difference vs disorder book preview - bilinguistics

Copyright © 2014 Bilinguistics, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Difference vs. Disorder

1

Languages

and Dialects

Spanish

French

Mandarin

Vietnamese

Arabic

Farsi

Russian

Hebrew

German

African-‐

American

English

FOREWORD The population of the United States is

incredibly diverse. It is estimated that more than

one in five school-‐age children speak a language

other than English at home. The population of

English language learners is projected to continue

growing (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). When we

compare the make-‐up of educators in the United

States to demographic information, we see the

need for easily accessible information about other

languages and cultures.

This book stemmed from the needs of a

group of speech-‐language pathologists evaluating

the speech and language skills of children from

many different language and cultural backgrounds.

The framework we use to distinguish language

differences from language disorders is useful for all

educators. Use of this framework will result in

improved instructional targets for culturally and

linguistically diverse students in the general

education classroom and more appropriate

referrals for special education evaluations.

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3 Bilinguistics, Inc. All Rights Reserved



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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This endeavor has been the product of the cumulative efforts of many

people. It includes the research of professionals who have studied these languages

and dialects, as well as perspectives and input from native speakers of each

language. At Bilinguistics we are very excited and eager to share the fruits of our

labor with you, and we hope it will serve as a worthwhile resource. Special thanks

for their efforts in writing these chapters go to Alisa Baron, Farinam Pletka, Marie

Wirka, Phuong Lien-‐Palafox, Anna Ubels, Ladaun Jackson, Emmy Kolanko, and Alyson

Hendry. We also want to thank all of the native and near-‐native speakers whose

knowledge and experiences provide personal and cultural perspectives that enrich

the information in this book.

Best Regards,

The Bilinguistics Team



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INTRODUCTION Difference vs. Disorder provides educators with information about many

different languages. We identified the most common home languages in the United

States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009) and have explored their many linguistic

differences in relation to English. We have included Spanish, Mandarin, Vietnamese,

Russian, Arabic, Japanese, Farsi, German, French and Hebrew. There is also a

section on African American English, which is a dialect of American English.

Both linguistic and cultural knowledge are critical when working with families

and children from different language backgrounds (Goldstein, 2012). Linguistic

information is further divided into the sound system and the language system. All of

these areas need to be taken into account when determining whether the errors of

an English language learner are typical errors or whether they are indicative of a

language learning disorder. Our framework for analyzing errors provides parents,

teachers, and other educators with an effective process for making this distinction.

It is a very simple framework—if sounds/structures exist in both languages, they

should not be affected in second language production. If sounds/structures do not

exist in both languages, we expect influences from one language to another. The

goal then is to understand the different sound systems and structures of a language

in order to identify which errors are of true concern.

THE SOUND SYSTEMS OF LANGUAGES

When we consider the sound system of two languages, we examine which

sounds exist in both languages and which ones are unique to one language or the

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other. This information helps us evaluate speech production errors and determine

whether they could be due to differences in the sound systems of the two

languages. We also consider phonotactic constraints, which refers to allowable

sound combinations in a particular language (Dell, Reed, Adams, & Meyer, 2000).

For example, in English the sounds /np/ cannot occur together at the beginning of a

word. When we combine the information about which phonemes are available in

each language and in what patterns or word positions they can occur, we can

evaluate whether errors are expected or not. For example, the unvoiced “th” sound

of English does not exist in most dialects in Spanish. Thus, when a Spanish speaker

learning English encounters this sound, which is not in his or her sound repertoire,

he or she will most often produce the closest sound that does exist in that

repertoire. For Spanish-‐speaking bilinguals in this case, that would be [t]. The use of

Venn diagrams allows for an easy visual representation of sounds that might be

problematic for an English language learner across a number of native languages.

The Venn diagrams include information about the consonants and vowels in

English and another language (L1). They show the sounds that are unique to L1 on

the one side, the sounds that are unique to English (L2) on the other, and the sounds

that are common to both languages in the middle. We can use this information to

help determine whether we can expect errors on certain sounds. We would not be

concerned about a child who is only making errors on sounds that are unique to

English. We would be concerned about a child who is making errors on shared

sounds and the unique sounds of their native language. That said, we also have to



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take into account the normal developmental sequence of the sounds. Those that

are unique to one language or the other also tend to be later occurring sounds.

