DEVELOPMENTS IN TECHNOLOGY AND FUTURE ENERGY SUPPLY IN

INDIA

Anil Kakodkar a, Placid Rodriguez b, and Sriram Jayasimha c

a : Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission, Mumbai ,India b: AICTE-INAE Distinguished Visiting Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Madras,Chennai. c: Chairman,  Signion Systems Ltd., Hyderabad, India

Top Primary Energy Consuming Countries 2002

Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2003

2293

998

640509

329 325

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

USA China RussianFederation

Japan Germany India

Account for 54% of world energy consumption

MTOE

(10.6%)

(3.5%)

Per Capita Energy Consumption, 2002

India - High potential for growth

Source: EIA/BP; population estimates based on 11 yr avg gr rate over 2001

92278184

4003 4002

2199

776317

1534

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

Canada USA Germany Japan FSU China India WorldAvg

(Kg/head/yr)

Per Capita Electricity Consumption & Human Development Index (HDI)

Country kWh HDI

Canada 15129 0.96

USA 11796 0.94

Australia 8086 0.93

Singapore 7196 0.90

Korea 4453 0.89

Malaysia 2078 0.83

China 687 0.65

India 347 0.45

Pakistan 333 0.45

Bangladesh 97 0.37

Nepal 39 0.35

Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index prepared on a scale of 0-1 measured by three key components - longevity, knowledge and income.

Source: Human Development Report, 1998, World Bank  World Development Indicators, 1999, World Bank

Coal 23.62 35.64 36.48 59.96 94.68 133.89 190.00 254.93

Lignite - 0.01 0.81 1.23 3.34 6.52 15.51 22.05

Crude Oil 0.19 0.46 7.01 10.79 33.92 32.03 144.58 185.40

Natural Gas - - 0.60 1.41 11.73 26.72 42.70 57.60

Hydro Power 0.24 0.67 2.17 4.00 6.16 6.37 12.73 18.54

Nuclear Power

- - 0.63 0.78 1.60 5.15 6.04 14.16

Wind Power - - - - - 0.14 0.35 1.00

•Total 24.05 36.78 47.67 75.19 151.43 210.82

Net Imports 2.20 6.04 12.66 24.63 31.69 87.85

Commercial Energy Supply

26.25 42.82 60.33 99.82 183.12 298.67 411.91 553.68

Primary Non Commercial Energy Supply

64.13 74.38 86.72 108.48 122.07 139.02 151.30 170.25

Total Primary Energy Supply

90.38 117.20 147.05 208.30 305.19 437.69 563.21 723.93

1953-54 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2001-02 2006-07 2011-12

Table 1. Trends in Supply of Primary Energy in India MTOE Supply Estimated demand

Source: Government of India, Planning Commission, Tenth Five Year Plan, Chapter 7 .3. [1] 1MTOE = 4.2 x 10 4 Tera Joules

SHARE OF NON-COMMERCIAL ENERGY

1953-54 1980-81 2001-02 2011-12

%SHARE 71 52 32 23..5

MOTE 64.13 108.48 139.02 170.25

The decreasing share of non-commercial energy indicates increasing URBANISATION / INDUSTRIALISATION

The data indicate that the rural population in India continues to rely on traditional biomass-based fuels (fuel wood, crop residues, and animal dung) for meeting its energy needs.

The rural populace constitutes nearly 70% of the population in India and 96% of the rural households use bio-fuels, primarily for cooking.

During the year 2001 – 02 the fuel wood consumption in India was 223 million tonnes and the consumption of animal dung and agro-waste was estimated at 130 million tonnes [1]

Agriculture 14.93 5 0 1.3 9.5 89.2 100

Industry 146.35 49 73.1 2.4 13.6 10.9 100

Transport 65.71 22 0 0 98.5 1.5 100

Residential 29.87 10 0 1.1 71.3 27.6 100

Others 41.81 14 0 33.9 60.9 5.2 100

Total 298.67 100

Sector Commercial Energy Sectoral Energy Consumption consumed as by fuel % MTOE % Coal Natural Petroleum Electric Gas Products Power

Source : The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Delhi [2]

Table 2 Sectoral Composition of Commercial Energy Consumption in India in 2001 – 2002

33% of electric power use in agriculture, 39% in industry and 20% residential .

