1

Pilot project

Development & Piloting of basic On-Line Training Courses

(BATCOS)

No. CZ/00/B/F/PP-134013

Web-based Implementation of Courses

University of West Bohemia in Pilsen Pilsen, 2003

LEONARDO DA VINCI II EUROPEAN COMMISSION

2

CONTENT INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3

1 CROSSROADS....................................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 CROSSROADS (WORDS AND MEANINGS) .............................................................................................. 4 1.1.1 Constructivism (in learning and teaching).............................................................................. 4 1.1.1 Behaviorism........................................................................................................................... 5 1.1.2 Behavioral objectives............................................................................................................. 5

1.2 CROSSROADS (CULTURE, TIME, SPACE, TECHNOLOGY) ........................................................................ 6 1.3 CROSSROADS (ARCHITECTURE OF THE COURSES DESIGN) .................................................................... 7

1.3.1 Strategic program planning ................................................................................................... 7 1.3.2 A constructivist approach to instructional design.................................................................... 7 1.3.3 A systems approach to instructional design ............................................................................ 7

1.3.3.1 Components of the systems approach model........................................................................... 8 1.3.3.2 Crossroads (distance learning)...............................................................................................10

1.3.4 Instructional design for distance learning............................................................................. 10 1.3.4.1 Designing for Distance Learning...........................................................................................10 1.3.4.2 Developing for Distance Learning.........................................................................................11 1.3.4.3 Delivery in Distance Learning...............................................................................................11 1.3.4.4 Instructional Design Principles for Distance Learning............................................................12

1.2 CROSSROADS (CBT TRAP) ............................................................................................................... 14 1.3 CROSSROADS (CONTENT VERSUS INSTRUCTIONS).............................................................................. 15 1.4 CROSSROADS (INDEPENDENCE ON TECHNOLOGY, DEPENDENCE ON INSTRUCTORS/TUTORS) ................ 16

2 PATHS.................................................................................................................................................. 17

2.1 PATH (SYSTEMS APPROACH IN BATCOS)......................................................................................... 17 2.2 PATH (DECOMPOSITION) .................................................................................................................. 21 2.3 PATH (TOOLS) ................................................................................................................................. 21

2.3.1 Templates ............................................................................................................................ 22 2.3.1.1 Schedule...............................................................................................................................22 2.3.1.2 Study ...................................................................................................................................23 2.3.1.3 Assignment ..........................................................................................................................23 2.3.1.4 Assessment...........................................................................................................................24 2.3.1.5 Media...................................................................................................................................26 2.3.1.6 DoublePages ........................................................................................................................26

2.4 PATH (COURSE DEVELOPMENT ONLINE)............................................................................................ 27 2.5 PATH (PROTOTYPES)........................................................................................................................ 29

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 30

3

INTRODUCTION This report is a specific output of a project, which was aimed at development of a set of courses. The courses’ target group was very broad, comprising SMEs employees irrespective of their age, sex, previous training or profession. Courses contents covered about thirty topics concerning the problems, which the SMEs may face during introduction of information and communication technologies and management techniques into the company practice. At the seemingly „ancient“ time of the project idea conception, the proposal for capturing and further transfer of the course development experience emerged. It was intended for those who might, at some point, decide to embark on a similar quest. The word „manual“ became the title of the actual output of our effort. However, the three years of hard project work by several international teams have shown that this experience cannot be conveyed via a standard manual. More suitable forms might include a narrative, perhaps a case study. Still, the latter would not reveal the joy, trials and tribulations involved in blazing a trail in the field and decisions taken at imaginary crossroads in places, which, to many on the project team, were unknown or seen from new directions. Therefore, I opted for a bird’s eye view of the journey of the BATCOS project team. They wandered through the space filled with dreamlike fantasies of possibilities of web-based and on-line training, an austere landscape dehumanized by inconceivable algorithmic reality of vast amount of work with „stupid“ computers, an area sparkling with expectations and experiences involving both success and disappointment of activation of first courses tried by brave students in piloting runs. Hence, I was careful in climbing the structure built of theories and courageously generalized practical experience in instructional design to share with you the sight of BATCOS enthusiasts meticulously labouring through everyday tasks to finally arrive at almost a hundred of implemented functional course prototypes. The story will not include multimedia effect but has many dimensions. I hope that it will provide you with a little more confidence in decisions on your own crossroads, where you may say „This will get us nowhere“ or, better, „This is not the easiest way but it’s worth trying it.“

4

1 CROSSROADS

1.1 Crossroads (words and meanings) Let us begin with brief definitions of selected terms: learning, training, instruction and instructional design. For our case, we will define those very practically, with no claims of complete or “scientific” definition. „Learning enables an individual or groups of individuals to work faster, better, and smarter so that they and their organizations (or employers) reap business benefits.“ „Learning and training are often thought of as synonymous. They are not. Training is the way instruction is conveyed. It supports learning, which is our internal way of processing information into knowledge. But since there are many ways, in which we can learn, an effective learning strategy must transcend training“[1, p.4]. „We have traditionally relied on training as the default approach to facilitating and improving performance, and instruction as the specific process that makes training work. Training/instruction is used when it is necessary to shape learning in a specific direction – to support learners in acquiring an new skill or to utilize new knowledge in a specific way or to a specific level of proficiency, and perhaps within a specific time frame“ [1, p.5] Instructional Design as a Process: Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities. (Adapted from "Training and Instructional Design", Applied Research Laboratory, Penn State University) In the following paragraphs the most frequent “-isms” will be recalled, which are being used as guides for design, preview, decisions, explanations or substantiation in instructional design.

