dfma: engineering the future...and costing. dfma allows all elements of the project to be...

Title: DfMA: Engineering the Future

Authors: Angus McFarlane, Structural Engineer Leader, Laing O`RourkeJohn Stehle, Structural Engineer Leader, Laing O`Rourke

Subjects: ConstructionIT/Computer Science/Software

Keywords: ConstructionEnvironmentSustainabilityTechnologyVirtual Reality

Publication Date: 2014

Original Publication: CTBUH 2014 Shanghai Conference Proceedings

Paper Type: 1. Book chapter/Part chapter2. Journal paper3. Conference proceeding4. Unpublished conference paper5. Magazine article6. Unpublished

© Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat / Angus McFarlane; John Stehle

ctbuh.org/papers

http://ctbuh.org/papers

508 | CTBUH 2014 Shanghai Conference

DfMA: Engineering the Future 面向制造和装配的产品设计(DfMA):构建未来

Angus McFarlane John Stehle

Angus McFarlane & John Stehle

Laing O’Rourke Level 2, 97 Rose Street, Chippendale Sydney, NSW 2008 Australia

tel (电话): +61.477.720.527 email (电子邮箱): [email protected] http://www.laingorourke.com

Angus McFarlane is Structural Engineering Leader in the Engineering Excellence Group of Laing O’Rourke (LOR) in Sydney, Australia. LOR is a multi-national contracting organization with 20,000 staff worldwide.

Angus is a Fellow of the Institution of Structural Engineers and Institution of Civil Engineers. He specializes in the design of High-Rise and ultra-tall buildings.

Angus’s projects include: Burj Khalifa – the world’s tallest tower, Emirates Towers and the Burj Al Arab, Dubai, UAE. He is currently working on several projects, including: High-Rise; renewable energy; oil and gas; and mineral resource projects.

安古斯•麦克法兰是澳大利亚悉尼市莱恩奥罗克公司优秀的结构工程带头人。莱恩奥罗克公司作为一个跨国合约机构，目前在全球拥有近20，000名员工。

安古斯是结构工程师协会和土木工程师学会的董事，他主要从事高层和超高层建筑的设计工作。安古斯所设计的项目包括：哈利法塔（迪拜塔）–世界最高塔楼，位于阿拉伯联合酋长国。目前他正在设计的几个项目包括：高层；可再生能源；石油和天然气和矿产资源项目。

Dr. John Stehle completed his PhD at the University of Melbourne in 2001. He is a Structural Engineering Leader, Engineering Excellence Group, Laing O’Rourke (LOR), UK. He works on world-wide projects. John leads a team of engineers who are focused on research, product development, invention and innovation of new engineering solutions for buildings and infrastructure. His work has led to four patent applications as well as many innovative structural solutions. John mentors several of the twenty PhD’s that LOR fund. He has also worked in Sydney and Dubai.

约翰• 施特勒2001年在墨尔本大学完成了他的博士学位，他是英国莱恩奥罗克公司优秀的结构工程带头人，世界许多国家都有他设计的项目。约翰带领的工程团队专注从事于研究、产品开发、发明以及新建筑结构方案和基础设施的工程解决方案等方面的创新工作。他的作品目前获得了四项专利，并研发出了许多的新颖的结构解决方案。约翰在莱恩奥罗克公司基金赞助的二十几个博士学位中任职导师。他并先后在悉尼和迪拜工作过。

Abstract

Two main themes are addressed in the paper, namely:

• The application of Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) to the construction industry.

• Improving the building project’s contribution to society as a whole.

• It is shown that these themes are interdependent.

DfMA applies techniques to the construction process that have been used in the automotive industry for many years. In summary, discrete sections of the final construction are manufactured in a factory and then transported to site for final assembly. The basis of DfMA is virtual reality modeling of the project and it includes the following elements: discretization of the construction; 3-D design collaboration; 4-D construction planning; and 5-D quantification and costing. DfMA allows all elements of the project to be interrogated by the construction team until the optimum solution is achieved. Case studies are presented which show that DfMA has significant advantages over traditional construction.

