Development

Origin and Meanings

In the Beginning

In 1945 the Second World War ended Europe was in ruins Old colonial rule couldn’t be restored Decolonization began

– First India, Pakistan and the Philippines (1940s)– Then other Asian countries and Africa (1950s-1960s)– Ending with South Pacific (1970s)– Latin America,19th century

The journey ahead

The new states were faced with many problems notably– Low incomes– Little industry– Poor health– Low education levels– Inadequate infrastructure– New political institutions– High expectations of populations

The answer: Development

Start on the road to development Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid Optimism because of

– Marshall Plan– Russia– External aid– Commitment

Meanings of Development Infrastructure Social Spiritual and Cultural Growth Change Progress Living Standard Basic Needs Happiness ???

Meanings of Development (Contd.)

– Growth and economic abundance?– Sustainability?– Security?– Illusion?– Freedom?– The end of inequality?

Meanings of Development (Contd.)

“A positive word… is virtually synonymous with progress” (Allen and Thomas 2000:23)

“Good change” (Chambers 1997)

“Development is a seductive term” (Gasper 2004)

Why meanings matter?

Meanings and Approach

Competing political aims and social values Contrasting theories of social change

(1)Modernisation

(2)Dependency

(3)Environment/Ecology-Sound Development

(4)Basic Human Needs (BHN)/BNA

(5)Liberation; and

(6)Endogenous Development

Major Six (6) Development Paradigms

Shift in Development Policy Approaches

60’s : Local Market

70’s : Local Administration System

80’s : Local Community

90’s : Local Society

Development Approaches and Level of Target（Factors for Sustainability）

Participatory Approach (PA)

Needs

Capability Building through Experiential Learning Process

Social/ Institutional Mechanism

Conventional Approach

PLSD

Local Societal System

Local Administration

Local Market

Local Community

Household

Outer Syste

m

Inner Syste

m

End of World War 2 also marked beginning of the end for colonialism– India, Philippines and Indonesia independent before

1950– Other Asian and African countries followed in the 1950s

and 1960s– Caribbean and eventually South Pacific in 1970s and

1980s– Note that Latin American independence came in 19th

century

Liberation and optimism

The new states were embarking on a path to development and modernisation

Catch up with the rich countries– Russia as example– Marshall Plan as example– New committed elites– Nation-state organised for development– Rich world and new multilateral institutions committed to

development

We have the technology

Theoretical framework drew on classical sociology and the concept of universal progress

‘Less developed’ (or traditional) societies were to acquire the characteristics common to ‘more developed’ ones

Task was to remove obstacles Acknowledged the complex interaction between

social, cultural, political and economic life

Modernisation Theory

According to Rostow (1960) possible to identify all societies in their economic dimensions as lying within 1 of 5 categories– Traditional society– Preconditions for take-off– The drive for maturity– The age of high consumption

Stages of Economic Growth

Ethnocentric as modernisation = westernisation Suggested that West in golden age despite obvious

domestic problems (eg poverty) Cold War gave impetus to the promotion of capitalism as

an antidote to communism Ideological screen for post-war neocolonialist dominance There was no smooth path to modernity Underplayed importance of relations between nations

and classes Was capitalism acting the same way in developing

countries as previously in Europe

Critiques of modernization theory

By 1970s for many developing countries– Persistent poverty– Poor growth record– Widening gulf between rich and poor countries– Inequitable global power relations– Increasing poor country debt– Self-interested elites– Corruption– Authoritarian rule– Civil wars and disorder

Multiple problems

Classical Marxist theory saw the development of capitalism as an essential stage of history

But faced with evidence of uneven development, Marxists began to question unilinear theories

‘Backwardness’ began to be seen as a result of modernisation

Bourgeoisie did not reinvest in productive ventures as had done in the West

Developing countries also served interests of rich former colonial powers

Imperialism, dependency and world systems

Dependency and world systems theories argued that underdevelopment was a function of unequal relations between societies

Look at role of a country in the world capitalist system

International division of labour Exogenous forces NOT endogenous ones

explained underdevelopment

Imperialism, dependency and world systems

Core capitalist countries exploited peripheral capitalist countries

Chains of exploitation through to rural areas of developing countries

Unequal exchange led to drain of resources from periphery to core

Adverse terms of trade led to enhanced inequalities and active underdevelopment

Imperialism, dependency and world systems

Portraying world economy as a zero-sum game No empirical support for delinking from world

system Underestimation of endogenous forces Failure to predict collapse of socialist economies Did capitalism cause underdevelopment? How can Asian and BRIC success be explained?

Critiques of dependency and world systems

State-centred models of development lost their attraction– End of Cold War– Criticism of foreign aid– Criticism of development results– Failure of ISI– Rejuvenation of economic liberalism in wealthy

nations, notably USA and UK

Neo-liberalism

New orthodoxy was for market-oriented development

Neoliberal principles included– Self-interest– Market fundamentalism– Minimal state– Low taxation

State re-oriented to underpin and support market-friendly policies

Neoliberalism

– Controlling inflation through wage controls– Privatization of publicly owned enterprises– Balancing state budgets through reducing government

expenditure– Eliminating or reducing government expenditure– Eliminating or reducing state subsidies on basic goods– Generation of foreign exchange through export-oriented

industries– Elimination of controls on foreign capital

Washington Consensus

According to Fukuyama liberalism’s triumph over communism marked – ‘the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution

and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government’

Huntington disagreed and said the 21st century would be characterized by ‘civilization politics’

Neo-liberalism

Huntington’s 4 periods of modernity distinguished by the nature of conflict:1. Pre-1789: wars between princes and principalities

2. 1789-1918: wars between nation-states in the age of nationalism and colonialism

3. 1918-late 1980s: communism v liberalism with 3rd world as territory of dispute

4. 1990s-: cultural divisions leading to conflicts between nations and groups of different civilizations

Clash of civilizations

Over the past decade neoliberalism has come under attack

Debt relief Rise of good governance Greater emphasis on poverty alleviation

and social goals Idea of development as rights Millennium Development Goals

Toning down neoliberalism

Throughout the history of development have been writers and movements that have challenged orthodoxy

Alternative approaches discard idea that development is about emulating western experience

In the 1960s and 1970s Freire promulgated the ‘pedagogy of the oppressed’ while Schumacher advanced the notion that ‘small is beautiful’

Challenging orthodoxy

Environmental challenges– Environmental degradation persistent theme– Focus on pressures on the planet– Neoliberal see first poverty alleviation then

environmental protection– Critics say neoliberal model will destroy the very

basis of life– Globalization of food chains desensitizes us to

environmental consequences

Challenging orthodoxy

Feminist challenges– Gender politics has permeated all levels of the political

process– Ecofeminists claim that environmental degradation is a

product of patriarchal structures– Ecofeminists claim that women have more

environmental knowledge than men– Some see globalization as exploitation of women as

cheap workers– Reduction of state welfare under neoliberalism affected

women more than men

Challenging orthodoxy

Post-developmental challenges– A wholesale critique of western structures of

knowledge and power– Abandon grand designs and theories– Collective action and popular struggles in

grassroots politics– Seeking to give communities and individuals

power over their own environments

Challenging orthodoxy