Development of Development of indicators and official indicators and official

statistics of statistics of gender-based violencegender-based violence

Sylvia WalbySylvia Walby

Lancaster UniversityLancaster University

IntroductionIntroduction

Focus: Indicators and statistics on Focus: Indicators and statistics on gender-based violencegender-based violence Just a sub-set of information needsJust a sub-set of information needs

What are the priorities?What are the priorities? Contributions of academics, Contributions of academics,

government statisticians, policy government statisticians, policy makers, NGOs.makers, NGOs.

National surveysNational surveys

Development of large scale national Development of large scale national surveys in many countriessurveys in many countries

Many methodological refinementsMany methodological refinements Self-completion, wider range, new scalingSelf-completion, wider range, new scaling

Interest in developing comparable Interest in developing comparable national findings through surveys: national findings through surveys: UN, EU, IVAWSUN, EU, IVAWS

What priorities? Next steps?What priorities? Next steps?

Domestic Violence, Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence, Sexual Assault and Stalking: Findings from British Crime SurveyStalking: Findings from British Crime Survey

BCS: under continual development BCS: under continual development BCS self-completion module, 2001BCS self-completion module, 2001

22,463 sample22,463 sample Self-completion: computer turned to Self-completion: computer turned to

respondent to read and respond respondent to read and respond confidentiallyconfidentially

Included domestic violence, sexual Included domestic violence, sexual assault and stalkingassault and stalking

Questions to both men and womenQuestions to both men and women

BCS Self-completion methodologyBCS Self-completion methodology

Comparing prevalence rateComparing prevalence rate Face-to-face interviewingFace-to-face interviewing Self completionSelf completion

Narrow definition DV (non-sexual, no Narrow definition DV (non-sexual, no threats)threats) face-to-face interviewing: 0.6%face-to-face interviewing: 0.6% self completion: 2.8% self completion: 2.8%

Prevalence five times higher using self-Prevalence five times higher using self-completion methodology than face-to-completion methodology than face-to-face interviewingface interviewing

Comparing definitionsComparing definitions in BCS self-complete in BCS self-complete

DV Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS): DV Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS): types of actions (e.g. slapped, kicked, types of actions (e.g. slapped, kicked,

choked)choked) frequency of incidentsfrequency of incidents

Sexual assault and stalkingSexual assault and stalking DV InjuriesDV Injuries

Whether injured and how seriouslyWhether injured and how seriously Whether victim/survivor saw it as DVWhether victim/survivor saw it as DV Whether victim/survivor saw it as a ‘crime’Whether victim/survivor saw it as a ‘crime’

CTS and prevalence findingsCTS and prevalence findings

CTS Prevalence (in the last year)CTS Prevalence (in the last year) Domestic abuse, threats or force: 5%Domestic abuse, threats or force: 5% Domestic threats or force: 4%Domestic threats or force: 4% Domestic force: 3%Domestic force: 3%

Beyond CTSBeyond CTS Rape or assault by penetration: women: Rape or assault by penetration: women:

0.5%0.5% 54% of rape by intimate (including former)54% of rape by intimate (including former)

InjuriesInjuries

InjuriesInjuries Whether women injured in worst Whether women injured in worst

incident last year: incident last year: Some injury: 72%Some injury: 72%

No injury 28%No injury 28% Minor injury 46%Minor injury 46% Moderate injury 20%Moderate injury 20% Severe injury 6%Severe injury 6%

Victim/survivors’ viewsVictim/survivors’ views

Whether female victim/survivor saw it as DVWhether female victim/survivor saw it as DV One incident, 56%; 4 or more times, 95% One incident, 56%; 4 or more times, 95%

(last year)(last year) Whether female victim/survivor saw it as a Whether female victim/survivor saw it as a

‘crime’:‘crime’: One incident, 24%; 4 or more, 66% (last One incident, 24%; 4 or more, 66% (last

year)year) Injury: none 15%; minor 53%; severe 87% Injury: none 15%; minor 53%; severe 87%

(lifetime)(lifetime)

Why Indicators?Why Indicators?