Keywords: DfMA, Environmental Impact, Sustainability, Virtual Reality

摘要

本文所讲述的两大主题是：

• 面向制造和装配的产品设计（DfMA）在建筑行业中的应用

• 从整体上提升建设项目对社会的贡献

• 结果表明，这些主题都是相互依存的

DfMA应用技术已经在汽车行业被广泛应用多年。总的来说，最终建筑是由从工厂中生产的分离部件，运输到现场装配形成的。DfMA的基础是项目的虚拟现实模型，它包括以下几点：建造的分散化；三维协同设计；四维建设规划；五向量化和预算。DfMA允许所有的相关因素被施工团队进行整合，直到达到最佳的解决方案。本文中所呈现的案例表明，DfMA比传统的施工工艺具有明显的优势。

关键词：面向制造和装配的产品设计（DfMA），环境影响，可持续性，虚拟现实

Historical Perspective

It is not the purpose of this paper to present a full historical analysis of DfMA in construction. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that approximately 2,000 years ago the Romans developed sophisticated prefabricated building techniques – not only for temporary fortifications for their armies but also for permanent structures, such as, hospitals, aqueducts and major iconic buildings (Gibb, 1999).

In modern times, DfMA has been used in the automotive and aerospace industries for many years. Henry Ford was probably its greatest exponent when he pioneered mass-production in the early 1900s – although there were slightly earlier pioneers, such as Elihu Root, who devised an industrialized assembly system for Samuel Colt.

历史回顾

分析DfMA的历史由来并不是本文所阐述的目的。不过值得一提的是，大约2000年以前，罗马人发展了复杂的预制建筑技术--此技术的出现并不仅仅是为他们临时军队防御攻势服务，同时也应用于永久性结构，例如，医院、沟渠和主要标志性建筑（Gibbons，1999）。

在现代主义时期，DfMA技术已被应用在汽车和航空航天行业多年。亨利福特可能最具典型意义，他在20世纪初期引领了大规模生产模式。当然还有些更早运用此技术的先驱，例如，伊莱休鲁特，他为塞缪尔柯尔特设计了一个工业化的装配系统。

今天，DfMA技术已经延伸到许多行业。但是其在建筑行业中得到推广却是缓慢并且常常是在偶发情况下或部分建筑的解决方案中才得以应用，例如，预制混凝土构件，钢结构部件等。然而，一个全方位的DfMA技术的使用正有出现势头。这一过程

2014年CTBUH上海会议 | 509

Today, DfMA has spread to many industries but its uptake in the construction industry has been slow and often either sporadic or a partial solution, e.g., precast concrete elements, structural steelwork componentry, etc. However, an holistic approach using DfMA is now gathering momentum. This process has been facilitated by the availability of high-performance, low-cost, computer hardware and software, which enable the virtual reality models required by DfMA to be efficiently implemented and interrogated by the project stakeholders.

What Is DfMA?

Introduction In general terms, DfMA is the design and manufacture of discrete sections of a product (or structure) which are then assembled at one location, typically a factory for mass-production. The individual sections can be manufactured at geographically dispersed locations from the factory. However, when applied to the construction industry, DfMA involves the manufacture of discrete sections of the final construction in a factory and these are then transported to site for final assembly.

The DfMA Envelope Currently, there is no universal definition for DfMA when applied to the construction industry. Indeed, the terms DfMA and modular construction are often used interchangeably. However, a more explicit definition is that modular construction (or off-site manufacture) is actually part of the DfMA process. The key components of the DfMA envelope are presented in Figure 1 and these are described in greater detail as follows:

Geometry The Geometry Model is the 3-D virtual reality model. It allows technical and non-technical team members to visually understand and interrogate the design intent. Its main components include engineers’ finite element models and computer numerical control (CNC) models, which enable automated production of the relevant elements of the project.

The 3-D model is also used to produce 2-D drawings, which may be required for non-automated processes such as approvals by statutory authorities, third party manufacture of small-scale items, etc.

Production DfMA production is off-site manufacture in a factory environment. Modules produced can range from: small-scale items, such as electrical fittings; through large scale items, such as precast concrete floors and panelized systems in steelwork, precast concrete or timber; to fully enclosed spaces, such as individual rooms or complete buildings (Vokes & Brennan, 2013). The entire fit-out process, i.e., structural, electrical, mechanical and decorative work, can be carried out in the factory. A higher level of quality control and improved overall quality assurance is achieved through factory production.

Additionally, a significant proportion of the work can be automated and performed by robots. Input for the robots is via computer numerical control software derived from the Geometry Model. An example of an automated precast concrete factory is the Explore facility in the UK (see Figure 2).

