GLO

BALPO

LITICA

LTR

ENDSCE

NTE

R

GPoT PB No. 60 | 1

DIPLOMACY,THEERITREA-ETHIOPIAPEACEDEALANDITSIMPLICATIONSMichaelASIEDU1

HistoricalbackgroundoftheEritrea-Ethiopia(Badme)BorderDispute

TheconflictemanatedfromEthiopia’sannexationofEritreain1952.ImperialruleinEthiopiawastoppled by the military (Dergue) in 1974 with attempts at integrating Eritrea into Ethiopia.Oppositiongroups inEthiopia, includingtheTigrayPeople’sLiberationFront (TPLF)whodislikedtheMarxist-LeninistDergueregime,begantochallengesame.CooperationbetweentheTPLFandtheEritreanPeople’sLiberationFront(EPLF)ledtotheoverthrowoftheDergueRegimein1991andbrought intobeinganewcoalition, theEPRDF.TheTPLFbecameagiantpowerwithin thiscoalition.2

Subsequently, Eritrea conducted a referendum in 1993, and voters chose independence. Thispavedway for the two countries to formally split, thus, affirming Eritrea’s 1991 declaration ofindependence.Whatwasprojectedtobealargelyamicableseparationendedinaprotracted20-yearborderdisagreementwhen,in1998,bothcountriesassertedpossessionofabordertown

1MichaelAsieduisanAdjunctResearcherwiththeGlobalPoliticalTrendsCenter-IstanbulKültürUniversity,Turkey.2MartinPlaut, ‘ADifficultHistory’ InUnderstandingEritrea: InsideAfrica'smost repressivestate,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2016,pp.5-24.Seealso,BenjaminYoel.(November21,2008).‘TheEthiopia-EritreaPeaceDeal:WhyNw’. MDC. Tel-Aviv University. Accessed at https://dayan.org/content/ethiopia-eritrea-peace-deal-why-now on07/01/2019.

On 5 June 2018, Ethiopia’s ruling coalition; Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) under its new leader, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed declared that it shall accept the terms of a peace agreement with neighbouring Eritrea. The announcement came as a shock both to the international community and analysts who follow politics in the Horn of Africa. Beneath the declaration were years of silent diplomatic undertakings which have been given relatively lesser attention as the charismatic nature of Ethiopia’s new Prime Minister has taken centre stage. This Brief shall emphasize the role of diplomacy in the build-up to the announcement as well as the unique nature of Prime Minister Ahmed; in doing so, it is intrinsic to capture the historical context of the border conflict, an alternative explanation to diplomacy as well as the rewards of the peace deal and its challenges (implications). The Brief concludes by making a case for diplomacy as it still remains a viable factor in terms of conflict resolution in Africa.

POLICYBRIEFNO.60January2019

GLO

BALPO

LITICA

LTR

ENDSCE

NTE

R

GPoT PB No. 60 | 2

called Badme. The border dispute led to a violent conflict, which killed between 80,000 and100,000peoplewiththousandsmoredisplaced.3

In2000,EthiopiaandEritreasignedapeaceagreement(AlgiersPeaceDealorAlgiersTreaty)andacceptedthatabordercommission(TheEritrea-EthiopiaBoundaryCommission)be institutedtoresolvethedispute.In2002,basedonaUnitedNations(UN)-backedboundarydemarcation,theCommission, citing ruling4by the Permanent Court of Arbitration, awarded the border town,BadmetoEritrea.Thiswasmeanttobebinding.However,EthiopiarejectedtheAgreementandrequestednewnegotiations.Eritrea,on theotherhand, refusedanynewroundofnegotiationsunlessitwashandedBadme.UntiltheformalsigningofthepeaceagreementinSeptember20185,the two countries had remained in an impasse manifested through intermittent outbursts ofviolenceattheborderfordecades.Eachcountrystationedtroopsonitssideoftheborder.Asidefromthis,therehavebeeninstancesofproxywars6betweenthetwocountries.

ChronologicalTimelineofEventsoftheEritrea-EthiopiaPeaceDeal

Date Event

24May1993 EritreanIndependencefromEthiopiaisformallydeclared.

