DEVELOPMENT OF A MUSIC CURRICULUM

FOR AN EARLY CHILDHOOD NON-MUSIC

MAJOR COLLEGE LEVEL COURSE

by

JENNIFER JAHNKE DEES BMEd

A THESIS

IN

MUSIC EDUCATION

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC EDUCATION

Approved

Chairperson of the Committee

Accepted

Dean of the Graduate School

August 2004

Copyright 2004

Jenny Jahnke Dees

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is with gratitude that I acknowledge the generous support of my husband and

my family without whom I would not have been able to complete this project I would

like to dedicate this paper to my parents who made my education possible and who

through example and patience are the best teachers I have ever knovra

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

ABSTRACT vi

CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of the Problem 2

Purpose ofthe Study 3

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4

MENC Guideline 2- Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children 11

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music in daily life 12

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth 14

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and communicative skills 16

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in a playful manner 17

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques 19

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring appropriate musical resources 21

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created 21

in

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan 23

III REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 24

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Curriculum (5 ed) 25

Music For Young Children 26

Music A Way ofLife For the Young Child (4^ed) 27

Music Play 28

The Classroom Teacher^s Guide To Music Education (2 ed) 29

Music In Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades 30

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers 31

Music In Preschool (3^ ed) 32

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ed) 33

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5^ ed) 34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3^^ ed) 35

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching 36

Music In the Elementary School (5^ed) 36

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching 37

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher 38

IV INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM 40

V CONCLUSION 45

IV

REFERENCES 47

APPENDIX 54

A THE CURRICULUM 54

B CURRICULUM MATERIALS 76

C DEFINITION OF TERMS 115

ABSTRACT

Instmctors of music courses for undergraduate early childhood education majors

face many challenges when designing a one-semester music curriculum Few music

textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many more music texts geared for

elementary majors are available but include little information of early childhood years

(birth - 8 years old) In addition these elementary music texts often place a major

emphasis on the fundamentals of music Studies show this focus may not be the most

productive in developing generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in

their classrooms Students would benefit greatly from a sequential experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings valuable resources and experiences interacting musically with

children

The purpose of this study was to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood majors in the study of early childhood music The

curriculum was based on studies ofthe practical music skills and understandings of

classroom teachers studies of musical self-perceptions of non-music majors studies of

sequence the MENC position statement on early childhood music (MENC 1993) and a

review of available texts

The prescribed sequential curriculum provides a weekly format of in-class topics

and activities as well as homework assignments Although the curriculum described in

this paper is specific to a particular one-semester three-credit-hour early childhood

VI

major music course the ideas and activities could be adapted to meet the needs of another

course

Vll

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The difficulties in designing a music curriculum for early childhood education

majors are substantial A practical and applicable curriculum would be based around a

core text and guidelines provided by Music Educators National Conference It would

include a comprehensive course work comprised of (A) successful music making in a

safe atmosphere (B) designing and implementing developmentally appropriate music

activities (C) gaining knowledge ofthe young childs musical growth (D) researching

helpful music resources (E) observing young children in a musical setting and (F)

practicum teaching experiences

More traditional courses of this kind are theoretically based with an emphasis

being placed on music theory notation as well as instrumental performance as many

texts are geared toward this type of instmction However to teach these students

effectively one might consider the students prior knowledge experience and

confidence with music In most cases these attributes are minimal at best Music literacy

and music theory are useful tools but may not be a requirement for creating successful

and meaningful musical experiences Given the limited time period of one semester the

goal of creating a music specialist out of a non-musician seems ineffective (Gauthier and

McCrary 1999) The students semester might best be spent in comprehensive course

work comprised of relevant methods pertinent studies and active-based experiences

In its Position Statement on Early Childhood Education Music Educators

National Conference (1993) provides a framework for those who are responsible for

guiding the musical experiences of young children These persons should

(1) love and respect young children

(2) value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in

the lives of children

(3) model an interest in and use of music in daily life

(4) be confident in their own musicianship realizing that within the many facets

of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect

childrens musical growth

(5) be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

(6) interact with the children and music in a playful manner

(7) use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

(8) find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical

resources

(9) cause appropriate music learning environments to be created

(10) be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an

original plan (p 72)

Early childhood majors presumably are prepared to work in daycare preschool or early

elementary school settings Therefore these students should be instmcted on how to

implement these factors into activities in which music is the primary focus of attention

for its own value as well as to facilitate the accomplishment of non musical goals

(MENC 1993 p 71)

Statement ofthe Problem

Textbooks of early childhood music pedagogy most often attempt to develop a

comprehension of music theory fundamentals instmment proficiency and the application

of those skills to teaching music While these texts are wonderful resources for music

majors the typical early childhood major might not have sufficient background or

confidence to comprehend the information and course work that is based around such a

text during a one semester course Knowledge of music theory fundamentals and

instmment proficiency may not be applicable for the early childhood teacher The

non-musician early childhood major then would perhaps require an experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings and valuable resources Song materials might be best presented

aurally as most of these students are not musically literate Appropriateness of activities

can perhaps best be understood and experienced by interaction with children in a

supervised atmosphere The most pertinent readings could include information on child

development childrens musical development and justification of music education The

best practical resources could be researched and could include reviews of quality

repertoire recordings web sites references and materials Music fundamentals and

instmment technique might best be a secondary focus

Purpose ofthe Study

The purpose of this study is to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood education majors in the study of early childhood music

To achieve this aim the author will include studies of what has been done in the field as

well as a review of elementary and early childhood textbooks currently available The

resulting curriculum in the form of a three credit hour university course will need to

provide repertoire age appropriate activities pertinent readings and research of valuable

resources while allowing students to musically interact with the young child The

implications of this curriculum are that students may develop effective teaching skills

and musical behaviors develop an understanding ofthe childs musical development and

have the ability and willingness to incorporate appropriate musical activities into their

classrooms

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

Copyright 2004

Jenny Jahnke Dees

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is with gratitude that I acknowledge the generous support of my husband and

my family without whom I would not have been able to complete this project I would

like to dedicate this paper to my parents who made my education possible and who

through example and patience are the best teachers I have ever knovra

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

ABSTRACT vi

CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of the Problem 2

Purpose ofthe Study 3

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4

MENC Guideline 2- Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children 11

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music in daily life 12

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth 14

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and communicative skills 16

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in a playful manner 17

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques 19

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring appropriate musical resources 21

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created 21

in

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan 23

III REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 24

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Curriculum (5 ed) 25

Music For Young Children 26

Music A Way ofLife For the Young Child (4^ed) 27

Music Play 28

The Classroom Teacher^s Guide To Music Education (2 ed) 29

Music In Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades 30

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers 31

Music In Preschool (3^ ed) 32

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ed) 33

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5^ ed) 34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3^^ ed) 35

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching 36

Music In the Elementary School (5^ed) 36

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching 37

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher 38

IV INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM 40

V CONCLUSION 45

IV

REFERENCES 47

APPENDIX 54

A THE CURRICULUM 54

B CURRICULUM MATERIALS 76

C DEFINITION OF TERMS 115

ABSTRACT

Instmctors of music courses for undergraduate early childhood education majors

face many challenges when designing a one-semester music curriculum Few music

textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many more music texts geared for

elementary majors are available but include little information of early childhood years

(birth - 8 years old) In addition these elementary music texts often place a major

emphasis on the fundamentals of music Studies show this focus may not be the most

productive in developing generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in

their classrooms Students would benefit greatly from a sequential experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings valuable resources and experiences interacting musically with

children

The purpose of this study was to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood majors in the study of early childhood music The

curriculum was based on studies ofthe practical music skills and understandings of

classroom teachers studies of musical self-perceptions of non-music majors studies of

sequence the MENC position statement on early childhood music (MENC 1993) and a

review of available texts

The prescribed sequential curriculum provides a weekly format of in-class topics

and activities as well as homework assignments Although the curriculum described in

this paper is specific to a particular one-semester three-credit-hour early childhood

VI

major music course the ideas and activities could be adapted to meet the needs of another

course

Vll

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The difficulties in designing a music curriculum for early childhood education

majors are substantial A practical and applicable curriculum would be based around a

core text and guidelines provided by Music Educators National Conference It would

include a comprehensive course work comprised of (A) successful music making in a

safe atmosphere (B) designing and implementing developmentally appropriate music

activities (C) gaining knowledge ofthe young childs musical growth (D) researching

helpful music resources (E) observing young children in a musical setting and (F)

practicum teaching experiences

More traditional courses of this kind are theoretically based with an emphasis

being placed on music theory notation as well as instrumental performance as many

texts are geared toward this type of instmction However to teach these students

effectively one might consider the students prior knowledge experience and

confidence with music In most cases these attributes are minimal at best Music literacy

and music theory are useful tools but may not be a requirement for creating successful

and meaningful musical experiences Given the limited time period of one semester the

goal of creating a music specialist out of a non-musician seems ineffective (Gauthier and

