discovering a brand identity for norwegian fashion

7/28/2019 Discovering a Brand Identity for Norwegian Fashion

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DiscoveringabrandidentityforNorwegianFashionThecaseofNorwegianFashionInstitute

BenedicteVibergMhre Counsellor:ToreKristensen

DepartmentofMarketing January28th2010Cand.Soc

Managementof STU(w/spacesandtables):137.669Creative Business Processes (CBP) 60,51 pages


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Executive Summary

ThisthesisseekstoexploretheNorwegianFashionindustryanditslackofbrandidentity.

NorwegianFashionInstitute(NMINorskMoteInstitutt)openedinFebruary2009andhas

asoneoftheirmaingoalstopromoteNorwegianFashioninNorwayandabroad.Norwegian

FashionisnotasinternationallyknownasourScandinavianneighboursfashionandthus

NMIhasanimportantjobaheadofthem.AccordingtoPerAageSivertsen,HeadofDesign

for FIN Fashion, this isaperfecttimeto strengthenNorwegianFashionasfashionis very

muchinfocusintheScandinaviancountriesanditisimportanttoexploitthatopportunity

whenitispresent.

AsNMI isstillat the infant stage, thereare somestrategicactionsI feelareimportantto

take in the near future inorderto fulfil their goals. The recommendations are basedon

findingsfrombrandmanagementtheory,strategicmanagementtheory,fashiontheoryas

wellasfindingsfromsurveysconductedforthisreport.

NorwegianFashionInstituteshould:

- SupportandaidresearchonNorwegianfashiondesignasitprovidesafoundationforfurtherevolvementofNorwegianfashion

- MaptheNorwegianFashionFieldtoidentifyallinstitutionalactors- PromotethebuildingofafashionclusterinOslo,astacitknowledgeiskeyincreative

industries

- ConductanextensiveindustryresearchincludingSWOTanalysis,PortersFiveForces,identifying the various actors, characteristics, similarities anddifferences between

brands

- AidOsloFashionWeekinattractinginternationalbuyerstothefashionweek- GetmoreexposureaboutNorwegianFashioninNorwegianfashionmagazines


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Copenhagen Business School

TABLEOFCONTENTS

1.INTRODUCTION 6

1.2REPORTBACKGROUND 71.3RESEARCHFIELDANDRESEARCHQUESTION 81.4REPORTSTRUCTURE 9

2.0METHODOLOGY 11

2.1RESEARCHOBJECTIVES 112.2STAKEHOLDERS 112.3DATA 112.3.1THEORETICALAPPROACH 122.3.2.EMPIRICALAPPROACH 132.4CONTRIBUTIONS 142.5DELIMITATIONS 142.6SOURCECRITIQUE 16

3.0THECREATIVEINDUSTRIESORTHECULTURALINDUSTRIES? 17

3.1FIVEPOLARITIES 183.1.1ARTISTICVALUESVERSUSMASSENTERTAINMENT 193.1.2PRODUCTDIFFERENTIATIONVERSUSMARKETINNOVATION 193.1.3DEMANDANALYSISVERSUSMARKETCONSTRUCTION 203.1.4VERTICALINTEGRATIONVERSUSFLEXIBLESPECIALIZATION 203.1.5INDIVIDUALINSPIRATIONVERSUSCREATIVESYSTEMS 213.2CLUSTERS 21

3.2.1THEIMPORTANCEOFCLUSTERSINTHECULTURALINDUSTRIES 243.3INTERNSHIPS 243.4ANAREAOVERSEENFASHION 25

4.0FASHION 26

4.1HISTORY 264.2WHATISFASHION? 274.3HOWDOPEOPLEUSEFASHION? 28

4.4THEFASHIONSYSTEM 284.4.1THEMEDIA 29


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4.5SEGMENTATION 304.6THEINDUSTRYCHALLENGES 31

5.0NORWEGIANFASHION 35

5.1HISTORY 355.1.1PERIOD1,17901860 365.1.2PERIOD2,18601900 365.1.3PERIOD3,19001950 365.2THEMAJORMILESTONESINNORWEGIANCONTEMPORARYFASHION 375.3TENDENCIESINNORWEGIANFASHIONTODAY 395.3.1TRADITIONSANDHISTORY 395.3.2INNOVATIONANDSUSTAINABILITY 405.3.3WEATHER/CLIMATE 415.3.4PLACEBRANDING 415.4ORGANIZATIONALFORM 415.5IMPORTANTINSTITUTIONSSUPPORTINGNORWEGIANFASHION 425.4.1NORWEGIANFASHIONINSTITUTE 425.4.2NORSKFORM 445.4.3INNOVATIONNORWAY 455.4.4TEKSTILFORUM 45

6.0WHATISABRAND? 46

6.1THEEVOLUTIONOFBRANDING 466.2BRANDINGTODAY 476.3BRANDIDENTITY 486.4FASHIONANDNATIONALIDENTITY 50

7.0ANALYSIS 53

7.1INTERNATIONALSURVEY 537.1.1NORWEGIANBRANDS 537.1.2ACTORSINNORWEGIANFASHION

547.1.3CHARACTERISTICS 547.2NORWEGIANSURVEY 557.2.1NORWEGIANBRANDS 557.2.2ACTORSINNORWEGIANFASHION 557.2.3RECOGNIZINGNORWEGIANBRANDS 567.2.4CHARACTERISTICS 567.3COMPARINGTHESTUDIES 57

8.0HOWTOMAKENORWEGIANFASHIONANACCEPTEDBRAND 59

8.1CONSTRUCTINGANIDENTITY IFINDINGTHERELEVANTDNAPARTICLES 59


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8.1.2CONSTRUCTINGANIDENTITYIIBACKGROUNDFORIDENTITY 628.1.3THEIMPORTANCEOFHAVINGANIDENTITY 638.1.4CLUSTERS 638.1.5POSITIONING 648.1.5BUILDINGATTRACTIVENESS 66

9.0STRATEGICRECOMMENDATIONS 68

10.0CONCLUSION 70

11.0PERSPECTIVES 73

12.0BIBLIOGRAPHY 74


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DiscoveringabrandidentityforNorwegianfashion

1.Introduction

"Fashion is not something that exists in dresses only. Fashion is in the sky, in the street,

fashionhastodowithideas,thewaywelive,whatishappening.CocoChanel

Fashionhasbeenanimportantpartofpeopleslivesforalongtime.Thiscanbeseeninthe

abundanceoffashionmagazinesandfashionblogs,tvseriesonfashionandfashiondesign,

ingeneraltheimmensesizeofthefashionindustryanditspower.Fashionhasalsobecome

animportanttoolofcommunication,bothforthebrandsandforoneself.Whatyouwear

exposesyoutotheworldthewayyouwanttobeportrayed.Hencefashionispersonaland

verypowerful.Onecandresstofitintoagroup,dresstoportraypowerordresstoshowyou

donotcare.

TheFashionindustryhasexistedforhundredsofyearsandhasgrownintoabilliondollar

industry. There are fourmain fashion clusters in theworld:Paris, London,New Yorkand

Milan(somemayevenincludea fifth:Tokyo).Thesecitiesaresomeofthemostimportant

placesinthefashionworld,astheyarrangeaFashionWeekwerethetopdesignersofthe

worldpresentstheirnewestlines.Inrecentyears,othercountrieshaveseentheimportance

ofhavingthesefashionweeksasawayofexposingthecountrysdesigners,andNorwayis

noexception. 2004was the birth ofOslo FashionWeekand ithas grown tobecome an

importantplatformfordesigners,buyersandotherpeoplewithaninterestinwhatisgoing

on in the Norwegian Fashion Scene. However, Norwegian Fashion is relatively small

internationally,andsomekeypeopleintheindustryproposeitisduetothefactthatthere

isnoclearidentityonNorwegianFashion.HeadofDesigninFINFashion,PerAageSivertsen

statesthatthereisastrongneedforNorwegianFashiontoidentifywhoandwhattheyare

inordertobecomeaninternationalplayerintheFashionWorld(Skjrvold,2009).


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1.2Reportbackground

Choosingatopicforamasterthesisisnotaneasymatter.Itshouldideallybesomethingofgenuineinterestanditshouldfillagapinresearchprovidenewinformation.

In2008,KarunNordgrd,KarinFensgrdandSivMarinaFlKarlsenwerechosentoconduct

a researchonthe Norwegian fashion field. They spenttwo yearmapping the Norwegian

marketandinterviewingvariousactorsontheirperceptionsontheindustry.Theyendedup

witha conclusionwith fourdistinctactions the government should take in order tohelp

businesses in the Norwegian fashion industry. Firstly, the respondents stated that they

needed financial support for marketing, export and production, and felt that the

Governmentshouldtakemoreaction.Oneexampleofthiswasthegovernmentarranging

various events in the Embassies around the world as they are a great platform for

promotion.Secondly, the VAT, customsduties and other typesof taxes are too highand

need tobe decreased. In addition to this, therewas a suggestion ofmaking iteasier to

produceecologicalclothingbyreducingtheVAT.Thirdly,therespondentsalsofelttherewas

aneedfortheGovernmenttogivefinancialsupporttotheestablishmentofacoordinating

organizationforNorwegianFashion.Theyfelttheindustryneededamorejointsettinganda

placewheretheentitiescouldfindpossiblecollaborations.Lastly,thereisaneedtogoaway

fromtheexistingsupportarrangement,whichtreatsdesignwithintheregionalpolitics,and

insteadincludeitwithintradepolitics.

This researchwas the firstof its kindand it showedhow important it is to increase the

researchonthisfield,as ithasgreateconomicpotential.Theresearchwasthe foundation

forcreatinganorganizationworkingtojointheNorwegianFashionindustry,andpromote

Norwegianfashionhomeandabroad.Myinitialthoughtsuponreadingthisreportwashow

this could bethe firstof its kind inthe year2009?Fashion isan important partofmany

peopleslifeandhasturnedintoabilliondollarindustrywhyisNorwaysuchasmallactor

inthatindustry?


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BasedontherecommendationsfromMotepilot,TheNorwegianFashionInstituteofficially

opened in February 2009 and reading about the organization brought especially one

question to mind: What really is Norwegian Fashion? I soon figured I had very little

knowledgeaboutthevariousaspectsofthefashionindustryinmyowncountryandthusitbecameclearthatthiscouldbeasuitablefocusforthemasterthesis.NorwegianFashion

Institute(NMINorskMoteInstitutt)hasanextensivejobaheadofthem,toachievetheir

goalofpromotingNorwegianFashionnationallyandinternationally.However,beforethey

can startpromoting, it ismy firmbelief that the first stepNMI should take is finding an

identityforNorwegianFashion.Withouthavingaclearidentity,itisveryhardtoposition

and further market a brand. In fact, Michel Van Tongeren states, displaying your true

identityisyourstrength(Tongeren,2008).

