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DIRECT INSTRUCTION AND AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
______________________________________________________________________________
A Thesis
Presented to the Faculty in Communication and Leadership Studies
School of Professional Studies
Gonzaga University
______________________________________________________________________________
Under the Supervision of Dr. John Caputo
Under the Mentorship of Dr. Lazarina Topuzova
______________________________________________________________________________
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Arts in Communication and Leadership Studies
______________________________________________________________________________
By
Zelda Togun
December 2011
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ABSTRACT
This study examined teacher-created instruction and direct instruction using The Muted Group
Theory. The study questions were: RQ1: Which is the better method for teaching African
American middle-school children? RQ2: What role does Muted-Group Theory play in the
academic choices offered to families of African American middle school children? The scope
of the study was limited to classroom observations and interviews of students‘ time-on-task. The
study used qualitative research methods by a non-participant observer. This study used an
ethnographic approach to determine time-on-task for African American middle school students.
Students were observed in a Direct Instruction English Classroom and observed in a teacher-
devised instruction math classroom. A nonprobability sampling method was used. The
qualitative analysis demonstrated the African American students spent more time-on-task in the
direct instruction English class than those same students in the teacher devised instruction Math
class. Based on The Muted Group Theory, the direct instruction English class provided the
students with more voice as to the method preferred, as two-thirds of the group had more time-
on-task using the direct instruction method.
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 6
The Problem and Study Goal 6
The Importance of the Study 7
Statement of the Problem 7
Definitions of Terms Used 8
Organization of Remaining Chapters 8
CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 9
Philosophical Assumptions 9
Theoretical Basis 10
The Literature 12
Affirmative Positions 12
Dissenting Positions 14
Rationale 16
Research Questions 16
CHAPTER 3. SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY 18
Scope of this Study 18
Study Population 18
Field Methods 18
The Settings 19
Methodology 19
Unit of Study 20
Anonymity and Confidentiality 20
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Instrumentation 20
Taxonomy 20
CHAPTER 4. THE STUDY 23
Introduction 24
Data Analysis 24
The Classrooms24
Results of the Study 33
Discussion 34
CHAPTER 5. SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSIONS 37
Limitations of the Study 37
Conclusion 38
References 41
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
The Problem and Study Goal
Scholars have historically studied education and communication and noting the
fundamental link between theory and practice. Educational philosophers from Socrates to
Dewey to Freire held the view that education and communication were inexorably linked
(Glander, 2000). A common area of study is the actual communication processes used to make
learning possible. This thesis explores two communication modes of instructional delivery and
their effectiveness in classrooms with African American middle-school students.
All students require instruction in order to grasp learning principles. Instruction may take
the form of teacher-created instruction, traditionally used in kindergarten through grade twelve
(K-12) schools, or direct instruction, a newer method which includes the use of a scripted
curriculum. Luke (1998, cited in Hinchman & Lalik, 2002) noted ―debates about literacy
education were mainly framed around competing instructional approaches to teaching reading
and writing‖ (Hinchman & Lalik, 2002, p.85). Direct instruction with a scripted curriculum is
gaining momentum with educators.
Classroom instruction in K-12 classrooms is a priority in identifying and quantifying
methods to improve student test scores ―[a]s a result of the Comprehensive School Reform
Demonstration (CSRD) program (U.S. Department of Education, 1999). By 2002, over 380
school reform models were adopted with CSRD support‖ (Desimone, 2002). The data presents a
conflict in determining which method results in improved test scores. Instructors may be unable
to select the best instructional methods because ―[o]ur (individual) understanding of what is real
is different. Which is another way of saying that embedded in every tool is an ideological bias, a
predisposition to value one thing over another‖ (Postman, 1992, p.13). A comparative analysis
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of traditional self (teacher-created) - devised instruction, and direct instruction will be examined
in this thesis.
The Importance of the Study
At its creation, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) was defended as necessary
to further advance the goal of achieving educational equity by holding public schools responsible
for eliminating achievement disparities between high- and low-performing students, especially
between minority and non-minority students (Sunderman, Kim, & Orfield, 2005). Former
President George W. Bush described NCLB as a path to educational transformation, and the key
to racial equality and economic success; his critics denounced the very same law as a plot to
undermine public education (Sunderman, Kim, & Orfield, 2005). NCLB gave Bush
administration officials leverage to impose its preferred method of teaching reading, which is
direct instruction (Sunderman, Kim, & Orfield, 2005). The Bush administration preferred the
teaching method of NCLB, and this preference fuels the debate on which is the better form of
instruction, teacher-created instruction or direct instruction.
Statement of the problem
As teachers continue to seek the best method to educate all students, especially low
performing students, the question to be explored is: Do standardized direct instruction materials
improve educational outcomes for African American middle-school students? This seeks to
allow the African American students to provide the answer themselves based on The Muted
Group Theory. According to Kramarae (2005), Muted Group Theory is one resource that
provides assistance for many people in guiding some of their thoughts and actions about
communication. It is specifically these actions by the African American students that will be
examined in this thesis.