McCrary 1999) The students semester might best be spent in comprehensive course

work comprised of relevant methods pertinent studies and active-based experiences

In its Position Statement on Early Childhood Education Music Educators

National Conference (1993) provides a framework for those who are responsible for

guiding the musical experiences of young children These persons should

(1) love and respect young children

(2) value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in

the lives of children

(3) model an interest in and use of music in daily life

(4) be confident in their own musicianship realizing that within the many facets

of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect

childrens musical growth

(5) be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

(6) interact with the children and music in a playful manner

(7) use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

(8) find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical

resources

(9) cause appropriate music learning environments to be created

(10) be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an

original plan (p 72)

Early childhood majors presumably are prepared to work in daycare preschool or early

elementary school settings Therefore these students should be instmcted on how to

implement these factors into activities in which music is the primary focus of attention

for its own value as well as to facilitate the accomplishment of non musical goals

(MENC 1993 p 71)

Statement ofthe Problem

Textbooks of early childhood music pedagogy most often attempt to develop a

comprehension of music theory fundamentals instmment proficiency and the application

of those skills to teaching music While these texts are wonderful resources for music

majors the typical early childhood major might not have sufficient background or

confidence to comprehend the information and course work that is based around such a

text during a one semester course Knowledge of music theory fundamentals and

instmment proficiency may not be applicable for the early childhood teacher The

non-musician early childhood major then would perhaps require an experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings and valuable resources Song materials might be best presented

aurally as most of these students are not musically literate Appropriateness of activities

can perhaps best be understood and experienced by interaction with children in a

supervised atmosphere The most pertinent readings could include information on child

development childrens musical development and justification of music education The

best practical resources could be researched and could include reviews of quality

repertoire recordings web sites references and materials Music fundamentals and

instmment technique might best be a secondary focus

Purpose ofthe Study

The purpose of this study is to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood education majors in the study of early childhood music

To achieve this aim the author will include studies of what has been done in the field as

well as a review of elementary and early childhood textbooks currently available The

resulting curriculum in the form of a three credit hour university course will need to

provide repertoire age appropriate activities pertinent readings and research of valuable

resources while allowing students to musically interact with the young child The

implications of this curriculum are that students may develop effective teaching skills

and musical behaviors develop an understanding ofthe childs musical development and

have the ability and willingness to incorporate appropriate musical activities into their

classrooms

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is with gratitude that I acknowledge the generous support of my husband and

my family without whom I would not have been able to complete this project I would

like to dedicate this paper to my parents who made my education possible and who

through example and patience are the best teachers I have ever knovra

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

ABSTRACT vi

CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of the Problem 2

Purpose ofthe Study 3

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4

MENC Guideline 2- Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children 11

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music in daily life 12

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth 14

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and communicative skills 16

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in a playful manner 17

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques 19

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring appropriate musical resources 21

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created 21

in

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan 23

III REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 24

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Curriculum (5 ed) 25

Music For Young Children 26

Music A Way ofLife For the Young Child (4^ed) 27

Music Play 28

The Classroom Teacher^s Guide To Music Education (2 ed) 29

Music In Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades 30

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers 31

Music In Preschool (3^ ed) 32

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ed) 33

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5^ ed) 34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3^^ ed) 35

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching 36

Music In the Elementary School (5^ed) 36

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching 37

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher 38

IV INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM 40

V CONCLUSION 45

IV

REFERENCES 47

APPENDIX 54

A THE CURRICULUM 54

B CURRICULUM MATERIALS 76

C DEFINITION OF TERMS 115

ABSTRACT

Instmctors of music courses for undergraduate early childhood education majors

face many challenges when designing a one-semester music curriculum Few music

textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many more music texts geared for

elementary majors are available but include little information of early childhood years

(birth - 8 years old) In addition these elementary music texts often place a major

emphasis on the fundamentals of music Studies show this focus may not be the most

productive in developing generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in

their classrooms Students would benefit greatly from a sequential experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings valuable resources and experiences interacting musically with

children

The purpose of this study was to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood majors in the study of early childhood music The

curriculum was based on studies ofthe practical music skills and understandings of

classroom teachers studies of musical self-perceptions of non-music majors studies of

sequence the MENC position statement on early childhood music (MENC 1993) and a

review of available texts

The prescribed sequential curriculum provides a weekly format of in-class topics

and activities as well as homework assignments Although the curriculum described in

this paper is specific to a particular one-semester three-credit-hour early childhood

VI

major music course the ideas and activities could be adapted to meet the needs of another

course

Vll

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The difficulties in designing a music curriculum for early childhood education

majors are substantial A practical and applicable curriculum would be based around a

core text and guidelines provided by Music Educators National Conference It would

include a comprehensive course work comprised of (A) successful music making in a

safe atmosphere (B) designing and implementing developmentally appropriate music

activities (C) gaining knowledge ofthe young childs musical growth (D) researching

helpful music resources (E) observing young children in a musical setting and (F)

practicum teaching experiences

More traditional courses of this kind are theoretically based with an emphasis

being placed on music theory notation as well as instrumental performance as many

texts are geared toward this type of instmction However to teach these students

effectively one might consider the students prior knowledge experience and

confidence with music In most cases these attributes are minimal at best Music literacy

and music theory are useful tools but may not be a requirement for creating successful

and meaningful musical experiences Given the limited time period of one semester the

goal of creating a music specialist out of a non-musician seems ineffective (Gauthier and

McCrary 1999) The students semester might best be spent in comprehensive course

work comprised of relevant methods pertinent studies and active-based experiences

In its Position Statement on Early Childhood Education Music Educators

National Conference (1993) provides a framework for those who are responsible for

guiding the musical experiences of young children These persons should

(1) love and respect young children

(2) value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in

the lives of children

(3) model an interest in and use of music in daily life

(4) be confident in their own musicianship realizing that within the many facets

of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect

childrens musical growth

(5) be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

(6) interact with the children and music in a playful manner

(7) use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

(8) find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical

resources

(9) cause appropriate music learning environments to be created

(10) be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an

original plan (p 72)

Early childhood majors presumably are prepared to work in daycare preschool or early

elementary school settings Therefore these students should be instmcted on how to

implement these factors into activities in which music is the primary focus of attention

for its own value as well as to facilitate the accomplishment of non musical goals

(MENC 1993 p 71)

Statement ofthe Problem

Textbooks of early childhood music pedagogy most often attempt to develop a

comprehension of music theory fundamentals instmment proficiency and the application

of those skills to teaching music While these texts are wonderful resources for music

majors the typical early childhood major might not have sufficient background or

confidence to comprehend the information and course work that is based around such a

text during a one semester course Knowledge of music theory fundamentals and

instmment proficiency may not be applicable for the early childhood teacher The

non-musician early childhood major then would perhaps require an experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings and valuable resources Song materials might be best presented

aurally as most of these students are not musically literate Appropriateness of activities

can perhaps best be understood and experienced by interaction with children in a

supervised atmosphere The most pertinent readings could include information on child

development childrens musical development and justification of music education The

best practical resources could be researched and could include reviews of quality

repertoire recordings web sites references and materials Music fundamentals and

instmment technique might best be a secondary focus

Purpose ofthe Study

The purpose of this study is to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood education majors in the study of early childhood music

To achieve this aim the author will include studies of what has been done in the field as

well as a review of elementary and early childhood textbooks currently available The

resulting curriculum in the form of a three credit hour university course will need to

provide repertoire age appropriate activities pertinent readings and research of valuable

resources while allowing students to musically interact with the young child The

implications of this curriculum are that students may develop effective teaching skills

and musical behaviors develop an understanding ofthe childs musical development and

have the ability and willingness to incorporate appropriate musical activities into their

classrooms

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

ABSTRACT vi

CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of the Problem 2

Purpose ofthe Study 3

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4

MENC Guideline 2- Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children 11

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music in daily life 12

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth 14

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and communicative skills 16

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in a playful manner 17

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques 19

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring appropriate musical resources 21

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created 21

in

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan 23

III REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 24

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Curriculum (5 ed) 25

Music For Young Children 26

Music A Way ofLife For the Young Child (4^ed) 27

Music Play 28

The Classroom Teacher^s Guide To Music Education (2 ed) 29

Music In Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades 30

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers 31

Music In Preschool (3^ ed) 32

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ed) 33

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5^ ed) 34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3^^ ed) 35