6May1998

Borderwarcommences.

3 Alex Underwood. (July 31, 2018). ‘The sudden end of the Ethiopia-Eritrea War explained. Vox. Accessed athttps://www.vox.com/2018/7/31/17595988/ethiopia-eritrea-peace-abiy-ahmedon07/01/2019.4United Nations. (April 13, 2002). Reports of International Arbitral Awards. Decision regarding delimitation of theborderbetweenEritreaandEthiopia.Accessedathttp://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXV/83-195.pdfon07/01/2019.5EthiopiaandEritreasignedanagreementatasummitinSaudiArabiainattemptstosolidifyanhistoricpeaceaccordbetween the two former Horn of Africa enemies. See https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/09/ethiopia-eritrea-sign-peace-deal-saudi-arabia-summit-180917055913813.htmlaccessedon07/01/2019.6Forinstance,duringtheSomaliCivilWar,EthiopiaandEritreabackedcompetingrebelgroups.EritreawasaccusedbytheinternationalcommunityandEthiopiaforsupportingjihadistgroupsinSomalia.DirectconfrontationsamongthetwocountrieshavealsoincludedEthiopianbombingsofEritreantargetsin2012and2015alongsidecross-borderconfrontations inmid-2016. See Terrence Lyons. (December 12, 2006). Ethiopia-Eritrea proxywar in Somalia risksbroaderregionalconflict,warnCouncilreport.Accessedathttps://www.cfr.org/news-releases/ethiopia-eritrea-proxy-war-somalia-risks-broader-regional-conflict-warns-new-councilon07/01/2019.

GLO

BALPO

LITICA

LTR

ENDSCE

NTE

R

GPoT PB No. 60 | 3

18June2000

AnAgreementonCessationofHostilitiesissignedbybothcountries.

12December2000 TheAlgiersPeaceAccordissigned.

13April2002 TheEritrea-EthiopiaBoundaryCommissionannouncedits“finalandbinding”ruling.

5June2018

PrimeMinisterAbiyAhmeddeclaresEthiopiaiswillingtoacceptdecisionofthe

BoundaryCommission.

9July2018 JointDeclarationofPeaceandFriendshipbetweenEritreaandEthiopiaissignedbytheirrespectiveleaders,PrimeMinisterAbiyAhmedandPresidentIsaiasAfworki.

17September2018

EthiopiaandEritreasignpeacedealatSaudiArabiaSummitinJeddah–detailsstill

notrevealed.

TheroleofdiplomacyinbringingabouttheEritrea-EthiopiaPeaceDeal

With regards to the Eritrea-Ethiopia PeaceDeal, some of the initial diplomatic steps happenedthroughreligiousgroups.7InSeptember2017,theWorldCouncilofChurchesdispatchedateamtoascertaincommongroundsonbothsidesoftheconflict.

7TheWorldCouncilofChurchessentadelegationtopayasolidarityvisittotheEritreanOrthodoxTewahdoChurch.TheyindicatedtheirpledgetoworktowardstherestorationoftiesbetweenEritreaandEthiopia;bothcountrieshavesignificant Orthodox communities. Accessed at https://www.oikoumene.org/en/press-centre/news/eritrean-orthodox-tewahdo-church-hosts-wcc-delegationon06/01/2019.

GLO

BALPO

LITICA

LTR

ENDSCE

NTE

R

GPoT PB No. 60 | 4

While this thrusts into the fray the role of religious diplomacy, it also reiterates the informalstructuresevidentinAfrica’sbodypolitic,hence,onecannottalkabouthowthepeacedealwasreachedwithoutacknowledgingsuchinformaldiplomaticstructures.