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Definitions of Terms Used
For the purposes of clarity the following key terms are defined:
Middle School: Includes grades six, seven and eight.
Teacher Devised Instruction: Any lesson plan that an individual teacher prepares individually.
Direct Instruction: Is a method of restructuring curriculum into strand sequences using precise
wording of teacher presentations (Kozioff, LaNunziata, Cowardin & Bessellieu, 2000, p. 54).
Organization of Remaining Chapters
The thesis is organized into five chapters. Chapter 2 presents the literature review and
summarizers what other communication scholars written about the use of direct instruction.
Chapter 2 also presents research studies which have been conducted on the subject.
Chapter 3 defines the methodology used for this research study and the rationale. The
type of participants and unit of study are defined and the length of time allowed for this research
study. Chapter 4 provides research results and a discussion of the findings in the context of the
literature review presented in Chapter 2. Chapter 5 provides the summary, study limitations,
conclusions and recommendations for future studies.
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CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Philosophical Assumptions
In today‘s society educators face a constant challenge on how to best educate all
members of society. One variable in the educational arena is culture. How culture is addressed
becomes more difficult as educators are provided with conflicting studies on best instructional
practices. Ritzer (2008) spoke of a way of instituting processes that affect our entire society
called ―McDonaldization‖ (Ritzer, 2008). Ritzer defined McDonaldization as ―the process by
which principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of
American society which affects restaurants business, education, work, healthcare etc.‖ (Ritzer,
2008, p.9). Educators must be mindful of instituting processes that stifle and mute the learning
process as opposed to facilitate it. ―In its most basic form, co-cultural theory lends
understanding into the process by which different members of underrepresented groups enact
certain communicative practices‖ (Orbe, 2006, p. 66).
Stuart Hall and his colleagues developed the field of cultural studies, building on the
theories of Richard Hoggart and Raymond Williams (Gandesha, 2000). Griffin (2006) stated
Hall‘s believes the sole purpose of the mass media is to perpetuate dominance of those with
power, ―resulting in the exploitation of the powerless‖ (p.371). Hall saw communication as a
method to develop meaning through discourse, defined as communication and culture (Griffin p.
375). In Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices (1997), Hall describes
an ―anthropological‖ definition of culture: culture is what is unique or shared about a group – a
community, nation, or social group (p. 2). A. Kuskis (Personal Communication, May 6, 2009).
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The thesis is routed in Habermas‘ Discourse Ethics (Griffin, 2009). Habermas contended
individuals within a community can agree on a common good to be accomplished for the
community (Griffin, 2009). Habermas stated: ―An ideal speech situation is where participants
are free to listen to reason and speak their minds without fear of constraint or control‖ (Griffin,
2009, p. 231). Habermas cited three requirements for validity of any ethical consensus:
1. Requirement for access. All people affected by the ethical norm being debated can
attend and be heard, regardless of their status.
2. Requirement for argument. All participants are expected to exchange their points of
view in the spirit of genuine reciprocity and mutual understanding.
3. Requirement for justification. Everyone is committed to a standard of
universalization. The acceptance of everyone affected to live by them. (Griffin, 2009,
p. 231).
The current research study is grounded in West‘s Prophetic Pragmatism Philosophy:
―The moral obstacle West wants to overcome is the institutional oppression of ‗the
disadvantaged, degraded, and dejected‘ people who ―face racism, sexual discrimination and
economic injustice‖ (Griffin, 2009, p. 272).
The research study is an attempt to increase cultural understanding as it relates to
educational instructional methods; to expand modes of communication enhancing the
understanding of the message to the receiver. The research goal is to consciously strive to avoid
sending or receiving messages which oppress and stifle. And finally, to ethically promote the
use of communication through the use of words, images, sounds, touch etc., as a way to provide
insight and harmony to individual understanding of the people in the world.
Theoretical Basis
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Stuart Hall and colleagues developed the field of cultural studies, building on the theories
of Richard Hoggart and Raymond Williams (Gandesha, 2000). Many of the early studies dealt
with the theorists‘ and students‘ focus on issues of class and race (Davis, 2004, p. 28). Hall and
his students‘ initial focus was to ―articulate their perception of the cultural struggle between the
haves and the have-nots‖ (Griffin, 2006, p. 371).
A theoretical approach derived from Hall‘s cultural studies is The Muted Group Theory
of communication and more specifically The Muted Group Theory across Cultures. According
to Orbe (1995), muting as described in Muted Group Theory can be applied to many cultural
groups (Orbe, 1995). Muted Group Theory suggests that individuals assigned to subordinate
groups have little power in expressing communication needs (Orbe, 2005). The voice of the
subordinate group is often stifled or ‗muted‘ by those in the dominant culture (Kramarae, 2005).