The timing is also right for NMI and their work topromoteNorwegian Fashion. Head of

DesigninFINFashion,PerAageSivertsen,feelsthattheNorwegianFashionIndustryshould

exploitthefocusthatisonthefashionindustryintheScandinaviancountries.Inanarticlein

D2, a magazine under the Norwegian newspaper Dagens Nringsliv, Sivertsen states

thereisalargeinterestforScandinaviandesignthesedays.Wehaveastrongmusicscene

and good designers. The only thing mission now is for Norway to become a stronger

contenderinthefashionindustry(Skjrvold,2009)

1.3Researchfieldandresearchquestion

TheCulturalIndustriesmaybeanewterminNorway,butithasexistedforalongtimeand

hasbeenanimportantpartofmanycountriesnationaleconomy.Itprovidesaninputtothe

industry diversity, creates jobs and can contribute greatly to the national economy. As

mentioned above, theCultural industry isstill atthe infant stage inNorway comparedto

other nations like UK, France and even a small and comparable country like Denmark.

Norwaydoesproducemanyculturalproducts,butwholetermculturalindustryhasnot

yetgainedasafefootholdinNorway.Thisisalsotrueforthefashionindustry.Fashionisstill

averysmallandyoungbusinessfieldinNorwayandthepromotionofNorwegianfashion,

bothnationallyandinternationally,hasnotbeenasgoodasintheneighbouringcountriesDenmarkandSweden.However,asmentionedbefore,inFebruary2009,NorwegianFashion


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Institute (NFI) openedand their goal is tomakeNorwegian fashion into a respectedand

desiredbrand.

NFI states that they have four main tasks that will help build and structure the fashionindustry in Norway; (1) being the united organization for Norwegian fashion, (2) being a

centreforcompetency,(3)makingajointmove,and(4)organizinganddisclosingeffortsfor

developmentwithintrade(NorwegianFashionInstitute,2009).ThetasksNFIstatesastheir

maintasksaregreatlyimportantinthepromotionofNorwegianfashion,butbeforedoingall

this,IproposethatthereisaneedforNFItogathervaluableinformationinordertoidentify

aclearcutbrandidentityforNorwegianfashion.ThiswillmakeiteasierfortheNorwegian

actorsinvolvedtoworktogetherasthereisacleardefinition,itwillalsobeeasierforlocal

andinternationalcustomerstorecognizeandidentifyNorwegianfashion.Onthisnote,Iwill

presentmyresearchquestion:

HowcanNorwegianFashionInstitute(NFI)createabrandidentityforNorwegianfashion

andinturnformastrategyforpromotion?

In order to answer this research question I have stated some subquestions that I find

relevant:

- WhatcanbegainedbyabrandidentityforNorwegianFashion?- WhichstrategiesshouldNFIfocusoninordertocreateanidentity?- Isitimportanttolookbackinhistoryinordertomoveforward?- WhichcharacteristicsinNorwegianfashionbrandstodaycanhelpcreateanidentity?

1.4ReportStructure

Chapter 2 concerns themethodological choicesmade in order to find ananswer to the

researchquestion.Thechapterpresentstheresearchobjectiveofthethesis,therelevant

stakeholders, theoretical and empirical data chosen, research contributions and lastly

delimitations.Chapter3 starts bydefining the Cultural Industries in order to identify the

appropriatecharacteristicsandtheoriesforthethesis.Itendswithsheddingsomelightonan area of the Cultural Industries that has been less explored than other parts of the


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industry:theFashionIndustry.Furthermore,Chapter4presentstheFashionIndustry,abrief

historyandsomeoftheimportantelementsoftheindustry.Chapter5narrowsdownthe

scopeandpresentstheNorwegianFashionindustrywithitshistory,milestones,tendencies

andimportantinstitutions.Chapter6explainsthetheoryofbranding,withastrongfocusonbrand identity. In the last part of the chapter the combination of national identity and

fashion is described. InChapter 7 an analysis of the surveys conducted for this thesis is

presentedanddiscussed.Chapter8summarizessomeofthepossiblestepstotakeinorder

tomakeNorwegianFashionintoanacceptedbrandand Chapter9presentsthestrategic

recommendations for Norwegian Fashion Institute to achieve their goal of promoting

Norwegian Fashion nationally and internationally. Chapter 10 gives some concluding

remarksonthethesisandChapter11concernssomeperspectivesthatwerenotincludedin

thethesis,butcouldbeinterestingtofurtherresearch.


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2.0Methodology

Thischapterconcernsthemethodologicalchoicesmade,whichmakesuptheresearch

design.Theresearchdesignhasbeenchoseninordertounderstandtherelationship

betweentheresearchquestion,theresearchobjectiveandthedata.

2.1ResearchObjectives

ThisthesisseekstoinvestigatetheNorwegianFashionIndustry,asitisanindustrythathas

notbeenresearchedsufficiently.Thus,thethesistakesanexplorativeapproach.Norwegian

FashionInstituteisthemostrecentactorintheyoungindustry,andhasbeenmade

responsibleforstimulatingandpositioningNorwegianFashioninNorwayandabroad.But

beforetakingonsuchanimportanttask,itismyfirmbeliefthatNorwegianFashionInstitute

needstocreateanidentityforNorwegianFashionandthisthesisaimstomakea

contributiontothiscreationaswellaspresentsomestrategicrecommendationsonhow

NorwegianFashionInstitutecanmakeastrategyplanforpromotingNorwegianFashion.

2.2Stakeholders

Astakeholdercanbereferredtoasthepersons,groupsororganizationsthatcaneffector

haveastakeintheproject.InthiscasethemainstakeholdersareCopenhagenBusiness

School,NorwegianFashionInstitute,theactorsintheNorwegianFashionIndustryandthe

writer.Thevariousstakeholdersmay,andprobablywill,viewtheproblemdealtwithinthe

thesisdifferentlyastheyhavedifferentbackgroundsandinterests.

2.3Data

The process of collecting data has been long and vast.My initial knowledge about the

fashion industrywas aboveaverageasI had attendedan elective inFashionandLuxury

Industries atCBS.Therewas anabundanceof texts in ourcurriculumand thus Ididnot

foreseeanydifficultiesfindingrelevantinformationabouttheNorwegianFashionindustry.

Thetruthturnedout tobetheopposite.Therewerepracticallynoscientificarticlesonthe


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subjectexceptforonereport,consequentlylargepartsofthethesishasbeeninspiredfrom

thatreport.

2.3.1Theoreticalapproach

ThethesismakesuseofvarioustheoreticalcontributionsrelatedtotheFashionindustry,the

cultural industries, branding, strategy and so on. Several academic articles, newspaper

articles,booksandreportsmake upthetheoretical foundation ofthethesis andstrongly

contributetofindingananswertotheresearchquestion.

One report in particularhas proved tobeofvital importance andwas infactwheretheinspirationforthethesisoriginated.MotepilotbyKarunNordgaard,KarinFensgrdandSiv

Marina Fl, is a report exploring Norwegian fashion as an industry, providing valuable

informationofthefashionindustry,whichinturncanresultinabetterknowledgeabout

Norwegianfashionsfutureandgrowth.

TogetanunderstandingofwhatNorwegianfashionisandhasbeen,Ifeltitwasimperative

toresearchthehistory.However, thiswas alsoeasiersaid thandone.There isvery little

historicalinformation,embarrassinglylittleinfact,aboutthehistoryofNorwegianfashion.It

cametoshowthatmostoftheliteratureonNorwegianfashionavailablewasstudiesonthe

bunad (the national dress) and native dresses, where the focus revolved around the

clothes themselves and their shapes. Nevertheless, there was one leaflet that provided

somehistoricalaspectsoffashioninNorwayfrom1790until1914:Hvorkommermoten

fra?FraideologitilmoteIperioden17901914byBirgittaRamnefalk.Thisleaflethas

beenthemainsourceofinformationonthehistoricalaspectofNorwegianFashion.

AstheFashionindustryisapartoftheCulturalindustries,thereisaneedtoapplysomeof

therelevanttheorieshereunder.HereLampel,LantandShamsiesfivepolaritieshavebeen

used. It is a theory based upon the five polar opposites that define the field of action

organizationsinCulturalindustriestake.


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Brandingmakesupanimportantpartofthethesis.Varioustheorieswereusedtoanalyze

theNorwegianFashionindustryinordertosuggesttheinitialstepsinfindinganidentityfor

Norwegian Fashion. This thesis has takenuseoftwo theories in particular, DavidAakers

Brand Identity System andNoel KapferersBrand Identity Prism. The reason for choosingtheseparticulartheorieswastheirfocusonidentity.

InordertocontributetotheformationofastrategyofpromotionforNorwegianFashion,

varioustheorieswithinthefieldofstrategyandmanagementwereexamined(i.e.:Porters

FiveForces).Intheend,however,aSWOTanalysiswaschosen,asitisanexcellenttoolfora

strategic planning process.Furthermore, inordertoget the best results fromthe SWOT

analysis,aPESTLEanalysisshouldbecarriedout.ThishasnotbeendoneinthisthesisasI

feel it should be done by a person withmore knowledge and understanding about the

industry.

2.3.2.Empiricalapproach

In order to test my initial thoughts on Norwegian fashion and its exposure, both on a

nationalandan international level,twoshortsurveysweremade;oneforNorwegiansand

oneforforeigners.Thecontentofthesurveysaremostlythesame,exceptforonequestion

intheNorwegiansurvey,wheretheyareaskedtoidentifyNorwegianbrandsfromalistof

10brandswithvariousnationalities.Eventhoughthenumberofparticipantswasrelatively

low,itprovedthefactthatNorwegianfashionisverylittleknown.Thesurveysalsohadan

important question about characteristics of the Norwegian fashion. This question was

included in order to test whether or not the answers matched the findings from my

research.Theparticipantsweregivenalistof10characteristicsandwereaskedto choose

theonestheyfeltrepresentedNorwegianfashion.

Another researchhas also been conducted,wherea number ofNorwegian brandswere

studied.Theirhistory,theirdesignfocusandtheircharacteristicswereidentifiedinorderto

provideinformationforthesearchofanidentityforNorwegianfashion.Thebrandsstudied

wereMoodsofNorway,Arne&Carlos,FINFashion,LeilaHafziandFamIrvoll(seeappendix


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1).Thereasonforchoosingthesebrandsinparticularisbasedontheirsuccess,potential

andtheirbackground.