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching 36

Music In the Elementary School (5^ed) 36

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching 37

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher 38

IV INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM 40

V CONCLUSION 45

IV

REFERENCES 47

APPENDIX 54

A THE CURRICULUM 54

B CURRICULUM MATERIALS 76

C DEFINITION OF TERMS 115

ABSTRACT

Instmctors of music courses for undergraduate early childhood education majors

face many challenges when designing a one-semester music curriculum Few music

textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many more music texts geared for

elementary majors are available but include little information of early childhood years

(birth - 8 years old) In addition these elementary music texts often place a major

emphasis on the fundamentals of music Studies show this focus may not be the most

productive in developing generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in

their classrooms Students would benefit greatly from a sequential experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings valuable resources and experiences interacting musically with

children

The purpose of this study was to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood majors in the study of early childhood music The

curriculum was based on studies ofthe practical music skills and understandings of

classroom teachers studies of musical self-perceptions of non-music majors studies of

sequence the MENC position statement on early childhood music (MENC 1993) and a

review of available texts

The prescribed sequential curriculum provides a weekly format of in-class topics

and activities as well as homework assignments Although the curriculum described in

this paper is specific to a particular one-semester three-credit-hour early childhood

VI

major music course the ideas and activities could be adapted to meet the needs of another

course

Vll

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The difficulties in designing a music curriculum for early childhood education

majors are substantial A practical and applicable curriculum would be based around a

core text and guidelines provided by Music Educators National Conference It would

include a comprehensive course work comprised of (A) successful music making in a

safe atmosphere (B) designing and implementing developmentally appropriate music

activities (C) gaining knowledge ofthe young childs musical growth (D) researching

helpful music resources (E) observing young children in a musical setting and (F)

practicum teaching experiences

More traditional courses of this kind are theoretically based with an emphasis

being placed on music theory notation as well as instrumental performance as many

texts are geared toward this type of instmction However to teach these students

effectively one might consider the students prior knowledge experience and

confidence with music In most cases these attributes are minimal at best Music literacy

and music theory are useful tools but may not be a requirement for creating successful

and meaningful musical experiences Given the limited time period of one semester the

goal of creating a music specialist out of a non-musician seems ineffective (Gauthier and

McCrary 1999) The students semester might best be spent in comprehensive course

work comprised of relevant methods pertinent studies and active-based experiences

In its Position Statement on Early Childhood Education Music Educators

National Conference (1993) provides a framework for those who are responsible for

guiding the musical experiences of young children These persons should

(1) love and respect young children

(2) value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in

the lives of children

(3) model an interest in and use of music in daily life

(4) be confident in their own musicianship realizing that within the many facets

of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect

childrens musical growth

(5) be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

(6) interact with the children and music in a playful manner

(7) use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

(8) find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical

resources

(9) cause appropriate music learning environments to be created

(10) be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an

original plan (p 72)

Early childhood majors presumably are prepared to work in daycare preschool or early

elementary school settings Therefore these students should be instmcted on how to

implement these factors into activities in which music is the primary focus of attention

for its own value as well as to facilitate the accomplishment of non musical goals

(MENC 1993 p 71)

Statement ofthe Problem

Textbooks of early childhood music pedagogy most often attempt to develop a

comprehension of music theory fundamentals instmment proficiency and the application

of those skills to teaching music While these texts are wonderful resources for music

majors the typical early childhood major might not have sufficient background or

confidence to comprehend the information and course work that is based around such a

text during a one semester course Knowledge of music theory fundamentals and

instmment proficiency may not be applicable for the early childhood teacher The

non-musician early childhood major then would perhaps require an experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings and valuable resources Song materials might be best presented

aurally as most of these students are not musically literate Appropriateness of activities

can perhaps best be understood and experienced by interaction with children in a

supervised atmosphere The most pertinent readings could include information on child

development childrens musical development and justification of music education The

best practical resources could be researched and could include reviews of quality

repertoire recordings web sites references and materials Music fundamentals and

instmment technique might best be a secondary focus

Purpose ofthe Study

The purpose of this study is to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood education majors in the study of early childhood music

To achieve this aim the author will include studies of what has been done in the field as

well as a review of elementary and early childhood textbooks currently available The

resulting curriculum in the form of a three credit hour university course will need to

provide repertoire age appropriate activities pertinent readings and research of valuable

resources while allowing students to musically interact with the young child The

implications of this curriculum are that students may develop effective teaching skills

and musical behaviors develop an understanding ofthe childs musical development and

have the ability and willingness to incorporate appropriate musical activities into their

classrooms

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan 23

III REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 24

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Curriculum (5 ed) 25

Music For Young Children 26

Music A Way ofLife For the Young Child (4^ed) 27

Music Play 28

The Classroom Teacher^s Guide To Music Education (2 ed) 29

Music In Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades 30

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers 31

Music In Preschool (3^ ed) 32

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ed) 33

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5^ ed) 34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3^^ ed) 35

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching 36

Music In the Elementary School (5^ed) 36

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching 37

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher 38

IV INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM 40

V CONCLUSION 45

IV

REFERENCES 47

APPENDIX 54

A THE CURRICULUM 54

B CURRICULUM MATERIALS 76

C DEFINITION OF TERMS 115

ABSTRACT

Instmctors of music courses for undergraduate early childhood education majors

face many challenges when designing a one-semester music curriculum Few music

textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many more music texts geared for

elementary majors are available but include little information of early childhood years

(birth - 8 years old) In addition these elementary music texts often place a major

emphasis on the fundamentals of music Studies show this focus may not be the most

productive in developing generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in

their classrooms Students would benefit greatly from a sequential experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings valuable resources and experiences interacting musically with

children

The purpose of this study was to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood majors in the study of early childhood music The

curriculum was based on studies ofthe practical music skills and understandings of

classroom teachers studies of musical self-perceptions of non-music majors studies of

sequence the MENC position statement on early childhood music (MENC 1993) and a

review of available texts

The prescribed sequential curriculum provides a weekly format of in-class topics

and activities as well as homework assignments Although the curriculum described in

this paper is specific to a particular one-semester three-credit-hour early childhood

VI

major music course the ideas and activities could be adapted to meet the needs of another

course

Vll

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The difficulties in designing a music curriculum for early childhood education

majors are substantial A practical and applicable curriculum would be based around a

core text and guidelines provided by Music Educators National Conference It would

include a comprehensive course work comprised of (A) successful music making in a

safe atmosphere (B) designing and implementing developmentally appropriate music

activities (C) gaining knowledge ofthe young childs musical growth (D) researching

helpful music resources (E) observing young children in a musical setting and (F)

practicum teaching experiences

More traditional courses of this kind are theoretically based with an emphasis

being placed on music theory notation as well as instrumental performance as many

texts are geared toward this type of instmction However to teach these students

effectively one might consider the students prior knowledge experience and

confidence with music In most cases these attributes are minimal at best Music literacy

and music theory are useful tools but may not be a requirement for creating successful

and meaningful musical experiences Given the limited time period of one semester the

goal of creating a music specialist out of a non-musician seems ineffective (Gauthier and

McCrary 1999) The students semester might best be spent in comprehensive course

work comprised of relevant methods pertinent studies and active-based experiences

In its Position Statement on Early Childhood Education Music Educators

National Conference (1993) provides a framework for those who are responsible for

guiding the musical experiences of young children These persons should

(1) love and respect young children

(2) value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in

the lives of children

(3) model an interest in and use of music in daily life

(4) be confident in their own musicianship realizing that within the many facets

of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect

childrens musical growth

(5) be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

(6) interact with the children and music in a playful manner

(7) use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

(8) find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical

resources

(9) cause appropriate music learning environments to be created

(10) be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an

original plan (p 72)

Early childhood majors presumably are prepared to work in daycare preschool or early

elementary school settings Therefore these students should be instmcted on how to

implement these factors into activities in which music is the primary focus of attention

for its own value as well as to facilitate the accomplishment of non musical goals

(MENC 1993 p 71)

Statement ofthe Problem

Textbooks of early childhood music pedagogy most often attempt to develop a

comprehension of music theory fundamentals instmment proficiency and the application

of those skills to teaching music While these texts are wonderful resources for music

majors the typical early childhood major might not have sufficient background or

confidence to comprehend the information and course work that is based around such a

text during a one semester course Knowledge of music theory fundamentals and

instmment proficiency may not be applicable for the early childhood teacher The

non-musician early childhood major then would perhaps require an experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings and valuable resources Song materials might be best presented

aurally as most of these students are not musically literate Appropriateness of activities

can perhaps best be understood and experienced by interaction with children in a

supervised atmosphere The most pertinent readings could include information on child

development childrens musical development and justification of music education The

best practical resources could be researched and could include reviews of quality

repertoire recordings web sites references and materials Music fundamentals and

instmment technique might best be a secondary focus

Purpose ofthe Study

The purpose of this study is to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood education majors in the study of early childhood music