1.1.1 Constructivism (in learning and teaching) In general, constructivism, as it applies to education, supports the idea that learners construct new knowledge based upon their existing knowledge. The role of the constructivist teacher is to engage learners in activities, which encourage construction of learners' own understanding of new material at their current ability level. Instructional Systems Design experts have been engaged in a dialogue among themselves as to whether constructivism and instructional design are compatible. Some argue for a "new mindset" to combine constructivist elements in the instructional design models. Others argue that constructivist interventions are different from instructional interventions and propose a dual approach. A third group argues that the fundamental view of learning from the constructivist viewpoint is simply incompatible with instructional design theory. Others have approached the new view of learning as challenging the instructional design assumption that process can be separate from content. While the debate among instructional systems design professionals continues, those who value constructivist learning theory and are actively engaged in course design look for methods to enhance instruction toward the constructivist paradigm of teaching and learning. In education, constructivism is often discussed as a philosophy or instructional approach. However, Constructivism is not a theory about teaching. It's a theory about knowledge and learning. The confusion of the two has led both to controversy and to a tendency to consider constructivism as merely one in a broad array of concepts on which teachers can draw in

5

seeking to improve learning. For any learning theory to be of use, it is certainly necessary to identify and explore its implications for teaching. But it is critically important to consider constructivism first purely through the lens of learning theory, i.e., what is (according to the constructivist perspective), rather than what should be.

1.1.1 Behaviorism Behaviorism is a doctrine, or set of doctrines, about human and nonhuman animal behavior. Behaviorism is committed in its fullest and most complete sense to the truth of the following three sets of claims.

1. Psychology is the science of behavior. Psychology is not the science of mind.

2. Behavior can be described and explained without making reference to mental events or to internal psychological processes. The sources of behavior are external (in the environment), not internal (in the mind).

3. In the course of theory development in psychology, if, somehow, mental terms or concepts are deployed in describing or explaining behavior, then either (a) these terms or concepts should be eliminated and replaced by behavioral terms or (b) they can and should be translated or paraphrased into behavioral concepts.

Two of our basic premises are that (a) it is important to empower adults to take personal responsibility for their own learning, and (b) instructional activities should be based on learners' perceived needs. It is our contention that even in situations where prescribed learning is the ultimate goal, the learning process will be enhanced if learners can perceive corresponding instruction as meeting individual needs or they can at least take some responsibility for aspects of the process. Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. Behaviorism originated with the work of John B. Watson, who claimed that psychology was not concerned with the mind or with human consciousness but only with behavior. In this way, men could be studied objectively, like rats and apes. Watson's work was based on the experiments of Ivan Pavlov, who had studied animals' responses to conditioning. In Pavlov's best-known experiment, he rang a bell as he fed some dogs several meals. Each time the dogs heard the bell they knew that a meal was coming, and they would begin to salivate. Pavlov then rang the bell without bringing food, but the dogs still salivated. They had been "conditioned" to salivate at the sound of a bell. Pavlov believed, as Watson was later to emphasize, that humans react to stimuli in the same way. Behaviorism is associated today with the name of B.F. Skinner, who made his reputation by testing Watson's theories in the laboratory. Skinner's studies led him to reject Watson's almost exclusive emphasis on reflexes and conditioning. People respond to their environment, he argued, but they also operate on the environment to produce certain consequences.

1.1.2 Behavioral objectives An objective is a description of a performance you want learners to be able to exhibit before you consider them competent. An objective describes an intended result of instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself.

6

Behavioral objectives contain three parts: Conditions: the condition or situation under which a specific behavior is to be observed or expected to occur. Behavior: what a learner is to do or the behaviors a teacher will except as evidence toward achieving the objective. Criteria: the standard or level of performance that is acceptable. Behavioral objectives have been praised for their directness and clearness in stating exactly what is expected of a learner. They also help teachers assess a learner's progress toward attaining goals. Behavioral objectives, learning objectives, instructional objectives, and performance objectives are terms that refer to descriptions of observable learner behavior or performance that relate to learning. Behavioral objectives are about curriculum, not instruction. Behavioral objectives are learning objectives; they specify what behavior a learner must demonstrate or perform in order for a teacher to infer that learning took place. Since learning cannot be seen directly, teachers must make inferences about learning from evidence they can see and measure. The purpose of a behavioral objective is to communicate. A well-constructed behavioral objective describes an intended learning outcome and contains three parts, each of which alone means nothing, but when combined into a sentence or two, communicates the conditions under which the behavior is performed, a verb that defines the behavior itself, and the degree (criteria) to which a learner must perform the behavior. If any one of these three components is missing, the objective cannot communicate accurately. Bloom's taxonomy: Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. This became a taxonomy including three overlapping domains; the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. Cognitive learning is demonstrated by knowledge recall and the intellectual skills: comprehending information, organizing ideas, analyzing and synthesizing data, applying knowledge, choosing among alternatives in problem-solving, and evaluating ideas or actions. Affective learning is demonstrated by behaviors indicating attitudes of awareness, interest, attention, concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and respond in interactions with others, and ability to demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values, which are appropriate to the test situation and the field of study. Psychomotor learning is demonstrated by physical skills; coordination, dexterity, manipulation, grace, strength, speed; actions which demonstrate the fine motor skills such as use of precision instruments or tools, or actions which evidence gross motor skills such as the use of the body in dance or athletic performance.

1.2 Crossroads (culture, time, space, technology) Having had specified content and target groups we had to make decisions in four aspects that influence the design of the courses and their using. We had to explicitly or implicitly answer questions like this: The cultural and epistemological aspect: What are the prevailing views of how best to teach in delivery institutions and targeted environments (SMEs)? How open and ready to make change are all those in this aspect? What are BATCOS authors team epistemological position, and in what ways is that likely to influence the design of the courses? The time and space aspect: Where should learners learn? How ‘virtual’ should that learning be? What best suits the needs of the learners? What best suits the needs of the SMEs management? What best fits the needs of the subject matter? How will this impact on the design of the courses and their future using? The technological aspect: How does technology influence the approach to course design? What particular technology or combination of technologies most fits with the intended

7

approach to learning/training? What approach to the use of technology best fits the learning/training context for the BATCOS project? The course management: How will the course design process be managed? What resources are available? How does delivery institutions´ preferred approach fit with the culture of targeted SMEs? What course management should be used for the BATCOS project? What course management should be used for further usage of the courses?

1.3 Crossroads (architecture of the courses design) We had to decide about how to plan for every course, module or specific learning experience using technology. There are some available approaches:

• a strategic program planning

• a constructivist approach to instructional design

• a systems approach to instructional design In the following section we give brief characteristics of the approaches.