Simplify and abstract from complex dataSimplify and abstract from complex data Relevant to policy making and assessmentRelevant to policy making and assessment Provide a clear focus to measure changeProvide a clear focus to measure change

National Plan; Performance indicators; Public National Plan; Performance indicators; Public Service Agreements for Comprehensive Spending Service Agreements for Comprehensive Spending ReviewReview

Enable international comparisonsEnable international comparisons

Provide a different contribution than complex Provide a different contribution than complex statistics, qualitative data, personal accounts.statistics, qualitative data, personal accounts.

Depend on large population surveysDepend on large population surveys

Productive tension between Productive tension between specificity and mainstreamingspecificity and mainstreaming

Specific nature of gender-based Specific nature of gender-based violence and detailed appreciation of violence and detailed appreciation of distinctive nuances?distinctive nuances?

AND/ORAND/OR More general categories that More general categories that

facilitate addressing priorities within facilitate addressing priorities within the mainstream, including crime?the mainstream, including crime?

Types of indicatorsTypes of indicators

OutcomeOutcome The amount of gender based violenceThe amount of gender based violence

Policy development and Policy development and implementationimplementation Identifying extent to which policy is Identifying extent to which policy is

implemented on the groundimplemented on the ground

DefinitionsDefinitions

Gender-based violence – UN Gender-based violence – UN Domestic violence – HO?Domestic violence – HO? Violence against women - WNCViolence against women - WNC

Range of ActionsRange of Actions domestic violence, sexual violence, stalking, domestic violence, sexual violence, stalking,

FGM, forced marriage, ‘honour’ crimes, FGM, forced marriage, ‘honour’ crimes, trafficking . . .trafficking . . .

Range of Perpetrators Range of Perpetrators Partner, domestic non-partner, non-domestic?Partner, domestic non-partner, non-domestic?

Outcome indicatorsOutcome indicators

Home Office (2004) DV plan:Home Office (2004) DV plan:1.1. Domestic homicideDomestic homicide

– Robust, but small proportion of dvRobust, but small proportion of dv

2.2. PrevalencePrevalence Rate of domestic violence in the populationRate of domestic violence in the population

‘‘headcount’headcount’

Prevalence: Is it the best indicator?Prevalence: Is it the best indicator?

AdvantagesAdvantages Uses concept of DV as a ‘course of Uses concept of DV as a ‘course of

conduct’conduct’ Conventional measure among DV expertsConventional measure among DV experts

DisadvantagesDisadvantages Hard to translate into crime statistics, Hard to translate into crime statistics,

which are based on number of ‘incidents’which are based on number of ‘incidents’ Does not contain measure of severityDoes not contain measure of severity Specialised, not mainstream, indicatorSpecialised, not mainstream, indicator

Severity of gender-based violence Severity of gender-based violence and crime statisticsand crime statistics

Frequency/IncidentsFrequency/Incidents Crimes are counted as incidentsCrimes are counted as incidents If dv/gender based violence is to be If dv/gender based violence is to be

mainstreamed into crime statistics there mainstreamed into crime statistics there needs to be an incident countneeds to be an incident count

InjuriesInjuries Violent crime categories are differentiated Violent crime categories are differentiated

primarily by injury level, though also primarily by injury level, though also intent intent

To mainstream, injuries need to be known To mainstream, injuries need to be known for each incidentfor each incident

Prevalence, incidents and genderPrevalence, incidents and gender

Use of prevalence rather than incidents reduces the Use of prevalence rather than incidents reduces the appearance of gender inequality in official statisticsappearance of gender inequality in official statistics

Domestic violence prevalence: Domestic violence prevalence: 4% women, 2% men4% women, 2% men

Average no. incidents of domestic violence: Average no. incidents of domestic violence: women 20, men 7women 20, men 7

DV experienced as one incident only: DV experienced as one incident only: 28% women, 47% men28% women, 47% men

Total incidents DV: Total incidents DV: 12.9 million against women, 2.4m men12.9 million against women, 2.4m men

Gender ratio prevalence: 2:1Gender ratio prevalence: 2:1 Gender ratio incidents: 5:1Gender ratio incidents: 5:1