Another key diplomat in the build-up to the peace deal was Donald Yamamoto, America’sAssistant Secretary of State for Africa and arguably Americas most experienced African hands.Michael Plaut, a Horn of Africa senior researcher with the Institute of Commonwealth Studiesindicatesthataccordingtodiplomaticsources,talkswereheldinWashington,wheretheEritreanForeignAffairsMinisterOsman Saleh and YemaneGebreab, Eritrean President8IsaiahAfworki’slongstandingadviser,and formerEthiopianPrimeMinisterHailemariamDesalegnwerepresent.Yamamoto subsequently visited9Eritrea and Ethiopia in April 2018 with Prime Minister AbiyAhmeddeclaringhisintentiontoimplementtheAlgiersPeaceAccordinJuly2018,followedbytheofficialsigningofthedealinSeptember2018.Itshould,however,bereiteratedthatwhilenexttonothingwasheardaboutsuchvisits,suchdiplomaticengagementswerevitaltothepeacedeal;essentially, theyfirmedupdialogueand laidgroundworkcreatinganopportuneatmosphereforAhmedtoseizeupon.

The diplomatic role of Eritrea’s Arab allies was also significant. Eritrea President Isaias Afworkivisited10SaudiArabiashortlyafterhostingYamamoto.Ethiopia,cognizantofthistrip,alertedtheSaudiCrownPrincetogetAfworki tore-startpeacedealdiscussionswithAhmed,thenthenewPrime Minister of Ethiopia. Ahmed later indicated that he was hopeful with Saudi and USdiplomaticassistancetheissuecouldberesolvedinagroupconversationwiththedifferentethnicgroups in Ethiopia, as reported by Aiga Forum.11Afworki also visited12the UAE, where he wasencouraged to work out a peace deal after which huge investments into its economy andinfrastructurewouldbemadebythelatter.

The diplomatic role of the United Nations (UN) and African Union (AU) also contributedsignificantlybehindthecurtains.Infact,boththeUNandAUhadbeenencouragingbothsidesto

8PresidentIsaiasAfworkihasbeenthepresidentofEritreasinceitsindependence.9DonaldYamamoto,theUSAssistantSecretaryofStatevisitedEritreaon22-24April2018,firstvisitofanyUSofficialin years in attempt to facilitate peace talks between Eritrea and Ethiopia. Accessed athttps://www.janes.com/article/79538/top-us-official-s-visit-to-eritrea-indicates-renewed-relations-assisting-sanctions-lifting-investment-and-ethiopian-peace-talkson06/01/2019.10AbdurRahmanAlfaShaban.(July23,2018).Africanews,EritreanpresidentinSaudiArabia,holdsbilateraltalkswithKing Salman, accessed at http://www.africanews.com/2018/07/23/eritrean-president-heads-to-saudi-arabia-on-invitation-of-king-salman//on06/01/2019.11Group forum conversation with PM Abiy, accessed at http://www.aigaforum.com/news2018/conversation-with-pm-abiy.htmon06/01/2019.12TesfaNews,CrownPrinceofAbuDhabiReceivesEritreanPresident, accessedathttps://www.tesfanews.net/abu-dhabi-crown-prince-receives-eritrean-president/on06/01/2019.

GLO

BALPO

LITICA

LTR

ENDSCE

NTE

R

GPoT PB No. 60 | 5

resolve the conflict, resulting in UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres visiting13Addis Ababahoursafterthejointdeclaration.ItwasinAddisAbabathathementionedthatsanctionsagainstEritreacouldsoonbeliftedastheywouldbecomeobsolete.14TheAUonitspartwasinstrumentalin reaching the 2002 agreement and also released an official statement15commending bothparties for thepeacedeal citinghow thedealwill affect the resolutionofother conflicts in theregion.

Inessence, itwasthejointeffortsofbothregionalandinternationaldiplomaticcommunitythathugely contributed to the declaration of the peace deal rather than some pre-ordainedmagicwandbyAhmed;albeit,hisuniqueness,charismaandyouthfulappealplayedapart.Irrespectiveofthese, it is likelythatwithoutdiplomaticefforts,therewouldhavebeennoannouncementofthepeacedealonthepartofAhmedandEthiopia.