Thereasonforchoosingacombinationofbothprimaryandsecondarydataistocollectasubstantialamountofinformationabouttheresearchproblemandinturnbeableto

answertheresearchquestioninarespectablemanner.Itisofvitalimportancetouse

existingrelevantreportsandstudiesinordertogetfamiliarwiththehistoryandstatusquo

ofNorway.Anotherreasonforchoosingtoconductthetwosurveyswastomakesurethat

theresultsIhadfoundfrommyresearchcouldalsobefoundbyanyoneelsedoingasimilar

research.

2.4Contributions

This thesis may contribute in a number of ways to the various stakeholders mentioned

earlier.Tomyknowledge,thereisnosimilarreportonthelackofanidentityforNorwegian

FashionInstitute.Ibelievethatthisproblemissomethingthatshouldbedealtwithassoon

as possible byNMI in order tomaximize the potential that exists inNorwegian Fashion.

Thus,thereportcanbeausefultoolforNMIintheirworkonbuildingandstrengtheningthe

NorwegianFashionInstitute.

Furthermore, as there is very little knowledge and information available about the

Norwegian Fashion Industry, historically, economically and sociologically, this thesis may

hopefullycontributetotheinterestoffurtherresearchingtheindustryandinturnmakeus

moreeducatedonthesubject.

2.5Delimitations

Ihavechosentonarrowdownthescopeandlimitmyself toonlyonepartof thecultural

industry;thefashionindustry.Thereasonforthisisitiswheremyinterestliesanditisone

partoftheculturalindustryinNorwaythatistheleastdeveloped.


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Thefashionindustryisacomplexindustrywithmanydifferentsegments,andthisthesishas

afocusonpremiumbrandandprtporter.Thereasonforthisfocusisthefactthatthe

garmentsinquestionhadtohavesomesortofexclusivitytothem,butstillbeattainable.Ifa

focushadbeenonfastfashion,itcouldbearguedthatitwasnotaculturalindustry,asthefocusliesmostlywithineconomics.Moreover, ifthe focus had beenonHaute Couture it

mayhavebeendifficulttorelatetothegarments,asthereisonlyaselectedfewthatcan

affordandactuallypurchasegarmentsfromthatsegment.Itcanofcoursebearguedthat

HauteCoutureisthesegmentthatclearlyisapartoftheculturalindustryastheclothesare

createdinordertocommunicateandcreatemeaning.

Brandingisawiderangingsubjectandtherearemanytheoriestochoosefrom.Thisthesis

hastakenuseoftwotheoriesinparticular,DavidAakers BrandIdentitySystemandNoel

KapferersBrandIdentityPrism.Themodelswerechosenbecauseoftheirfocusonidentity,

asthisalsowasthefocusofthethesis.

The reason for choosing togoas far back as1790 in the presentation of the Norwegian

fashionhistory,isthatthiswastheendoftheFrenchRevolutionandthestartofthetime

whenthemiddleclasstookovertheeconomicandpoliticalleadership.Thisshiftofpower

wouldentailmany challenges for the next 150 yearsand this alsohas aneffect onhow

peopleweredressed.Thehistoricalperspectiveendsinthe1950sandthereasonforthisis

thatthiswasthetimewhenfashioninNorwaystartedtobemoreuptodatewiththerestof

theworld.Thecommunicationgotbetter,fashionmagazinesgrewinimportanceandthe

fashion cyclesbecame shorter. Themost importanthappenings in contemporary fashion

(fromthe1950sandupuntiltoday)arepresentedasmilestones.

Lastly,andmostimportantly,thethesishashadafocusaroundwhatNMIcandowithinthe

first couple of years, as this is a crucial phase. Thus, some the theories and strategies

presented may seem simple, but they are concerned around gathering information and

knowledgeabouttheindustryandthisisofvitalimportancetotheindustrysfuture.


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2.6SourceCritique

DespitethegrowingliteraturewithintheCulturalindustries,therehasbeenverylittle

developmentontheresearchoftheFashionindustry.Thus,theresearchareaprovedan

interestingchallenge,especiallyinrelationtotheNorwegianFashionindustry.Largepartsof

theinformationontheindustryanditshistoryarebasedonahandfulofpublished

materials.ThereportMotepilothasbeenakeysourceofinformationintermsofthe

industryandRamnefalksHvorkommermotenfra?intermsofhistoricalliterature.This

canbesomewhatcritiqued,asitmaynotgiveafairpicturesinceitisonlybasedoncertain

literature.However,asthereisverylimitedliteraturetogetaholdof,Ichosetobasemy

thesisontheliteratureIcouldfind.

Thesurveysconductedinthisthesishavetoofewrespondentstopresentlegitimate

conclusionsvalidforNorwegianFashionInstitute.Nevertheless,theresultsdoestellusthat

therespondentshaveverylimitedknowledgeonNorwegianFashionandthatcanbeusedto

triggerNMItodiscoverwhetherthisistrueornot.


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3.0TheCreativeIndustriesorTheCulturalIndustries?

The Creative industries and The Cultural industries are these terms referring to the

same industry? There are many opinions around these terms and there are different

definitionstothetwo.TheCreativeindustryisdescribedbyRichardE.Caves(2002)tobe

industries in which the product or service contains a substantial element of artistic or

creative endeavour (p. vii). He includes book and magazine publishing, the visual arts

(painting and sculpture), the performing arts (theatre, opera, concerts, dance), sound

recordings,cinemaandTVfilms,fashionand,lastly,toysandgamesinthisindustry.Some

mayarguethatthetermCreativeindustry isinappropriateasoneneedstobecreativein

all sorts of industries to plan, produce and/or service in order to sustain a competitive

advantage.TheCulturalindustry,ontheotherhand,hasadifferentdefinition.Accordingto

Hesmondhalgh (2007) it includesthose institutions (mainlyprofitmakingcompanies, but

alsostateorganizationsandnonprofitorganizations)thataremostdirectlyinvolvedinthe

production of social meaning. So, nearly all definitions of the Cultural industries would

includetelevision(cableandsatellitetoo),radio,thecinema,newspaper,magazineandbook

publishing, themusic recordingandpublishing industries,advertisingandperformingarts.

Theseareallactivitiestheprimaryaimofwhichistocommunicatetoanaudience,tocreate

texts(p.12).Hesmondhalghproposesthatallculturalartefactsaretext,astheyareopento

interpretation.Manyproductsmayinvolvedesignandmarketinginputs(suchasacar),but

their primary goal is not meaning. Thus, a text, he suggests, is a question of balance

betweenitsfunctionalandcommunicativeaspects(p.12).Theauthordoesnot,however,

includefashionasapartof thecultural industries.Hecallsita borderlinecaseasit isa

hybridofaculturalindustryandaconsumergood(p.12).Iwouldnotrefertofashionasa

borderlinecase, butasbeingapartof theculturalindustries. Itis aconsumergood,asa

personneedclothingtokeepwarm,buttheconsumptionofclothesgoessomuchfurther

thanthatneed.Consumersbuyclothesinordertocreateanidentityforthemselves,and

theseclothescreateawordlessmeansofcommunicationtoidentifywhichsocialgroupone

belongs.Thereisalsoasymbolicvalueoffashionanditissohighthatitkeepspeoplebuying

evenwhentheydonothaveaneed(Tran,2008).Thedesignercreatesthegarmentsforan

audience inorder tocommunicate, and itwouldbe an insult to the designer tosay that

his/herdesign is not produced in order to createmeaning.JohnGallianos creations, for


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examples,arenotcreatedasaconsumergoodasitisinfactunwearable.Itiscreatedasan

artisticexpressionandaculturalartefacttosociety.

The thesis in hand refers to the industry in question as the Cultural industry, using

Hesmondhalghsdefinition,however,upgradingfashionfrombeingaborderlinecaseasto

beingapartoftheindustry.

ThenextsectionswillexploresomeinterestingfeaturesabouttheCulturalindustriesand

howitdifferentiatesitselffromotherindustries.

3.1Fivepolarities

CulturalgoodsareexperientialgoodsandtheCulturalindustryishighlyunpredictable.Two

filmmakerscanmaketwoseparatemoviesusingthesameactors,thesameequipmentand

evenbebasedonthesametheme,butwhichfilmisgoingtosucceedisveryunpredictable.

Inadditionto this,whetherornotamovie isofgoodquality isahighlypersonalopinion,

while inother industriesquality is based onspecificproductattributes. Lampel, Lantand

Shamsie(2000)agreewhentheysay; opinionsaboutqualitycandivergesostronglythat

producersfindithardtofigureoutwhysomeproductsdowellwhileothersdonot.Thisisnot

only the case before consumers make their purchase decisions, but also afterwards.

Ultimately,understandingwhyproductssucceedorfailisforeverintherealmofeducated

conjecture(p.264).Moreover,organizationscancreatesomestrategiesinordertomakean


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attemptatcontrollingthesuccessoftheproduct,butthereareseveralfactorsstrategists

need to take intoconsiderations. After studying the cultural industries, Lampel, Lant and

Shamsiefoundthatthereisfivepolaroppositesthatdefinethefieldofactionorganizations

take.

3.1.1ArtisticValuesversusMassEntertainment

Anartistmayexperienceagreatdilemmawhencreating.Theartisthasastrongneedtostay

true to the artistic value of the cultural product, but he/she must also consider the

entertainment value, as it is through this entertainment value that cultural products are

acceptedand supported by theaudience. This dilemma isa constantone in the culturalindustriesastheindustrystrivestoremainloyaltotheartisticvalues,buttheyneedtodeal

withmarket economics in order tosurvive.Manyartists feeltheysell out if theysolely

focus on the value of mass entertainment. Thus, the question remains: which of these

imperativesshoulddrivedecisionmaking?Shouldtheartdominatethemassentertainment

orshouldthefocusbetheotherwayaroundwithprofitasfirstpriority?Intheend,neither

of the two can prevail without destroying the identity of the organization and thus,

coexistenceistheonlyanswer(Lampel,Lant,&Shamsie,2000).Buthowthisisexecutedis

stillachallenge.