Orbe expands on the muting theory to include ethnic minorities, using the term Co-Cultural
Communication Theory (Orbe, 1995).
In developing a Co-Cultural Communication Theory (Orbe, 2005, p. 65) Orbe focuses on
how different underrepresented group members negotiate their muted group status. According to
the Co-Cultural Communication Theory, constant negotiation includes remaining muted, but also
identifies the diverse ways in which individuals regain a voice (Orbe, 1995).
Kramarae‘s (2005) muted group theory which claims individuals are muted by
controlling language and the rules for its use is worthy of discussion as it relates to classroom
instructional technique and curriculum selection. Educational professionals unwittingly may
select instructional techniques that facilitate muting. Ethically, this practice should be brought to
the forefront of the discussion. Academic theorizing often has political consequences for
pedagogy, as well as for issues and actions external to the classroom (Orbe, 1996). When
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instructors are directed to use one instructional technique for African American students, the
instructors are making a decision as to which technique is best without the input of the recipients,
and the decision becomes a form of muting the African American students.
The Literature
Affirmative Positions
Coyne, Zipoli, Chard, Faggella-Luby, Ruby, Santoro, and Baker (2009) stated direct
instruction can be used effectively with students who have varying levels of reading and
comprehension. Various instructional methods can be used to increase and maintain
achievement levels and prompt students to access prior knowledge when decoding words. Coyne
and colleagues‘ research supports the implementation of a direct instruction curriculum for
students achieving at or below grade level (Coyne, et.al., 2009, p. 233).
Shippen et al. (2005) conducted a study on the different effect of two direct instruction
reading programs. The school contained 99% African American students in the middle grades.
One program used overt decoding strategies and one program used covert decoding strategies.
Shippen and colleagues found the students in both studies increased reading ability. The social
validity measures indicated the majority of students believed they benefited from the direct
instruction reading programs. Seventy percent70% of students and teachers believed the
program would be beneficial to other middle schools (Shippen et al., 2005).
Flores and Taylor (2007) focused on students at risk for failing Mathematics. The
researchers used direct instruction previously used for special education students and applied the
same instructional techniques to the general population (Flores & Taylor, 2007). The
participants were thirty students ranging from 12 to 14 years of age, with eleven females and
nineteen males. Eighteen of the students were Hispanic, six of the students were White, and six
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of the students were African American. All of the students demonstrated deficits in the area of
basic fractions based on school district progress assessments. The students who participated in
direct instruction lessons outperformed peers on informal and formal measurements (Flores &
Taylor, 2007).
McDonald, Ross, Bol, and McSparrin-Gallagher (2007) conducted a study on ―student
achievement, school climate and pedagogy‖ (p. 271) at three charter schools: an elementary
school, a middle school and a high school. The schools were located in a large urban school
district serving over 100,000 students of which 71% were economically disadvantaged and over
80% were African American (McDonald, et al., 2007). The middle school served 180 students,
and grades six and seven were African American students only (McDonald, et al., 2007). A
direct instruction curriculum was instituted after a supportive environment was established the
previous year. The results were monitored by surveys and observations of the time the students
spent on task in the classroom. The results of the study indicated ―students attending these
charter schools were generally performing higher than their peers who remained in traditional
schools‖ (p. 294). The authors concluded that this form of instruction was beneficial and
increased student post-test scores (McDonald, et al., 2007).
Gentle-Genitty (2009) focused on African American students‘ transition from middle
school to high school and which type of programs facilitated successful transition (Gentle-
Genitty, 2009). Middle school is a time when students face changes, such as changes in teachers,
peer groups, class size, and school location—and from small-group and individualized methods
of instruction to whole class lectures (Gentle-Genitty, 2009). The author concluded such changes
seem to negatively affect African American students disproportionately.
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A search was conducted for programs that were defined as a best practice within a
particular field, were age-specific (if the age was defined as a range, the range was designed to
include students 13 to 14 years old), and were implemented in an urban school setting (Gentle-
Genitty, 2009). The school decided to augment their structured curriculum with an additional
structural program implemented throughout the entire school (Gentle-Genitty, 2009). The
program worked with teachers, other participants, parents and individual students to improve
academically (Gentle-Genitty, 2009). Students were divided into three groups: group one
received the structured curriculum in the fifth grade; group two received the structured
curriculum in the sixth grade; and group three, the control group, consisting of students in the
same grades, received no structured curriculum. The results were the groups who received the
structured curriculum in grades five and six showed significant academic increase as compared
to the control group (Gentle-Genitty, 2009).
Dissenting Positions
A dissenting point of view on the merits of direct instruction is presented by Ryder,
Burton, and Silberg (2006). A three-year study of methods of teaching reading was conducted.