To achieve this aim the author will include studies of what has been done in the field as

well as a review of elementary and early childhood textbooks currently available The

resulting curriculum in the form of a three credit hour university course will need to

provide repertoire age appropriate activities pertinent readings and research of valuable

resources while allowing students to musically interact with the young child The

implications of this curriculum are that students may develop effective teaching skills

and musical behaviors develop an understanding ofthe childs musical development and

have the ability and willingness to incorporate appropriate musical activities into their

classrooms

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

REFERENCES 47

APPENDIX 54

A THE CURRICULUM 54

B CURRICULUM MATERIALS 76

C DEFINITION OF TERMS 115

ABSTRACT

Instmctors of music courses for undergraduate early childhood education majors

face many challenges when designing a one-semester music curriculum Few music

textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many more music texts geared for

elementary majors are available but include little information of early childhood years

(birth - 8 years old) In addition these elementary music texts often place a major

emphasis on the fundamentals of music Studies show this focus may not be the most

productive in developing generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in

their classrooms Students would benefit greatly from a sequential experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings valuable resources and experiences interacting musically with

children

The purpose of this study was to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood majors in the study of early childhood music The

curriculum was based on studies ofthe practical music skills and understandings of

classroom teachers studies of musical self-perceptions of non-music majors studies of

sequence the MENC position statement on early childhood music (MENC 1993) and a

review of available texts

The prescribed sequential curriculum provides a weekly format of in-class topics

and activities as well as homework assignments Although the curriculum described in

this paper is specific to a particular one-semester three-credit-hour early childhood

VI

major music course the ideas and activities could be adapted to meet the needs of another

course

Vll

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The difficulties in designing a music curriculum for early childhood education

majors are substantial A practical and applicable curriculum would be based around a

core text and guidelines provided by Music Educators National Conference It would

include a comprehensive course work comprised of (A) successful music making in a

safe atmosphere (B) designing and implementing developmentally appropriate music

activities (C) gaining knowledge ofthe young childs musical growth (D) researching

helpful music resources (E) observing young children in a musical setting and (F)

practicum teaching experiences

More traditional courses of this kind are theoretically based with an emphasis

being placed on music theory notation as well as instrumental performance as many

texts are geared toward this type of instmction However to teach these students

effectively one might consider the students prior knowledge experience and

confidence with music In most cases these attributes are minimal at best Music literacy

and music theory are useful tools but may not be a requirement for creating successful

and meaningful musical experiences Given the limited time period of one semester the

goal of creating a music specialist out of a non-musician seems ineffective (Gauthier and

McCrary 1999) The students semester might best be spent in comprehensive course

work comprised of relevant methods pertinent studies and active-based experiences

In its Position Statement on Early Childhood Education Music Educators

National Conference (1993) provides a framework for those who are responsible for

guiding the musical experiences of young children These persons should

(1) love and respect young children

(2) value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in

the lives of children

(3) model an interest in and use of music in daily life

(4) be confident in their own musicianship realizing that within the many facets

of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect

childrens musical growth

(5) be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

(6) interact with the children and music in a playful manner

(7) use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

(8) find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical

resources

(9) cause appropriate music learning environments to be created

(10) be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an

original plan (p 72)

Early childhood majors presumably are prepared to work in daycare preschool or early

elementary school settings Therefore these students should be instmcted on how to

implement these factors into activities in which music is the primary focus of attention

for its own value as well as to facilitate the accomplishment of non musical goals

(MENC 1993 p 71)

Statement ofthe Problem

Textbooks of early childhood music pedagogy most often attempt to develop a

comprehension of music theory fundamentals instmment proficiency and the application

of those skills to teaching music While these texts are wonderful resources for music

majors the typical early childhood major might not have sufficient background or

confidence to comprehend the information and course work that is based around such a

text during a one semester course Knowledge of music theory fundamentals and

instmment proficiency may not be applicable for the early childhood teacher The

non-musician early childhood major then would perhaps require an experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings and valuable resources Song materials might be best presented

aurally as most of these students are not musically literate Appropriateness of activities

can perhaps best be understood and experienced by interaction with children in a

supervised atmosphere The most pertinent readings could include information on child

development childrens musical development and justification of music education The

best practical resources could be researched and could include reviews of quality

repertoire recordings web sites references and materials Music fundamentals and

instmment technique might best be a secondary focus

Purpose ofthe Study

The purpose of this study is to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood education majors in the study of early childhood music

To achieve this aim the author will include studies of what has been done in the field as

well as a review of elementary and early childhood textbooks currently available The

resulting curriculum in the form of a three credit hour university course will need to

provide repertoire age appropriate activities pertinent readings and research of valuable

resources while allowing students to musically interact with the young child The

implications of this curriculum are that students may develop effective teaching skills

and musical behaviors develop an understanding ofthe childs musical development and

have the ability and willingness to incorporate appropriate musical activities into their

classrooms

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

ABSTRACT

Instmctors of music courses for undergraduate early childhood education majors

face many challenges when designing a one-semester music curriculum Few music

textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many more music texts geared for

elementary majors are available but include little information of early childhood years

(birth - 8 years old) In addition these elementary music texts often place a major

emphasis on the fundamentals of music Studies show this focus may not be the most

productive in developing generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in

their classrooms Students would benefit greatly from a sequential experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings valuable resources and experiences interacting musically with

children

The purpose of this study was to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood majors in the study of early childhood music The

curriculum was based on studies ofthe practical music skills and understandings of

classroom teachers studies of musical self-perceptions of non-music majors studies of

sequence the MENC position statement on early childhood music (MENC 1993) and a

review of available texts

The prescribed sequential curriculum provides a weekly format of in-class topics

and activities as well as homework assignments Although the curriculum described in

this paper is specific to a particular one-semester three-credit-hour early childhood

VI

major music course the ideas and activities could be adapted to meet the needs of another

course

Vll

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The difficulties in designing a music curriculum for early childhood education

majors are substantial A practical and applicable curriculum would be based around a

core text and guidelines provided by Music Educators National Conference It would

include a comprehensive course work comprised of (A) successful music making in a

safe atmosphere (B) designing and implementing developmentally appropriate music

activities (C) gaining knowledge ofthe young childs musical growth (D) researching

helpful music resources (E) observing young children in a musical setting and (F)

practicum teaching experiences

More traditional courses of this kind are theoretically based with an emphasis

being placed on music theory notation as well as instrumental performance as many

texts are geared toward this type of instmction However to teach these students

effectively one might consider the students prior knowledge experience and

confidence with music In most cases these attributes are minimal at best Music literacy

and music theory are useful tools but may not be a requirement for creating successful

and meaningful musical experiences Given the limited time period of one semester the

goal of creating a music specialist out of a non-musician seems ineffective (Gauthier and

McCrary 1999) The students semester might best be spent in comprehensive course

work comprised of relevant methods pertinent studies and active-based experiences

In its Position Statement on Early Childhood Education Music Educators

National Conference (1993) provides a framework for those who are responsible for

guiding the musical experiences of young children These persons should

(1) love and respect young children

(2) value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in

the lives of children

(3) model an interest in and use of music in daily life

(4) be confident in their own musicianship realizing that within the many facets

of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect

childrens musical growth

(5) be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

(6) interact with the children and music in a playful manner

(7) use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

(8) find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical

resources

(9) cause appropriate music learning environments to be created

(10) be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an

original plan (p 72)

Early childhood majors presumably are prepared to work in daycare preschool or early

elementary school settings Therefore these students should be instmcted on how to

implement these factors into activities in which music is the primary focus of attention

for its own value as well as to facilitate the accomplishment of non musical goals

(MENC 1993 p 71)

Statement ofthe Problem

Textbooks of early childhood music pedagogy most often attempt to develop a

comprehension of music theory fundamentals instmment proficiency and the application

of those skills to teaching music While these texts are wonderful resources for music

majors the typical early childhood major might not have sufficient background or

confidence to comprehend the information and course work that is based around such a

text during a one semester course Knowledge of music theory fundamentals and

instmment proficiency may not be applicable for the early childhood teacher The

non-musician early childhood major then would perhaps require an experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings and valuable resources Song materials might be best presented

aurally as most of these students are not musically literate Appropriateness of activities

can perhaps best be understood and experienced by interaction with children in a

supervised atmosphere The most pertinent readings could include information on child

development childrens musical development and justification of music education The

best practical resources could be researched and could include reviews of quality

repertoire recordings web sites references and materials Music fundamentals and

instmment technique might best be a secondary focus

Purpose ofthe Study

The purpose of this study is to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood education majors in the study of early childhood music