1.3.1 Strategic program planning Strategic program planning looks beyond the continuation and reinforcement of existing training and the needs of learners currently being served, to what is possible through the use of technology. This is important, because the real benefits of technology are most likely to be achieved if changes are made to the way we teach and the way learners learn. This approach fits to more ambitious goals than those of BATCOS project, as a whole was not applied.

1.3.2 A constructivist approach to instructional design Despite the pragmatic benefits of adopting a systems approach (see below), particularly for complex courses, others have a more fundamental objection to the systemic approach to course design. At its root is an objection to the underlying epistemological assumptions of a systems-based approach, with its emphasis on rational and sequential planning, definition of objectives, criteria for media selection, etc. Constructivists might argue for example that learners will produce different learning outcomes, depending on their prior knowledge and needs, and these outcomes cannot be adequately predicted or pre-determined by an instructor. How could this be taken into account in the design of technology-based learning and how would learner performance in such an approach be assessed?

1.3.3 A systems approach to instructional design A system is defined as a set of concepts or parts that must work together to perform a particular function. An instructional system is a set of resources and procedures that work together to promote learning. Instructional design in this approach is defined as the systematic process of developing specific instructional actions to achieve desired instructional outcomes, using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. Instructional design is usually the initial stage of a systematic instruction. There are several models for systematic instruction and the majority of the models follow the same basic stages of development, implementation, evaluation and maintenance of small units of instruction or the entire project.

8

1.3.3.1 Components of the systems approach model

IDENTIFY AN INSTRUCTIONAL GOAL The first step in the model is to determine what it is that you want learners to be able to do when they have completed your instruction. The definition of the instructional goal may be derived from a list of goals, from a needs assessment with regard to a particular curriculum, from practical experience with learning difficulties of learners in the classroom, from the analysis of someone who is already doing a job, or from some other requirement for new instruction [2]. CONDUCT AN INSTRUCTIONAL ANALYSIS After you identify the instructional goal, you will determine what type of learning is required of the learner. The goal will be analyzed to identify the subordinate skills that must be learned and any subordinate procedural steps that must be followed to learn a particular process. This analysis will result in a chart or diagram that depicts these skills and shows the relationship among them.

IDENTIFY ENTRY BEHAVIORS AND CHARACTERISTICS In addition to identifying the subordinate skills and procedural steps that must be included in the instruction, it will be necessary to identify the specific skills that learners must have prior to beginning instruction. This is not a listing of all the things learners can do, but the identification of the specific skills they must be able to do in order to begin. It is also important to identify any specific characteristics of the learners that may be important to consider in the design of the instructional activities.

WRITE PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES Based on the instructional analysis and the statement of entry behaviors, you will write specific statements of what it is the learners will be able to do when they complete your instruction. These statements, which are derived from the skills identified in the instructional analysis, will identify the skills to be learned, the conditions under which the skills must be performed, and the criteria for successful performance. DEVELOP CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST ITEMS Based on the objectives you have written, you develop assessment items that are parallel to and measure the learner’s ability to achieve what you described in the objectives. Major emphasis is placed on i-elating the kind of behavior described in the objectives to what the items require.

DEVELOP AN INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY Given information from the five preceding steps, you will identify the strategy that you will use in your instruction to achieve the terminal objective. The strategy will include sections on pre-instructional activities, presentation of information, practice and feedback, testing, and follow-through activities. The strategy will be based upon current outcomes of learning research, current knowledge of the learning process, content to be taught, and the characteristics of the learners who will receive the instruction. These features are used to develop or select materials, or to develop a strategy for interactive classroom instruction.

DEVELOP AND/OR SELECT INSTRUCTION In this step you will use your instructional strategy to produce the instruction. This typically includes a learner’s manual, instructional materials, tests, and an instructor’s guide The decision to develop original materials will depend upon the type of learning to be taught, the

9

availability of existing relevant materials, and developmental resources available to you. Criteria for selecting from among existing materials are provided. DESIGN AND CONDUCT THE FORMATIVE EVALUATION Following the completion of a draft of the instruction, a series of evaluations is conducted to collect data that are used to identify how to improve it. The three types of formative evaluation are referred to as one-to-one evaluation, small group evaluation, and field evaluation. Each type of evaluation provides the designer with a different type of information that can be used to improve the instruction. Similar techniques can be applied to the formative evaluation of materials or classroom instruction.

REVISE INSTRUCTION The final step (and the first step in a repeat cycle) is revising the instruction. Data from the formative evaluation are summarized and interpreted to attempt to identify difficulties experienced by learners in achieving the objectives, and to relate these difficulties to specific deficiencies in the instruction. The line in the figure on p. 2 and 3 labelled “Revise Instruction” indicates that the data from a formative evaluation are not simply used to revise the instruction itself, but are used to reexamine the validity of the instructional analysis and the assumptions about the entry behaviors and characteristics of learners. It is necessary to reexamine statements of performance objectives and test items in light of collected data. The instructional strategy is reviewed and finally all this is incorporated into revisions of the instruction to make it a more effective instructional tool. CONDUCT SUMMATIVE EVALUATION Although summative evaluation is the culminating evaluation of the effectiveness of instruction, it generally is not a part of the design process. It is an evaluation of the absolute and/or relative value or worth of the instruction, and occurs only after the instruction has been formatively evaluated and sufficiently revised to meet the standards of the designer. Since the summative evaluation usually does not involve the designer of the instruction, but instead involves an independent evaluator, this component is not considered an integral part of the instructional design process, per se. The nine basic steps represent the procedures that one employs when the systems approach is used to design instruction. This set of procedures is referred to as a systems approach because it is made up of interacting components, each having its own input and output, which together produce predetermined products. A system also collects information about its effectiveness so that the final product can be modified until it reaches the desired quality level. When instructional materials are being developed, data are collected and the materials are revised in light of these data to make them as effective and efficient as possible. The model described here is intended to be used at that point when the instructor is able to identify a specific instructional goal. The model is used in curriculum development projects after the instructional goals have been derived.