Ryder, et al. (2006) found that students who were exposed to direct instruction only scored lower
than students instructed by the traditional teacher-created instruction. Ryder, et al., (2006)
recommended direct instruction be used sparingly. The authors concluded direct instructional
techniques and curriculum lacked sensitivity to issues of poverty, culture, and race.
Pascopella (2001) discussed the Knowledge is Power Program (KIPP) and the concerns
with the curriculum. The populations studied were Hispanic and African American students.
The KIPP program used direct instruction as its only curriculum format. During the 1998-1999
school year, KIPP was reported as ―the highest performing public middle school in the Bronx in
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reading and math scores. And the daily attendance rate was 96 percent, the highest in the state‖
(Pascopella, 2001, para.28). The reading and math scores for the Houston program in 2000
showed more KIPP fifth and sixth graders passed than the state average, but less than the district
average. Additionally, more KIPP eighth graders passed at 97% compared to 92% for the
district and 65% for the state (Pascopella, 2001). The authors found some parents were pleased
with the increased academic achievement of the students. The authors also found many educators
did not agree with the methods and disagreed with student achievement results (Pascopella,
2001).
KIPP‘s success was lauded as a model for educational reform; however, some educators
had a different perspective. ―Education expert Alfie Kohn stated such a program turns children
into ‗trained seals‘ that merely follow instructions‖ (Pascopella, 2001, para.32-33). The
mechanical nature of the curriculum was said to reduce the student‘s ability to use critical
thinking skills. An additional concern about the instructional method and classroom
environment revolved around discipline. Pascopella (2001) further quoted Kohn: ―It's not easy
watching kids who are subjected to a level of control that is downright militaristic or turned into
trained seals who have to bark out correct answers on command‖ (para.33).
Educators also voiced concerns over the resources KIPP removed from the local school
district. Richard Izquierdo, president of the school board in Bronx, New York, complained KIPP
forced school buildings to house several programs and schools within buildings designed for a
single school: "Our district was raped; KIPP gets priority for everything including the gym and
auditorium‖ (Pascopella, 2001, para.36).
Peterson (1979) discussed the results of direct instruction and concluded students
performed better on achievement tests and performed at a lower level on ―tests of abstract
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thinking‖ (Peterson, 1979, p. 47). Peterson (1979) further stated students demonstrated less
creative thinking and problem solving when taught by direct instruction as the only curriculum
method. Peterson noted the type of learner who responded more favorably to direct instruction,
and indicated that type of student was another factor in the success or failure of direct
instruction. Students who felt that success was determinate on internal factors did less favorably
than students who felt success was determinate on external factors (Peterson, 1979).
Peterson (1979) also noted that large group instruction seemed to produce higher achievement
scores on students who needed additional assistance as compared to students who were gifted
and did well in small groups. Peterson noted the peer-to-peer teaching was a possible
explanation for these achievement differences (Peterson, 1979).
Rationale
The review of research on direct instruction as compared to traditional self-devised
(teacher-created) instruction did not clearly establish one preferred method. The results of the
literature reviewed were not conclusive as to which method was the better method to benefit
African American middle school students. The researchers studied age, economic status,
neighborhood and school systems of this population and the results remain conflicting. An
educator, parent and community member may need additional information to ascertain the best
curriculum to meet the student‘s educational needs.
Research Questions
The following research questions were investigated:
RQ1: Which is the better method for teaching African-American middle-school children; and
RQ2: What role does Muted Group Theory play in the academic choices offered to families of
African-American middle school children? Using the ethnographic research approach to
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determine which instructional method is best gives the students a voice. The results of this
research can also be factored into decision making by administrators. Educators cannot expect
positive results from an educational program which fails to respect the intended recipients
(Freire, 2009). It is important to note ―theoretical positions have moral implications, and when
we teach them, advocate their use by others, or promote policies based upon them, they have
moral consequences‖ (Shepherd, St. John & Striphas, 2006, p. 19).
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CHAPTER 3. SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY
Scope of this Study
The research questions which arose from the literature review are as follows:
RQ1: Which is the better method for teaching African American middle-school children?
RQ2: What role does Muted-Group Theory play in the academic choices offered to families of
African American middle school children?
The scope of the study was limited to classroom observations and interviews specifically
looking at student time-on-task.
Study Population
A school in rural Southwest Oklahoma was selected for this study, meeting the research
criteria. The school has a diverse population, which includes African American, Latino and
Caucasian students. The students met the middle school criteria for sixth grade which is part of
the middle school grades. The school has students who attend a core subject class, English, with
direct instruction. The students then attend another core subject class, Math, with teacher-
devised instruction. The school consists of grades five and six. There are 251 students in the
sixth grade. There are 27 African American students in the sixth grade. Student observations
will be recorded and quantified using non-participant observations.