Metadata The Metadata Model is a multi-dimensional database, which contains all of the relevant project parameters. Not only is it used to calculate impacts of time, sequencing, scheduling and costs but also it can be

受益于高效、低成本的电脑硬件和软件的出现，这使得DfMA所需的虚拟现实模型能够有效的被项目相关利益人所使用。

什么是面向制造和装配的产品设计（DfMA）？

导言从普遍意义上讲，DfMA是指对一个产品或结构中所包括的分离部件的设计和制造，这些分离的部件生产之后在同一地点（通常是批量大生产的工厂）被装配起来。每个分离的部件可以在地理位置不同的工厂里被制造出来。然而，当应用于建筑行业时，DfMA涉及到的则是能够最终形成一个厂房的建设的分离部件的生产和运输到场地进行最终装配。

DfMA 组成部分目前，对DfMA在建筑行业中的应用并没有通用的定义。事实上，DfMA的术语和模块化建造常常被交换使用。然而，一个更明确的定义是模块化建造（或场外预制）实际上是DfMA的过程的一部分（见图1）DfMA的关键组成部分如图1所示。以下是图1所示的详细信息：

几何模型几何模型是三维虚拟现实模型。它可以让技术及非技术人员能够直观地了解到设计意图。其主要成分包括工程师所设定的限定元素模型和计算机数值控制（CNC）模型，从而使项目的相关要素达到自动化生产。

三维模型也可以被用于生产二维图纸，这些图纸可以满足一些非自动化过程的需求，例如，政府机构的批准，小尺度的部件的第三方制造等。

Figure 1. The DfMA Envelope (Source: Laing O’Rourke, 2013)图1. DfMA的组成部分（来源：莱恩.奥罗克，2013）

Figure 2. Explore Automated Precast Factory, Steetley, UK (Source: Laing O’Rourke, 2013)图2. 英国的一个自动化的混凝土预制厂的实验设施（来源：莱恩.奥罗克，2013）


used to analyze environmental impacts, such as, carbon footprint, sustainability, noise pollution, air quality and other effects on the environment. Additional benefits include waste reduction, error avoidance and lowering of cost. That is, when combined with the 3-D Geometry Model, the Metadata Model allows all stakeholders to analyze the impacts of different design options.

A typical information flow diagram for a major civil engineering project is shown in Figure 3. This diagram highlights the inter-relationship between the Geometry and Metadata Models. Also shown in the diagram is the use of on-site tablet computers. These interface with the DfMA model and have two advantages. Firstly, they facilitate a paperless workplace. Secondly, they allow augmented reality, i.e., future proposed construction, such as building services or cladding, can be superimposed on the actual construction to date. This expedites on-site error checking and detection of conflicts.

Summary Each of the individual components shown in Figure 1 can bring benefits to the construction process but it is only when all three components are combined together in the central portion of the diagram that the greatest benefits of DfMA are realized. This overlapping portion of the diagram (showing greatest benefit) is captioned Digital Engineering.

DfMA allows all elements of the project to be interrogated by the construction team until the optimum solution is achieved. It includes the following elements:

• Discretization of the construction.

• 2-D drawing production.

• 3-D design collaboration.

• 4-D construction planning.

• 5-D quantification and costing, including environmental impact at project-based, placed-based and country-wide levels.

In summary, by using DfMA, a virtual reality project is constructed and improved by the project team through several iterations. It allows all stakeholders (technical and non-technical) to participle interactively in the design and planning process. It also allows stakeholders to analyze the impacts of different design options, not only on manufacture and construction but also environmental impacts. This ensures that all of the project parameters are met prior to commencing actual construction on site.

Advantages of DfMA

Disadvantages of Traditional Construction The traditional construction process is often criticized for being inefficient, unsafe and environmentally unfriendly (Sebastian, 2011, Vokes & Brennan, 2013).

In an urban context, traditional construction and maintenance practices often bring negative impacts to the urban economy and disruption to daily life. Adverse impacts include: noise pollution; vibration, dust and air pollution; service disruptions; access problems; delays and traffic jams; and obstacles to safety and security.