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

1947 1952 1957 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002

Hydro 508 940 1917 4124 6905 11384 14460 18308 20506 26910

Nuclear 0 0 0 0 640 640 1095 1565 1720 2720

Thermal 854 1755 2736 4903 9059 16424 27030 43417 57244 78343

Dec-47 Dec-55 Mar-61 Mar-66 Mar-74 Mar-80 Mar-85 Mar-90 Mar-95 Mar-03

107973

79470

63290

42585

28448

16604

9027465326951362

GROWTH OF INSTALLED GENERATING CAPACITY (MW)

Contribution in EJ

6.40 4.83 1.18 0.79 0.23 0.026 13.46

% of total 47.53 35.92 8.79 5.85 1.72 0.19 100.00

Import (EJ) 0.51 3.42 Neg Neg 0.03 0.00 3.63

% of above 7.97 70.81 Neg Neg 13.0 0.00 27.00

Contribution in TWh 550.82 65.66 19.24 2.13 637.84

% of above 86.4 10.3 3.0 0.3 100.0

Table 3:Contribution of different fuel resources to primary and electrical energy

Primary Energy (EJ), Year 2002-03 ( Estimated )

Energy Components

Coal+ L Crude NG Hydro NUC Non-con Total

Electricity (TWh), Year 2002-03

Electricity componenents

Thermal Hydro Nuc Non-Con Total

1 Exa Joule = 23.9 MTOE =277.78TWhSources: Annual Reports of the year 2002-03 of Ministries of Power, Coal, Oil & Natural Gas, Non-Conventional Energy, Central Electricity Authority and Department of Atomic Energy [5]

Share of electric power consumption

• Industry 39%

• Agriculture 33%

• Transport 2.5%

• Residential 20%

• Other 5.5%

The country has experienced severe shortages in electricity; during 2000–01, there was an average shortage of 7.8% and a peak shortage of 13.0% [6]. It has now increased to 10% and 15% respectively [7].

Coal 23.62 35.64 36.48 59.96 94.68 133.89 190.00 254.93

Lignite - 0.01 0.81 1.23 3.34 6.52 15.51 22.05

Crude Oil 0.19 0.46 7.01 10.79 33.92 32.03 144.58 185.40

Natural Gas - - 0.60 1.41 11.73 26.72 42.70 57.60

Hydro Power 0.24 0.67 2.17 4.00 6.16 6.37 12.73 18.54

Nuclear Power

- - 0.63 0.78 1.60 5.15 6.04 14.16

Wind Power - - - - - 0.14 0.35 1.00

•Total 24.05 36.78 47.67 75.19 151.43 210.82

Net Imports 2.20 6.04 12.66 24.63 31.69 87.85

Commercial Energy Supply

26.25 42.82 60.33 99.82 183.12 298.67 411.91 553.68

Primary Non Commercial Energy Supply

64.13 74.38 86.72 108.48 122.07 139.02 151.30 170.25

Total Primary Energy Supply

90.38 117.20 147.05 208.30 305.19 437.69 563.21 723.93

1953-54 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2001-02 2006-07 2011-12

Table 1. Trends in Supply of Primary Energy in India MTOE Supply Estimated demand

Source: Government of India, Planning Commission, Tenth Five Year Plan, Chapter 7 .3. [1] 1MTOE = 4.2 x 10 4 Tera Joules

1 SCE-India [1] 2002-2012 4.3  

2 TERI-India [10] 1997-2019 4.5 5.7

2020- 2047 3.7 3.9

3 IEO-USA [11] 1997- 2020 4.5 4.5

4 EAGJ-Japan [12] 1990- 2025 3.9 ….

2026- 2050 2.4 ….

2051-2100 1.8 ….

5 IEEJ-Japan [13] 1999-2020 5.2 5.4

6 RS&RAE-UK [14] until 2026 …. 4.0

until 2050 …. 3.0

2051-2100 …. 2.0

7 CEA-India [15] 1997- 2012 …. 6.5

8 Grover and Chandra [ 5]

2002- 2022 4.6 6.3

2022-2032 4.5 4.9

2032-2042 4.5 4.6

2042- 2052 3.9 3.9

Table 4: A survey of energy growth rate projections for India

Study Period Commercial Electrical

% %

Major assumptions in Grover-Chandra study

1. Population of India stabilizes by 2050 at a level of 1.5 billion.

Population growth Period 1.5 % 2001-2010 1.2 % 2011-2020 0.7 % 2021-2030 0.4 % 2031-2040 0.2 % 2041-2050 0 % > 2050

Population growth rate during 1991-2000 was 1.99%

Major assumptions in Grover-Chandra study

2. There are two indicators pointing to the fact that India is already on a path of growth and development:

1) One is that the energy intensity of India (for the year 2001) is the same as in OECD Countries, when GDP is calculated in terms of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP).