Field Methods
The research used qualitative research methods, with a daily descriptive journal to record
student observations. Permission was obtained from school administrators to act as a non-
participant observer of one middle school class of students who receive primarily direct
instruction from one teacher in one classroom and follow those students to another classroom
where the students receive teacher created instruction by another teacher.
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The Settings
The English classroom teacher used a form of direct instruction. Lessons are pre-selected
novels and pre-compiled, worksheets, vocabulary, homework and assessments. The Math
classroom teacher used a teacher devised instruction plan which that teacher individually creates
and implements. Students were provided with in-class lessons, practice problems, vocabulary,
homework and tests.
Methodology
Previous studies have used the ethnographical approach for this type of research. During
a study on the effectiveness of direct instruction, McDonald, et al., (2007) used surveys and
observations of the time the students spent on task in the classroom (McDonald, et al., 2007).
The research method used in this study was ethnography. Ethnography is used to explain ―how
we come to understand another culture‖ (Rubin, Rubin, Haridakis, & Piele, 2010, p.222). A
nonprobability sampling method was used, consistent with previous studies which focused on
demographic groups similar to the sampling unit. The study was conducted for thirty calendar
days, Monday through Thursday. No observations were conducted on Fridays as testing usually
occurs. According to Rubin et al., (2010) ―those who conduct observational research look and
see how people act in different situations‖ (Rubin et al., 2010 p. 222); therefore observations of
students in their English and Math classes should provide time on task information for both
classes. The data obtained may provide further information as to which instructional method
yields more time on task for the research participants. The informant approach was used to
gather data from the instructors as ―the informant tells you if you have understood what you
think you have understood‖ (Caputo, 2011).
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Unit of Study
The classrooms will be described as the culture and unit of study. Observations in this
environment are best suited for real-live communication, in a naturalistic real-life environment
(Caputo, 2011).
Anonymity and Confidentiality
A daily journal was used to record African American students‘ time off task. The
research will be a non-participant observer in the classroom. The informant approach will be
used as ―the informant tells you if you have understood what you think you have understood‖
(Caputo, 2011). The researcher will protect the sources of the information to ensure anonymity
of the school, students, and teachers. The protection of sources and the anonymity of the
participants assure cooperation and lessen the likelihood of the research used punitively.
Instrumentation
Taxonomy
The daily journals were tabulated and the data recorded on daily observation worksheets.
This information was recorded on weekly observation sheets. Taxonomy of the people in the
classrooms, the setting, and the social scene within this culture was developed. The researcher
measured the amount of time (percent) on task per observational period; the term ―on task‖ to be
defined as sitting up in seat and eyes on the teacher, raising hand and contributing to the
discussion. Time ―off task‖ was subtracted, and is defined as: eyes not focused on teacher,
talking to neighbor, reading or writing materials not assigned, moving around the classroom, i.e.,
sharpening pencils, asking permission to go to locker, bathroom, nurse or other school staff
member and other activities that detract from the student‘s learning. The researcher will create a
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taxonomy to record observations by coding the actual participant names as flowers. The tables
below were the actual instruments used:
Weekly Calculations Chart
Student Class
Period
Subject Total
Instructional
Time 50
minutes
Total Time
Off Task
Total Time on
Task
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Daily Observation Worksheet
Student On Task sitting
with back
against chair
feet on the floor
and eyes on
teacher.
Raising
hand,
asking
questions.
Completing
seat work
assignments.
Talking to
neighbor.
And or
walking
around
classroom.
Total
% on
task.
Total
% off
task.
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CHAPTER 4. THE STUDY
Introduction
An ethnographic study was conducted to compare two instructional methods, direct
instruction, or teacher devised instruction and examines which method was more beneficial to
African American students in a rural middle school. According to the Muted Group Theory,
cultural anthropologists practicing ethnography only spoke to leaders of cultures (Jitendra et al.,
2005). ―Data would be used by cultural anthropologists to represent the culture as a whole,
leaving out the perspectives of women, children and other groups made voiceless by culture
hierarchy‖ (Arderner, 1957 p. 2).
Time-on-task has been associated with poor readers and underachievers. Jitendra, Cole,
Hoppes, & Wilson, (2005) performed a study on underachieving middle school students which
consisted of thirty students. The population studied included four culturally diverse students,
three boys and one girl with learning disabilities from a small northeastern school district. The
authors reported poor readers are often learners who are distracted or off-task, and lack task
persistence and self monitoring (Jitendra et al., 2005).
Muting is a form of oppression. Freire states: ―the teacher chooses the program content,
and the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it‖ (Freire, 2009, p.73). As administrators
choose which instructional method is best for certain minority groups, including African
Americans, it would be more beneficial to observe the students and see how they respond, or stay
on task using the various instructional methods. This would be a middle school students‘ way of
having their voices heard. Therefore time-on-task or the lack thereof could provide useful
information as to which instructional approach is more embraced by a particular culture, based
on the findings of the current study. Although cultures are not monolithic, there may be subtle
preferences expressed by the actions of those within the culture (Orbe, 2005).