Figure 1 Schema or systems approach model of instruction design [2]

10

1.3.3.2 Crossroads (distance learning) Developed courses were intended also for in distance learning mode. So in designing it was necessary to look for answer questions like: What are the unique features of face-to-face teaching/training, and for what kinds of learner and goals are these essential. Face-to-face teaching can happen with minimal instructional design but distance learning cannot be realized without a carefully completed one. We hade to look a bit into theory [3] in finding for answers about particularities in designing, developing and delivering BATCOS courses as distance learning courses. Methodologies of instructional design for distance learning usually rely on a specific theoretical background. Instructional design theories rely on both theories of learning and theories of instruction, and aim at linking them to produce a theoretical design framework. Some authors’ view distance learning as a guided didactic conversation, some suggest a typology of distance learning situations based on Moor’s theory of independent study, and on three main dimensions called dialogue/support, structure/specialized competence, and general competence/self directedness. Instructional design represents the whole instructional design process. It can be decomposed into three sub-processes: design, development, and delivery. Design as the first sub process means architecture, i.e. drawing the system, designing the structure of components and their functioning. Development is undertaking construction, building and assembling the parts. Delivery means disseminating, giving access to the user with instructions for use, offering service and maintenance. Evaluation of both process and products is part of each sub-process and is an on-going process.

1.3.4 Instructional design for distance learning

1.3.4.1 Designing for Distance Learning Instructional design can be approached from different perspectives: besides the above-mentioned approaches are motivational, following Keller’s principles of motivational design; andragogical following Knowles’ principles; or cognitivist approach. It is the choice of instructional designers (and/or of their organization) to use one of the above design approaches. However, some pragmatic guidelines are useful - usually formulated in the forms of principles. From a systemic point of view, the distinction between macro- and micro levels is useful here: designing instructional systems is at the macro level, whereas designing instructional material is the micro level. Designing for distance learning at the macro level is about planning and cost analysis, as well as design of the curriculum, courses, instructional materials, learning activities, instructional evaluations, learner support systems, and support staff training. Of specific relevance to distance learning are:

a) market and cost analysis b) learner support systems c) media selection d) diffusion modalities e) evaluating learning outcomes at a distance.

Major challenges are: (1) explicitness of instructional materials, (2) quality standards, (3) variety of learning activities, (4) accessibility of media, and (5) dialogue with learners. Designing for distance learning at the micro level means designing printed material, audio and video materials, radio and television programs, interactive activities using telephone tutoring,

11

conferencing, audiographics material, interactive television or interactive satellite sessions and multimedia documents. Of specific importance to distance learning at the micro level is the design of:

f) the learning activities and instructional evaluation g) the learner support system.

As distance learning is media-based, the instructional design process must ensure of being flexible or adaptable enough to respond to all learners with their differences. For instance, wherever possible learners should be offered the option of self-directed learning versus appropriately frequent communications with a tutor or with peers, the option of materials, etc. A common illusion in distance learning is to think that it is sufficient to take a course syllabus and course material from on-campus teaching and send it by mail or transfer it to television. The real challenge is to intertwine content, learning activities, guidance and learner support. The instructional designer has to deal with questions such as: • How to give the learners full access to content through media. Whereas on-campus teaching does not need to consider this, since the professor is present to complement information, answer questions, check understandability, and correct errors, distance learning must give complete access to the content to be learned. • How to design asynchronous guidance and feedback-giving to learner, with no or little inter-learner interaction. • How to make the best possible media selection, given cost analysis and accessibility for learners to the equipment needed. • How to make a design appropriate for a learner population with very different profiles and motivations, with no possibility to check and adjust once delivery begins.

1.3.4.2 Developing for Distance Learning Development means making design ideas a reality, e.g. writing and timing learning activities, preparing assignments and examinations, electronic publishing of printed documents, authoring courseware, producing multimedia. Questions raised by the instructional designer are:

• How to guarantee explicitness and overall quality of instructional materials? • How to develop in such a way that it is most feasible and economical for updating and

maintenance? The instructional designer should prepare a variety of learning activities, and stimulate dialogue and inter-learner interactions. Field-testing and regular evaluation of instruction is essential to maintain quality and relevance.

1.3.4.3 Delivery in Distance Learning Delivery is where distance learning differs completely from face-to-face instruction, mainly because of its synchronicity. A key component of the delivery system in distance learning is the learner support system. Most authors argue that a more real-time type of two-way communication is richer and probably more effective, as in telephone tutoring, meetings, audio conferencing, or computer conferencing. Collaboration between learners is most often—but not in every case—an added value, sometimes an essential component. In addition to a learner support system, a good administration system must be in place to take care of registration, file management, and all other administrative issues. Delivery questions may be:

• How to prevent learner isolation, loss of interest, lack of support, and finally a high attrition rate?

12

• How to organize evaluation of learning outcomes in order to ensure good quality standards and/or accreditation?

• How to organize student administration in a most efficient way? Quality control is essential throughout the whole design process, with checkpoints at critical events in the process. Evaluation of the design, both formative and summative, should deal with factors such as access, relevance to needs and expectations, quality, learning outcomes, impact, effectiveness and efficiency, and generation of knowledge.

1.3.4.4 Instructional Design Principles for Distance Learning From the perspective of using instructional design as a way to solve instructional problems, principles are given for avoiding obstacles and facilitating problem-solving in distance learning. Problems specific to distance learning relate to:

(1) the particular conditions of learning and the associated limitations in communication between teachers and learners,

(2) limitations in the types of learning that can be supported by distance learning, (3) economic aspects of distance learning, infrastructure and logistics needed.

In a distance learning situation, communication between learners and teachers is reduced as compared to face-to-face teaching in three ways:

(1) in quantity, since it happens only on an occasional basis, (2) in completeness, with only voice or written text instead of full live presence, (3) in interactivity, since interactions are rarer, and (4) delayed instead of immediate (“not-in-time” instead of “just-in-time”), and since

media commonly used like radio and television are one-way. In distance learning, communication between teacher and learner is mediated mostly by instructional material for transmission of knowledge, organization of learning activities or evaluation of learning outcomes. Conversations are mediated by communications means such as mail, e-mail, and conferences. Types of learning that can be supported by distance learning are limited, although this tends to be reduced by new technologies. Psychomotor and perceptual skills could not be fully supported unless learning is completed by on-site sessions. Learning of social interactions, of teamwork, of leadership or of negotiating skills also requires physical presence and real-time activities. Economic aspects must be underlined as critical in the design of distance learning activities, and with them the issues of equal access for remote and urban areas, and for poorly equipped and well equipped sites. Appropriate instructional design for distance learning must find the best trade-off solutions between sound instructional design principles and economic aspects. Consequently, problems for which instructional design has to provide solutions can be considered under three major points:

• Accessibility: lack and/or cost of access to a distance instructional system, to media-based content and activities,

• Attrition: due to isolation of learners, lack of motivation, interactivity, support, or peer collaboration,

• Quality: few quality standards, lack of feedback to and from learners, lack of maintenance and updating, absence of quality in the support system.