To achieve this aim the author will include studies of what has been done in the field as

well as a review of elementary and early childhood textbooks currently available The

resulting curriculum in the form of a three credit hour university course will need to

provide repertoire age appropriate activities pertinent readings and research of valuable

resources while allowing students to musically interact with the young child The

implications of this curriculum are that students may develop effective teaching skills

and musical behaviors develop an understanding ofthe childs musical development and

have the ability and willingness to incorporate appropriate musical activities into their

classrooms

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

major music course the ideas and activities could be adapted to meet the needs of another

course

Vll

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The difficulties in designing a music curriculum for early childhood education

majors are substantial A practical and applicable curriculum would be based around a

core text and guidelines provided by Music Educators National Conference It would

include a comprehensive course work comprised of (A) successful music making in a

safe atmosphere (B) designing and implementing developmentally appropriate music

activities (C) gaining knowledge ofthe young childs musical growth (D) researching

helpful music resources (E) observing young children in a musical setting and (F)

practicum teaching experiences

More traditional courses of this kind are theoretically based with an emphasis

being placed on music theory notation as well as instrumental performance as many

texts are geared toward this type of instmction However to teach these students

effectively one might consider the students prior knowledge experience and

confidence with music In most cases these attributes are minimal at best Music literacy

and music theory are useful tools but may not be a requirement for creating successful

and meaningful musical experiences Given the limited time period of one semester the

goal of creating a music specialist out of a non-musician seems ineffective (Gauthier and

McCrary 1999) The students semester might best be spent in comprehensive course

work comprised of relevant methods pertinent studies and active-based experiences

In its Position Statement on Early Childhood Education Music Educators

National Conference (1993) provides a framework for those who are responsible for

guiding the musical experiences of young children These persons should

(1) love and respect young children

(2) value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in

the lives of children

(3) model an interest in and use of music in daily life

(4) be confident in their own musicianship realizing that within the many facets

of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect

childrens musical growth

(5) be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

(6) interact with the children and music in a playful manner

(7) use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

(8) find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical

resources

(9) cause appropriate music learning environments to be created

(10) be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an

original plan (p 72)

Early childhood majors presumably are prepared to work in daycare preschool or early

elementary school settings Therefore these students should be instmcted on how to

implement these factors into activities in which music is the primary focus of attention

for its own value as well as to facilitate the accomplishment of non musical goals

(MENC 1993 p 71)

Statement ofthe Problem

Textbooks of early childhood music pedagogy most often attempt to develop a

comprehension of music theory fundamentals instmment proficiency and the application

of those skills to teaching music While these texts are wonderful resources for music

majors the typical early childhood major might not have sufficient background or

confidence to comprehend the information and course work that is based around such a

text during a one semester course Knowledge of music theory fundamentals and

instmment proficiency may not be applicable for the early childhood teacher The

non-musician early childhood major then would perhaps require an experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings and valuable resources Song materials might be best presented

aurally as most of these students are not musically literate Appropriateness of activities

can perhaps best be understood and experienced by interaction with children in a

supervised atmosphere The most pertinent readings could include information on child

development childrens musical development and justification of music education The

best practical resources could be researched and could include reviews of quality

repertoire recordings web sites references and materials Music fundamentals and

instmment technique might best be a secondary focus

Purpose ofthe Study

The purpose of this study is to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood education majors in the study of early childhood music

To achieve this aim the author will include studies of what has been done in the field as

well as a review of elementary and early childhood textbooks currently available The

resulting curriculum in the form of a three credit hour university course will need to

provide repertoire age appropriate activities pertinent readings and research of valuable

resources while allowing students to musically interact with the young child The

implications of this curriculum are that students may develop effective teaching skills

and musical behaviors develop an understanding ofthe childs musical development and

have the ability and willingness to incorporate appropriate musical activities into their

classrooms

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The difficulties in designing a music curriculum for early childhood education

majors are substantial A practical and applicable curriculum would be based around a

core text and guidelines provided by Music Educators National Conference It would

include a comprehensive course work comprised of (A) successful music making in a

safe atmosphere (B) designing and implementing developmentally appropriate music

activities (C) gaining knowledge ofthe young childs musical growth (D) researching

helpful music resources (E) observing young children in a musical setting and (F)

practicum teaching experiences

More traditional courses of this kind are theoretically based with an emphasis

being placed on music theory notation as well as instrumental performance as many

texts are geared toward this type of instmction However to teach these students

effectively one might consider the students prior knowledge experience and

confidence with music In most cases these attributes are minimal at best Music literacy

and music theory are useful tools but may not be a requirement for creating successful

and meaningful musical experiences Given the limited time period of one semester the

goal of creating a music specialist out of a non-musician seems ineffective (Gauthier and

McCrary 1999) The students semester might best be spent in comprehensive course

work comprised of relevant methods pertinent studies and active-based experiences

In its Position Statement on Early Childhood Education Music Educators

National Conference (1993) provides a framework for those who are responsible for

guiding the musical experiences of young children These persons should

(1) love and respect young children

(2) value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in

the lives of children

(3) model an interest in and use of music in daily life

(4) be confident in their own musicianship realizing that within the many facets

of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect

childrens musical growth

(5) be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

(6) interact with the children and music in a playful manner

(7) use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

(8) find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical

resources

(9) cause appropriate music learning environments to be created

(10) be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an

original plan (p 72)

Early childhood majors presumably are prepared to work in daycare preschool or early

elementary school settings Therefore these students should be instmcted on how to

implement these factors into activities in which music is the primary focus of attention

for its own value as well as to facilitate the accomplishment of non musical goals

(MENC 1993 p 71)

Statement ofthe Problem

Textbooks of early childhood music pedagogy most often attempt to develop a

comprehension of music theory fundamentals instmment proficiency and the application

of those skills to teaching music While these texts are wonderful resources for music

majors the typical early childhood major might not have sufficient background or

confidence to comprehend the information and course work that is based around such a

text during a one semester course Knowledge of music theory fundamentals and

instmment proficiency may not be applicable for the early childhood teacher The

non-musician early childhood major then would perhaps require an experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings and valuable resources Song materials might be best presented

aurally as most of these students are not musically literate Appropriateness of activities

can perhaps best be understood and experienced by interaction with children in a

supervised atmosphere The most pertinent readings could include information on child

development childrens musical development and justification of music education The

best practical resources could be researched and could include reviews of quality

repertoire recordings web sites references and materials Music fundamentals and

instmment technique might best be a secondary focus

Purpose ofthe Study

The purpose of this study is to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood education majors in the study of early childhood music

To achieve this aim the author will include studies of what has been done in the field as

well as a review of elementary and early childhood textbooks currently available The

resulting curriculum in the form of a three credit hour university course will need to

provide repertoire age appropriate activities pertinent readings and research of valuable

resources while allowing students to musically interact with the young child The

implications of this curriculum are that students may develop effective teaching skills

and musical behaviors develop an understanding ofthe childs musical development and

have the ability and willingness to incorporate appropriate musical activities into their

classrooms

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

(4) be confident in their own musicianship realizing that within the many facets

of musical interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect

childrens musical growth

(5) be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

(6) interact with the children and music in a playful manner

(7) use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

(8) find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical

resources

(9) cause appropriate music learning environments to be created

(10) be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an

original plan (p 72)

Early childhood majors presumably are prepared to work in daycare preschool or early

elementary school settings Therefore these students should be instmcted on how to

implement these factors into activities in which music is the primary focus of attention

for its own value as well as to facilitate the accomplishment of non musical goals

(MENC 1993 p 71)

Statement ofthe Problem

Textbooks of early childhood music pedagogy most often attempt to develop a

comprehension of music theory fundamentals instmment proficiency and the application

of those skills to teaching music While these texts are wonderful resources for music

majors the typical early childhood major might not have sufficient background or

confidence to comprehend the information and course work that is based around such a

text during a one semester course Knowledge of music theory fundamentals and

instmment proficiency may not be applicable for the early childhood teacher The

non-musician early childhood major then would perhaps require an experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings and valuable resources Song materials might be best presented

aurally as most of these students are not musically literate Appropriateness of activities

can perhaps best be understood and experienced by interaction with children in a

supervised atmosphere The most pertinent readings could include information on child

development childrens musical development and justification of music education The

best practical resources could be researched and could include reviews of quality

repertoire recordings web sites references and materials Music fundamentals and

instmment technique might best be a secondary focus

Purpose ofthe Study

The purpose of this study is to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood education majors in the study of early childhood music