3.1.2ProductDifferentiationversusMarketInnovation

There is a constant search for novelty in the Cultural industries (Lampel et al.,

2000).However,even though theconsumers expectnovelty inthepurchasedgoods, they

alsoexpectthisnoveltytobesomewhatfamiliarandaccessibleandthisposesachallenge

for the artists. Should they seek the novelty thatdifferentiatesproducts withoutmaking

themfundamentallydifferentfromothersinthesamecategory,orthecontrary:seekthe

kindofnoveltythatpursuesinnovationbeyondexistinglimits?Thelastformofinnovationis

alargerisk,butcanatthesametimebreaknewgroundsandmayexpandorfundamentally

changethemarket(Lampeletal.,2000).Thisinnovationcouldbeintermsofnewfabrics,

technology,proceduresandsoon.


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3.1.3DemandAnalysisversusMarketConstruction

Many industries base their decisions on carefully conducted market analysis before

launching new products. However, in the cultural industries there is an ongoing debate

concerningwhytheculturalproductsarecreated.Ontheonehand,therearethosewho

stronglyfeelthatwhattheconsumerswantisexclusivelyshapedbytheimaginationofthe

producers and on the other hand, there are those who only see cultural goods as an

expressionofconsumersneedsanddesires.AnandandPeterson(2000)foundintheirstudy

of the recorded music industry that there may be large risks involved in making the

assumptionthataculturalproductisnodifferentthanothergoodandthatoneshouldfocus

ondemandanalysis. Theyshowhow achange in theway that the industrycollectedand

analyzedinformationonconsumerpurchasingpatterns(usingtheBillboardHot100chart)

produced a dramatic shift in the interpretation of market structure. Something thatwas

perceivedasanobjectivepictureofthemarketturnedouttobeanobjectofthemethods

theindustryusedtoconstructthatpictureinthefirstplace.Itisonceagainfindingabalance

thatseemstobethekey.

3.1.4VerticalIntegrationversusFlexibleSpecialization

The ageold business question to make or buy also exists in the cultural industries.

Organizationsoftenlookforprofitby tryingtohavegreatercontroloverboththecreation

andthedeliveryoftheproduct,andthishasledtoanintegrationofallaspectsofthevalue

chain under one single corporate umbrella (Lampel et al., 2000). This integration is not

always the best solution, as it may inhibit the artist by reducing the creative freedom

becauseintegratedfirmstendtopushforgreatercoordination.Hence,thereisaneedfor

balancebetweenintegrationandspecialization.Specializationenablesthefirmto focuson

theactivitiesthatarebestsuitedtheirroleinthecreationanddistributionoftheproduct,

andoutsourcetherest.


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3.1.5IndividualInspirationversusCreativeSystems

Whatisthetruesourceofcreativevalue?Isittheindividualorisitthesystem?Ifitistheindividual who is the true source, organizations must use many resources in finding,

developing and keeping these talents. If, however, it is the other way around, with the

systemasthetruesource,organizationsmustfocusondevelopingstructures,processesand

culturesthatproducesuccessfulculturalproducts(Lampeletal.,2000).Focusingononecan

insomecasesbeverysuccessful,butgenerallythereisaneedtocombinebothinorderto

succeed.

Allthesefivepolaritiesareimportantaspectsoftheculturalindustryandgreattoolsinthe

constructionofastrategy.

3.2Clusters

AccordingtoMichaelPorter,thedefinitionofaclusteris ageographicallyproximategroup

of interconnected companies and associated institutions in a particular field, linked by

commonalitiesandcomplementaritiesandthisdefinitionhasbeenwidelyused,asitpoints

out two important features; the fact that the companies are a part of a geographically

proximategroup,andthattheyare interconnected(Porter,2000).Inadditiontothisoften

useddefinition,Porterhascreatedamodelthatexplainsthedifferentelementsinacluster.

Itisamodelmadeasatoolforfindinganationscompetitiveadvantage,butitcanalsobea

usefultooltounderstandingacluster.(seefigure1.).


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Figure1.

Geographicalclusteringofrelatedindustries/firms Competitiverivalryand

Intensifiesinteractionswithinthecompetitivediamond knowledgespilloverswithin

theclusterstimulateinnovative

activity

Therearemanyimportantcharacteristicsofacluster,asitisacomplexwayofbusiness.The

first characteristic, close proximity, is themostfundamentalpartof clustertheory. Being

located close to each other has many advantages such as closer relationships and

communication tocustomers, suppliers aswell ascompetitors,which in turn can lead tofuture joint ventures, lowered cost of transportation, a large concentration of future

employers and employees, etc (Porter, 2000). This is also something to be found in the

fashion industry, as there are five Fashion Capitals: Paris, New York, London,Milan and

Rome. An advantage of being located in close proximity brings us to the second

characteristic;havingfacetofacecontact.Facetofacecontactpermits adebtandspeed

offeedbackthatisimpossibleinotherformsofcommunication(Breschi&Malerba,2005).

Furthermore,facetofacecontactoccursonseverallevelsatthesametime,andthiskindof

Firm rivalry

and strategy

Demand

conditions

Factor input

conditions

Related and

supporting

industries

Clustering

enchances

innovation

Innovation

enhances

productivity

Investment

upgrading

High productivity raises competitive advantage of

cluster, enables high wages and employment,

which in turn attract skilled and educated labour


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multidimensionalcommunicationcanbeconsideredasfundamentalforthediffusionoftacit

knowledge(Breschi&Malerba,2005).Thisdiffusioncreatesa knowledgespillover among

themembers,whichmostlikelyenablesthemtostandstrongerthantheywouldalone.The

termknowledgespilloverreferstotheexchangeofideasamongmembersofthecluster,andhasbeenmentionedasoneofthekeyreasonsforinnovativefirmstocluster.Buttobe

abletobeapartofsuchcluster,trustisofvitalimportance(Breschi&Malerba,2005).Itis

important as in tacit knowledge, there usually is a high degree of uncertainty. The

uncertaintycomesfromthefactthatthereisapossibilitythatthepartnerinvolvedmaybea

freeriderorwantingtomanipulatetheothersinvolved.But,asthereisacloseproximity

andahighdegreeofconstantfacetofacecontactinclusters,makingabadnameforone

selfwillmost likely notbebeneficial, asbad news tend to travel fast.Themembers are

encouragednottoactinanopportunisticmanner,astherelationshipswithinclustersare

basedonmutualtrustandrespectandreflectlongterminterest.

All these characteristics are important factors in a philosophy unique to the network

industrycalledsocialsolidarity,anditisonlymadepossiblebecauseofthefactthatthe

networksareunderpinnedbysocialandculturallinks(Swann,Prevezer,&Stout,1998).The

memberfirmsoftheclustersachievethesamekindofeconomiesofscaleinunison,asthe

largeinternationalcompaniesdo,atthesametimeasbusinessnetworksstimulatemutual

learningandinnovationcooperation,andmakepossiblemoreflexibleproduction (Isaksen,

2004).

Moreover,clustersconsistsofmorethanjustcharacteristicsandaccordingtoPorter,thelist

of other elements in a cluster is long. It consists of, beyond single firms, suppliers of

specialized inputs, providers of specialized infrastructure, customers, companies in

industries related by skills, technology or common inputs. Many clusters include

governmentalandotherinstitutionssuchasuniversities,standardssettingagencies,think

tanks, vocational training providers, and trade associations that provide specialized

training,education, information,research,andtechnicalsupport.Finally,foreignfirmscan

beandareapartofclusters,butonlyiftheymakepermanentinvestmentsinasignificant

localpresence(Porter,2000).


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3.2.1TheImportanceofClustersintheCulturalIndustries

Clusters have become an important part of the Cultural Industries. For example, in the

fashion industrytherearefourmaincities namedthe fourFashionClustersof theworld;

Paris,London,NewYorkandMilan.Thisiswherethegreaterpartofthemajordesignersand

fashionhousesaresituatedandisamagnetforallactorswithintheindustry(buyers,fashion

journalists,gatekeepersandsoon).Thereareofcourseclustersinotherkindsof industries

as well, but they seem to have become a vital part of the Cultural Industries formany

reasons.Oneofthereasonsisgroupingtogethermanydifferentactors,withmanydifferent

areasofexpertisecanmakethe processof creating acomplexproducteasier, faster and

cheaper.

Anotherimportantreasonforclusteringistheconstantflowofideasandinspirationonecan

achievebybeinga partofthecluster.Themembersof the industryusuallyhavespecific

qualitiesandknowledgewhichhavebeenachievedbydoing,notreading,andthusifone

wantstolearnorimproveonesknowhow,beingapartofaclusterisvital.Thisbringsusto

aninterestingelementoftheCulturalIndustriestheuseofinterns.

3.3Internships

Thereisanabundanceofpeoplewhowoulddoanythingfortheopportunityofhavingan

internshipintheCulturalIndustriesandthisisprobablybecauseofthefactthatmuchofthe

knowhow in the industry canonly be learned bydoingand by finishing an internship,a

person has shown what he or she can do, created an important network and is better

equipped to handle the harsh reality of the Cultural Industries. Being an intern under acertainname,mayinsomeindustriessecureyouajobfortherestofyourcareer,asthat

knowledgeyoulearnedfromthatinternshipisofsuchahighqualitythatyouwillbeanasset

toanyone.


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3.4AnareaoverseenFashion

Even though there has beenan increase in researchwithin the Cultural industries inthe

recentyears,oneindustryseemstohavegonemissing:thefashionindustry.Thereismore

tofashionthanjustfashionshowsandshopping,andthereexistsaneconomicalpotential

forvariousstakeholders.

Thefashionindustrytodayisnothingliketheoldgarmentindustry,andistodaylookedupon

asadesignindustrywithgreatpotentialonvariouslevels.Theindustryhascomealongway

andhasadapteditselftowardsglobalization,focusingmoreonimport/export.Nevertheless,

thereisalsoapotentialforlocaldesignerstosurviveonasmall,butloyalcustomerbase,as

individualcreativityandpersonalstylehasincreasedinimportance.Forfashionistasandthe

opinion leaders, likebloggers etc, it is importantnot tobemainstream, but insteadfind

exclusiveanduniqueclothestocreatethatimportantpersonalstyle.Thetermfashionista

referstoapersondevotedtofashionclothing,particularlyuniqueorhighfashion.Itisthe

consumersincreasedfocusonindividualisticfashion,aswellastherecentwayoflookingat

fashionasaestheticdesignandnotjustgarments,thatcreatestheeconomicalpotentialfor

theindustry.