LANGUAGE STRUCTURES

Aspects of the language systems that help differentiate normal and atypical

productions include word order, verb systems, and morphological markers, among

other features. When systems or structures differ across languages, we often see

English language learners transfer the structure of their first language to English. For

example, in English we put adjectives in front of nouns (the blue chair), whereas in

Spanish adjectives follow nouns (la silla azul). Thus, an error we might expect to see

from an English language learner whose native language is Spanish might be “the

chair blue.” In this book, we also explore other areas of language structure (i.e.,

morphosyntax), such as sentence structure, plurals, past tense, future tense,

possessive forms, and much more. We have chosen to focus our contrastive analysis

on differences in the area of form because these differences are what typically drive

the cross-‐linguistic errors that we encounter in the assessment process.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

Culture also plays an important role in understanding language differences

versus disorders, especially with respect to pragmatic language skills. There is

significant variation both between and within different cultural groups. Exploration

of specific cultural patterns can often be misconstrued as stereotyping. In light of

this, we take a general approach to our discussion of cultural variation by

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highlighting areas in which cultures may vary rather than specific differences

between cultures. A list of cultural variations is provided in Appendix B. Further, we

aim to put different experiences of learning two languages into a cultural context

through our Home Corner section. In this way, we hope to increase understanding of

the experience of being bilingual and reduce potential bias in understanding the

needs and communication patterns of culturally and linguistically diverse learners.



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HOW IT WORKS Each individual language chapter contains information about speech sounds,

sound patterns, and linguistic structures. All of this information is designed to

answer the most common question we all have – Are the observed speech and

language patterns indicative of learning English as a second language or is

something more going on?

First, we provide general information about the language, such as where it is

spoken and its prevalence. Then, we include norms for speech acquisition and a

contrastive analysis with English speech sounds using Venn diagrams. These

diagrams allow you to literally see the differences between the two languages! We

follow the same format to look at differences in language structure. We provide

developmental norms for language skills, as well as the shared and unique features

of syntax and morphology in comparison with English. These tables will allow you to

explain why the differences between the two languages can result in what appear to

be “errors” in English. Finally, we leave you with a personal touch from native

speakers of each language so that you can consider this information within a rich

cultural framework.

For easy reference, there is an IPA chart located in Appendix A at the end of

this book. We have also provided developmental information about English sound

acquisition, language milestones, and suppression of phonological processes in

Appendix B to facilitate comparison between languages. And there you have it –

Difference vs. Disorder in a nutshell!

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Now . . . let’s get started!!



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CONTENTS

FOREWORD .................................................................................................................. 1

Languages and Dialects ................................................................................................ 1

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 2

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 3

THE SOUND SYSTEMS OF LANGUAGES ..................................................................... 3

LANGUAGE STRUCTURES .......................................................................................... 5

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ........................................................................................... 5

HOW IT WORKS .......................................................................................................... 7

CONTENTS .................................................................................................................... 9

SPANISH .................................................................................................................... 14

GENERAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................ 14

DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS FOR SPEECH .................................................................. 14

DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS FOR PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES ................................. 14

Venn Contrast: Spanish & English Consonant Phonemes .............................. 15

Venn Contrast: Spanish & English Vowel Phonemes ...................................... 15

PHONOLOGY AND PHONOTACTICS ......................................................................... 16

GOLDMAN-‐FRISTOE TEST OF ARTICULATION (GFTA-‐2) OVERLAY ........................... 17

DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS FOR LANGUAGE ............................................................ 17

SPECIAL NOTE: VOCABULARY .................................................................................. 20

CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS FOR LANGUAGE: MORPHOSYNTAX ................................ 20

SPECIAL NOTE: PREPOSITIONS ................................................................................ 21

HOME CORNER ....................................................................................................... 22

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 23

FRENCH ...................................................................................................................... 24



CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS FOR SPEECH ............................................................... 24

Venn Contrast: French & English Consonant Phonemes ................................ 25

Venn Contrast: French & English Vowel Phonemes ....................................... 25



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CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS FOR LANGUAGE: MORPHOSYNTAX ........................ 27