To achieve this aim the author will include studies of what has been done in the field as

well as a review of elementary and early childhood textbooks currently available The

resulting curriculum in the form of a three credit hour university course will need to

provide repertoire age appropriate activities pertinent readings and research of valuable

resources while allowing students to musically interact with the young child The

implications of this curriculum are that students may develop effective teaching skills

and musical behaviors develop an understanding ofthe childs musical development and

have the ability and willingness to incorporate appropriate musical activities into their

classrooms

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

non-musician early childhood major then would perhaps require an experiential and

applicable music curriculum that includes song materials age appropriate activities

pertinent readings and valuable resources Song materials might be best presented

aurally as most of these students are not musically literate Appropriateness of activities

can perhaps best be understood and experienced by interaction with children in a

supervised atmosphere The most pertinent readings could include information on child

development childrens musical development and justification of music education The

best practical resources could be researched and could include reviews of quality

repertoire recordings web sites references and materials Music fundamentals and

instmment technique might best be a secondary focus

Purpose ofthe Study

The purpose of this study is to develop a music curriculum designed for

undergraduate early childhood education majors in the study of early childhood music

To achieve this aim the author will include studies of what has been done in the field as

well as a review of elementary and early childhood textbooks currently available The

resulting curriculum in the form of a three credit hour university course will need to

provide repertoire age appropriate activities pertinent readings and research of valuable

resources while allowing students to musically interact with the young child The

implications of this curriculum are that students may develop effective teaching skills

and musical behaviors develop an understanding ofthe childs musical development and

have the ability and willingness to incorporate appropriate musical activities into their

classrooms

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Perhaps the greatest challenge in designing a music education course for non-

majors is in determining the desired outcome Two approaches could be considered The

first approach could be to consider the course as a music fundamentals class taught

through curriculum based on theoretical fundamentals notation and classroom

instmment technique The second approach could be to consider the course as a

supplement to the future classroom teachers overall abilities to provide musical

experiences as an integral part ofthe daily curriculum

Traditionally a large focus of elementary music texts and thus the course work

is on music fundamentals theory notation and classroom instruments technique and

performance (Gauthier amp McCrary 1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) From this the texts

draw some actual music materials activities and teaching techniques A main focus in

the area of music fundamentals seems conceivably appropriate for a two-semester course

geared towards creating more of a music specialist However tme music specialists

are teachers who have at least four years of formal music ttaining in addition to

numerous years of musical experience prior to college (Steinel 1990) Gauthier amp

McCrary (1999) Bowers (1997) and Byo (1999) agree that the situation is difficuh for

the non-specialist in a methods course It seems ineffective and unrealistic to expect that

a one-semester course is sufficient time for the student to develop competence in music

fundamentals theory song materials development of instrument technique lesson

planning resource awareness and application and other factors Regardless ofthe

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

47

method course focus it is extremely important that in addition to what a music specialist

brings to childrens lives the generalist involve music in hisher classroom so that the

children will benefit from the long-range development of musicality (Aronoff 1974)

Instructors of an early childhood music education course for non-majors typically

trained musicians might wonder why seemingly simple music fundamentals are so hard

for the students to comprehend and why these skills should not be a main focus It can be

easy for the ttained musician to underestimate the time involved in teaching these skills

even though these fundamentals are the equivalent to a freshman music theory course It

can also be difficult for a musician to remove oneself from music fully enough to think

like a non-musician Typically ttained musicians might prefer to leam songs from

notation as that is most often the way they were trained to leam music Sadly the

increasing majority of students seem to be non-musicians with CDs and radio being their

only musical experiences throughout their lives John Feierabend (1996) describes the

societal phenomenon

One hundred years ago many families instinctively engaged their very young children in activities that were ideal for developing musicality No one studied early childhood music education and there was little need for classes to be offered to infants and toddlers with their parents Today we are discovering that during the past one hundred years the musical sensitivities of each generation have been gradually devastated by the side effects of an increasingly sophisticated technological environment Instead of making music most only consume it- and the nutritional value of much of that musical consumption has become increasingly empty While research is piquing our interest and is supporting a variety of reasons why music and movement experiences are important in the earliest years it is interesting to note what previous generations did Long before research advised us about what might be appropriate musical stimulation in the early years parents were naturally sharing music activities with their infants and toddlers These activities provided ideal experiences for nurturing a healthy neural network which is so necessary to fostering musical comprehension coordination and expressive sensitivity I have conducted interviews with many senior citizens who were asked to recall a song rhyme or game that could be

played with a baby on their lap Those citizens over 80 were able to offer a remarkably diverse repertoire When others in the 60-80 year old bracket were asked the same question only some repertoire could be delivered A third group between 40 and 60 recalled very little and people who were 40 years old and younger knew nothing (p 19)

The students who are presently in college are the sons and daughters of these 40-

60 year-olds They are with few exceptions only music consumers In a class of 25 early

childhood majors when asked for a show of hands from people who consider

themselves to have a pleasant singing voice rarely do more than two or three hands go

up (Austin 1995) When pre-service teachers are asked about their own musical

experiences from childhood the majority of songs or activities remembered are of

teaching songs or performance in a PTA or Christmas program Kritzmire (1991)

explains teachers attitudes toward music as adults are often reflective of their elementary

experiences (Austin 1995) Many students remember few if any positive musical

experiences from childhood and even fewer positive experiences from adolescence

(Richards 1999) Students often complain that they were told they had bad voices so

they stopped singing Sims (1993) cautions that singing is a very personal skill and it is

easy to do long-lasting damage to an impressionable young childs self esteem through

misguided criticism (p 19) The same may hold tme ofthe college students musical self

esteem Feierabend (1995) goes so far as to say that because of musical neglect in the

early years most school age children in the United States are musically retarded (p 12)

Its no wonder that years later these students feel paralyzed when asked to sing on the

first day of class or panic when asked to look at a piece of music

The need for development of a beneficial curriculum is necessary and relevant

not only from personal experience of working with in-service early childhood educators

but on the evidence found by Kelly (1998) His study was designed to identify the music

skills and understandings taught during their pre-service training that in-service preschool

classroom teachers believe were practical and beneficial (p 375) His survey material

sent to public and private preschool programs focused on four questions

(1) What music skills and understandings studied in pre-service teacher education courses are pre-k teachers using

(2) What music skills and understandings would in-service pre-k teachers use if the topics had been studied in the pre-service courses

(3) What useful music skills and understandings have pre-k teachers gained from sources other than undergraduate teacher training courses

(4) What are the subjects basic educational backgrounds self-perceptions of music ability and awareness ofthe pre-k Performance Standards for Music (MENC) (Kelly 1998 p 376)

The results of this research were

-The five skills and understandings that the respondents most indicated they had studied and have used in their classrooms were developing movement activities (543) using rhythm instmments (514 ) leading and teaching songs (471) providing creative musical experiences (443) and developing listening lessons (429)

-Additionally the skills and understandings that were not studied but would be used in their classrooms are knowing characteristics of childrens voices (429) selecting recordings for children (243) and developing listening lessons (286)

-Some skills and understandings perhaps considered more traditional in the preparation for teaching music were not necessarily found to be useful in the preschool classroom These topics included music history (400) playing the recorder (343) music theory and music reading notation (314) and playing piano or other type of keyboard (243)

-The five skills and understandings that most respondents did not study and would not use were music composition (429) developing music reading activities (400) using basal textbook series (357) integrating music computer activities (357) and playing the autoharp (343) (Kelly 1998 p 377)

It seems the most relevant and useful skills came from instmction of direct music

experiences Other studies are consistent with Kellys findings (Saunders amp Baker 1991)

These researchers also found that when classroom teachers are given the opportunity to

identify activfries they would be able andor are willing to implement within the

classroom they more commonly mention teaching activities based upon singing

listening movement and integrated music with other subject areas (Austin 1995

paragraph 9) According to Young (1975) and Jalongo (1996) the surveyed classroom

teachers ideas about what will actually be useful is consistent with experts who also feel

that teachers with little performance skill can achieve a quality early childhood music

program Often times it could be the presentation and direction ofthe students college

experiences that heavily influence the student attitudes Instmctors should be ready to

motivate the students musically and pedagogically (Kvet amp Watkins 1993) If the non-

musician student has an enjoyable class with positive relevant musical experiences

heshe will probably develop a positive impression and will later be more confident in

performing activities with children (Richards 1999) Without a sense of confidence the

student may not use these activities later

Perhaps the greatest stmggle in course work of this nature lies in the confidence in

and comfort factor or lack thereof ofthe pre-service teacher Ideally the pre-service

teacher would feel confident in his her music ability upon completion ofthe required

music course The following research shows however this is not always the case The

results of this study might bring into question the amount of musical experiences these

students will provide for their students in the future The purpose of a study done by