Interwovenindiplomacyhasalsobeentheupwardinterestbothpoliticallyandeconomicallyfromthe PersianGulfmonarchical governments (UAE and Saudi Arabia) alongside the rational-utilitycalculations of both Ethiopia and Eritrea to improve their economic situations. For instance,restorationofrelationswouldincreasestabilityintheHorn,boostthetourismsectorofEritrea,aswell as help attract Foreign Direct Investments (FDI). Conversely, from a commercial liberalistperspective,UAEandSaudiArabiawould liketopromotetheir trade interestsandenlargetheirscope of influence. TheUAE since 2016 had leased Eritrea’s port in Assab,where it operates amilitary base. This is a financial plus for Eritrea, since it had been crippled by internationalsanctions.16It is, therefore, not surprising to see the final deal of September 2018 signed inJeddah.

Alternativeexplanationinsteadofdiplomacy

Asignificantnotionbehindthedisputewasnotnecessarilytheborder,ratheranideologicalandpoliticaldifferencebetweentheTPLF-ruledgovernmentinEthiopiaunderlatePrimeMinister

13 Africanews, U.N. Chief to meet Ethiopia’s PM on Monday after breakthrough with Eritrea, accessed athttp://www.africanews.com/2018/07/09/un-chief-to-meet-ethiopia-s-pm-on-monday-after-peace-breakthrough-with-eritrea/on07/01/2019.14U.N. Chief says sanctions on Eritrea likely to become obsolete, accessed at https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-eritrea-un-sanctions/u-n-chief-says-sanctions-on-eritrea-likely-to-become-obsolete-idUSKBN1JZ1UG on06/01/2019.15AUHome. (June20,2018). Statementof the chairpersonofAfricanUnionCommissionon the relationsbetweenEritrea and Ethiopia. Accessed at https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20180620/statement-chairperson-african-union-commission-relations-between-eritrea-andon07/01/2019.16SanctionswhichhavesincebeenliftedfollowingtheEritrea-EthiopiarapprochementwereplacedonEritreaforitsinvolvementinsupportingarmedgroupsinSomalia.SeeAljazeera.(November18,2018).UNliftssanctionsonEritreaafter nine years. Accessed at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/11/lifts-sanctions-eritrea-years-181114170026561.htmlon07/012019.

GLO

BALPO

LITICA

LTR

ENDSCE

NTE

R

GPoT PB No. 60 | 6

MelesZenawiand thePeople’s Front for JusticeandDemocracy (PFJD)government inEritrea–thispertainstothelanguage-basedfederalsysteminEthiopia.17

TheTPLFviewsthefederalsystemasthepriceofits17yearsofbattletoprovideequalityamongthedivergentethnicgroups inEthiopia, including their right toself-determination.ThePFDJ,onthe contrary, perceives the federal system as an existential threat to nation states of Eritrea,Ethiopia and the Horn. The PFDJ opines that the federal system subverts Ethiopian nationalidentity and provides room for ethnic identities to grow. “I am the first one to see the federalsystem, and I oppose it,” Afworki indicated.18Essentially, Eritrean President Afworki views thefederal system as orchestrated to promote the lordship of one ethnic group, the Tigrayans inEthiopia.Hisassertionisevidencedastheslogan-“theTPLFsupremacyovertheruleoflaw”-isemployed by Ethiopian opposition groups and sections of themedia. Federalism could also beviewedasaninstrumentalisttoolandnotnecessarilytiedinwiththepersonalviewsandbeliefsofAfworki.

Federalismtherefore, isnot the issueherebut rather thepoliticizationofethnicborderswithinEthiopia,whichwasandstillistheissue,asupposedcraftsmanshipofMelesZenawi.Thus,itcouldbe argued that the peace agreement between Eritrea and Ethiopia had more to do with anideational factor (ideologicalwarfare)andtoanextent, little todowith thedemarcationof theborderor thewithdrawalof troops fromBadme.This ideationalbattle thrusts into the fray therolecharismaanduniqueappealofAbiyAhmedalsohadinbringingaboutthepeacedeal.