2) Energy – GDP elasticity, which is the ratio of the growth rate in energy to the growth rate in GDP has been continuously decreasing since the mid-seventies from the steady value of 1.3 for the previous two decades. Electricity-GDP elasticity which was as high as 3.0 in the mid sixties has also been decreasing and in 1991-2000 was ~1.213; for the same period the primary energy–GDP elasticity has come down to 0.907.

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

CAN IND OECD RF

MER

PPP

Energy Intensity = Ratio of Total Primary Energy Supply to GDP

TOE/ 000 95 US $; MER=MARKET EXCHANGE RATE

PPP = PURCHASING POWER PARITY

FOR CANADA,USA, INDIA,CHINA, OECD, NON-OECD EUROPE, RUSSIAN FEDERATION AND MIDDLE EAST

CHART PREPARED FROM Key World Energy Statistics, Selected energy indicators for 2001, International Energy Agency, 2003 edition

Major assumptions in Grover-Chandra study

3.The future GDP growth rates of India WILL FOLLOW the projections made by Dominic Wilson and Roopa Prushothamn, ‘Dreaming with BRICs: The Path to 2050’ Global Economics Paper No. 99, Goldman Sachs, 1st Oct. 2003 (https://www.gs.com )

4. The primary energy intensity fall in India will be 1.2 %/yr , extrapolating the electricity intensity fall from past data till 2022 and subsequently a constant fall of 1.2 %/yr, the growth rates of the primary energy and electrical energy have been estimated as follows.

Period Primary Energy Growth% per year

Electricity Growth% per year

2002 – 2022 4.6 6.3

2022 – 2032 4.5 4.9

2032 – 2042 4.5 4.6

2042 – 2052 3.9 3.9

Table 5. Estimated growth rates of primary and electrical energy in India

Based on the growth rates given in the above table, the total electricity generation would reach about 8000 TWhr in the year 2052 with a per capita electricity consumption of 5300 kWhr per year. The installed capacity for electricity generation would be 1344GWe. By then, the cumulative energy expenditure will be about 2400 EJ.

Meeting the Increasing Energy Demand in the Coming Decades

• Energy security means the availability of energy at all times in several forms, in sufficient quantities and at affordable prices. These conditions must prevail over the long term, if energy is to contribute to sustainable development.

• However, it is a fact, that except for renewable energy sources, all other sources of energy, fossil and nuclear fuel, are unevenly distributed among countries. Import is therefore inevitable in the current globalized world environment.

• Nevertheless every county has to evolve a strategy for energy security that ensures that a major portion of the energy is derived from indigenous sources.

Fossil:          

Coal 38 -BT 667 185,279 21,151 7,614

Hydrocarbon 12 -BT 511 141,946 16,204 5,833

Non-Fossil:          

Nuclear:          

  Uranium-Metal  61,000 -T        

In PHWR   28.9 7,992 913 328

In Fast breeders  3,699 1,027,616 117,308 42,231

  Thorium-Metal 2,25,000 -T        

In Breeders   13,622 3,783,886 431,950 155,502

Renewable          

     Hydro  150 -GWe 6.0 1,679 192 69

     Non –conventional  100 -GWe 1.8 487 56 20

Table 6.Primary Energy & Electricity Resources in India

Resource Amount Thermal Energy Electricity potential

EJ TWh GWYr GWeYr

The strategies and options for meeting the growth in energy demand in India therefore

are multi-pronged :

1. More efficient use of fuels and energy .2. Exploration for increasing fossil fuel reserves.3. Harnessing full potential for hydro-generation of

electricity.4. Increasing use of non-fossil resources : nuclear and

non–conventional.5. Competitive import of energy and energy resources–

whenever and wherever possible based on geo-political considerations and feasibility from techno–economical consideration.

6. Search for alternate energy sources.

More Efficient Use of Fuels and Energy• Reforms to provide an environment that, encourages free and fair

competition in each element of the energy value chain and would attract capital from all sources – Public,Private,Domestic and Foreign.