HOME CORNER ........................................................................................................ 28

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 30

AFRICAN-‐AMERICAN ENGLISH ............................................................................... 31

GENERAL INFORMATION ......................................................................................... 31

DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS FOR SPEECH AND LANGUAGE ...................................... 32

CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS FOR SPEECH ..................................................................... 32


SPECIAL NOTE: VOCABULARY .................................................................................. 34

CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS FOR LANGUAGE: MORPHOSYNTAX ................................. 34

HOME CORNER ........................................................................................................ 37

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 39

VIETNAMESE ............................................................................................................. 41




Venn Contrast: Vietnamese & English Consonant Phonemes ........................ 42

Venn Contrast: Vietnamese & English Vowel Phonemes ............................... 42




HOME CORNER ........................................................................................................ 46

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 47

MANDARIN ............................................................................................................... 48



SPECIAL NOTE: TONAL LANGUAGES ........................................................................ 48


Venn Contrast: Mandarin & English Consonant Phonemes ........................... 49

Venn Contrast: Mandarin & English Vowel Phonemes .................................. 50



CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS FOR LANGUAGE: MORPHOSYNTAX ........................ 51



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HOME CORNER ....................................................................................................... 52

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 53

RUSSIAN .................................................................................................................... 55





Venn Contrast: Russian & English Consonants Phonemes ............................. 56

Venn Contrast: Russian & English Vowel Phonemes ...................................... 57


SPECIAL NOTE: PALATIZATION ................................................................................ 57


SPECIAL NOTE: CASE ............................................................................................... 59


SPECIAL NOTE: PREPOSITIONS ................................................................................ 60

HOME CORNER ....................................................................................................... 61

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 62

HEBREW .................................................................................................................... 63




Venn Contrast: Hebrew & English Consonant Phonemes .............................. 64

Venn Contrast: Hebrew & English Vowel Phonemes ...................................... 65




HOME CORNER ....................................................................................................... 66

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 67

GERMAN .................................................................................................................... 68




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Venn Contrast: German & English Consonant Phonemes .............................. 69

Venn Contrast: German & English Vowel Phonemes ...................................... 69



SPECIAL NOTE: SEMANTICS ..................................................................................... 70


HOME CORNER ........................................................................................................ 71

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 72

ARABIC ...................................................................................................................... 73


SPECIAL NOTE: “STANDARD” ARABIC ...................................................................... 73



Venn Contrast: Arabic & English Consonant Phonemes ................................. 74

Venn Contrast: Arabic & English Vowel Phonemes ........................................ 75



CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE: MORPHOSYNTAX .................................. 76

HOME CORNER ........................................................................................................ 78

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 79

FARSI .......................................................................................................................... 80

GENERAL INFORMATION ..................................................................................... 80

DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS FOR SPEECH ............................................................ 80


Venn Contrast: Farsi & English Consonant Phonemes ................................... 81

Venn Contrast: Farsi & English Vowel Phonemes ........................................... 81


DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS FOR LANGUAGE ....................................................... 82

CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE: MORPHOSYNTAX ........................... 82

HOME CORNER ........................................................................................................ 83

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 85

CZECH ......................................................................................................................... 87



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Venn Contrast: Farsi & English Consonant Phonemes ................................... 87

Venn Contrast: Farsi & English Vowel Phonemes ........................................... 88



CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE: MORPHOSYNTAX ................................... 89

HOME CORNER ....................................................................................................... 90

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 91

QUICK TIPS FOR ASSESSING IN ANY LANGUAGE ................................................. 92

APPENDIX A: IPA CHART ......................................................................................... 95

APPENDIX B: ENGLISH DEVELOPMENTAL CHARTS .............................................. 96




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SPANISH

GENERAL INFORMATION

• Number of speakers: 37 million speakers above the age of 5 in the United States

(2010 US Census) and 405, 638, 110 speakers worldwide.