Beforetheeconomicalpotentialcanberealized,itisimportanttoboosttheresearchwithin

thisfield,asitprovidesamorequalifiedview.BothDenmarkandSwedenunderstandsthe

potentialinresearchingfashiondesignandhaveestablishedtwoimportantinstitutionsto

increasetheknowledgewithinfashiondesignaswellasexploitingthepotential.InDenmark

aninterdisciplinaryplatformforfashionresearchhasbeenfounded,calledMOKOandtheir

aimistogather,generateandcommunicateknowledgewithinthefieldof fashionthrough

research,conferences,mediaandweb1.InSweden,thereisamasterdegreeprogrammein

AestheticalDisciplineswith a specialization in fashion studies.These research institutions

areimportantinordertoidentifyandincreasethecultural,businessandsalespotential

thatexistsinfashiondesign.Norwaylacksasimilarinstitution.

1 http://www.dkds.dk/forskning/projekter/moko


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4.0Fashion

Thissectionspresentsfashionasanindustry.Itgivesahistoricalaspectaswellasdiscussing

what fashionis andwhy people use fashion. ItalsoexplainstheFashionSystem,waysof

segmentingfashionandsomeofthechallengesintheindustry.

4.1History

Eventhoughthetheoryandresearchoffashionisquiteyoung,theindustryisnot.Thestart

offashioncanactuallybetracedbacktotheMiddleAges,asitwasthestartofmerchant

capitalismandtheriseoflargercities.Andthereisonecityinparticularthatbecame,and

stillis,thecapitoloffashionParis.ItwasLouisXIVandhisfinanceministerJeanBaptiste

ColbertwhoinitiatedthedevelopmentofParisasthecapitoloffashionandluxury,asthey

createdeconomicpoliciesthatencouragedcommerceaswellastheestablishmentofluxury

boutiquesinthecity(Parmal,2006).AnditwasinParisthebirthofhautecouturetookplace

anditsfatherwasCharlesFredericWorth.HeestablishedtheChambresyndicaledelahaute

couture parisienne in 1868,making fashionanattractivecommodity.Worth invented the

topdownsystemwheretheprototypesofclotheswereshownexclusivelytorichclients,and famous French designers soon imitatedthis systemand itwas thesecouturiers that

dictatedfashiontrendstotheworld,makingitaneliteorientedsystem.Hautecouturewas

reservedfortheupperclass,butasthelowerclassesalsohadadesiretobefashionableand

belonging to the exclusive upper class, the clothes were imitated. Thorstein Veblen

introducedatheorycalledtrickledowntheorytoexplainthisphenomenon.

Inlateryears,fashionhasalsomovedfromaClassfashion,towardsaConsumerfashion,

orinotherwords;fashionhasgonefrombeingdictatedbytheindustry,tobecomingmore

consumer driven. This new trend erupted as a consequence of the postwar economic

prosperity,wheremoreclassesofsocietyexperiencedanincreaseincapital,creatingnew

segmentsinfashion.Thischangecreatedademandformoremassproducedandreadyto

wearclothing,aswellasintroducingnewrulesandcyclesinfashion.Thisbecameapparent

as the youth subculture of the 1960s challenged the power of couture, which in turn

changedthe industry.Theyouthfashionexperienceda rapid increase in power, andas a


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consequenceof this theold trickledowneffectof fashion,hadbeen replaced by styles

bubblingupthefashionchain.

4.2Whatisfashion?

Fashionasaconceptmaybenewtomany,thereforethissectionwillstartofwithdefining

what fashion isand presenting the variousdynamics relatedto the concept. Fashionhas

becomean importanttoolofcommunication,openforinterpretationforvariouspeoplein

varioussituations.Oneoftendressessimilartoagrouponewishestobeapartofandthis

processcanbedeliberateaswellasunintentional.Sprolesagreesinhisdefinitionoffashion

as:awayofbehaviourthatistemporarilyadoptedbeadiscernibleproportionofmembers

ofasocialgroup,becausethatchosenbehaviorisperceivedtobesociallyappropriateforthe

timeandsituation. Thisdefinition ischosen forthisthesis,as fashion isbehaviouraland

grouporiented(Sproles,quotedin(McIntyre&Miller,1992).

Beforecontinuing explainingfashion it is importanttodistinguish thedifferencebetween

theclothingindustryandthefashionindustry.Intheclothingindustrytheendproductisthe

actualgarment.Conversely,inthefashionindustrytheactualgarmentisonlyoneofmany

elementsthatwillcontributetothevalueoftheproductfortheendconsumer.Fashionis

thusmoreofaculturalproductwithastrongsymbolicreference.

Fashion isalsoa collectiveunderstanding. For something tobecome fashion ithas tobe

consideredasfashionbyseveralpeople(Kawamura,2005).Thisisalsooneofthereasonsas

towhythefashionindustrytendstoclusterinonecity theproximitybetweentheactors

becomessmaller,whichinturnmakesiteasiertoagreeonwhatthenextbigthingis.The

fashionlifecycleisquiteshortandtense,thusitneedsefficiency.

Fashionmeanschange(Tran,2008)andthefashionlifecycleisshort.Trendscancome

andgoandthenreturnagain.Asamatteroffact,theonlyconstantinfashionischange

andthisisoneofthereasonsthisindustryisahardonetosurvivein.Thereisacontinuous

searchforthenextbigthingandfashioncompaniesmustalwaysbeinvougeinordertobefashionable.


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4.3Howdopeopleusefashion?

Fashionhappenstobearelevantandpowerfulforceinourlife(Agins,1999).Itisusedinordertoportrayonesidentitytotheworld,inordertobelongtoacertaingroup,inorderto

expressmeaningandmakestatements,andsoon.Hence,fashiontakesonmanyroles.

Herbert Blumer proposes that fashion is an important form of collective behaviour. He

believesthatfashionisexpressiveaspeoplearelookingforanovelexperience,haveadesire

for distinction as well as an urge to conform (Blumer, 2003). Lastly, he suggests that

fashionisimportantespeciallyinprovidingameansfortheexpressionofdevelopingtastes

anddisposition;thisfeatureestablishesitasaformofexpressivebehaviour(p.126).Itis

hardtodisagree.Fashioniswithoutadoubtexpressiveastheconsumptionofclothinginthe

worldisfarpastthebasicneedofkeepingwarm.Peoplebuyclothestheyfindnicetolookat

andthatportraysthemselvesthewaytheywanttobeportrayed.Onecanofcourseargue

thattherearepeoplewhoonlybuyclothesinordertostaywarmanddonotcareabouthow

theylookbutisthatnotalsoexpressingyourthoughtsandidentity?

4.4Thefashionsystem

TherearemanyelementsinunderstandingfashionandRolandBarthesunderstoodthatone

hastomaptheelementsinordertounderstandthewhole.In1967BarthespublishedThe

Fashion System where he presented his theory, with an emphasis on one important

concept: system. There have been many other scholars who have presented different

theories on the fashion system, but this one ischosen, as it is the original and themost

suitable for this thesis. Nevertheless, according to Websters dictionary, a system is a

regularlyinteractingorinterdependentgroupofitemsformingaunifiedwhole2.Asystem

usuallyconsistsofthreecommoncharacteristics:structure,behaviourandinterconnectivity

all equally important. The structure refers to the fixed rules in the system, while the

behaviourreferstocertainnormsandbehaviouralpatternsthatareconsideredappropriate

andlastly,interconnectivityreferstotherelationshipthevariouspartsofthesystemhaveto

2

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/system


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eachother.Allinall,nosingleelementinanetworkshouldberegardedasthecauseof

fashion;notthedresstasteofindividualsorgroups;notthespecificformsassumedbydress;

not the claims made for a garment by its promoters. System, therefore, is a way of

conceivingofhumanexistenceassomethinginwhichastructuredcollectivebeingprecedes,

andprovidesthe foundation for, individual being,andthis has steadilybecomea central

organizing principle ofWestern thought (Carter, 2003). This isalso very relevant to the

fashion industry, as it is the collectivewhole thatmakes itpossible for a single actor to

operate.

ReturningtoBarthesandthefashionsystem,heproposedthreestagesofwhichagarment

journeysthroughinthefashionsystem.Thefirststagehecallstherealgarmentandthis is

the production stage. The second stage he calls the represented garment which

correspondstothedistributionandthelaststage,theusedgarmentcorrespondstothe

consumption. In other words, a beautiful dress is made by a famous fashion designer,

presentedinvariousfashionmagazinesaswellaswornbyspecificpeoplepickedouttobe

trendsetters,thenmadeavailableincertainstoresforthepublictobuy.Thedressisapart

ofasystemofinterrelatedelements,whichinturnformsawhole.

4.4.1Themedia

The fashion system consists ofmany different elements, but one is very important. The

media. Themedia has a range of important functions and here two will be highlighted;

communicatorandgatekeeper.Themediasroleascommunicatoriscommunicatingtothe

publicwhatisfashionable,whatnextseasonsbigitemswillbe,whichcelebrityisthemost

trendy,etc.Thismasscommunicationtothepublicmayturnusintoahomogeneousmass,

asweallfollowthesametrends.However,thisiswhatfashionisacollectiveprocess.

Themediacanalsohaveanimportantroleasagatekeeper.Blumer(1939)statedthatthe

reason why a whole industry can agree on what is fashionable is that a certain people

involvedhaveauniqueknowledgeofwhattheenduserswantinadditiontobeingapartof

aspecificmilieu.Kawamura(2005)proposetherearetwotypesofgatekeepers.Thefirst

typeconsistsofpeoplewhoconsiderthemselvesasarbitersofgoodtasteandthesearethe


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fashiondesignerswhotakepartintheseasonalfashionshowsin themainfashionclusters

around the world. The second type consists of fashion journalists, marketers, publicists,

advertisersthemedia.Thesegatekeepersaretheonesthatdiffusetothepublicwhatisin

vouge.Thephenomenonofgatekeepersisnotonlyreservedforthefashionindustry,intheCulturalindustryingeneralthereareacertainfewwhodecideswhoorwhatwillbecome

successful(Caves,2000).

4.5Segmentation

Therearevariouswaysofsegmentingfashionand inthefollowingsectiontwoapproaches

developedbyJrgensen&Hansen(2005)willbepresented.Inthefirstsegmentationthere

arefourdistinctcategories;

Fashionbrands

Thiscategoryiswherethemostaccessiblefashionis,thehighstreet.Herethegarmentsare

inthelowestpricerangeandthestoresaremostoftenrepresentedinmanymarketsaround

theworld.Massproductionisthehallmark.ExamplesofFashionbrandsareH&M,Zara,Top

Shop,etc.