• The 2001 Energy Conservation Act which makes it mandatory, through a Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) to practice stringent energy conservation norms for energy generation, supply and consumption.

• Bring down the average transmission and distribution losses to the range 8 – 15%.

• There is also considerable scope for improving the energy efficiency in industry as well as in the Agriculture and Transport sectors.

• There is also a move to reduce subsidies. Although subsidies cannot be completely eliminated, greater transparency and equity can be achieved by transferring all subsidies to Central/ State Government Budgets and ensuring that the benefits of subsidies reach the targeted beneficiaries.

Exploration for Increasing Fossil Fuel Reserves

• New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP), first announced in 1997, which permits foreign involvement in exploration, an activity long restricted to Indian state-owned firms.

• Between 1999 and 2003, through four rounds of bidding, more than 100 blocks have been awarded to joint ventures between Indian and foreign companies and Indian Public Sector Consortiums.

• Another strategy is to encourage Indian companies to tap opportunities available for exploration rights abroad. The major Indian Company ONGC has acquired such rights from Russia (Sakhalin-I) and Vietnam.

• Other actions include increasing the refining capacity, improved/ enhanced oil recovery, strategic storing of crude and minimizing the oil intensity of the economy without compromising on the pace of economic development.

Harnessing Full Potential for Hydro-Generation of Electricity

Viable hydro-potential = 84 GW at 60% load factor

( 1,48,700 MW installed capacity).Only about 18% of this potential is installed;

another 11% is under various stages of development .

It is planned to exploit all possible hydro-energy sources.

An initiative for addition of 50000MW hydro-capacity has been launched in May 2003.

It is further envisaged that the full hydro- potential of 150GW would be installed by the year 2026.

Fossil:          

Coal 38 -BT 667 185,279 21,151 7,614

Hydrocarbon 12 -BT 511 141,946 16,204 5,833

Non-Fossil:          

Nuclear:          

  Uranium-Metal  61,000 -T        

In PHWR   28.9 7,992 913 328

In Fast breeders  3,699 1,027,616 117,308 42,231

  Thorium-Metal 2,25,000 -T        

In Breeders   13,622 3,783,886 431,950 155,502

Renewable          

     Hydro  150 -GWe 6.0 1,679 192 69

     Non –conventional  100 -GWe 1.8 487 56 20

Table 6.Primary Energy & Electricity Resources in India

Resource Amount Thermal Energy Electricity potential

EJ TWh GWYr GWeYr

INDIA’S THREE STAGE NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME

STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3

U-233

ELECTRICITY

Depleted U

Pu

300 GWe, 30 Yr

Pu FUELLEDFAST BREEDERS

Th

500 GWe, 500 Yr

ELECTRICITYU-233 FUELLED

BREEDERS

Natural Uranium

ELECTRICITYPHWR

12 GWe, 30 Yr

Th

Pu

U-233

10 GWe × 33 Yrs 420 GWe × 100Yrs 500GWe × 300 Yrs

Developed 540 Mwe PHWRs &Construction in progress; Unit size being

scaled up to 680 MWe

Developed Front End & Back End Technologies of

Complete Fuel Cycle

Established ComprehensiveIndigenous Capabilities for Designing, Equipment Manufacturing,

Constructing, Commissioning, O&Mof 220

MWe PHWRs

FIRST STAGE

Design for 500 MWe PFBR developed.

Construction to commence in June

2004 .

SECOND STAGE

Fast Breeder Test Reactor (40 MWt ) Set up

Indian Nuclear Power

Programme:

Current Status

THIRD STAGE

Experimental reactor with U233 fuel in operation.

Thorium Bundles in PHWRs.

AHWR-300 Mwe being developed in BARC. Technology Demonstration for electricity generation from Thourium.Bridge between the I & III Stages to be Launched in X plan

Indian Nuclear Power ProgrammeIndian Nuclear Power Programme

14 reactors at 6 sites under operation14 reactors at 6 sites under operation 2,770 2,770 2,770 2,770Tarapur, Rawatbhata, Kalpakkam,Tarapur, Rawatbhata, Kalpakkam,Narora, Kakrapar and KaigaNarora, Kakrapar and Kaiga

6 PHWRs under construction at 1,960 4,730 6 PHWRs under construction at 1,960 4,730 Tarapur (2x540 MWe),Kaiga (2x220 MWe),Tarapur (2x540 MWe),Kaiga (2x220 MWe),RAPS-5&6(2x220 MWe) RAPS-5&6(2x220 MWe)