Furthermore, several attempts have been made to realize a change from the craftsmanship-based and labor-intensive process in

制作生产 DfMA的制作是在场地以外的工厂环境中完成的。模块制作的范围很广，包括小尺度部件的制作，如电气配件；大尺度部件的制作，如预制混凝土楼板和刚结构，预制混凝土或木结构中排版系统；完全封闭的空间，如独立的房间或完整的建筑物(Vokes & Brennan, 2013)。整个装配过程，例如：结构，电气，设备和装饰工作，都可以在工厂进行。更高水平的质量控制和提升整体质量保证可以通过工厂生产获得实现。

此外，很大一部分的工作还可以通过由机器人控制的自动化生产完成。机器人接受的数据是通过计算机数值控制软件完成的，此软件来自于几何模型。如英国的一个自动化的混凝土预制厂的实验设施（见图2）

元数据元数据模型是一个多维数据库，它覆盖了所有相关的项目参数。它不仅可以用来计算时间的影响，排序，调度和成本测算，也可以用来分析环境的影响，如：碳足迹，可持续性，噪声污染，空气质量和其他对环境的影响。另外的优点还包括：减少废物，避免错误和降低成本。当与三维几何模型结合时，元数据模型可以让所有的利益相关者分析出不同的设计选择所带来的影响。

图3所示为一个大型的土木工程项目的典型信息流程图。此图表明了几何模型和元数据模型之间的相互关系。图中还展示出场地对平板电脑的使用。这些与DfMA的连接和使用具有以下两个优势。第一，它推行了无纸化的工作环境。第二，它允许了现实扩展，例如：提出未来建设，如建设配套或外墙饰面，可以预先叠加在实际施工日期的情况之上。这可以使现场错误检查和冲突检测迅速完成。

小结图1中所示的每个单独的元素都可以为施工过程带来好处。但是，只有将图中所示的三个元素融合为一体，并形成图中心所示的重叠的元素时，才能使DfMA的价值得到最大实现。图中所示的重叠部分（显示最大的价值）就是被标注为数字工程的部分。

DfMA可以使项目所有的元素通过施工团队的整合，直到达到最佳的解决方案为止。它包括以下内容：

• 分散化的建设

• 二维图形的生产

• 三维协同设计

• 四维建设规划

五向的量化和成本预测。包括以项目为基础的，基于地方和全国

Figure 3. Geometry & Metadata Information Flow for a Major Civil Engineering Project (Source: Laing O’Rourke, 2013)图3. 一个大型的土木工程项目的典型信息流程图（来源：莱恩.奥罗克，2013）


traditional construction towards sustainable construction practices but these have tended to be piecemeal and ad-hoc. It is only by using DfMA that an holistic, efficient, time-saving and low-disturbance assembly process can be achieved on the construction site. Additionally, DfMA results in high added value to the economical viability and environmental sustainability of the construction project.

The failure of the traditional design and construction process is eloquently summarized by Meeker & Rousmaniere (1996) who state, “The latest buzz word ‘concurrent engineering’ is nothing more than the realization that serial design results in serial mistakes.” Serial design and serial mistakes refer to traditional construction methodology.

Advantages of DfMA Typical DfMA objectives are presented in Figure 4 and the advantages of DfMA when compared with traditional construction are summarized as follows:

• Interactive participation in the design and planning process by all stakeholders (technical and non-technical) leading to optimum solutions, including rapid implementation of design changes or variances and improvements in overall design integration.

• Increased efficiency and reduced costs.

• Higher quality construction with guaranteed quality assurance levels achieved on site.

• Improved health and safety performance on site and a safer operational asset over the whole-life cycle.

• Reduced construction time, enabling an earlier return on investment.

• Improved sustainability and environmental performance.

• Reduced wastage, factory wastage is reduced to near-zero and on-site wastage is significantly reduced.

Two of the above advantages of DfMA – construction program and sustainability are discussed in greater detail below.

水平的环境方面的影响

总的来说，通过使用DfMA,一个虚拟现实项目的构建，可以通过多次迭代和项目团队进行改进。它可以使所有的利益相关者（包括技术和非技术人员）相互参与到设计和规划过程中。也可以使利益相关者分析出不同的设计备选方案的影响，不仅是在制造和建设上，也可以分析出环境方面的影响。这使该项目的所有参数在实际施工之前得以确认。

DfMA的优势

传统施工的劣势传统的施工过程是经常被批评为效率低下，不安全和破坏环境的(Sebastian, 2011, Vokes & Brennan, 2013)。

在城市中，传统的施工和维护的做法往往会为城市经济带来负面影响并会干扰人们的日常生活。负面影响包括：噪音污染、施工震动、灰尘和空气污染；服务中断；访问问题；延误和交通拥堵和安全的障碍。

与此同时，为了实现从基于手工艺的和劳动密集型的传统施工向可持续的建筑施工的转变，人类已经进行了许多尝试，但是，这些尝试往往是零碎的和临时地。只有使用DfMA，一个全面、高效、省时、低干扰的装配过程才可能在施工现场上得以实现。此外，DfMA为建设项目的经济可行性和环境的可持续性带来高附加值。