Prevalence and incidentsPrevalence and incidents

Prevalence use of ‘course of conduct’ Prevalence use of ‘course of conduct’ might mean that a series of 20 incidents might mean that a series of 20 incidents may count only as one crime, thereby may count only as one crime, thereby underestimating the proportion of underestimating the proportion of violent crime that is dv/gender-based violent crime that is dv/gender-based violenceviolence

Prevalence: single events count, thereby Prevalence: single events count, thereby skewing the gender composition skewing the gender composition towards image of symmetrytowards image of symmetry

Injuries, Acts, and the CTSInjuries, Acts, and the CTS Conflict Tactics Scale uses ‘actions’ as severity Conflict Tactics Scale uses ‘actions’ as severity

measure measure Crime Statistics use predominantly ‘injuries’ as Crime Statistics use predominantly ‘injuries’ as

severity measure (though also intention)severity measure (though also intention) Injuries are more gender asymmetrical than actionsInjuries are more gender asymmetrical than actions

Minor force (e.g. slap): 49% women 36% men Minor force (e.g. slap): 49% women 36% men sustain physical injurysustain physical injury

Severe force (e.g. choke, weapon): 77% women Severe force (e.g. choke, weapon): 77% women 56% men sustain physical injury56% men sustain physical injury

CTS suggests lesser gender inequality than crime CTS suggests lesser gender inequality than crime categoriescategories

CTS does not usually include sexual assaultCTS does not usually include sexual assault

Crime categories for indicators?Crime categories for indicators?

Crime categories:Crime categories: Use incidents to measure extent Use incidents to measure extent Use (primarily) injuries to measure Use (primarily) injuries to measure

severityseverity Advantages:Advantages:

Mainstreams Mainstreams Show gender dimensions of DV more Show gender dimensions of DV more

effectively than CTS and prevalenceeffectively than CTS and prevalence

Data needs?Data needs?

PrevalencePrevalence AND Crime based definitions of AND Crime based definitions of

incidents, using injuries not actsincidents, using injuries not acts DV to include full range of actions, DV to include full range of actions,

including domestic sexual assaultsincluding domestic sexual assaults Gender-based violence category to Gender-based violence category to

include DV, non-domestic sexual include DV, non-domestic sexual assaults, FGM, ‘honour’ crimesassaults, FGM, ‘honour’ crimes

Implications for British Crime SurveyImplications for British Crime Survey

Self-completion important innovationSelf-completion important innovation Both prevalence and incidentsBoth prevalence and incidents Collect data additionally within crime categories Collect data additionally within crime categories

Name wider range of forms of gender based violence Name wider range of forms of gender based violence e.g. FGMe.g. FGM

Collect data on each incident (not worst or last)Collect data on each incident (not worst or last) Injury (and intent)Injury (and intent) ‘‘Victim forms’ to be completed on each incidentVictim forms’ to be completed on each incident Increase maximum no. forms for each respondentIncrease maximum no. forms for each respondent

Findings to be integrated into crime countFindings to be integrated into crime count Number of BCS violent crimes will riseNumber of BCS violent crimes will rise DV will appear as a higher % of BCS violent crimeDV will appear as a higher % of BCS violent crime

Policy PerformancePolicy Performance

Ministries and agencies have roles in Ministries and agencies have roles in reduction of gender-based violencereduction of gender-based violence Criminal justice systemCriminal justice system HealthHealth Local authoritiesLocal authorities Housing and refugesHousing and refuges Social servicesSocial services Civil legal servicesCivil legal services

Few have the evidence to assess their Few have the evidence to assess their performance, rarely knowing how much performance, rarely knowing how much their services are used for DVtheir services are used for DV Reviewed in Reviewed in Cost of Domestic ViolenceCost of Domestic Violence

Service indicatorsService indicators

What do we need to know?What do we need to know? What outcome and policy indicators?What outcome and policy indicators?