• Writing system: Roman script, 27 letters and 2 digraphs (“ch”, “ll”)

• Language Family: Indo-‐European -‐-‐Italic-‐-‐Romance

• Official language in: Spain, Colombia, Uruguay, Venezuela, Peru, Ecuador,

Guatemala, Nicaragua, Cuba, Bolivia, Honduras, Paraguay, El Salvador, Costa

Rica, Panama, Equatorial Guinea, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Chile, Argentina,

Dominican Republic

DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS FOR SPEECH

Age Sounds

3 /m, b, p/

4 /k, l, w, y, t, f, n/

5 /r, g, d, ɲ, ʧ/

6 /x, s/

7 /r/

Note: This information is based on Jimenez 1987, Acevedo 1993 and indicates the

age at which 90% mastery is expected.

DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS FOR PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES Age of

Suppression

Phonological process

3 Final Consonant Deletion, Medial Consonant Deletion, Weak Syllable

Deletion, Initial Consonant Deletion, Fronting, Assimilation, Backing

5 Gliding, Cluster Reduction, Stopping, Liquid Simplification, Flap/Trill

Deviation

Source: Bedore et al., 2007; Fabiano and Goldstein, 2010; Goldstein and Iglesias,

2006



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CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS FOR SPEECH

Venn Contrast: Spanish & English Consonant Phonemes

Venn Contrast: Spanish & English Vowel Phonemes

/ɲ/

/ɾ/

/R/

/x/

/ð/ /dʒ/

/h/ /ŋ/

/θ/

/r/ /ʃ/

/v/ /w/

/z/ /ʒ/

/æ/ /ɔ/ /ʊ/

/u/ /ʌ/ /ɛ/

/ɪ/ /ə/

/b/ /d/ /g/

/p/ /t/ /k/

/m/ /n/ /s/

/tʃ/ /j/ /l/

/f/

/a/

/e/

/i/

/o/

/u/

Spanish English

Spanish English

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PHONOLOGY AND PHONOTACTICS

Second Language Influenced Error

Pattern:

Example:

Voiceless th (θ) replaced with /t/ or /s/

in all positions

thumb – tum

mouth – mous

Voiced th (θ) replaced with /d/ in all

positions

they – dey

/z/ replaced with /s/ in all positions. buzz – bus

sh replaced with ch or vice-‐versa in all

positions

shoe – choe

chicken – shicken

watches –washes

/v/ replaced with /b/ in all positions very – bery

j replaced with /j/ or vice-‐versa in initial

position

jello – yellow

/r/ distorted in all positions, often

resembling a trilled /r/ in initial position.

/r/ distortion

Final consonants often devoiced or

omitted.

* In Spanish, only 5 consonant sounds

appear at the end of words (r, s, l, n, d),

whereas in English, many more

consonants are allowed in this position,

including consonant clusters, such as

/kst/ in “mixed” and /ŋz/ in “meetings.”

dog – doc

mixed – miss

Omission or distortion of final consonant

clusters.

* Spanish syllables are mostly CV and

clusters usually only have 2 consonants.

In English, syllable shapes are more

varied and clusters can have up to three

consonants, such as /str/ in “strong”.

didn’t – din

Addition of schwa vowel (ə) before /s/ or

omission of /s/ in initial consonant

clusters

* In Spanish, words cannot start with an

/s/ cluster, but in English, they can.

study – estudy

spoon – poon



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Short English vowels that don’t occur in

Spanish may be substituted with a long

vowel equivalent

witch – weach

sit-‐ seat

Stops in word-‐initial position are

unaspirated

pig – big

GOLDMAN-‐FRISTOE TEST OF ARTICULATION (GFTA-‐2) OVERLAY

The resource below clearly indicates which sounds in English words on the GFTA-‐2

may show up as potential errors due to the influence of Spanish. It can be printed

on a transparency sheet and laid over the test protocol so that Spanish-‐speakers’

results can be considered in light of their speech production differences.

http://bilinguistics.com/wp-‐content/uploads/2013/04/Goldman-‐Fristoe-‐Overlay-‐

for-‐Spanish-‐Influenced-‐Sounds.pdf

DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS FOR LANGUAGE

Birth to 5 months

Reacts to loud noises birth to 3 months

Vocalizes discomfort, pleasure 4-‐6 months

Moves eyes toward direction of

sound

4 to 5 months

6 to 12 months

Understands "no" 6-‐11months

Babbles ("ma-‐ma-‐ma") 6-‐11 months

Uses gestures 7-‐12months

Recognizes familiar objects when

named

7-‐12months

Says 1-‐2 words 12 months

1-‐2 years

Follows simple commands 12-‐15months

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Begins to respond to questions with

gestures/ pointing

12-‐17 months

Engages symbolic play 18 months

Begins to combine 2 words ("more

milk/ mas leche")