2 LWRs under construction at 2 LWRs under construction at 2,000 2,000 6,730 6,730Kudankulam(2x1000 MWe)Kudankulam(2x1000 MWe)

PFBR at KalpakkamPFBR at Kalpakkam ( (1 X 500 MWe) 5001 X 500 MWe) 500 7,230 7,230(Pre-project activity in progress) (Pre-project activity in progress)

Projects planned till 2020Projects planned till 2020 13,90013,900 21,130 21,130PHWRs(8x700 MWe), FBRs(4x500 MWe), PHWRs(8x700 MWe), FBRs(4x500 MWe),

LWRs(6x1000 MWe), AHWR(1x300 MWe)LWRs(6x1000 MWe), AHWR(1x300 MWe)

TOTAL by 2020TOTAL by 2020 21,180 MWe21,180 MWe

CAPACITY (MWe)CAPACITY (MWe) CUMULATIVE CUMULATIVE CAPACITY (MWe)CAPACITY (MWe)REACTOR TYPE AND CAPACITIESREACTOR TYPE AND CAPACITIES

UNIT

TAPS

MAPSNAPSKAPS

TARIFF (P / kWh)

91.96

201.26236.13280.19

NUCLEAR POWER- TARIFFS (Apr 2002)

KAIGA-1&2RAPS-3 &4

RAPS-2 225

310/325 296/310

Year of start Commercial Operation

1969

19811984/861991/921993/95

20002000

245 Wtd. Average

Competitive with contemporary coal thermal. Concept of introducing pooled

tariff is being tried on regional basis.

Projects Under Construction

U5 –May 07

U6 –Nov 08

On Schedule 2x220RAPP-5&6

U1 –Sept 07

U2 –Sept 08

On Schedule2x1000KK-1&2

U3 –Dec 06

U4 –June 07

On Schedule 2x220 Kaiga-3&4

U4 –Oct 05 U3 - July 06

On Schedule.2x540TAPP-3&4

Scheduled Commercial

Operation

Physical Progress

Capacity

MWe

Project

Annual electricity generation would increase from about 638 TWh in 2002-03 to about 7957 TWhr in 2052-53.

Approximate percentage contributions of various resources towards electricity generation in the year 2052-53 will be coal-47%, hydrocarbon-16%, hydro-8%, non-conventional renewable-4 % and nuclear-26 %.

Annual primary energy consumption would increase from about 13.5 EJ in 2002-03 to about 117 EJ in 2052-53.

Total Installed power capacity will go up from about 137 GWe in 2002-03 to about 1344 GWe in 2052-53.

Installed capacity distribution will be coal-46%, hydrocarbon-15%, gas-10%, hydro-11%, non-conventional renewable-7%, and nuclear-20%.

Increasing Use of Non-Conventional Energy

• Today, India has perhaps the only Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources in the world.

• The country has the largest solar energy program, the second largest biogas and improved cook stoves program and the fifth largest wind power program in the world.

• The renewable energy sources have begun to emerge as an attractive option, sometimes the only one, to provide light and power to areas too remote for grid electrification.

• Promotion of renewable energy sources is an integral component of the country’s strategy for sustainable development.

Wind Power MW 45,000 1870

Small hydro power (upto 25 MW) MW 15,000 1,510

Biomass power MW 19,500 483

Biomass gasifiers  MW 16,000 53

Biomass cogeneration  MW 3,500 350

Urban and Industrial waste based power

MW 1,700 26

Solar photovoltaics(SPV) MW/km2 20 121 (MW)

Solar water heating million m2

collector area140 0.70

Biogas plants million 12 3.5

Improved biomass chulhas (cookstoves) million 120 35.2

Table 7. Renewable energy potential and achievements in India[24]

Sources/ Technologies Units Potential Achievements

2002-03

Co-Generation in India: Status And Prospects for Renewable Energy Sources

• The growing gap between energy supply and energy demand, has led to widespread co-generation.

• Indian households and firms are increasingly reliant on diesel generators (DG) and, for certain applications, inverters and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), for energy security/backup.

• The total installed capacity today of 136973 MWe includes 29000 MWe of captive power capacity and 1,07,973 MWe of electrical utilities; the captive power capacity is nearly 27% 0f the capacity of utilities.