Local authoritiesLocal authorities New best value indicator includes DVNew best value indicator includes DV

Health developments in Health developments in recording/measuringrecording/measuring

Screening and diagnostic codesScreening and diagnostic codes Screening dilemmasScreening dilemmas

Screen when referrals not ready?Screen when referrals not ready? BCS: BCS:

Asked cause of injuries: 94%Asked cause of injuries: 94% Disclosed cause of injuries: 74%Disclosed cause of injuries: 74% Referred to anyone else: 26%Referred to anyone else: 26%

Diagnostic code for DVDiagnostic code for DV Primary not secondary code: under Primary not secondary code: under

developmentdevelopment E.g. primary DV; secondary broken wristE.g. primary DV; secondary broken wrist

Criminal Justice System (CJS): Criminal Justice System (CJS): recorded crimes, criminal statisticsrecorded crimes, criminal statistics

Policy change in CJS and its implications Policy change in CJS and its implications Attrition rate for rape high and rising (Kelly et al)Attrition rate for rape high and rising (Kelly et al)

Conviction rate for reported rapes, 5.6% in 2002Conviction rate for reported rapes, 5.6% in 2002 Recognised need for ‘DV attrition’ rate (HO DV Recognised need for ‘DV attrition’ rate (HO DV

Nat Plan)Nat Plan) Rate of reporting to police (compare BCS rate with Rate of reporting to police (compare BCS rate with

reported crimes)reported crimes) Recording of reports by police (‘recorded crime’ or Recording of reports by police (‘recorded crime’ or

‘domestic incident’)‘domestic incident’) DetectionDetection Arrest (currently sole performance measure)Arrest (currently sole performance measure) Prosecution Prosecution Completed court caseCompleted court case Conviction (criminal statistics)Conviction (criminal statistics)

HO Objectives for reducing attrition HO Objectives for reducing attrition of DV in CJS in National Plan 2004of DV in CJS in National Plan 2004

Objective 4. Increase the rate at which domestic Objective 4. Increase the rate at which domestic violence is reported . . . to the police . .violence is reported . . . to the police . .

BUT No record of number of recorded crimes by police BUT No record of number of recorded crimes by police in official statistics for DVin official statistics for DV

Objective 5. Increase the rate at which domestic Objective 5. Increase the rate at which domestic violence incidents result in violence incidents result in sanction/detections . . . sanction/detections . . .

BUT No record of DV detections/sanctions in official BUT No record of DV detections/sanctions in official statisticsstatistics

Objective 6. Increase the rate at which sanction Objective 6. Increase the rate at which sanction detections are converted into offences/offenders detections are converted into offences/offenders brought to justice .brought to justice .

BUT No record of DV criminal convictions in criminal BUT No record of DV criminal convictions in criminal statisticsstatistics

CJS data requirementsCJS data requirements

No recorded crime statistics on domestic No recorded crime statistics on domestic violence, since not a specific criminal offenceviolence, since not a specific criminal offence BUT arrest rates for DV are produced, so there is a BUT arrest rates for DV are produced, so there is a

record of crime by whether domestic; but not publicrecord of crime by whether domestic; but not public Recommend: relevant recorded crimes are Recommend: relevant recorded crimes are

cross-classified as domestic or not as key aspect cross-classified as domestic or not as key aspect of recorded crime and criminal statistics of recorded crime and criminal statistics Met did this in 1999 (cf Health diagnostic codes)Met did this in 1999 (cf Health diagnostic codes)

Otherwise impossible to track DV in CJS statistics Otherwise impossible to track DV in CJS statistics to evaluate progress on HO objectives to evaluate progress on HO objectives

ConclusionsConclusions Much current development of statistical data and proposals Much current development of statistical data and proposals

for indicatorsfor indicators Nationally and internationallyNationally and internationally BCS 2001 self-completion produced information on BCS 2001 self-completion produced information on

implications of different classificationsimplications of different classifications BCS: further development of outcome indicators BCS: further development of outcome indicators

Mainstream into crime categories, as well as for specific needsMainstream into crime categories, as well as for specific needs Numbers of incidents and injuries for each, as well as Numbers of incidents and injuries for each, as well as

prevalenceprevalence Both DV and wider range of gender-based violenceBoth DV and wider range of gender-based violence

International standards for EU and global comparisons?International standards for EU and global comparisons? Recorded crime and criminal statistics: Recorded crime and criminal statistics:

cross-classify violent crimes by domestic cross-classify violent crimes by domestic Further development of public services performance Further development of public services performance

indicatorsindicators