米克和罗斯玛尼亚(1996)曾对传统的设计和施工过程的失败作过总结，他们提到：最新的时髦词语“并行工程”无非就是连续的设计导致连续的错误和失败。连续的设计和连续的错误指的是传统的施工方法。

DfMA 的优势 DfMA的典型目标如图4所示。以下是对DfMA的优势与传统施工艺比较的总结：

• 使所有的利益相关者互动参与到设计和规划过程中（包括技术和非技术人员），使项目达到一个最佳的解决方案。包括设计变更的快速实现或方差和总体设计集成方面的改进。

• 提高效率和降低成本

• 使施工现场达到高质量的施工和高品质的保证

• 提升施工现场的健康和安全度和保证项目生命周期内的安全运营

• 减少施工时间，使投资尽早得到回报

• 提高持续性和改善环境表现

• 减少浪费，工厂损耗降低到接近零和现场损耗明显降低

以上两个DfMA的优势---施工程序和可持续性将在下文中详细阐述。

施工程序图5所示为传统的施工程序与DfMA施工程序上的比较。

通过图5可以看出，DfMA的使用，可以明显的减少施工程序。通常使用DfMA可以节省30%的建设程序时间，稍后的案例研究报道也表明了DfMA的使用甚至可以使项目建设节省50%的时间。然而，如果想要达到大量节省时间的目的，在项目设计的早期就运用DfMA是至关重要的。

为了优化项目的设计和施工，下列DfMA核心要素需要被实行(after

Figure 4. Typical DfMA Objectives (Source: Laing O’Rourke, 2013)图4. DfMA的典型目标（来源：莱恩.奥罗克，2013）


Construction Program A typical construction program for traditional construction and DfMA methodology is compared in Figure 5.

It is evident from Figure 5 that a significant reduction in construction program can be achieved by utilizing DfMA – time savings of 30% are normally achieved but savings approaching 50% have been reported in some of the Case Studies presented later. However, to achieve these savings, it is essential that DfMA be implemented early in the design process.

In order to optimize the design and construction of the project, the following key elements of DfMA need to be implemented (after Sebastian, 2011):

• Developing flexible processes and techniques that encourage the efficient off-site prefabrication of modular and portable elements for easy transportation and rapid on-site assembly.

• Organizing the construction site work innovatively so that adverse environmental and societal impacts are minimized.

• Achieving sustainable solutions at multiple levels, namely: project-based, place-based and country-wide levels.

Sustainability

Sustainability and DfMA are closely inter-linked.

The scope of sustainability is often described as including three spheres – social, environmental and economic (see Figure 6). An accounting analogy is sometimes used: sustainability objectives must be evaluated according to a “triple bottom line” of social, environmental, and economic responsibility.

Vanderbilt (2014) state that sustainability is an integrative discipline and a multidisciplinary project because it has statistical, scientific and humanistic dimensions. Sustainability focuses on specific problems and particular solutions to these dimensions. To achieve its objectives, the sustainability agenda requires project-based,place-based and country-wide solutions. It is evident from earlier sections of this paper, and comparison of the DfMA Envelope in Figure 1 and the Three Spheres of Sustainability in Figure 6, that only by using DfMA methodology in the construction industry can the objectives of the sustainability agenda be met.

Obstacles to DfMA

Several construction companies have adopted DfMA, e.g., Broad Sustainable Construction, Hickory Building Systems, Laing O’Rourke and Lend Lease (see Case Studies presented later in this paper). These companies have learned the benefits of DfMA, not only to themselves but also for the community at large. Nevertheless, obstacles still remain that impede wider acceptance of DfMA in the construction industry. These include the following (afterVokes & Brennan, 2013):

• Negative associations amongst the general public with “pre-fabricated” structures.

• Reluctance of the wider industry to adopt DfMA and off-site manufacturing.

• Risk averse financial and investment institutions.

• The traditional procurement process discourages DfMA.