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The goal of this study was to observe the students‘ time-on-task, which would
demonstrate a voice as to which method is preferable to them. The study design was developed
to measure how much time African American students spent on-task during fifty minutes in
direct instruction English class and during fifty minutes of teacher-devised instruction Math
class. The findings from the study suggest high rates of time-on-task are positively associated
with students‘ having a voice.
Data Analysis
The data for this study was obtained from one group of students who attended two core
classes: one English class followed by one Math class. There were twenty students, nine
Caucasian students, eight Latino students and three African American students. All study
participants were coded as flowers, protecting confidentiality. The study used a convenience
sample, representing the schools demographic as the total students in the sixth grade were two-
hundred fifty one students. Twenty-seven students in the sixth grade were African American.
The daily ethnographic journals were synthesized into daily observation worksheets, compiled
into weekly calculation sheets and tabulated to total time-on-task of the African American
students in the study.
The Classrooms
The English and Math classrooms are similarly arranged. Smart boards are placed at the
front of each classroom. Each classroom has four computers that the students may use at the
teacher‘s discretion. The students‘ desks are arranged in rows of two or three desks abreast. The
daily objectives are written on a whiteboard, which is located on an adjacent wall. The
whiteboard also contains the daily assignments. In the English class, students have the freedom
of going to the restroom with teacher permission. In the Math class, students write their name on
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the whiteboard and take turns going to the restroom. Teacher permission was not required.
Pictures of each classroom are below:
English Classroom
Front of English Classroom
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Front and center of English Classroom whiteboard
Math Classroom
Front of Math Classroom
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Rear of Math Classroom
Rear of Math Classroom
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Behaviors coded as off-task
Walking around room.
Leaving seat to get tissue, blow nose, throw away and return
to seat.
Going to the bathroom.
Getting a drink of water.
Talking to neighbor.
Drawing/writing on whiteboard.
Writing on hand.
Leaving desk to get hand sanitizer.
Sharpening pencil.
Asking or looking for pen or marker.
Standing at desk and removing items from book bag.
Playing with items in or on desk.
Passing and or reading notes.
Moving desk and or chairs.
Drinking water and eyes not on teacher.
Walking around classroom.
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Daily Observation Worksheet Totals
English Class
Tulip
Time-off-Task
Carnation
Time-off-Task
Daffodil
Time-off-Task Notes
Monday 10/10 6 4 6
Tuesday
Students were in and
out of
classroom/building,
filming a
commercial. Unable
to record accurate
stats.
Wednesday 9 7 2
Thursday Fall Break
Monday 10/17 2 2 0
Tuesday 4 3 3
Wednesday 2 8 0
Thursday 0 4 6
Monday 10/24 10 2 0
Tuesday 0 4 6
Wednesday 4 4 2
Thursday 0 4 6
Substitute in
classroom.
Monday 10/31 2 1 6
Tuesday 3 2 2
Wednesday 2 2 1
Thursday 3 2 2
Totals 47 49 36
*Time off task represents minutes.
** Students are anonymously referred to as flowers.
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Daily Observation Worksheet Totals
Math Class Tulip Carnation Daffodil Notes
Total Time-off-Task Total Time-off-Task Total Time-off-
Task
Monday 10/10 22 13 0
Tuesday Did not use stats, due
to English class.
Wednesday 9 7 2 Students‘ seating
changed.
Thursday Fall Break
Monday 10/17 0 8 4
Tuesday 2 10 4
Wednesday 2 8 0
Thursday 6 7 0
Monday 10/24 10 2 0
Tuesday 0 4 6 Substitute in
classroom.
Wednesday 4 4 2
Thursday 0 4 6 Substitute in
classroom.
Monday 10/31 6 0 2
Tuesday 4 3 3
Wednesday 3 2 2
Thursday 5 3 4
Totals 73 75 35
*Time off task represents minutes.
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Time on task was compared between the total time-on-tasks of African American students in the
English class and the total time-on-task of the African American students in the Math class.
Totals
Student Class
Total
Time-
off-
Task
Total
Instructional
Time
%
Time-
off-
Task
%
Time-
on-
Task
Tulip English 47 550 9% 91%
Carnation English 49 550 9% 91%
Daffodil English 36 550 7% 93%
Tulip Math 73 550 13% 87%
Carnation Math 75 550 14% 86%
Daffodil Math 35 550 6% 94%
*Time off task represents minutes.
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9% 9%
7%
13% 14%
6%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
Tulip Carnation Daffodil
Tim
e o
ff T
ask
(%)
Student Name
Students Off-Task Time in English and Math
English
Math
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Results of the Study
The qualitative analysis demonstrated the African American students spent more time on
task in the direct instruction English class than those same students in the teacher devised
instruction Math class. Therefore the Direct Instructional Method provided more time on task
for African American students in this study.