The instructional design principles for distance learning given below aim at solving these problems and have three main goals:

• provide accessibility—principles 1 and 2: media selection, readability, understandability, explicitness, feasibility

13

• keep motivation—principles 3 to 7: two-way communication, learning activities, learner support, peer collaboration

• ensure quality—principles 7 to 10: feedback from and to learner, error anticipation, evaluation of learning outcomes, evaluation of instruction reliability, support staff training.

A short description [3] of these design principles is given below:

Principle 1 Select media based on access for learners so that learners have easy, equal, and economical access to instruction; determine access to equipment for learners from home or work place, or at resource centers; make cost assessment.

Principle 2 Develop fully readable, understandable and feasible material and guidance with detailed and multimode descriptions; be explicit and provide detailed guidance; test feasibility with learners (level of difficulty, quantity and duration of learning activities and assignments).).

Principle 3 Plan both synchronous and asynchronous two-way communication with opportunities and means for two-way communication; stimulate feedback from learners to tutors; give learners access to asynchronous feedback from tutors and from other learners.

Principle 4 Design a variety of learning activities, offer different methods and techniques, individual or team-based; when possible, design interactive software or television material.

Principle 5 Design a structured interactive learner support system with tutoring, meetings, conferencing, networking plan support staff training and stimulate collaboration between tutors. Principle 6 Plan opportunities for peer collaboration, stimulate collaboration between learners, plan opportunities for collaborative learning activities at a distance, for document exchange and teamwork. Principle 7 Provide appropriate feedback to learners, just-in-time as much as possible, be it by tutors or by courseware; collect data from field-testing and adjust (“fine tune”) instructional material and activities. Principle 8 Anticipate errors by learners, both in content and process in order either to prevent them or to have learners learn from them; collect data from field-testing and make a “bug catalog” to identity them. Principle 9 Determine clear evaluation standards of learning outcomes to compensate high distribution of learners and of tutors and to ensure equity.

Principle 10 Plan for evaluation of instructional materials and of learner support with checkpoints for evaluating and revising; design easy-to-update material, activities and support system; plan support staff training and collaboration between tutors.

14

1.2 Crossroads (CBT trap) The task assignment of the BATCOS project leads one to seek the solution in computer based training (CBT). That fulfills both the technological (delivery) requirements and the organizational ones. Such solution represents either minimum or zero instructor costs and, in case of CBT self-study, zero teaching organization costs. “Modernized” CBT, i.e. web-based training, in its simplest (and, at first glance, most economical) form created by mere substitution of a medium without any substantial changes, leads to a trap, in which the computer-based training ended up upon its magnificent outset. Most of us have tried computer based training (CBT) and almost everybody was soon or later

disgusted. “I can see it once and is it enough” is a typical response. Rosenberg [1] suggests possible reasons:

1. The content wasn’t any good. Sometimes, the CBT content was just plain incorrect, inappropriate for the audience and purpose, or just out of date.

2. The learning wasn’t authentic. When the learner does not believe that the steps, procedures, situations, problems, and questions contained in the CBT are real, the program is in trouble.

3. Form over substance. The rush to internet-based CBT has produced some great-looking, yet awful training. Despite a history of disappointment with learning technologies, many trainers are still obsessed with “technolust”, which drives them to try the latest technological gizmo-the Internet just being the latest iteration. Ignoring the tenets of instructional and information design amidst fervour over technology usually results in lots of Web wizardry that often doesn’t teach anything value.

4. One size did not fit all. Modules and lessons that must be taken in a specific order frustrated some people who wanted to skip around, and programs that allowed learners to explore on their own frustrated others who needed structure. It became difficult to always find the right pace and right level of flexibility, let alone the right content. Offering multiple modes raised the cost enormously

5. Technology was a barrier. As new technology came and went, it left literally hundreds of orphan programs in its wake.

6. It was useless after the initial use. If you did find the information, should you rely on it, is it still accurate?

7. The learning was not reinforced. Reinforcement is one of the most powerful tools for learning. Some ways to reinforce learning are: applying what you have learned on the job, having follow-up training (either classroom or more CBT) referring back to what you just learned. If your manager did not take the program, how s/he be able to help you? If CBT program was considered secondary to the “more important” classroom training, what message does that send about its value? The result was that people quickly concluded that CBT might not be worth the effort.

8. There was no support for it. Programs often failed because no one, especially those in role model or leadership positions, actually cared about them.

9. It went against the culture. “Learning takes place at the training centre, not at your desk – now put down that training and get back to work”. Leadership support and a positive culture are so powerful that all other challenges pale beside them.

10. It was just plain boring. Material was not interesting; pages and pages of text that did not seem relevant, or exercises that did not challenge, or program to long frankly it did not excite us.

15

11. It was “shovel ware”. The first thing we do with a new technology is try to deliver it in the same material in the same way we used to deliver it in the older technology. We should rethink paradigms we bring with us (often of classroom training) and distinguish between delivery strategy and instructional strategy.

Some practical consequences of the above analysis to be taken into account in instructional designing of BATCOS courses:

12. Goals meaningful and motivational. Learners are far more concerned about what they will be able to do on the job rather than will be able to do after the course. They like to know why they have to do it how it will benefit them. Traditional instructional objectives remain important guideposts for developers. But they are hardly motivating for learners.

13. Learning by doing and the power of simulations. Through simulations, we can immerse learners in situations that truly test what they, what they can do, and how they think. We can use the simulations to motivate learners.

14. Learning from mistakes. Safe failure is not appropriate for all situations but without the option to experiment, great opportunity for learning can be lost.