TheCharismaandUniquenessofEthiopianPrimeMinisterAbiyAhmed

Althoughmuchhasnotbeenseenonthe leadershipstyleofPrimeMinisterAhmedashe isstillnew,heisdistinctincomparisontoprimeministersbeforehim.Hehascharismaandayouthfulappeal.For instance,unlikePrimeMinisterHailemariamDesalegnwhoascended to the reinsofpowerduetopoliticalcapitalfromtheTPLF,Ahmedassumedpowerpursuanttoanti-governmentprotests19intheOromiaandAmhararegions,whichstartedinthelatterstagesof2015byyoungactivistscalledtheQeerroo.

Thus, citizens acted as agents to influence political decisions. Essentially, Ahmed could bedescribedasanantidotetotheaggrievedprotesters.Astancebuttressedthroughhispassageofpopularradicalreformsbothinanattempttoappeaseprotestersandsolidifyhisbase.

17 Habtom Mehari. (June 14, 2018). Eritrea and Ethiopia: A peace deal or tactical alliance. Accessed athttps://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Eritrea-and-Ethiopia-A-peace-deal-or-tactical-alliance-562511on07/01/2019.18ibid19 Jullian Kestler-D’Amours. ‘Ethiopia: mass protests ‘rooted in country’s history’. Accessed athttps://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/02/ethiopia-mass-protests-rooted-country-history-180219130441837.htmlon07/01/2019.

GLO

BALPO

LITICA

LTR

ENDSCE

NTE

R

GPoT PB No. 60 | 7

Hereleasedprisoners(someofwhomhadallegedlycommittednationalsecuritycrimes),removedbanned political parties (including armed ones), privatized some of Ethiopia’s big companies,includingEthiopianAirlines,contrarytoestablisheddevelopmentalstateeconomy,andaboveall,announcedthathewouldimplementtheAlgiersPeaceAccordmuchtotheirkoftheTPLF.HealsosoughttoendthestateofemergencyinEthiopia.20

EritreanPresidentAfworki,ontheotherhand,haddoneeverythingwithinhisremittosubverttheTPLF-ledgovernment inEthiopia for thepast20years.TheTPLFhadbeen thedominantpowerbrokerwithintheEPRDFcoalitionsince its inception in1991.However,withthesurprisewinofAbiyAhmedafterPrimeMinisterHailemariamDesalegn’sresignation,theOromoblochavebegunto assert power bringing about a drastic tilt in power dynamics within the coalition. Ahmed,coming to the scenewithout the supposed goodwill of the TPLF, strategically aligned himwithAfworki.AfworkialreadywasbittertowardstheTPLF.

It is fair to say that should there have been a TPLF-elected leader, therewould have been nodeclaration of the implementation of the peace deal, let alone a commitment to itsimplementation from both leaders. Next, is a brief look at the rewards and risks of the deal(implications),whichexplainsrationalchoiceperspectiveofwhypartiestoaconflictwouldmakepeaceorchoosenotto.

RewardsoftheDeal

Rewardsofthedealforbothcountriesinclude:theopeningupofeachcountry’sairspacefortheother,airlineswouldconnectAddisAbabaandAsmaraonceagain, familiesonbothsidesoftheborderwouldbe re-unitedand social life, aswell as religious ceremonies - someofwhichdatebackmany centuries -would be reignited. For Ethiopia, the peace dealwould also ensure thatthereisadétentealongitsnorthernborder,thusitwouldbeabletouseEritrea’sport,anaturaloutlet for its sea transactions due to its landlocked situation, and diplomatic relations wouldresumeinbothcountries.Eritreaalsostandstogain,asindicatedearlieron,aboostinitstourism,attractionof foreigndirect investmentsetc.Despite thegains, thedownsidesof thepeacedealcannotbeignored.

Challengestothedeal

ForEritrea,itspresidentAfworkiisinatightcorner.Thepeacedealmeanshehasnoexcuseofanational security threat to continue postponing and shifting the debate on basic freedoms inEritrea. Additionally, should thousands of conscripts engaged in indefinite national service bepermittedtoreturnhome,itisintriguingwhatjobprospectstheywouldhave.