James Austin was to examine the effects of music fundamentals class experience on

future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations (Austin 1995 paragraph 1) His

study measured in part the self-perceptions of 360 future classroom teachers and the

effect of those self-perceptions after completion of a music fundamentals class

In this study two intact groups of classroom teachers were comparedmdashstudents who had already completed a music fundamentals course and students who had just enrolled in a music fundamentals course Students beliefs about the strength of their music abilities their recollection of important failure experiences in music and their interpretations about why important failures occurred were assessed to determine whether completing a music fundamentals course had any short term effect on attitudes and motivation Overall future classroom teachers who participated in this study did not feel very confident in their music abilities Regardless ofthe activity area subjects tended to rate themselves as only good or fair They felt most confident about their ability to move to music and least confident about their ability to create music (perhaps reflecting how little creative activity is encouraged or fostered within music classrooms at all institutional levels with the other ability self-perceptions clustering somewhere in the middle More importantly the pattem of adjusted means for comparison groups revealed that music ability self-perceptions did not improve as a result of music fundamentals class experience and when adjusting for initial differences in music achievement self-ratings of singing ability actually declined significantly with experience (Austin 1995 paragraph 29)

It appears from this study that a music fundamentals course does not necessarily

increase students confidence in music abilities Perhaps this is a contributing factor to

the low number of classroom teachers who teach music in their classrooms (Saunders amp

Baker 1991 Austin 1995) Of course other factors (eg time restraints the presence of

a music specialist feelings of indifference) may contribute to the low number as well

Further studies might investigate the effects that a music course based on pedagogy and

methods experience has on future classroom teachers attitudes and motivations

What is important to remember is that because a course is based on methods and

pedagogy does not mean that music fundamentals are neglected Perhaps it should be

considered a reprioritization of course work Basic singing skills notation and theory can

be addressed but only after the students have acquired an adequate amount of musical

language or repertoire Temmerman (1998) agrees by stating tt is recognized that adult

beginners like children need to be involved in doing perceiving and internalizing music

experiences before they can successfully represent what they have leamed These

developmental skills could be drawn out ofthe activities and repertoire used in the

course Instmctors might teach students the way those students will teach children

Andress (1998) describes this approach to music education

A curriculum that attends to basic musical understandings can be playful yet it must include meaning-centered activities that have the potential to promote a sensitivity for and understanding about music Meaning-centered activities should be planned so that they are easily carried out by novice music teachers or care givers The teacher models a musical sensitivity to qualities heard and performed such as volume timbre and tempo When appropriate the teacher introduces labels that describe music and musical ideas (Andress 1998 p 39)

Andress also cautions about applying this approach too harshly

There are risks associated with implementing a conceptually based or meaning-centered early childhood music curriculum An overzealous approach that presses the leaming of musical elements or the development of performance skills may diminish the childs joyful knowing and playful interaction with musical ideas However if lessons are well conceived and implemented in a developmentally appropriate manner a meaning-centered approach will help teachers become more musical in their presentations and will provide effective guidelines for planning early childhood music experiences that dont dettact from the joy ofthe experience (Andress 1998 p 40)

It might be effective to acknowledge these same ideas in a college music course for non-

majors

This review will continue with an investigation ofthe musical responsibilities and

characteristics of early childhood educators according to MENC research implications of

these responsibilities and characteristics and methods that can be implemented

Temmerman (1998) explains why this approach is important Matching curriculum to

10

the professional characteristics and competencies needed by beginning teachers may help

guarantee that novice teachers provide an effective school music programs for future

generations

Perhaps a student centered curriculum could be based on the characteristics and

competencies provided by MENCs Position Statement on Eariy Childhood Music for

those who are responsible for guiding the musical experiences of young children

(MENC 1993 p 72) The first of these guidelines love and respect young children

may best be addressed by modeling behavior This guideline has such broad implications

that it will not be addressed in this paper The other nine could be addressed directly in a

non-major course Examples of assignments to implement these guidelines will be

provided in Chapter TV

MENC Guideline 2 Value music and recognize that an early introduction to music is important in the lives of children

If the teacher understands shehe has a sense of responsibility to include music

but also a personal interest in it the effectiveness of music use will be influenced (Byo

1999 Saunders amp Baker 1991) Many classroom teachers might be much more open to

using music in their classrooms if they understood how relevant and meaningful it is in

childrens early years This is particularly tme if they think the activities will be

successful (Cameron amp Bartel in Richards 1999)

Students could study the available research and studies as well as read numerous

articles by various authors on the importance of music in early childhood Research has

shovm that by age seven children have formed musical preferences and singing voices

11

(Scott 1989) Findings like this might be stressed to pre-service teachers of young

children so they can help form musically nourished children

MENC Guideline 3- Model an interest in and use of music

in daily life

As previously stated most students remember music in terms ofthe teaching

songs or special programs for PTA or Christmas McCarthy (1994) found that

generalists most often used music for special occasions (Byo 1999) Teaching songs are

probably the most commonly found repertoire when reviewing the music literature of

non-music early childhood publications Early childhood specialists most commonly

consider music activities in light ofthe ways they benefit the extramusical skills rather

than for the development of musical skills for their own sake (Feierabend 19901992

p 16) Early childhood specialists should comprehend that singing a song about a

stoplight is not music education even though the process might be a memorable

experience This is not to say that teaching songs are completely taboo They are often a

way to show children that music can be made in and about every day life and can get the

children singing and moving Feierabend (19901992) says If music activities are to be

vehicles to facilitate extramusical learnings care must be given to develop primary

music skills comfortable singing and rhythmic moving Furthermore music must not be

solely justified for its development in other areas Nurturing music skills should be

considered essential in early childhood simply because ofthe richness it brings to ones

life and he cautions to use teachings songs to teach concepts but use inspired repertory

to enhance a childs artistry (p 16) The use of music is encouraged with young

12

children simply because it is so natural for them Eariy childhood teachers often use

music for circle time but music should also be used throughout the day (Baney nd)

Many instmctors of early childhood music education classes agree that one of

their objectives is to teach how generalists to include music across the classroom

curriculum (Gaulthier amp McCrary 1999) In terms of implementing the national

standards generalists feel that collaboration with music specialists is needed although

the generalists do feel somewhat capable to implement two ofthe integrated standards

understanding music in relation to other subjects and understanding music in relation to

history and culture (Byo 1999) Another way for music to be part of everyday life

especially in the non-music classroom is for children to develop experience with rhythm

and movement in naturally occurring situations through early gross motor development

and language interaction (Levinowitz 2001 p 47) Many classroom teachers often have

music playing in their classroom which is a step in the right direction but these

recordings should be played throughout the day with the parent or caregiver making sure

to sing and move with the music as an accompaniment (Levinowitz 2001) Pre-service

teachers could be given experience in music-guided groups and integrated musical

experiences These experiences could occur in the college classroom as well as with

children in a practicum setting Students assignments could include research of

childrens literature that incorporate music naturally or categorization of repertoire into

subjects

13

MENC Guideline 4- Be confident in own musicianship realizing that within the many facets of musical

interaction there are many effective ways to personally affect childrens musical growth

As discussed in previously mentioned studies this might be the biggest obstacle

to overcome It might also be the most important in order for successful music making to

occur Eariy childhood educators could be reminded that good music modeling behaviors

include rhythmic moving a pleasant singing voice and enthusiasm However one may

not need to have an extensive music background to interact musically Feierabend

(19901992) agrees

Attention to singing development and rhythmic moving is fundamental to the development of music aptitude Still music is more than tones and rhythms It is spirit No musical performance could be considered successful if only the tones and rhythms were present- those tones and rhythms must be performed with a deeply felt message The ability to perform tones and rhythms with spirit is the direct outcome of music at any age (p 18)

Others echo the same idea Greenberg (1976) believes that non-musicians can

provide a successful program equal to those provided by musicians if the non-musicians

are conscientious and enthusiastic (in Jalongo 1996) CampbeU amp Scott-Kassner (1995)

describe the three qualities of good music teachers as knowing and liking the subject

matter modeling musical behaviors presenting with energy and enthusiasm (p 37-38)

Although there are many ways to affect childrens musical growth the most

readily available is the human voice and body Sims (1993) states that singing is the

most intimate way for children to make music and to express themselves through music

Developing singing skills is important because singing provides a direct way to

experience and leam about music (p 19) Others agree that singing is critical to music

development (Wilcox 1995 Baney nd Feierabend 19901992) Pre-service teachers

14

could be taught to use the voice appropriately to provide the best model possible

Petzhold (1966) found that children responded with more pitch accuracy to the human

voice than an instrument Children echo with greater accuracy when the models voice is

female rather than male (Sims Moore amp Kuhn 1982) although the female voice should

be without vibrato (Yarbrough Bowers amp Benson 1992) Green (1989) found that a

childs voice is a better model than an aduUs voice Talent a person might lack in singing

ability can be made up for in spirit and energy (Feierabend 19901992) This may be tme

ofthe music teacher and the classroom teacher Pre-service classroom teachers could be

encouraged in their college music course to sing and could be taught that singing is a

leamed process Childrens singing voices can be developed if the opportunities to sing

are designed along an appropriate continuum (Ponick 1999) The same might be tme for

the pre-service teacher Many students find through class participation that their singing

voices have potential Jalongo states that one ofthe goals in early childhood music is to

avoid feelings of musical inadequacy in future generations (p 8)