15. Robust coaching and feedback. Feedback is sometimes given when the learner recognizes that the response was incorrect, not when the program recognizes it. Coaching should reinforce learning at critical moments, provides additional insights and perspectives, and engages learner in a dialogue about why selected choice was right or wrong.

16. Expert modelling and stories. 17. Authenticity. Good online learning programs are constantly being revised or else they

loss their authenticity, Internet technology makes it possible. 18. Reuse after learning. Online training can serve as a portal to a host of resources that

enable continuous learning after the training is over. Any e-learning strategy must deal with the “make versus buy” decision.

19. Multimedia. Great instruction without multimedia may be more effective than great multimedia without solid instructional design. Balance between production values and instructional values, glitz and authenticity, cost and return, “edutainment” and learning.

1.3 Crossroads (content versus instructions) Ensuring the capacity for updating, flexibility and variety of courses for students with broad range of learning goals, individual or group needs, with regard to different stages of knowledge and skills acquisition. Teaching includes at least two underlying principal components: the information content and the instructional component. Appropriate design of structure and interlinking would provide the courses with capacity of content updating (e.g. upgrade of software) and customization in terms of adapting the instructional component to students characteristics. Those may include their initial knowledge, skills, labour, organizational and technological conditions. Customization might involve selection of different sets of tasks, different assessment schemes, introduction of teamwork, etc). For the purpose of this report it will be suitable to clearly distinguish between the instruction and information. Instruction:

1. Focused on specific learning outcome

2. Purpose defined by instructional designer, instructors, etc.

16

3. Based on strong diagnosis of user characteristics and needs, and targeted to meet those specific needs

4. Sequenced for optimum learning support

5. Contains presentation, practice, feedback, and assessment components Information:

1. Focused on a specific organization of content

2. Purpose defined primarily by customers and content expert 3. Based on characteristics of the particular knowledge discipline and targeted users

4. Sequenced for optimum description of the structure of the content 5. Primarily centred on effective presentation

1.4 Crossroads (independence on technology, dependence on instructors/tutors)

Learning and training is very human activity heavily dependent on social context (in the process itself and in the purpose of learning). Web based courses on the net are not technologically limited in supporting communication and cooperation. Tutor assessed assignments (flexible in topics and levels of difficulty) that include communications have potential involve naturally learners to social interaction in the course and facilitate learning. One possible strategy how to satisfy varieties in technological, cultural and organizational conditions of BATCOS course target group (SMEs) is to create courses that could be delivered in a whole spectrum of modes starting from individual independent learning/training to cooperative, or starting from support of „classroom“ teaching to mixed mode (combination of face-to-face/“classroom“ with distance teaching). Consequently it means involve tutors/instructors into instructional design of the BATCOS courses. Technological differences of delivery institutions, target groups in BATCOS project and rapid progress in development of virtual learning environments, learning management systems or content management systems might be overcome by creating course materials independently on delivery systems.

17

2 PATHS

2.1 Path (systems approach in BATCOS) The systems approach has been very successful in distance learning and combined (face to face with distance) programs since it enables large-scale, cost effective course production and delivery. The systems approach works well for these programs because technology-based teaching is more complex than face-to-face and it requires the help of other professionals (media producers, instructional designers, in case of BATCOS project also translators etc.). However, it can be ‘overkill’ for small-scale projects. Also, while it can provide a useful checklist of decisions to be made and an appropriate sequence of decision-making, the systems approach does not always provide guidance on how best to make those decisions. For instance, how does one decide roles for different media? What criteria or principles should be used for determining the effective design of the web representation of the course, delivery systems etc.? Each of these requires another sub-set of principles or criteria. Thus the systems approach helps to systematically reveal problems on lower layer requiring further exploration to another layer of decision-making. In BATCOS project essential information for decision-making (e.g. characteristics of learners, contexts of learning and training in SMEs etc.) were supposed, and creators mostly university teachers were of limited experience in Web-based learning/training so it was to adopt the general scheme to fit BATCOS project conditions. The systems approach to course design, provided as a useful guide, structure and the order for very complex iterative processes. The process of an individual BATCOS course module (i.e. as an online course) design and production (incl. transformation to other languages) was divided to following basic steps:

01. Development of course fragments 11. TRANSLATION INTO ENGLISH

02. Course fragments transformation into VLE

12. English version transformation into VLE

03. Course fragments testing on Web 13. Finalisation of English version 04. Textual content creation 14. Translation into national languages 05. Multimedia components design and development

15. National versions transformation into VLEs

06. Course content review 16. Finalisation of national version 07. Course transformation into VLE 17. Piloting of national version 08. Testing the course on Web 18. Refinement of the all versions of

the course 09. Piloting and external review of the course

19. Evaluation

10. Refinement of the course Table 1 Stages of BATCOS courses development

Next tables (Table 2 – Table 4) show sequenced activities in the whole project BATCOS with respect to different media and actors. The character of the processes is iterative not only in stages of course fragments development but as a whole. Table 2 shows the main part of creating courses. Table 3 shows processes around piloting courses (a next iteration cycle from the point of creating courses). Table 3 shows mutual translation of courses developed by partners.

18

Stages of development

01. Development of course fragments

02. Course fragments conversion

03. Course fragments testing

04. Textual content creation

05. Multimedia components development

06. Course content review

07. Course transformation

into Web 08. Testing the course on Web

Multimedia: MM components

(DoublePages) Designing Development

Testing in fragments on VLE

redesigning Designing Development

production Transformation into Web

Testing refining

VLE (EDEN, LS, Cornelia)

Implementation of

prototypes of fragments

Transformation of fragments

Suggestion for modifications of VLE

Modification of selected tools in VLE

Transformation of prototypes of courses with

MM components

Testing refining

Transformation developed materials

into Web (VLE)

Courses for testers courses for instructors

Course materials

Development of fragments of the course

Testing of fragments in delivery environment and refining of fragments and

components

Development of the rests of the course Course content review

Course transformation into

Web

Testing the course on Web

Methodology for instructors Development and verification of methodology for instructors

Instructors Training of instructors

Learners

Target IT environment

Evaluation

Table 2

19

Stages of development

08. Testing the course on Web

09. Piloting and external review of

the course

10. Finalization of the course

11. Translation into English

12. English version

transformation into Web

13. Finalization of English

version

Multimedia: MM components

(DoublePages) Testing refining Refining

redesigning Development

production Transformation

into Web Testing refining

VLE (EDEN, LS,

Cornelia)