PremiumFashionbrands

Thegarmentsinthiscategoryareabitmoreexpensivethantheprevious.Theyareonthe

edgebetweenmassandexclusivity,andtheycompetebothwiththecategoriesbelowand

abovethemselves.Thesebrandsareusuallyalsospreadaroundtheworld.Examplesare;

Levis,Diesel,Espirit,TheGap,etc.

Premiumbrands/HighEndbrands/MassLuxurybrands

Thesebrandsarequitespecialastheytrytoadaptluxurytomassmarketrules.Theyare

also represented around theworld, but are very selectivewhen itcomestodistribution.

Examples:Armani,HugoBoss,PoloRalphLauren,D&G,etc.

Luxurybrands/Prestigebrands


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Thegarmentsaremadebythefinestmaterialsandhavethehighestlevelofcraftsmanship

andthusareinthehighestpricerange.Theyonlyhaveafew,exclusivestoresaroundthe

worldandtheyarecharacterizedbyextravagance.LouisVouitton,ChanelandCartierare

examplesofthese.

Thesecondwayofsegmentingfashionisbasedontheretailpriceofadressandherethere

arefivecategories.Thefirstisthelowestpricerangewheretheretailpriceofadresswould

beunderDKK300.Thiscategorycanbecharacterizedas budget.Adressfallsinthemid

rangecategoryifthedresscostsbetweenDKK300750.Apremiumbranddresshasaprice

rangeofDKK7502500.Thenexttwocategoriesmaybefamiliarnamesinfashion: Prt

PorterandHauteCouture.PrtPorteriswhenadresscostsoverDKK2500,whiletheterm

HauteCouturecanbeusedonlybyfirmsthatmeetcertainwelldefinedstandardsandarea

memberoftheexclusiveChambresyndicaledelahautecouture.

4.6TheIndustryChallenges

Aslikeanyotherindustry,therearesomegeneralchallengesinthefashionindustryandin

thissectionsomeofthesehavebeenidentified.

As the fashion industry isapart of the Cultural industries, they share someofthe same

problems. As mentioned, Lampel et al (2000) proposed a set of five polarities that

organizationsinthisindustrymaycomeacross.Thesepolaritiesexemplifytheambiguityand

dynamism in the industry and there are especially two that are relevant for the fashion

industry.Thefirstoneis artisticvalue versusmassentertainment.Intermsofthefashion

industry,thesetwopolaritiescanbeunderstoodasfashiondesign(ex:LeilaHafsi,Arne&

Carlos)versusmassproduction(BikBok,LeneV).Whenreferringtofashiondesignasartistic

value,itisnotsaythatmassproductiondoesnotincludecreativity,butthatitisnotwhatis

the focus of the business. As amatter of fact, one could say that themore an item is

produced, the more it looses it artistic value. Exclusivity is key. Nevertheless, as an

organisationneedstoconsidermarketeconomicsaswellasstayingtruetoitsartisticvalue,

thisisacontinuingproblemwithinthecreativeindustries.


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The second polarity is the problem of new versus familiar. In the creative industries

especially there is a continuing need for something new, and the fashion industry is no

exception.Adesignermustalwayspresentnewideas,reinventoneselfandtryto findthe

nextititem.However,adesignercannotchangetoomuchasthepublicmayhavecertainexpectations for the new clothes to resemble the old orat least have the qualities that

designerisknownfor.Thus,designerscaneasilyputthemselvesinan ironcage,whichcan

behardtoescapefrom.Thedesignermaywanttobreakcompletelywiththeoldstyleand

goinadifferentdirection,butthemarkethascertainexpectationsandoneshouldalways

considerthemarket.Thisisalsooneofthedifficultiesinthefashionindustry;shouldone

focusondemandanalysiswhendesigningorshouldoneconstructthemarket?Lampel et

al(2000)saidthefollowingonthischallenge:Thereisalongstandingdisputeinthecultural

industriesbetweenthosewhoseeculturalgoodsasanexpressionofconsumersneedsand

desires,andthosewho argue thatwhatconsumerswant is almost entirelyshapedbythe

imagination and creativity of the producers. The debate corresponds to fundamentally

differentviewsofwhysomeculturalgoodsbecomesuccessfulwhileothersdonot(p.266).

One can easily see this in the fashion industry as in some cases the inspiration of the

designerscomefromundergroundcultureswhohavecreatedtheirownuniquestyle,while

otherdesignersdesigncompletelyfromtheirownimagination.

Findinganinvestorisalwayshardastheyusuallyhavecertainrequirementsthathavetobe

fulfilledinordertobeeligibleforinvestment.Thefashionindustryisanindustryinconstant

movementanditmaybehardtopredictsuccess.AsurveymadeontheNorwegianfashion

industry discovered that 43% of the designers asked stated that they need help with

financingthebusiness,anditismostlyinproductionthehelpisneeded(38%)(Nordgrd,

Fensgrd,&Karlsen,February2008).

Copyright isawellknownwordwithin the creative industries, but it ishard toachievea

copyrightinthefashionindustryasfashionandmarketdemandschangesoquickly.Thisis

another reasonwhy the designers need tobeproducing constantly, alwayscreating new

fashion.


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Organizations inthe fashion industrymayexperience strong pressures toconformto the

proceduresandstandardssetbytheindustry.Thispressuretoconformcanbereferredtoas

isomorphicpressure,entitiesbecomingsimilartoeachother.Theconceptof isomorphism

wasfirstdescribedbyHawley(1968,p.334)andheproposedunitssubjectedtothesame

environmental conditions, or to environmental conditions as mediated by a given unit,

acquireasimilarformoforganization.Today,wecanidentifytwotypesofisomorphism,

competitiveandinstitutional,howeverthefocuswillbeoninstitutionalisomorphism.There

arethreemechanismstriggeringinstitutionalisomorphicchange:(1)coerciveisomorphism;

(2)mimeticisomorphismand(3)normativeisomorphism(DiMaggio,P.andW.W.Powell,

1991).Itisimportanttounderstandthatthemechanismscaneasilybeintegrated.

Coerciveisomorphismstemsfromformalaswellasinformalpressuresputforthbyother

organizations within the relevant industries, upon which the specific organization is

dependent. Itmay also result fromcultural expectations in the societywithin which the

organizationsoperate.Suchpressuresmaybefeltasforce,aspersuasion,orasinvitationsto

joinin collusion(DiMaggio,P.andW.W.Powell,1991)(p.67).Someorganizationalchanges

areaconsequenceofagovernmentalmandate.Agoodexampleofthisistheschoolsystem.

A country has certain state standards they have to follow in each subject and thus the

schoolsmainstreampupilsandhiretheteachersthatfitwithandfollowthesestandards.

Mimeticisomorphism,ontheotherhand,doesnotoriginatefromcoerciveauthority.Inthis

view, it is argued that organization mimic each other as a result of uncertainty. The

organizationexperiencinguncertaintycancomefromverydifferentbackgroundandhave

verydifferentreasonsforuncertainty,suchaswhenorganizationaltechnologiesarepoorly

understood, when goals are ambiguous or when the environment creates symbolic

uncertainty(DiMaggio,P.andW.W.Powell,1991)(p.69).Mimicrycanalsobediffusedasa

result of employeetransferor turnover, new innovationson themarket,using the same

consultancy firms or simply a lack of variation to choose from (DiMaggio, P. and W.W.

Powell, 1991). When mimicking other organizations, it is the organizations that are

perceivedtobemorelegitimateandsuccessfulthanthemimickingorganizationthatworks

asabenchmark.


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Master Thesis


Thelastofthethreemechanismsisnormativeisomorphism.Itstemsfrom

professionalization and quoting from the works of DiMaggio & Powell

(1991),professionalization in thiscontext canbeunderstood as thecollective struggleof

membersofanoccupationtodefinetheconditionsandmethodsoftheirwork,tocontrolthe production of producers andto establish a cognitivebase and legitimation for their

occupational autonomy (p.70). There are two aspects of professionalization that are

importantsourcesofisomorphism.Thefirstistheformaleducationandtherequirements

following the education. The second concerns the expansion ofprofessional networks as

wellasprofessionalandtradeassociations,resultinginnewmodelsbeingdiffusedrapidly

(DiMaggio,P.andW.W.Powell,1991).

The isomorphic pressure brings us to the last challenge within the fashion industry: the

questforlegitimacy.Theworldoffashionislargeanditcanbedifficulttoachievestatusand

respect from the market, as well as from the gatekeepers, the experts and the fellow

designers.A fashiondesignerneedslegitimacyformanyreasons:topromotethebrand,to

communicatewith the industry, to increase revenue, and soon.Even though there is a

strong demand for continually reinventing oneself in the fashion industry, it also exist a

strong pressure of incorporating someset standards andprocedureswithin the industry.

MeyerandRowan(1991)statesthatorganizationsaredrivento incorporatethepractices

and procedures defined by prevailing rationalized concepts of organizational work and

institutionalized in society. Organizations that do so increase their legitimacy and their

survival prospects, independent of the immediate efficacy of the acquired practices and

procedures(p.41).

It can be difficult todealwith isomorphic pressures, as itmay seem like a safe strategy

conformingtothestandards.However,inthefashionindustryitisyourdistinctivenessthat

thatmakesyouunique.


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5.0NorwegianFashion

Thissectionwillpresentthehistory,thegeneraltendenciesandsomeoftheinstitutionsof

theNorwegianFashionIndustry.

5.1History

Manypeoplehavesaiditbefore,butitisstillhighlyrelevant:Onemustknowthepastto

understandthe future.Thus, inorder tounderstand contemporary fashion,onemust go

back in timeand see how ithas evolved during the past centuries and seewhat effects

fashion has had on society.Norway has not beena countrywell knownfor beinga first

moverwhenitcomestofashion.Onthecontrary,Norwayisseenbysomeasbeingtheleast

trendy country inScandinavia, or at least the least developed countrywhen it comes to

fashion.Itisthereforeimportanttonarrowdownthescopeandfocusontheevolutionof

Norwegianfashion, inordertobetterequippedforthefuture.Thissectionwillexplorethe

fashioninNorwayfromthelate1700uptothe1950s.Thesectionwillbedividedintothree

parts representing three different periods.Period 1 will dealwith fashion from the 1790

untilmid1800,aperiodwheretheendoftheFrenchRevolutionhadagreatimpactonmanydifferentlevelsofsociety.In Period2,fromthe1860stoearly1900s,thereweremany

changesinfashionandsomeofthesewillbepresented.Thelastsection, Period3,presents

fashionfrom1900upuntilthe1950s.Thereasonforchoosingtogoasfarbackas1790is

thatthiswastheendoftheFrenchRevolutionandthestartofthetimewhenthemiddle

classtookovertheeconomicandpoliticalleadership.Thisshiftofpowerwouldentailmany

challengesforthenext150yearsandthisalsohasaneffectonhowpeopleweredressed

andwhattheidealswere.Thehistoricalperspectiveendsinthe1950sandthereasonfor

thisisthatthiswasthetimewhenfashioninNorwaystartedtobemoreuptodatewiththe

restoftheworld.Thecommunicationgotbetter,fashionmagazinesgrewinimportanceand

thefashioncyclesbecameshorter.Themajormilestonesafterthistimeismentionedinthe

sectionThemajormilestonesinNorwegiancontemporaryfashion.