The results of the research question:
RQ1: Which is the better method for teaching African American middle-school children?
RQ2: What role does Muted-Group Theory play in the academic choices offered to families of
African American middle school children?
91% 91%
93%
87% 86%
94%
82%
84%
86%
88%
90%
92%
94%
96%
Tulip Carnation Daffodil
Tim
e o
ff T
ask
(%)
Student Name
Students On-Task Time in English and Math
English
Math
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Discussion
Stuart Hall and other Critical Theorists seek to allow individuals to empower themselves
through their actions (Griffin, 2009). In developing a "Co-Cultural Communication Theory,"
Orbe focuses on how different underrepresented group members negotiate their muted group
status. According to his work, this constant negotiation includes remaining muted, but also
identifies the diverse ways in which individuals gain voice in different contexts (Orbe 1995).
This study sought to give middle-school African-American students a voice in how they actually
received communicative messages from two instructional methods. Orbe (1995) says the act
chosen depends on previous experiences, context; as well as the individual‘s abilities and
perceived costs and rewards. Students may use acceptable ways of behavior such as going to the
bathroom, sharpening a pencil or walking around the room, as opposed to vocalizing they do not
understand the topic being discussed or the context in which it is discussed.
Some examples of these acts that members of muted groups can choose from are:
emphasizing commonalities and downplaying cultural differences, educating others about norms
of the muted group, and avoiding members of the dominant group. Culturally, students may
spend more time-on-task when messages are understood or there is a shared communicative
meaning. The opposing view would be students may spend less time-on-task, when messages
are not understood, or there is a lack of shared communicative meaning.
The lack of shared meaning could also be described as a form of muting. As the students
do not fully participate in the instructional activities and do not vocalize their lack of
understanding of the instruction or their reason for non-compliance. Muting as described in
muted group theory can be applied to many cultural groups. Orbe (1995) stated that research
performed by the dominant white European culture has created a view of African-American
DIRECT INSTRUCTION 35
communication ―which promotes the illusion that all African-Americans, regardless of gender,
age, class, or sexual orientation, communicate in a similar manner‖ (p. 2).
This study was conducted to find the better of the two methods, Direct Instruction or
teacher devised instruction when used with African American middle school students. The
actual time the African American students spent on-task during the fifty minutes of classroom
instructional time provided the data to answer which instructional method was preferred by those
students. The students identified as flowers provided the following results: Tulip had a time-on-
task in English class of 91% and a time-on-task in Math class of 87%. Carnation had a time-on-
task in English class of 91% and a time-on-task in Math class of 86%. Daffodil had a time-on-
task in English class of 93% and a time-on-task in Math class of 94%.
According to the results in this study, the research results agree with the process as stated
by Shippen, Houchins, Steventon, and Sartor (2005), direct instruction classes are usually
instructed in small groups and the students are given several opportunities to respond in unison
and individually, with immediate feedback using a specific correction procedure. (Shippen et al.,
2005) This instructional format increased time-on-task significantly with Tulip on task in English
91% of the time as compared to 87% time-on-task in Math class. Carnation‘s time-on-task was
91% in English as compared to 86% time-on-task in Math class. Daffodil had a 93% time-on-
task in English as compared to 94% time-on-task in Math class. Two-thirds of the group
increased their time-on-task using the direct instructional method. Based on the classroom
sample unit of twenty total students in the classroom of which three were African American
students, the Direct Instruction Method provided the greater time on-task than the teacher-
devised instructional method.
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The results are similar to McDonald, et al., 2007, who observed African American
middle school students in charter schools. Those students received direct instruction and were
monitored for time-on-task. The charter school students performed higher than their peers who
remained in traditional schools (McDonald, et al., 2007). The results of this study were similar
to Gentle-Genitty (2009) where students were divided into groups. The sixth graders who
received the structured curriculum made substantial academic progress as opposed to the control
group which received teacher devised curriculum (Gentle-Genitty, 2009).
The literature review expressed educator concerns about KIPP‘s methodology of ―turning
children into trained seals‖ (Pascopella, 2001, para. 32-33). This may be a concern for older
students; however, this research observed the students seemed happy to recite the correct answer
with the class in unison.
DIRECT INSTRUCTION 37
CHAPTER 5. SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSIONS
Limitations of the Study
A limitation to the qualitative analysis approach is the unit to be sampled may not be
representative of the entire school or school district and therefore sweeping generalizations
cannot be made from this study, as this study group was a relativity small unit; which consisted
of a relatively small group of African American students. Another research limitation was the in
the selection of the schools and school district. The researcher had limited selection of classroom
choices available. The construction of the school district would be a limitation, as there are only
two grade levels per school; other than high school.
