brunswick, NJ, although I grew up in Wayne. I am currently working on a project that is dealing with the Little Brown Bat, a species of bat that is very common throughout New Jersey. You may not know, but this bad is endangered due to a disease, White Nose Syndrome. White Nose Syndrome is a fungus that is responsible for wiping out bat populations and has killed almost 80% of bats in the United States as of 2011. In seeing that this is a serious issue, I believe it is necessary to get the word out about this issue and get the public familiar with it. I believe it would be beneficial to include an article in the Wayne Today about the issue, just to raise awareness and possibly get people interested and educated on the topic. Wildlife is a very precious, and I believe that it is often neglected. Thank you for your time and consideration! Sincerely, Alyssa Britton My Name is Pat Dziamba and along with my two group members, Marco Carvello and Alyssa Britton, we have been actively trying to raise awareness about the importance of bats in the environment and the affects that White Nose Syndrome has on them for our Senior Year Rutgers Colloquium: Ethics in Science. We have done some research on the topic of White Nose Syndrome as well as presented at the Rutgers Nurture Thru Nature program to help raise awareness on what has been called the worst wildlife disease outbreak of all time in North America. My group members and I believe it to be imperative that word is spread about the importance of bats and the effect that White Nose Syndrome has on them and in the long run on us. Thank you for your time and consideration. If you have any questions for me, please don't hesitate to ask. Sincerely, Pat Dziamba

References Burgess, Amy. "Research to Combat White Nose Syndrome in Bats." Knoxville News Sentinel. Web. 04 Apr. 2012. <http://www.knoxnews.com/photos/galleries/2011/dec/26/research -to-combat-white-nose-syndrome-in-bats/>. Castle, Kevin. "Researchers Make Progress Finding Cause of White-nose Syndrome in Bats- Kingsport Times-News." Kingsport Times-News. 19 Nov. 2011. Web. 04 Apr. 2012. <http://www.timesnews.net/article.php?id=9038546>. "White-Nose Syndrome Research." - Conserve Wildlife Foundation of NJ. 2011. Web. 04 Apr. 2012. <http://www.conservewildlifenj.org/protecting/projects/bat/white- nose/>. Investigating White-Nose Syndrome in Bats. USGS. Web. 2 Apr. 2012. <http://www.nwhc.usgs.gov/publications/fact_sheets/pdfs/2009- 3058_investigating_wns.pdf>. batcon.org. (2012). Retrieved March 25, 2012, from Bat Conservation International: http://www.batcon.org/ Boyles, J. G., Cryan, P. M., McCracken, G. F., & Kunz, T. H. (2011, April 1). Economic Importance of Bats. Retrieved April 3, 2012, from USGS: http://www.fort.usgs.gov/Products/Publications/23069a/23069a.pdf Kunz, T. H., Braun de Torrez, E., Bauer, D., Lobova, T., & Fleming, T. H. (2011). Ecosystem services provided by bats. Retrieved April 3, 2012, from Caves.org: http://www.caves.org/WNS/WNS%20Kunz%20April%205%20%202011.pdf Night Friends - American Bats. (2012). Retrieved April 3, 2012, from National Wildlife Federation: http://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Wildlife/batguide.ashx Taylor, D. A. (2010, October 7). batcon.org. Retrieved April 3, 2012, from Forest Management & Bats: http://www.batcon.org/pdfs/ForestMgmtandBats.pdf Top 10 Places in the U.S. to See Bats. (2010, April 6). Retrieved April 3, 2012, from Animaltourism.com: http://animaltourism.com/news/2010/04/06/top-10-places-in-the-u-s-to-see-bats

What We Do/White Nose Syndrome. (2012, April 2). Retrieved April 3, 2012, from Bat Conservation International: http://www.batcon.org/index.php/what-we-do/white-nose- syndrome.html?utm_source=internal&utm_medium=five_icon&utm_campaign=5IWhite nose%2BSyndrome U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service : A National Plan For Assisting States, Federal Agencies, and Tribes in Managing White-Nose Syndrome in Bats, May 2011