1-‐2years

Begins to make environmental noises

( animal/car sounds)

1-‐2 years

Points to named items in

book/picture

1-‐2years

2-‐3 years

Responds to Yes/No questions 2-‐3 years

Combines 2-‐3 words to comment,

inquire

2-‐3year

Uses the present progressive verb

form

2-‐3years

Begins to use the plural form 2-‐3years

Variety of consonants used in speech

increases ( t,d,k,g)

2-‐3 years

Speech is understood by familiar

listeners most of the time

2-‐3 years

Regular past tense/simple preterite 2-‐3 years

*Articles: Indefinite /definite articles 2-‐3 years

Follows 2-‐step directives 2-‐3years

Article gender established 3 years

3-‐4 years

Engages in episodic play 3 years

Uses possessives 3-‐4 years

Irregular past tense/Imperfect

Preterit

3-‐4 years

Uses negatives 3-‐4 years

Answer simple WH-‐?s 3-‐4 years

Generally speaks easily without effort

in initiating sounds

3-‐4 years

Speech is generally understood by all 3-‐4 years

Begins to describe the use of objects 3-‐4 years

Shares personal experiences ( school,

friend’s house)-‐short personal

narratives

3-‐ 4 years

Combines 4+ words 3-‐4 years



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4-‐5 years

Tells a story related to a topic 4-‐5 years

Produces most consonant sounds

present in language

4-‐5 years

Uses the same grammar as

family/home environment

4-‐5 years

Follows 3-‐step directions 4-‐5 years

Use of adjective and descriptors in

sentences

4-‐5 years

6-‐7 years

Narratives have a central point,

climax, and resolution

5-‐7 years

Mastery of most consonants 6-‐7 years

Tell and re-‐tell stories in a logical

order using complete sentences

6-‐7 years

7-‐9 years

Uses more complex sentence

structures

7-‐8years

When not understood can reclarify

and explain their ideas

7-‐8 years

Knoweldge of early synonyms, begin

understanding that some words have

multiple meanings

7-‐9 years

Narratives have complete episodes,

reaction of characters, conflict,

resolution

7-‐9 years

Expressive Vocabulary

Development

English Spanish

2-‐5 words 12mo 12mo



~1000 words 36mo 36mo

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SPECIAL NOTE: VOCABULARY

The vocabulary choices of Spanish-‐English bilinguals acquiring the English language

can provide helpful information when determining difference versus disorder.

When typically developing bilingual children do not have the precise word for what

they want to say, they often use words that are close in meaning to the target. In

contrast, bilingual children with language impairment use nonspecific vocabulary

(“this,” “thing”) as often as (Kester, 2004) more often than typically developing

bilingual children. For example:

Target word Semantically-‐related substitution Nonspecific substitution

deer moose thing

frog turtle that

chipmunk rat this

beehive cone house of the bees thing

CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS FOR LANGUAGE: MORPHOSYNTAX

Note: Sentences marked with an asterisk (*) are ungrammatical.

Feature Spanish English Possible misuses in L2

(English)

Word order Flexible Strict Subject

Verb Object

order

The ball he threw.*/ He

threw the ball.

Possessives noun+of+person ’s The car of my mom*/

My mom’s car.

Adjectives Adjective follows

noun

Adjective

precedes noun

The ball big*/ The big

ball.

Verb inflection 5-‐6 forms,

determined by

subject:

Yo como Tú comes Él/Ella/Ud. come Nosotros comemos Vosotros coméis Ellos comen

2 forms:

I eat

You eat

He eats

We eat

You all eat

They eat

Omission of 3rd person

“s”:

She talk to me.* / She

talks to me.

Use of subject Pro-‐drop Pronoun is Looks for the frog* / He



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pronouns always required looks for the frog.

Regular past

tense

5-‐6 forms,

determined by

subject

One form (-‐ed) Unmarked present for

past: She walk to the

store* / She walked to

the store.