This study focused on three middle school African American students. The local middle
school, which uses the term ‗intermediate,‘ hosts two grades, grades five and six. All of the sixth
grade English teachers use direct instruction. Therefore a comparison of direct instruction and
teacher devised instruction in an English class could not be accomplished in this study. In the
junior high school, which hosts grades seven and eight, direct instruction is not used in any
English class. Another limitation is the small percentage of African American students in this
school district. It is important to note studies have been performed using a small percentage of
African American students. Flores and Taylor (2007) conducted a study on failing students
using direct instruction. The authors studied thirty students total, and six students were African
American (Flores & Taylor, 2007).
Ethical Concerns
A limitation in performing an ethnographic research study is it relies on the interpreter
approach and is subjected to those individuals‘ interpretations. In this study, the ethnographic
research approach does not allow for electronic recording. The rationale is an electronic
DIRECT INSTRUCTION 38
recording device may artificially stimulate the students to demonstrate inappropriate behavior,
and would thereby be unethical. Such a device could potentially prevent the researcher from
obtaining informed consent from parents and school administrators. Therefore, fewer participants
were studied, recorded and coded manually. Such a limitation may artificially inflate or deflate
percentages of time-on-task, depending upon the classrooms selected. Another ethical concern
would be the perception by teachers of an electronic recording device as having the potential to
be used in a punitive manner. According to Neuman (2006), the ethical researcher must weigh
privacy rights and the needs of the subjects against the needs of the research. ―There must be a
balance between scientific knowledge and those being studied‖ (Neuman, 2006, p. 129).
Future Study or Recommendations
The research design for this thesis was intended to be easily replicated by future research
in instructional method comparisons on middle school African American students. A
longitudinal study which encompasses a larger group of African American middle school
students should be conducted to determine generalizability of the present research findings. It is
also recommended that studies be performed on populations of African American students in
small, rural communities, possibly demonstrating an unintended muting effect on that
population.
Conclusion
The research study sought to answer RQ1: Which is the better method for teaching
African-American middle-school children?
This study on instructional methods sought to demonstrate how the Muted Group Theory
is used in a classroom environment, with African American middle school students expressing a
preference in educational methods. Based on the findings of this study, there may be less muting
DIRECT INSTRUCTION 39
in the English core class because the participants were able to communicate in smaller groups as
part of the direct instruction experience. Orbe states several issues are important to African
Americans: stereo-typing, acceptance, emotional expressiveness, authenticity, understanding,
goal attainment, and powerlessness (Hecht et al., 1989 cited by Orbe, 1995). Judging by the
two-to-one ratio, the African-American students were on-task more often when the direct
instruction method was used. The results may demonstrate a sense of belonging or fewer
feelings of isolation on the part of the participants; as whole class instruction allows answers to
be said in unison by the entire class. Daffodil seemed to flourish under both instructional systems
and may be described as an outlier. These results may be used as another factor when
administrators, community leaders, parents and teachers are selecting an instructional method for
African American students.
This study sought to answer RQ2: What role does Muted-Group Theory play in the
academic choices offered to families of African-American middle school children?
Muted Group Theory is the act of subordinating groups and restricting or nullifying their
communication. Individuals or groups in the dominant position disregard the muted groups‘
experiences and the muted groups‘ ability to contribute to the policy making process regarding
their cultural communication needs (Kramare, 2005). Muted Group Theory further suggests that
a group maintains its dominance by stifling or muting a group‘s speech or ideas (Kramare,
2005). This theory may apply to middle school African American students and their educational
needs when instructional decisions are made by administrators, politicians and individual
educators. Orbe (1995) cites the Hecht el al., approach which seeks to identify interethnic
communication from the African American perspective thereby giving a voice on
communication effectiveness (Orbe, 1995). The fact that a voice would be needed is evidence of
DIRECT INSTRUCTION 40
the Muted Group Theory. Hecht el al., (1989) takes an interpretative approach to perceptions of
African American communication. The researchers' objective was to identify an African
American perspective on interethnic communication. African Americans are given a voice to
articulate their perspectives on communication effectiveness
The research study is an attempt to increase cultural understanding as it relates to
educational instructional methods; to expand modes of communication enhancing the
understanding of the message to the receiver. The research goal is to consciously strive to avoid
sending or receiving messages which oppress and stifle. And finally, to ethically promote the
use of communication through the use of words, images, sounds, touch etc., as a way to provide
insight and harmony to individual understanding of the people in the world.
This research study on communication theory and education sought to explain the
preference of one instructional method over another, by the actions of the African American
students. Time on-task may be defined as an expression of understanding and goal attainment,
and time off-task may be defined as an expression of powerlessness (Hecht et. al., 1989).
African American students who have a voice in any communication and exchange of ideas may
enhance the understanding of the message to the receiver.
DIRECT INSTRUCTION 41
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