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5.1.1Period1,17901860

Inthelast18thcentury,thetimeofEnlightenment,reasonandrationalismwasstrong.The

middle class took the power from the nobility, and people rebelled against traditional

authorities such as the church and state. Themiddle class swore to themotto liberty,

equality,brotherhoodandtheultimatecitizenwasaneffectivecitizen.Therewereclear

distinctionsbetweenamanandawoman,asthetwowereseenaspolaropposites.Theman

represented reason, responsibility and firmness, in opposition to the woman who

representednature,freedomandwarmth.Thiscanbeseeninthewaytheydressed,asthe

idealexpressionforawomanwasdresseswithempirewaistinlightfabrics,representing

natureandnudeness,andflatshoes,representingfreedom(Ramnefalk,2004).

TheRomanticismreplacedtheEnlightenment,puttingfeelings,fantasyandcultureinfocus.

Thecorsetwasreintroducedandtheidealdresshadlacingallthewayuptothearmpits,a

largeunderskirt and sleeves so tight itwas impossible to lift the arms to the head. The

womenwereactuallymorehinderedbythewaytheydressedthantheyhadbeeninmany

years(Ramnefalk,2004).

5.1.2Period2,18601900

TheindustrializationinNorwayblossomedafter1860.Thismeantmanynewjobsaswellas

greatpossibilitiesforexportandasaresultofthis,manymenemigratedtoothercountries.

Thisinturnresultedinasurplusofwomen,whichmayhavebeenthereasonofthecreation

ofthefirstWomensRightsassociation in1884andwhy thewomans role in societywas

discussed.Intheyears18681890therewasagreatunrestintermsofthewomansrole,

andthisseemedtoreflectinthefashionofthedayasitwasveryunstableandhadrapid

changes(Ramnefalk,2004).

5.1.3Period3,19001950

Itwasaftertheturnofthecenturythatthewaywomendressedreallychanged.Womens

roleinsocietychanged,makingthewomanmoreinterestingandrespectedaswellasbeing

moreawareofthemselvesandtheiropportunities(Ramnefalk,2004).Manywomenwanted


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toworkoutsidethehometoprovideforthemselvesandthisbroughtaboutachangeinthe

waytheydressed.TheywentfromlookinglikeanS,withthechestpushedforwardand

the backpushed backwards, to removing the corsets in1910and insteadembracing the

naturalfemalebody.As travellingabroadbecameeasier,peoplebroughtbackfashionableitemssuchasturbans,kimonosandeasternEuropeanembroideriesandintroducedthesein

theNorwegianfashion.

Itseemsasthoughallthesechangesinspiredwomentomakechangesandbemorefreeand

anexampleofthisiswhenwomenaround1910startedbicyclingandinordertomakethis

easier,wearingpantstomanymenandsomewomensdismay. Inthesecondpartof the

1920s fashiontook a long stepwhenwomen startedwearingkneelengthskirts and the

ideal was young girls without curves. However, this was again replaced by the more

curvaceoussilhouettesofthe1940sand1950s.Duringthistime,thefashioncyclesbecame

shorterandimprovedcommunicationmadeiteasiertogetinspirationfromabroad.

Thechangesinfashionpresentedabove,weregenerallyaresultofchangesinsocietyand

thusfashionworksasamirrorofsociety.Researchingthewaypeopledresscanprovidea

uniqueknowledgeonmanylevels.

5.2ThemajormilestonesinNorwegiancontemporaryfashion

Norwegianfashionhasgrownrapidlythepasthalfdecadeandthissectionpresentssomeof

themajormilestones.

1958WilliamJensen

William Jensen was the first registered Norwegian designer who started designing for

specificclients.

1977PerSpook

OnecouldstatethatmuchbeganwhenthegreatestNorwegiandesignerintheyears1977

1995hadhisownhautecouturemaisoninParis.Hewasoneofaselectedfewwhocould


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labeltheirgarmentshautecouture,asthistermwasreservedformembersoftheexclusive

ChambreSyndicaledelaConfectionetdelaCouturepourDamesetFillettes.

1990EsmodopensinOslo

It was the designer NilsChristian IhlenHansenwho established the renowned school of

fashiondesigninOsloin1990.Thiswillenableprospectivedesignerstolearnmoreabout

theindustryandthecraftoffashiondesign.

2000DesignStreet

DesignStreetwaslaunchedasameetingplaceforNorwegianfashion.Anotherreasonfor

startingDesignStreetwastocreateaplacewhereNorwegianfashioncouldbeexposedand

presentedbothlocallyandinternationally.

2004OsloFashionWeek

PlVassbotten,aformermodel,launchesOsloFashionWeek(OFW)topromoteNorwegian

fashionandintegrateitontheinternationalscene.Today,OFWisarrangedtwiceayear,in

FebruaryandAugust.Duringthefashionweek,variousprizesarehandedouttopeoplewho

havedoneanextraordinaryjobincontributingtothesuccessofNorwegiandesigners.

2008Motepilot

ThefirststudymadeonNorwegianfashiondesigniscompleted.ItiscalledMotepilotand

isastudyoffashionasanindustry,andsincetherehasbeennopriorresearchinthisfieldit

isregardedasapilotstudyandshouldpreferablyworkasabasisforfurtherresearch.

2009NorwegianFashionInstitute

With a desire to build up Norwegian fashion to a strong and competitive industry, the

governmental body Innovation Norway founded Norwegian Fashion Institute (NFI). Their

missionistostimulateandpositionNorwegianfashiondesigninNorwayandabroad 3and

tobeameetingplacefornetworkinginthefashionindustry.

3 www.norwegianfashioninstitute.no


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5.3TendenciesinNorwegianfashiontoday

Animportantpartofresearchingfashionistotakeacloserlookattheconnectionbetweenfashionandnational identity.Danishdesignhasconnections to thebohemian look,while

Swedishfashionismoreorientedaroundgraphicsandboldpatterns.Butwhatcharacterizes

Norwegian fashion? As of today, there is no real collective Norwegian fashionidentity.

Nevertheless,therearesometendenciesamongthevariousdesigners,whichcan leadthe

direction to a joint identity, and these will be explored in the following section. The

importanceoftheconnectionbetweenfashionandidentitywillbeelaboratedonlaterinthe

thesis.ThetendenciesarebasedonapersonalstudyofseveralNorwegianfashionbrands,

andarethusindividual.

5.3.1Traditionsandhistory

Norwayisanoldcountrywithanarrayofhistoryandvarioustraditionsinnumerousfields,

andNorwegiansaregenerallyproudoftheirheritage.Thiscanbeseeninthepopularityin

thenationaldress,the bunad.Thebunadisbasedontheold folkedraktandwasusedin

Norway up until the 1800s. This was a garment that was local and unique to a certain

village,andwasusedbothaseverydayclothingaswellasformoresocialgatherings.The

bunad,asitisknowntoday,gotitsformaround1900andwasbasedonmodelsbyHulda

GarborgandKlaraSemb.

Source:www.norskflid.no


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Tomanythisgarmentmayseemextremelyoldfashionandnotverytrendy,butNorwegians

donotagree.Asamatteroffact,thesaleofbunadhasincreasedduringthepast20years.A

goodexampleofhowpopularthebunadiscanbefoundinthetotalsalesofbunadinayear.In1998NorwegianspurchasedbunadforNOK700millions4.

KnittinghasalwaysbeenimportantinNorway,probablyduetothecoldweatherandeasy

accesstowool.OneknittedgarmentthatisverypopularistheSeterdalsgenserorLusekofte.

Thissweather/jacketcanbetracedbacktothestartofthe20 thcenturyandmanyviewthis

asbeing the best garment tocharacterizeNorwegians, andmanyNorwegiansagree. The

largest gossip magazine in Norway, Se og Hr, gives every international celebrity they

interviewaLusekoftetogivethemaninsighttothecountryandtopromoteNorway.

5.3.2InnovationandSustainability

Norway,asanyothernationtoday,isconcernedwithsustainabilityandhasevenintroduced

itinthefashionindustry.TheNorwegianhighendbrandFINfocusesonecoluxuryandwas

been quite successful. The Wall Street Journal wrote an article about NICE, the Nordic

Initiative Clean & Ethical, calling them groundbreaking and predicts a bright future for

Scandinavian sustainabledesign. FIN is a very innovative brand andhas actuallymade a

dressentirelyoutofmilkproteins.

4

www. http://www.norskflid.no


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5.3.3Weather/Climate

Norwayisacountrywithmanydifferentkindsofweather,andweliketotalkaboutit.There

isanoldNorwegianmottowhichisheavilyused:Detfinnesikkedrligvr,baredrlige

klrwhichmeansthatthereisnosuchthingaspoorweather,onlypoorclothing.Having

sucharangeofweathercreatesaneedforsuitableclothing.Oneofthemostwellknown

brandsinNorway,HellyHansen,canbetracedbacktotheendofthe19thcenturywhen

HellyJuelHansenandhiswifemadevariousclothingfromcoarselinensoakedinlinseedoil.

Today,HellyHansenisalargeproviderofhighquality,technicalouterweargarments.Itisa

verypopularbrandthatMoodsofNorwayhavehadadesigncollaborationwith.

5.3.4Placebranding

EventhoughNorwayisnotknownforbeingafashionnationworldwide,manyNorwegian

designerschoosetoassociatethemselveswithNorwayintheirbrandname,i.e.Moodsof

Norway,NorwegianTwist,IlsofNorway,etc.).Thisisagoodindicationthatthedesigners

areproudoftheirheritageandwanttoshowtheworldsomeofwhatNorwaycanoffer.One

ofthebestknownexamplesofthisisMoodsofNorwaywhoconcentratealldesignsaround

Norwegianhistoryandtraditions.