Courses for testers courses for instructors

Development versions of courses for implementation

to partners environment Pilot runs Refining

redesigning Transformation

developed materials into Web (VLE)

Testing refining

Course materials

Testing the course on Web External reviews External reviews

Modification of courses and methodologies

according evaluation of pilot runs

Translation of the courses

Methodology for instructors

Modification of methodologies

according to evaluation of pilot runs

Translations of the methodology

Instructors Training of instructors Training of instructors

Learners Pilot runs

Target IT environment

Implementation of courses to the partners IT

environments

Evaluation

Pilot runs evaluation

Table 3

20

Stages of development

14. Translation into national languages

15. National versions

transformation into Web

16. Finalization of national versions

17. Piloting of national versions

18. Finalization of all versions of the

course

19. Evaluation

Multimedia: MM components

(DoublePages) Development

production Transformation

into Web Testing refining Refining

redesigning Transformation

into Web

VLE (EDEN, LS, Cornelia)

Transformation developed materials

into Web (VLE)

Testing refining

Courses for testers

courses for instructors

Development versions of courses for

implementation to partners environment

Pilot runs Refining redesigning

Transformation developed

materials into Web (VLE)

Processing data from pilot runs, server

logs

Course materials Translation of the courses

Transformation into Web

Modification of courses and methodologies

according to evaluation of pilot runs

Implementation into delivery

environments

Methodology for instructors

Translations of the methodology

Modification methodologies

according evaluation of pilot runs

Instructors Training of instructors Training of instructors

Learners Pilot runs

Target IT environment

Implementation of courses to the

partners environments

Evaluation

Pilot runs evaluation

Table 4

21

2.2 Path (decomposition) All five BATOCS courses different by subject were are divided into modules. After careful analysis of the principal schemas of instructional design that could cover all five BATCOS courses and all modules the modules were decomposed on the first level into items of different types: course activities and media components. This was a compromise among educational needs, authors’ suggestions and available technology. Schedule consists of activities. Activities contain instructions and relations to information (in the above-mentioned distinction).

Figure 2 Decomposition of one module of the BATCOS course

2.3 Path (tools) For the support of all development activities of the BATCOS project a system of documents flow management and project communication was implemented. This system, TeamRoom, offers to the authors the environment of both systematic organisation of the developed sources and co-operation with other project team members. The key tool [4], [5] for the support of technology of courses production is the set of 11 templates for the educational content development. These templates involve prearranged rules

of both educational text creation and multimedia and simulation components design. The templates offer also tools for author activities facilitation. Important property of the templates is that they keep formats of created materials ready for further automated process in conversion created materials into the Virtual Learning Environment. Costs and time for the process of courses transformation into Web are reduced by this way. Using predefined templates is the only way to ensure that all course materials are consistent in formats. The third group of tools developed for

different purposes like transformation course materials between different VLEs of BATCOS

Schedule - A structure of activities in the

course

”Study” - Learning materials

Assignment - Assignments - Discussions

Assessment - Questions, tests, selftests, surveys

Keywords

Activities

Other components MediaComponent - Animations, simulations,

- Course Description - Course Schedule - Module Description - Module Keywords

- Module Schedule - Unit (Description)

- Study - Assignment - Assessment - Media Component

- Participants & Subteams

22

project (e.g. from Cornelia to EDEN), checking data, formats, presence of files, and processing data for transformation into VLE or other media. All course textual and multimedia materials are stored in files/documents of miscellaneous types. All these files are shared with other project participants using the TeamRoom environment. The source materials are kept and updated in templates independently on specific VLE.

2.3.1 Templates

2.3.1.1 Schedule Template for creating schedules of the modules and courses. The course schedule contains the recommended sequence of activities to support learning, shows learning objectives, time requirements for completion of activities, and basic description of special multimedia components that require some specific development needs (audio, video, and simulation). The schedule template contains a set of predefined styles, autotexts, tools and functions to facilitate viewing, organizing and creating of the other component files.

Figure 3 An outline of module schedule in templates

23

2.3.1.2 Study Template for creating textual study materials of the course

The study contains study materials of the course including basic description of related multimedia components.

The study document is divided into five independent parts: • Basic description of the activity, which contains the information specified in the module

schedule. • Additional information that extends the basic description of the activity (e.g. study type,

writers, source, date, etc.) or that is necessary for implementation of the study material in a delivery environment (e.g. access for, view icon, show ‘Start/Join Discussion’ button, etc.).

• Instructions for students, which will be accessible in the course schedule, and an additional information that is necessary for an implementation of the instructions in a delivery environment.

• Methodological remarks, which will be provided to course instructors to offer them additional pedagogical or technological instructions and hints.

• The study material (text and multimedia components), which will be accessible in the course library.

Figure 4 Outline of a study component in the template

2.3.1.3 Assignment Template for creating exercises and tasks The assignment describes task, exercise, and discussion activities for the course. In general, the assignment can be any project assigned to an individual student or a team. Main difference between an exercise and a task is that the task is a graded assignment. An exercise is not supposed to be graded. Discussion type assignment is supposed to be an invitation to a discussion on a topic.

The assignment document is divided into eight independent parts:

24

• Basic description of the activity, which contains the information specified in the module schedule.

• Additional information that is necessary for implementation of the assignment in a delivery environment (e.g. access for, view icon, etc.).

• The assignment for students, which will be accessible directly in the course schedule. • Methodological remarks, which will be provided to course instructors to offer them

additional pedagogical or technological instructions and hints. • Exemplary solution of the assignment. • Hints for students, which can help them to solve the assignment. • Grading rules to provide the instructors clear assignment grading criteria. Implementation notes to provide any technical information that is necessary for implementation of the web version of the course.

Figure 5 An assignment in the template.

2.3.1.4 Assessment Template for creating quizzes, exams, surveys, and self-assessments The assessment describes quizzes, exams, surveys, and self-assessments for the course. Quizzes, exams can be used to evaluate students’ knowledge and skills. • Quizzes and exams are typically taken by students to grade their performance. • Surveys allow you to gather feedback from students about specific issues or questions. • Self-assessments are intended to let students assess their own progress. The assessment document is divided into five independent parts: • Basic description of the activity, which contains the information specified in the module

schedule.