Double object

pronoun

Can be used Cannot be used I saw him the man*/ I

saw the man

Double

negative

Can be used Cannot be used I don’t want to do

nothing*/ I don’t want

to do anything.

Question

formation

Questions marked

by inflection,

question words, or

“do”

Word order

inversion or

addition of “do”

You give me a sticker?*/

Will you give me a

sticker?

What you think?*/

What do you think?

We can go?* / Can we

go?

Multi-‐purpose

verbs

Verbs with multiple

meanings that do

not always

correspond

Verbs with

multiple

meanings that

do not always

correspond

I have 4 years*/ I am

four years old.

Do you have hunger?*/

Are you hungry?

SPECIAL NOTE: PREPOSITIONS

Due to the frequency of preposition errors produced by Spanish speakers acquiring

English, a few specific examples are provided below to assist in identifying second

language influenced errors.

Spanish English Possible misuses of prepositions in L2

(English)

En In/on Put the food in the plate.*

Put the food on the bowl.*

Pensar en/pensar de To think about or think

of

I think on him everyday.*

You can do it if you think of it.*

Enojarse con To get mad at Get mad with.*

Soñar con To dream of I dreamt with you last night*

Decidir de To decide on Have you decided of what you want?*

Casarse con To marry or be married Is he married with her?*

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22

to

Estar enamorado de To be in love with Is he in love of her?*

Consistir en To consist of What does your plan consist in?*

Buscar To look for I’m looking my toy.*

Depender de To depend on It depends of what you want.*

Source: Kester & Gorman (2004).

HOME CORNER

As a bilingual speech language pathologist, I am grateful for my upbringing in

a south Texas border town with a balanced blend of Mexican and American cultures.

However, as a child I did not understand the value of knowing and understanding

two cultures. Growing up, it was considered typical to speak English or Spanish

depending on the situation or person. In more formal settings, such as school, I

spoke only in English; however, with my family or in the community I was able to

speak whatever language I felt was appropriate.

I remember having conversations with friends in both languages. At the time

not knowing the term for what we were doing, code-‐switching, but, in our case it

was not because of a lack of vocabulary in one language or the other. We did it to

emphasize certain words or for humor. And to us, it was just…normal.

I took being bilingual for granted, always assuming that it would not be

useful in my career, as the language of my formal education was in English. It was

not until I moved away for college that I realized that being bilingual was needed in

places that did not have such a seamless blend of cultures. It opened my eyes to the

fact that I could help people, children and parents, who spoke Spanish like me. I

became proud of my culture, instead of taking it for granted. When I assess bilingual

children or have therapy sessions in Spanish, I can use the knowledge of my



23

upbringing AND my formal education to make judgments and decisions regarding

language differences and disorders.

Patricia Villareal, M.S. CCC-‐SLP

Bilingual Speech-‐Language Pathologist

REFERENCES

Acevedo, M. (1993). Development of Spanish consonants in pre-‐school children.

Journal of Communication Disorders, 15, 9–15.

Bedore, L. M., Peña, E. D., & Stubbe Kester, E. (2007). Cross language performance

on semantic tasks: Lessons from a test development project. Manuscript in

preparation.

Fabiano-‐Smith, L. & Goldstein, B. (2010). Phonological acquisition in bilingual

Spanish-‐English speaking children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing

Research, 53. 1-‐19.

Goldstein, B., and Iglesias, A. (2006). Issues of cultural and linguistic diversity. In R.

Paul and P. Cascella (Eds.). Introduction to clinical methods in

communication disorders (2nd ed., pp. 261-‐280). Baltimore: Paul H.

Brookes.

Jimenez, B. C. (1987). Acquisition of Spanish consonants in children aged 3-‐5 years, 7

months. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 18, 357–363.

Kester, E. S. & Gorman, B. K. (2004). Typical Semantics and Syntax in the English

Language Learner. Austin: Bilinguistics.

MacWhinney, B. (1997). Second Language Acquisition and the Competition Model.

In A.M.B. de Groot and J. F. Kroll (Eds.). Tutorials in Bilingualism:

Psycholinguistic Perspectives. Mayway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

MacWhinney, B. & Bates, E. (Eds.). (1989). The crosslinguistic study of sentence

processing. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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