20See(n.16)

GLO

BALPO

LITICA

LTR

ENDSCE

NTE

R

GPoT PB No. 60 | 8

Afworki would also have to deal with challenges, such as when Eritrea would roll out anoperationalconstitution,freeelections,andindependentjudiciary,media,etc.Italsoremainstobeseenwhetherpoliticalprisoners inEritreawouldbereleasedasAhmedhasdoneinEthiopia.ThepeacedealhasopenedthePandoraboxofEritreaninternalpolitics.

Risks of the peace deal for Ethiopiameans the TPLF, which used to be a force to reckonwithwithintheEPRDFcoalitionuntiltheelectionofAhmed,hasbeenrelegatedtothebackground.Itwas their disagreement with the Eritrean government that actually stoked the flames of theborder conflict. Ethiopia, therefore, faces stiff internal opposition from the TPLF regardingsensitiveterritorialconcessions-itisthepartymostaffected.Goingforward,whiletheTPLFhaslost much ground with regards to Ethiopian politics, including being side-lined in matterspertainingtothepeacedealthusfar,itremainstobeseenhowawoundedpoliticalpartyontheperipherywouldbebroughtintothecentreoncemore.

Achieving that would solidify the peace deal gains and rake in political capital for Ahmed inEthiopia, however, it is difficult to envisage that given Eritrean rhetoric. For instance, Eritreanauthorities are jubilant over TPLF’s demise calling the movement a “zombie” whose “soul hasbeencast intohell.”21Suchinflammablerhetoric is inaccurate ifdifferencesaretobeholisticallyresolved,especiallyastheTPLFisstillaforcewithinEthiopiaandcouldstagnatetheprogressofthepeacedeal.

Conclusion

Presently, the peace deal is a positive for a region bedevilledwith some of Africa’s intractableconflict including the Somalian conflict. However, the kind of impact the TPLFwill have on thepeacedealisyettobeseen.Meanwhile,thefinaldetailsofthepeaceagreementarealsoyettobemadepublic.Already,therehavebeenskirmishes.22Irrespectiveofallthese,diplomacywhichhasreceivedadownwardtiltlatelybothwithinAfricaandgloballystillremainsoneofAfrica’sbestshots in terms of conflict resolution.While this Brief has demonstrated its contribution to theEritrea-Ethiopia peace deal, diplomatic efforts should be increased and vigorously applied toconflictsinplacessuchasCongo,CentralAfricanRepublic,Sudan,Libyaetc.Essentially,theAfricanUnionmuststepupitsdiplomaticgameinitsPeaceandSecurityarchitecture(inconjunctionwiththeinternationalcommunity)ifitistoresolvesomeofAfrica’slongstandingconflicts.

21Asmelash talks about the defeat of the TPLF and equate it to the devil and its surrogate, TesfaNews. EritreasuccessfullyendsOperationFenkil2.0accessedathttps://www.tesfanews.net/eritrea-ends-second-operation-fenkil/on07/01/2019.22EritreacloseditssideofthebordercrossinginthetownsofRamaandZalambessawithoutanyofficialexplanationinDecember2018,thusbarelyfivemonthsafterthepeacedeal,EastAfricaMonitor.EritreaclosesbordercrossingforEthiopiatravellers,Accessedathttps://eastafricamonitor.com/eritrea-closes-border-crossing-for-ethiopian-travellers/on06/01/2019.

GLO

BALPO

LITICA

LTR

ENDSCE

NTE

R

GPoT PB No. 60 | 9

References

Africanews.(July9,2018).U.N.ChieftomeetEthiopia’sPMonMondayafterbreakthroughwithEritrea.

Aljazeera.(November18,2018).UNliftssanctionsonEritreaafternineyears.

Archer,C. (April24,2018).TopUSofficial’svisit toEritrea indicates renewedrelations,assistingsanctions’lifting,investment,andEthiopianpeacetalks.

Asmelash,O.(July3,2018).TesfaNews.EritreasuccessfullyendsOperationFenkil2.0

Brooks, A. (December 30, 2018). The East Africa Monitor. Eritrea closes border crossing forEthiopiatravellers.