25

• Additional information that is necessary for implementation of the assessment in a delivery environment (e.g. access for, view icon, etc.) or that extends the basic description of the activity (e.g. randomize questions, allow students to chancel taking this assessment, etc.).

• Instructions for students, which will be accessible directly in the course schedule. • Methodological remarks, which will be provided to course instructors to offer them

additional pedagogical or technological instructions and hints. • Assessment questions, which will be accessible in the course assessment tool. Several types of questions are available to use: • True/False – prompts students to determine whether a statement is true or false. • Yes/No – similar to True/False questions, but requires yes or no answer. • Multiple choice – single answer – allows students to choose a single answer from a list of

possible answers to the question. • Multiple choice – multiple answer – allows students to choose one or more answers from

a list of possible answers to the question. • Open-Ended – requires students to compose their answers. Open-ended questions cannot

be graded automatically. • Fill in the blank – requires students to provide a short answer to a blank in a phrase or

sentence. Instructors can define how precise response is required. • Matching – allows students to match an item from one column with a response in another

column. Matching questions cannot be used in surveys.

Figure 6 An assessment - Tests with Questions in the template

26

2.3.1.5 Media Template for describing graphics, audio, video, simulation, and other media components The media component contains description of media components – e.g. graphics, audio, video, animation, and simulation – used in course activities (study, assignment, assessment) or as a part of another media component (every media component can be composed using several additional media components called subcomponents).

The media component document is divided into four independent parts: • Basic description of the media component, which contains the information specified in the

module schedule (only for a 'big' media component that require some specific development needs), course activity, or another media component.

• Additional information that is necessary for implementation of the media component in a delivery environment (e.g. output file format, alternative text, component size, horizontal and vertical space, border, alignment, etc.).

• List of terms used in the media component and their translation into English, Czech, Italian, and German.

• Additional media component details necessary for an animation, video, or simulation, and/or description of used subcomponents.

Figure 7 Media Component in the template

2.3.1.6 DoublePages With respect to present technological conditions of SMEs it was decided to transform uniformly all learning materials into “DoublePage” consisting of animations or graphics and text in HTML format. These files create independent information structure of content (“readings”) materials of the courses. Each “DoublePage” is linked to corresponding activity (Study) of the Schedule. “DoublePage” files might be stored on the server and available via Internet or on the local server or on CD. “DoublePages” on CD give a chance to study courses without connection to VLE.

27

2.4 Path (course development online) Workflow in development of BATCOS was managed according to the particular methodology [6], [7] agreed by all participants starting with the procedures of each module content items and goals definition and finishing with the evaluation reports about pilot runs of national versions of the national version of the course. Specially modified version of TeamRoom, a standard Lotus Domino application, was used as a co-operative online environment. It enabled to communicate, exchange outputs, and to perform other controlling and managing activities. The main items of the workflow were learning materials (in thousands pieces). It was necessary to present materials in the form that enables an effective orientation to those participants who were not expected to know all about the courses under development, e.g. content reviewers, graphic designers, translators but who have to know context and to have access to specific details. A network depository presentation of materials in isomorphic structure to the course structure was an optimal solution. Moreover it enabled to decrease the necessity to transform materials to VLEs repeatedly

Figure 8 The picture shows the TeamRoom online environment of BATCOS project – a view of the course “PowerPoint training”.

By changing view TeamRoom a developer can see structure of courses homomorphic with the proposed final structure of the course in VLE on Web or to see his/her tasks and progress by date or by teams. It makes cooperation of developers effective by saving costs for repeated transformation of materials into VLE. The TeamRoom was designed for managing workflow

28

in all stages of development of BATCOS courses, in practice it was very useful in production stages, quality control, refining and archiving developed materials.

Figure 9 Course development process on the net

Co-operative network environment was a gateway to initiate, perform, and manage all processes of development, point for exchange of outputs among teams and checking quality

of outputs and centralised support of tools for developers Figure 10 Tools and activities of the development stage in BATCOS co-operative network environment

Co-operative network environment

Transformation

VLEs

Authoring - instructional course designing, writing

texts, designing multimedia, simulations

Translating

Reviewing

Producing MM

components

Learning materials on

CD

Templates

HTML

Testing

Piloting

Refining Production of tutors

guide

29

2.5 Path (prototypes) The interim stage of development of the courses was a functional prototype of the modules and courses transformed into VLE on the Web. In this stage modules were fully tested.

Figure 11 Personal of a tester containing assignments to be completed by tester and graded.

Figure 12 Workplace with a BATCOS online course

30

In respect to technological and organizational conditions of piloting modified versions of modules were designed and solutions verified. All activities were to be verified whether are practically feasible in the context of VLE and used technologies both by testers in the role of learners and authors in the role of instructors. The used virtual learning environment EDEN was modified for delivery courses in different languages according to origin of the course. Optimal ways of learning and working of future learners were designed and verified. The next steps of the development – preparation of instructors and piloting could start.

REFERENCES [1] Rosenberg, M. J. (2001). E-Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Chapter 3: Why Most

CBT Doesn´t Work and How It Can Be Better (pp. 41 – 62) [2] Dick, W., Carey, L. (1990). The Systematic Design of Instruction. New York: Harper

Collins. Chapter 1: Introduction to Instructional Design (pp. 2-11). [3] Bourdeau, J., Bates, A. (1996). Instructional Design for Distance Learning. Journal of

Science Education and Technology, 5 (4), pp. 267-283. [4] Cikan, R., Zelenda, S.: Course Objectives, Assignments, Assessments – Module

Presentations, University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, 2003 [5] Cikan, R., Zelenda, S.: Course Schedule, Study Units (text part), Glossary an Keywords –

Module Presentations, University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, 2003 [6] Cikan, R., Zelenda, S.: TeamRoom and Templates – e-manual, University of West

Bohemia, Pilsen, 2003 [7] Cikan, R., Zelenda, S.: Manual for users of TeamRooms C0X – LL

for development courses in BATCOS project. Charles University Prague Faculty. Prague 2001