Sebastian, 2011):

• 开发灵活性的流程和技术，从而鼓励高效的模块化场外预制以便运输部件和高速的现场装配。

• 在组织施工现场工作中进行创新，从而使不良的环境和社会影响最小化。

• 在多个层面实现可持续性的解决方案，即以项目为基础的，基于地方和全国水平。

可持续性可持续性与DfMA 密切相关

可持续发展的范围通常被概括为三个领域 ---社会、环境和经济（请见图6）。会计分析有时会被用到：可持续发展的目标必须通过“三重底线”包括社会、环境和经济责任进行评估。

范德比尔特（2014）讲过：可持续发展是一个综合性的学科和多学科的项目，因为它涉及到统计、科学与人文等方面的内容。可持续发展专注于以上这些方面的具体问题和具体的解决方式。为了实现其目标，可持续发展议程需要以项目为基础的，基于地方和全国水平的解决办法。在本文之前的章节中所提到和证明的，图1中所展示的DfMA组成要素和图6中所提到的有关可持续发展的三个领域，只有将DfMA应用到建筑行业中，可持续发展的目标才能得以实现。

Figure 5. Reduction in Construction Program using DfMA (Source: Laing O’Rourke, 2013)图5. 通过DfMA的使用可以减少施工程序（来源：莱恩.奥罗克，2013）

Figure 6. The Three Spheres of Sustainability (Source: Vanderbilt, 2014)图6. 可持续性的三个方面（来源：Vanderbilt，2014）


• Timelag for new technologies gaining acceptance in the marketplace. In particular, design standards and statutory approval processes do not necessarily keep pace with or fully integrate with new construction methodology.

Probably the biggest obstacle to widespread use of DfMA in the construction industry is the traditional procurement process. Therefore, this is discussed in greater detail below.

Procurement Process Sebastian (2011) states that in the traditional procurement process the client nominates the designer (usually a design team comprising an architect and engineers). After the detailed design and technical specifications are prepared, the client organizes a design-bid-build tender to select a contractor.

The traditional tender process is designed to produce direct price competition for a specified product and the project will be awarded to the lowest price bidder. However, traditional procurement methodology becomes an obstacle to integrated project development, such as DFMA. The organization of the work to minimize costs and environmental impact, through optimal coordination between design and construction, is constrained by the predefined client’s specification and design, as well as by the contractual separation of design and construction responsibilities.

Integrated procurement using DfMA, in contrast to traditional methodology, encourages innovation in design and construction. The basic principle of the integrated procurement method is that the client establishes a contract with a single party (a contractor or a designer/contractor consortium) which assumes the full responsibility for both design and construction. The client gives the freedom to the winning contractor (or consortium) to propose and realize an innovative design, including the use of new materials, production and assembly techniques. The only requirement is that the design meets the client’s functional requirements. Furthermore, since the same contractor (or consortium) is responsible for the design and build processes, an optimal design that is efficient to construct, maintain and operate would be achieved.

Integrated procurement processes that encourage DfMA are becoming more popular in the construction industry due to the benefits (time, cost and environmental) that they bring to all stakeholders in the construction project.

Case Studies

Summary All of the case studies presented here relate to the building superstructure. The substructures were built in reinforced concrete using traditional methodology. Additionally, with the exception of Bosisto Street (which used volumetric modularization), the studies utilized partial modularization.

T30A Tower Hotel, Dongting Lake, Hunan Province, China (Source: Broad Sustainable Building, 2012) 30-story hotel in structural steel (see Figure 7). Project highlights are:

• 17,000 m² floor area with 330 rooms.

• Magnitude 9 (0.6g) earthquake resistance.

• 15 days construction period.

DfMA的劣势

有些公司和企业已经使用并适应DfMA, 例如：远大可持续建筑、Hickory建筑系统、莱恩奥罗克公司和澳洲最大的开发商Lend Lease等（请见文中稍后所列的案例）。这些公司体会到了利用DfMA的优势，不仅为他们自己同时也为社会创造了价值。然而，DfMA的劣势仍然存在，并阻碍其在建筑行业的广泛应用。其劣势包括以下内容(afterVokes & Brennan, 2013):

• 一般公众对“预制”结构的消极印象

• 大范围的行业勉强或不愿意采用DfMA和异地制造

• 规避风险的金融投资机构的存在

• 传统的采购程序抑制和不鼓励DfMA的使用

• 新技术在市场中获得承认的时间滞后。特别是，设计标准和法定审批过程不一定能跟上或与新的施工方法充分对接。

也许对DfMA在建筑行业中广泛使用的最大障碍是传统的采购程序。因此，在下文中进行了详细的讨论。

采购程序塞巴斯蒂安（2011）指出，在传统的采购流程中，客户会指定设计师（通常是指定一个由建筑师和工程师组成的设计团队）。当详细的设计和技术详图准备好后，客户会组织一个设计-建造-出价招标，从而选定承包商。