Norwayisknownforitsrangeofweatherandthustheneedforqualityouterwear,andthe

ItalianbrandNapapirjiknewthiswellwhentheychosetoputtheNorwegianflagintheir

logo.SimonAnholtexplainsthis:theassociationsofqualityorappropriatenessarepowerful

enoughattributestomakeitworthwhileforamanufacturertoclaimafictitiousprovenance

ifitappearstolendmorecredibilitythantheirrealprovenance (Anholt,1998)(p.369).He

callsthisacuckoobrandandtheyaresurprisinglycommonandhavebeenaroundformany

years.

5.4Organizationalform

TheNorwegianFashionindustrytodayisnotoptimalwhenitcomestoorganizationalform.

Itisasortofnetworkorganization,wherethenetworkdoesnotfunctionproperly.However,NorwegianFashionInstitutewasopenedinhopesofbecomingagatheringinstitutioninthe


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Norwegian Fashion industry and hence facilitating networking. Another challenge is the

geographicalpositioningoftheactorsintheindustry.InnovationNorway(InnovasjonNorge)

encouragesdesigners,informoffinancialsupport,tosituatetheirbusinessintheregions,to

avoidcentralizationinthemajorcities.OneofthemainconclusionsfromtheindustryreportMotepilot was that this decentralization is quite unfortunate, as clustering can be an

importanttoolintheCulturalIndustries.EspeciallyinNorway,asitisasmallactoronthe

internationalarenaitisevenmoreimportanttobeclosetoeachother,bothphysicallyand

mentally,andthisisbestachievedwhentheactorsaresituatedwithincloseproximity.

5.5ImportantinstitutionssupportingNorwegianFashion

Thefollowingsectionwillpresentsomeofthemostimportantinstitutionssupportingand

working with Norwegian Fashion. The reason for highlighting the institutions is to draw

attentionto thefactthattherearemanydifferentorganizationsthatcanworktogetherto

buildNorwegianFashionandpushittothenextlevel.Alltheinformationaboutthevarious

institutionsistakenfromtheirhomepagesandfreelytranslatedfromNorwegian.

5.4.1NorwegianFashionInstitute

Norwegian Fashion Institute (NFI) was officially openedwhen the Norwegianminister of

TradeandIndustrySylviaBrustadcuttheribbonFebruary11th2009.Itwasthegovernment,

underthemanagementofthegovernmentalbodyInnovationNorway,whohavemadeNFI

possible,astheywillcontributewitheconomicalsupportforthefirstthreeyears.

NFIsetsouttostimulateandpositionNorwegianfashiondesigninNorwayandabroad 5

and the institute is based on a basic set of value: quality, renewal, cooperation and

diversity.NFIhasonemorecornerstone,whichistopromoteethicalfashionandbusiness.

Moreover,therearemanypeoplewhowillbenefitfromNFIsworkastheywishtocreate

cooperationsbetweenimportanteducationalinstitutionsandorganizations,brandowners,

producers andother relevantprofessional creativeplayers.There are69membersat the

5 www.norwegianfashioninstitute.no


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moment (as of September 1st 2009), which is quite good as it has only been official for

around8months.

The institute have created four main tasks thatwill help build and structure the fashionindustryinNorway:

1. TheunifiedorganizationforNorwegianfashion- NFIhopestheinstitutewillbecomeameetingplacefornetworking,strategic

debatesandagreementsoncooperations

- Relevantindustryinformationshallbemadepublic- The institutewillwork togetherwith similar institutions inother countries,

NorwegianEmbassies,relatedbusinessesorindustries,investorsandfinancial

institutions

2. ACentreforcompetency- Theinstitutewillorganizecooperationswithrelevantactorsintheindustry- These cooperations will include various happenings from seminars to

guidance in supervising and forecasting trends as well as knowledge

improvement

- NFIwilltakeinitiativeinFoUprojectsandPhDpositions- NFI will be an instigator in promoting the history of fashion design as

inspirationandafoundationforfurtherdevelopment

3. Makingajointmove- The institution will act as an agent for Norwegian Fashion and organize

promotion and other forms of marketing, i.e. by participating in foreign

events

- Developan internetportalforpromotingNorwegianFashion,fashionshowsandeventsaswellascooperationswithsimilarforeignorganizations

- NFIwillfacilitateforworkingtogethertodevelopandrevisean- AnnouncementonthepositioningandbrandingofNorwegianfashion


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4. Organizinganddisclosingeffortsfordevelopmentwithintrade- The institute shall take care of, communicate and organize development

initiativeswithintradeincollaborationwithinitiativesfromthegovernment

5.4.2NorskForm

NorskFormwasestablishedbytheministryofCulture in 1992and isan informationand

projectinstitutionforNorwegiandesignandarchitecture.Throughexhibitions,publications,

awards, competitions, press and much more, Norsk Form does an important job for

promotingNorwegiandesignandarchitecture. Additionally,Norsk Form is theNorwegianMinistryofForeignAffairsadvisorandtheadministrativeorganizationforthearchitectural

anddesignfields.

AccordingtoNorskFormshomepage,theirmissionisto:

1. Increasetheunderstandingforarchitectureanddesign2. Work towardsqualityandinnovation inthedevelopmentofour surroundings and

products

3. Strengthentheprofessionalcooperationacrossindustryborders,conveyknowledgeand give advise to the public, industryexperts, the different industries, the

governmentandeducationalinstitutions

Oneofthemostimportantfunctionisthedistributionoftravelandtransportsubsidiesfor

professional Norwegian architects and designers who are set to attend, weather it is

speaking or exhibiting their collection, important international arenas where they can

represent and promote Norway. Another important activity internationally is providing

advise for ministries, foreign posts and embassies when they wish to organize visits or

profiling arrangements concerning Norway. Furthermore, Norsk Form also plays an

importantroleinassistingtheinternationalpresswithinformationandphotographswithin

thedesignandarchitecturalfields.AlltheseactivitiesareawayofpromotingNorwayboth

asaqualitydesignandarchitecturalnation,butalsoasatouristnation.


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5.4.3InnovationNorway

The governmental body Innovation Norway (Innovasjon Norge) promotes nationwide

industrial development profitable to both the business economy and Norways national

economy,andhelpsrelease thepotentialof differentdistricts and regionsbycontributing

towardsinnovation,internationalisationandpromotion6. InnovationNorwayhasofficesin

allthecountiesinNorwayaswellasin30countriesallaroundtheworld,andemploysover

700people.

The organization assists the Norwegian industry, but has particular focus on helping

entrepreneurs and aiding small and mediumsized companies whom have ambitions and

potentialforgrowth.AccordingtoareportfromNorwayExports(2008),InnovationNorway

can offer (1) funding provided as loans, guarantees and equity capital programmes, (2)

advisory and expertise development measures, (3) national and international network

buildingandtechnologytransferand(4)marketingofNorwegianindustryandNorwayasa

touristdestination.

5.4.4TekstilForum

Tekstil Forum is an industrypublication about fashion, environment and wellbeing. They

providetheindustrywithstatisticsandtrendsfromaroundtheworld,fashionandbeauty

news andmuch more. They state they have an overview of the Norwegianmarket, the

suppliersandtheprofitabilityintheindustry,importandthesalesprogress.

Asyoucansee,severalinstitutionsworkingwithNorwegianFashionhavebeenidentified

andtheycanbeimportantplayersinstrengtheningNorwegianFashionnationallyand

internationally.TherearehowevermoreplayersintheNorwegianFashionFieldanda

mappingofthesecouldbebeneficial.

6 http://www.innovasjonnorge.no/system/Global-toppmeny/English/


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6.0Whatisabrand?

6.1Theevolutionofbranding

Thewordbrandingstems from its literalmeaning to brand. It refers to the brandingof

animals,whichattheoutsetwasdonetomarkwhichanimalbelongedtowhichfarmer.This

markingturnedouttobecomeamarkofquality,asanimalsfromparticularfarmerswere

better and thus became popular and more desirable than the lot. There has been a

remarkable development of brands since that time, and fourmain stages can be found

(Roper&Parker,2006). In table 1 this evolution ispresented, but only threeof the four

stagesareincludedasthelaststage(brandasasset)isnotnecessarilyastagethatwould

berecognizableexternaltoindividualcompanies.

(S.Roper&C.Parker,2006)


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BrandingasIdentification

Originally, brandingwas a tool usedtolinkaproductorservice to its owner, inorder to

ensurethatconsumerswouldrecognizetheproduct.

BrandingasDifferentiation

The start of massproduction, distribution and communication prolonged the need for

identification in the new unexplored marketplaces. In addition to this, there became a

strongneedfordifferentiationasthereweremanyactorsinthesenewmarketstryingto

succeed. The communication of differentiation was usually functional or rational (size,

packaging, quality, etc). Nevertheless,these factors were not economically rational and

thosechargedwithforecastingorunderstandingdemandfortheseproductscouldnolonger

relyoneconomictheorytoexplainthebehaviourofcostumersandpredictthebehaviourof

brands (Roper & Parker, 2006)(p.57). Consequently, the theory of marketing developed

furtherandfromthe1950sthestudyofbrandingbegan.

BrandingasPersonification

As time goes by and researchers begin to study brands, their importance are widely

recognized and they are no longer just a symbol they have now been ascribed a

personality.Thismakesiteasierforpeopletorelatetothebrandsandtomake(hopefully)

longlastingrelationships.

BrandasAsset

Branding has its roots ineconomictheory andwhat liesatthe core iswhat the brand is

worth.Companiescannowreporttheirbrandsonbalancesheetsandthishasincreasedthe

desireformeasurement.Todayonecanactuallyfindanannualtablelistingovertheworlds

mostvaluablebrands.Aakerexplainsthevalueofbrandsasbrandequityanditcomprised

ofbrandnameawareness,brandloyalty,perceivedqualityandbrandassociations.

6.2Brandingtoday

Therearemanydefinitionsonwhatabrandisinpresentdaybrandingtheory,buttherearetwo scholars who have published the two of the most significant and widely used


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definitions; David Aaker and Noel Kapferer. Aaker, together with a fellow scholar Biel,

proposeabrandisbasicallyanamethatreferstoproductofaparticularmanufacturerina

particular product category. A brand includes tangible or intrinsic qualities, such as

appearance,performancedata,packageandtheguaranteesorwarrantiesthatareattached

toit.Perhapsmoreimportantly,abrandinvolvesaspectsthattheconsumerattributestoit,

beyonditstangible features.Theseattributesmayincludeattitudes towards thecompany

thatproducestheproductortowardsthebranditself,beliefsaboutthebrandinrelationship

tosel

discovering a brand identity for norwegian fashion

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