AU Home. (June 20, 2018). Statement of the chairperson of African Union Commission on therelationsbetweenEritreaandEthiopia.

EthiopianPeople’sRevolutionaryDemocraticFront(EPRDF).

TheEconomist.PrintEdition.(June11,1998).EthiopiaandEritrea.Whyaretheyfighting?

Gebreselassie,E.(October23,2018).‘Ethiopia’srulingcoalitionusedtobeknownforitsunity.Notanymore’.

Hago,Z.(May22,2018).GroupforumconversationwithPMAbiy.

Kestler-D’Amours, J. (February20,2018).Aljazeera. ‘Ethiopia:massprotests ‘rooted incountry’shistory’.

Lyons, T. (December 12, 2006). Ethiopia-Eritrea proxy war in Somalia risks broader regionalconflict,warnCouncilreport.

MaashoA.(July9,2018).Reuters.U.N.ChiefsayssanctionsonEritrealikelytobecomeobsolete.

Mehar,H.(July14,2018).‘EritreaandEthiopia:APeaceDealorTacticalAlliance?TheJerusalemPost.

Shaban,A.A.R.(July23,2018).Africanews.EritreanpresidentinSaudiArabia,holdsbilateraltalkswithKingSalman.

Tekle,F.(July30,2008).‘Op-Ed:Eritrea:nomoreexcusesforindefinitenationalservice.AmnestyInternational.

GLO

BALPO

LITICA

LTR

ENDSCE

NTE

R

GPoT PB No. 60 | 10

TesfaNews,(July3,2018).CrownPrinceofAbuDhabiReceivesEritreanPresident.

Underwood,A.(July31,2018).Vox.ThesuddenendoftheEthiopia-EritreaWarexplained.

United Nations. (April 13, 2002). Reports of International Arbitral Awards. Decision regardingdelimitationoftheborderbetweenEritreaandEthiopia.

UnitedStatesInstituteofPeace.PeaceAgreementsDigitalCollection.Eritrea-EthiopiaAgreement.

World Council of Churches (October 3, 2017). Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church hosts WCCdelegation.

Yoel, B. (November 21, 2008). ‘The Ethiopia-Eritrea Peace Deal: Why Nw’. MDC. Tel-AvivUniversity.

GlobalPoliticalTrendsCenter

Global Political Trends Center (GPoT Center) is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research institutionestablishedundertheauspicesofIstanbulKültürUniversityin2009.GPoT Center was founded with the aim to support reconciliation and non-violent solutions tointernationalaswellasdomesticissuesthroughdialogue.Ourmissionistocontributetostability,democratization and peace through organizing multitrack diplomacy meetings, conductinginnovative and independent research, and encouraging informed debates in themedia on keyissuesaffectingTurkeyandtheworld.GPoT Center serves as a platform for the free exchange of views and information on political,socialandeconomicmattersconcerningavarietyofpartiesandsegmentsofsociety.Weaimtoachieve ourmission by routinely bringing together opinion leaders, government officials, policymakers,analysts,scholars,expertsandmembersofthemediafromTurkeyandabroad.Ourpublicationscanbedownloadedfromourwebsiteforfree.Theyarealsoaccessiblethroughonline libraries worldwide, such as the International Relations and Security Network in Zurich,Europe’sWorldinBrussels,andColumbiaUniversityPressinNewYork.Additionally,youcanfindourbooksonGoogleBooksandAmazonKindle.CONTACTDETAILSGlobalPoliticalTrends(GPoT)CenterIstanbulKültürUniversityAtakoyCampus,Bakirkoy34158Istanbul,Turkeywww.gpotcenter.orginfo@gpotcenter.org

Tel:+902124984476/65Fax:+902124984405

Buyayındakiyazılarınbilim,içerikvedilbakımındansorumluluğuyazarlarınaaittir.İKÜ-GPoT’unduruşunuyansıtmamaktadır.Theacademicandcontentresponsibilityofthepublicationsexclusivelybelongstoitsauthors.ItdoesnotreflectIKU-GPoT’sstanding.