• The Indian UPS market size is also growing at about 300MW/ year (Table 8).

Segment % share

Annual growth

Factors favoring RGs over DGs

IT and Telecom 75% 10% Noise,space, inconvenience of handling fuel/lubrication

Hospitals/ Clinics 10% 30% Remote locations, criticality of service

Online Transactions Processing (e.g., finance and transportation)

6% 25% -

Residential Noise, space, fuel/ lubrication handling

Other 4% -

Table 8. Indian UPS market segments and growth

Figure 2. Cash outflow per MWh, for daytime use, @ 7% finance, 5% p.a. fuel price rise, 27% conversion efficiency, 1MWp DG and RG at $200,000 and $2,500,000 capital cost, 60% and 30% utilization and 3.5% and 1.25% p.a. maintenance (DG: overhaul, RG: batteries )

DG/RG comparison

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024

Year

$/M

WH

Diesel Renewable

RG compare favorably with DG over a 20-year horizon as shown in

Figure 3. Hybrid-source UPS (left), SPV array and wind generator (right)

Wind Power MW 45,000 1870

Small hydro power (upto 25 MW) MW 15,000 1,510

Biomass power MW 19,500 483

Biomass gasifiers  MW 16,000 53

Biomass cogeneration  MW 3,500 350

Urban and Industrial waste based power

MW 1,700 26

Solar photovoltaics(SPV) MW/km2 20 121 (MW)

Solar water heating million m2

collector area140 0.70

Biogas plants million 12 3.5

Improved biomass chulhas (cookstoves) million 120 35.2

Table 7. Renewable energy potential and achievements in India[24]

Sources/ Technologies Units Potential Achievements

Total Installed power capacity will go up from about 137 GWe in 2002-03 to about 1344 GWe in 2052-53.

Installed capacity distribution will be coal-46%, hydrocarbon-15%, gas-10%, hydro-11%, non-conventional renewable-7%, and nuclear-20%.

Search for Alternate Energy Sources

• Th/U-233 cycle will be the mainstay beyond 2050.

• The other alternate energy sources relevant for the future are:

Coal bed methane, Gas hydrates, Hydrogen and Nuclear fusion.

Th/U-233 Cycle• Mastery of Th fuel cycle- extraction, fuel fabrication,

irradiation to produce U-233,reprocessing,refabrication.• 1984:PURNIMA 2, Reactor experiment.• 1996:KAMINI 30 kW Reactor at Kalpakkam.• Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AWHR), which

extends the technology of PHWR for Th/U-233cycle. • Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS) in which high

energy neutrons from a spallation reaction are directed to a sub-critical reactor containing thorium to produce U-233.

Coal Bed Methane (CBM)

• India has an estimated 1000 Billion cubic meters of coal bed methane (CBM).

• A demonstration project is under implementation with UNDP support.

• Exploration and production activities are in progress.

• Development of CBM is important as it is a potential source of clean energy.

Gas Hydrates

• There is a potential of 6156 cubic meters of gas hydrates and 600 million tons of oil shale in the Indian seabed.

• There is a program to exploit these in the future.

• For developing the technology of gas hydrates the Department of Ocean Development has a collaborative venture with the Russian Federation.

Hydrogen

• A scenario, in which, hydrogen will replace hydrocarbons as the major primary energy source, particularly for automobiles.

• While hydrogen (in water) is so abundant in the earth, we need energy to produce it.

• Role for nuclear energy in the hydrogen economy.

- Dissociation of water Nuclear radiation Thermal Electrochemical

Nuclear Fusion Technology

• Both plasma and laser fusion studies are in progress.

• India is also assessing the advantages of joining the international cooperative program.

CONCLUSION

• The demand for energy is expected to grow significantly in the next five decades, nine-fold to 117 EJ in the case of primary energy and twelve and half times to 8000 TWhe in the case of electricity.

• The concern for energy security will bring in an increasing share for hydro, non-conventional and nuclear energy in the primary commercial and electrical energy by 2052.

CONCLUSION

• The share of nuclear energy will increase to 25%, hydro to 11%, and non–conventional to 4%.

• The full potential of hydro, 6EJ would be reached by 2026.

• The Th/U-233 cycle, when successfully developed can give India energy security for five or more centuries.

• At the same time there is a need to look for new and alternate energy sources like coal bed methane, gas hydrates, hydrogen and nuclear fusion.