传统的招投标程序注定会导致对指定产品价格的直接竞争，最后由最低报价的投标者中标。然而，传统的采购方法已经成为综合项目发展的障碍，例如对DfMA发展的障碍。通过设计和施工的极优化协作，从而达到造价和环境影响的最低化，这种项目的组织方式被客户预先设定的条件和设计所局限，同时也被设计责任和施工责任的分离所局限。

综合采购使用DfMA，与传统方法相比，更鼓励在设计与施工上的创新。综合采购方法的基本原理是，客户与单独的一方（承包商

Figure 7. 30-Story Hotel, Dongting Lake, Hunan Province, China (Source: Broad Sustainable Building, 2012)图7.中国湖南省洞庭湖30层的酒点（来源：远大可持续建筑，2012）


The tower was partial modularization with fully completed steel frameworks integrated with floor/ceiling modules that included mechanical and electrical equipment. Flat-pack elements for the walls and windows were lifted with the framework modules for ease of installation. It should be noted that the statutory approval process for the tower lagged construction. Indeed, the building was completed prior to final certification.

Leadenhall, London, UK (Laing O’Rourke, 2013) 52-story office tower, 225 m high, in structural steel with precast concrete floors (see Figure 8). Project highlights are:

• 84,428 m² floor area and 75,000 m² of cladding.

• 18,000 tonnes of steel, comprising 11,252 components.

• 39,283 total piece count (steel, concrete and services).

• 80% reduction in on-site personnel for those parts subject to DfMA, i.e., floor system, north core integrated table structures and services components, including plant rooms and service risers.

• 50% reduction in construction program for those parts subject to DfMA.

It should be noted that the DfMA solution for Leadenhall was essentially retrofitted from a traditional construction design. Greater efficiencies could have been achieved if DfMA had been adopted at project inception.

Forte, Victoria Harbour, Melbourne, Australia (Lend Lease, 2014) 9-story apartment block, 32.2 m high,with reinforced concrete substructure and cross laminated timber (CLT) superstructure (see Figure 9). Project highlights are:

• World’s tallest timber apartment building.

• 485 tonnes of timber, comprising 759 CLT panels.

• Carbon neutral.

• 4 on-site personnel.

• 3 months construction period for CLT.

The modularization for the building concentrated on the structural elements (CLT floor and wall panels). Fit-out of the remaining elements was by traditional methodology.

或设计师/承包联合体）签订合同，让其承担设计和施工的全部责任。客户可以给中标承包商（或联合体）一定的自由来建议并实施一个创新的设计，包括新材料的使用，产品和组装技术的使用。唯一需要满足的要求就是设计需要满足客户对功能的需求。此外，由于同一个承包商（或联合体）负责设计和制造流程，一个最佳的设计可以使得建造、维护和运营得以实现。

综合采购程序使得DfMA在建造行业越来越流行，因为它现实的优势（省时、节约成本、保护环境）可以使所有建造项目中的相关利益者从中获益。

案例分析

综述文中所引用的案例都与建造上层结构有关。基础结构的建造是采取预应力混凝土这种传统方法建造的。另外，博西斯托街项目除外（它使用了体量模数化）本文研究采用了部分模块化。)

中国湖南省洞庭湖T30A塔式酒店（来源：远大可持续建筑， 2012） 30层钢结构酒店（如图7）。本项目摘要：

• 面积17，000平方米，拥有330个房间

• 可抗9级地震（0.6g)

• 15天的工期

整栋建筑为部分模块化全钢架结构，地板和天花板模块集成包括机械和电气设备。为了简化装配，用于墙壁和窗户的平板元素与框架模数完全一致。值得一提的是法定审批程序导致了此塔建设的滞后。事实上，该建筑是在最终的许可下发之前完成的。

利德贺，伦敦，英国（莱恩奥罗克，2013） 52层的办公楼，225米高，钢结构预制混凝土楼板结构（见图8）。项目摘要：

• 面积84,428平方米和75,000平方米覆层

• 18,000吨钢铁建成，包括11,252个组件

• 39，283个元件（钢，混凝土和服务）

• DfMA的应用使现场人员减少80%。例如：地板系统、北核心集成的表结构以及服务组件包括机房和管道井。

• DfMA的应用使整个施工程序减少50%

Figure 8. Leadenhall Building, London, UK (Source: Laing O’Rourke, 2013)图8. 英国伦敦利德贺（来源：莱恩奥罗克，2013）

Figure 9. Forte, Victoria Harbour, Melbourne, Australia (Source: Lend Lease, 2014)图9. 澳大利亚墨尔本维多利亚港，福特 (来源: Lend Lease, 2014)


Bosisto Street, Melbourne, Australia (Hickory Building Systems, 2014) 7-story apartment block with reinforced concrete substructure and structural steel superstructure (see Figure 10). Project highlights are:

• 57 apartments.

• 63 modules.

• 6 on-site personnel.

• 11 days construction period.

The apartment block utilized volumetric modularization, i.e., modules comprised room-sized and apartment-sized modules that were fully fitted-out, including MEP equipment. This allowed rapid and efficient “plug-and-play” installation on site.

Conclusions

DfMA allows greater flexibility in the design solution and improvements in construction methodology. It is shown that, when compared with traditional construction, DfMA has the following benefits:

• Reduced labor.

• Reduced time scale.

• Reduced cost.

• Improved quality.

• Improved environmental performance.

These benefits can be realized on project-based, place-based and country-wide levels. Additionally, DfMA also facilitates incorporation of innovations in the final design, which have tended to be neglected in the traditional approach.

Case studies are presented which highlight the above benefits of DfMA.

值得注意的是，Leadenhall的 DfMA解决方案基本上是改造传统的建造设计上完成的。如果在项目一开始时就采用DfMA, 可能会获得更好的效果。

福特，维多利亚港，墨尔本，澳大利亚（Lend Lease，2014） 9层公寓楼，高32.2米，预应力混凝土基础结构和交叉层压的木结构（CLT）上层结构（见图9）。项目摘要：

• 世界上最高的木结构公寓楼

• 485吨木材，包括759个CLT板

• 碳中性的

• 4个现场工作人员

• CLT建设工期3个月

本建筑的模块要素集中在结构部件上（CLT的地板和墙面）。其他剩余的部分是由传统方法完工的。

博西斯托街，墨尔本，澳大利亚（Hickory建筑系统，2014） 7层公寓楼预应力混凝土底层结构和钢结构的上层结构（见图10）。项目摘要：

• 57 间公寓

• 63个模块

• 6个现场工作人员

• 11天的工期

本公寓采用了体量模块的建筑方法。例如：房间大小和公寓大小的模块都是完全装备出来的，包括机电设备。这使得“即插即用”的现场安装快速有效的完成。

结论

DfMA能够使设计方案更加具有灵活性，并能够进一步提升施工方法。结果表明，与传统建筑方法相比，DfMA具有以下优点：

• 减少劳动力

• 节省时间

• 降低成本

• 提高质量

• 提升环境表现

DfMA的这些优势在以项目为基础，基于地方和全国水平的前提下可以获得实现。另外，DfMA的使用也可以使创新融入到最后的设计当中去，这个是传统建筑方法往往会忽视的一面的。

以上的案例研究分析突出标明了上述DfMA的优势。

Figure 10. Bosisto Street, Melbourne, Australia (Hickory Building Systems, 2014)图10. 澳大利亚墨尔本，博西斯托街（来源：Hickory建筑系统，2014）


References (参考书目): Broad Sustainable Building. (2012). T30A Tower Hotel Technical Briefing, Broad Sustainable Building, May 2012.

Gibb, A G F. (1999). Off-site Fabrication Prefabrication Pre-assembly and Modularisation, John Wiley & Sons.

Hickory Building Systems. (2014). Bosisto Street, Melbourne, accessed March 20, 2014, http://www.hickory.com.au/prefab/

Laing O’Rourke, (2013) Extracts from Slides from an Internal Presentation.

Lend Lease. (2014). Presentation by Lend Lease to Laing O’Rourke on February 28, 2014.

Meeker, D G & Rousmaniere, A. (1996). DFMA and Its Role in the Integrated Product Development Process, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 1996.

Sebastian, R. (2011). Low Disturbance Urban Projects through Smart Manufacturing and Building Information Modelling, 1st International Conference on Sustainable Intelligent Manufacturing, Leiria, Portugal, June 28-July 1, 2011.

Vanderbilt University. (2014). Three Spheres of Sustainability, Center for Teaching, Vanderbilt University, accessed April 13, 2014, http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/2010/08/new-cft-guide-on-sustainability-and-pedagogy/ven-sus/

Vokes, C & Brennan, J. (2013). Technology and Skills in the Construction Industry, Evidence Report 74, UK Commission for Employment and Skills, September 2013.

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