Although having skills on an instrument could be quite useful it is not a necessity

in the early childhood classroom Piano is generally not encouraged because it can

overwhelm small voices In addition a study by Atterbury amp Silcox (1993) found no

significant differences in singing ability between one group of kindergarteners who had

piano harmonic accompaniment and one group with no accompaniment during one year

of instmction (p 45) Guitar or autoharp could be used appropriately although it is not

necessary to use accompanying instmments with prekindergarten children- a cappella

singing is very appropriate (Sims 1993 p 21) Time could be spent helping students

feel confident and positive about using their voices with children

15

The use of movement has also long been a natural vehicle for children to develop

musical skills In fact according to McDonald amp Ramsey (1978) Studies by Greenburg

Romanek and Belyayeva-Ekzemplyarskaya show that concepts of beat tempo and

dynamics may develop before those of pitch melody harmony and firm (p 60) Pre-

service teachers could be made aware of and have experience observing movement

development in children Just as a teacher should use age-appropriate songs and

materials the teacher should use developmentally appropriate movement activities Sims

(1993) states that teachers must keep in mind that younger children and older children

move differently with respect to type quality and quality of movemenf (p 22) The

methods Metz (1989) describes as being important for teachers are describing

suggesting and modeling Pre-service teachers may feel more confident in this area if

they receive instmction in the college classroom and have experience leading children

through movement activities

MENC Guideline 5- Be willing to enrich and seek improvement of personal musical and

communicative skills

This directly correlates with the previous guideline of confidence If a teacher

does not feel confident in music or has had a negative experience in a college methods

course it is doubtful shehe will try to improve these skills However authorities agree it

is important for teachers to expand their repertoire A study performed by Gharavi

(1993) of 173 preschool teachers revealed that in terms of repertoire most learned songs

they knew during their own childhoods from recordings song collections or the radio

(Jalongo 1996 p 9)

16

It seems unlikely that an instmctor can force the pre-service teacher to be willing

to seek improvement However the instmctor can create assignments where students

research music workshops in the area so students are aware of oppormnities for

improvement Pre-service teachers can be reminded that efforts to improve are important

on resumes The instructor could also create assignments where students communicate

with in-service teachers thus creating the opportunity to establish a network system

MENC Guideline 6- Interact with the children and music in

a playful manner

Levinowitz (1999) says Understanding the play process is of utmost importance

if we consider that play begins in delight and ends in knowledge (p 18) The idea that

play should be a main focus of a child-centered curriculum came in the eighteenth

century by Froebel who said that Play is the highest expression of what is in a childs

soul (Frost and Sunderlin in Littleton 1989) Teachers could understand that playful

experiences are not a free-for-all and that children pick up cues from adults during play

The Russian social psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) established that the adult primarily the parent and teacher is the primary influence on a childs socialization process During musical play the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural sign- such as verbal comments facial expressions or indicatory gestures- that direct the childs attention to specific elements of an experience and that activates appropriate leaming behaviors According to Vygotsky these signs provide the means for drawing children into their culture (in this case musical culture) while also shaping and coloring their perceptions and eventual understanding ofthe cultural object- the music (Campbell amp Scott-Kassner 1995 p 22)

The perceptions and understandings can be thwarted however if the nonmusical

early childhood teacher interacts solely through recorded lessons musical video or CD

17

Feierabend (19901992) encourages the use of recorded music not as a substitute but as

a partner The children will be provided with a model of tonal and rhythmic accuracy

from the recording and the spirit or joy ofthe activity from the eyes face and gestures of

the aduh (p 19) If the only music in the environment is on video or CD the child may

perceive that music making is only for others Studies have shown that language must be

live or have an emotional content to stimulate language development Only live

language not television produces these vocabulary- and syntax-boosting effects

Huttenlocher (University of Chicago) suspects that language has to be used in relation to

ongoing events or its just noise That may hold for other sorts of cognition too

(Begley 1997 p 31) This raises questions about the ramifications for the musical

language Perhaps later studies could investigate this Begley (1997) reinforces

Feierabends argument that our society has lost the music traditions once central to our

culture With videos replacing musical play and songs children need significant adults

in their lives to provide them with the opportunities to experience music firsthand

(Baney nd paragraph 16)

During early childhood children leam about their world primarily through the

magical process of play The substance of this play is usually made up ofthe

environmental experiences to which they have been exposed (Levinowitz 2001 p 46)

Therefore if we desire our children to be music makers we must surround them with and

guide them through playful musical experiences

Skillful interaction might not be developed however without significant practice

and implementation with real children American folk song writer Woody Guthrie said

YouU be healthier YouU feel wealthier Youll talk wiser Youll go higher do better

18

and live longer here amongst us if youll just jump in here and swim in these songs and

do like the kids do (19561992) Comparatively if learning to swim without water were

difficult then it would seem equally challenging to leam to teach without children

Observation and practicum teaching seem to be a necessity for future teachers Campbell

(2000) explains one reason observation is so important If teachers are to be responsible

for childrens education and welfare there ought to be occasions for us to sit back and

watch children at musical play and to leam about their knowledge and regard for music

(p 36) Barry explains that researchers have identified six experiences that promote

reflective teaching for pre-service teachers (1) peer teaching experiences (2) joumal

writing (3) peer observations (4) receiving formal feedback from peer observations (5)

self assessment (6) consultation with university supervisor (Gaulthier amp McCrary

1999 p 126) Perhaps these experiences are needed for pre-service teachers and could be

incorporated into the college curriculum

MENC Guideline 7- Use developmentally appropriate musical materials and teaching techniques

The National Association for the Education of Young Children defines

developmental appropriateness

The concept of developmental appropriateness has two dimensions age appropriateness and individual appropriateness -age appropriateness- Human developmental research indicates that there are

universal predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children during the first none years of life These predictable changes occur in all domains of development- physical emotional social and cognitive

-individual appropriateness- Each child is a unique person with an individual pattem and timing of grow1h as well as individual personality leaming style and family background (NAEYC 19861992 p 16)

19

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced teachers who dumb down or attempt

to simplify songs and singing games originally intended for older children to suit the

needs of their young children What is so unfortunate about this practice is that the

teacher and her charges can become fmstrated or bored The teacher in turn decides that

the students just dont enjoy music Shehe then stops utilizing music in the classroom If

the teacher is instmcted how to properly implement the muhitudes of developmentally

appropriate musical materials the music program might be sound

Authorities agree that the pre-service teacher should study child development and

music development of children Knowing the stages of child development and musical

development can help teachers make informed decisions about selecting activities

(McDonald 1993 Scott-Kassner 1993 Andress 1989 Kenney 1989)

Andress (1998) explains that teachers should offer experience in three musical

environments that are developmentally appropriate guided groups permeable leaming

(integrating music into daily activities) and areas of special interest to individual

children Teachers could also be aware that children are global learners (Palmer 1993

p 3) and that children acquire leaming holistically (Alvarez 1993 p 32) Perhaps

lessons should not be created to experience rhythm one day and melody another day

Teacher education could provide opportunities for students to experience

activities themselves then try implementation with children Children dont hide the fact

that they are bored or confused It becomes readily apparent that the activity is not

working Observing and working with children of different ages may give the pre-service

teacher an excellent start for understanding how to choose appropriate activities

20

MENC Guideline 8- Find create andor seek assistance in acquiring and using appropriate musical resources

Pre-service music education might provide the student opportunities to research

and experience implementation of appropriate musical resources such as CDs childrens

books manipulatives homemade instmments song collections web sites etc Pioli

found that providing appropriate materials and equipment for the instmction of

elementary music represents one ofthe greatest challenges in our schools (Byo 1999

p 114) It seems then that the pre-service teacher should spend sufficient time creating

materials

Through various assignments the pre-service teacher can create an assistance

network of mentors These mentors could be feUow students who have music

backgrounds teachers met through practicum and observation and or instmctors at

researched future workshops

MENC Guideline 9- Cause appropriate music leaming environments to be created

The environment in the college classroom could often mimic the early childhood

classroom Often the best education comes through experience It is the teachers

responsibility to prepare the environment both in its physical aspects and the more subtle

psychological manifestations The two are intertwined and one cannot function well

without the other (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert 19721992 p 43) Pre-

service teachers could visit music classrooms and regular classrooms to consider how

various settings affect childrens leaming Environmental preparation may not be

addressed in many methods courses as time is more likely spent on the subject ofthe

21

course However environmental preparation both physically and psychologically is so

important to the success ofthe teacher and the children

One helpful resource for information of this kind is The First Days of School by

H Wong and R Wong (1998) It describes characteristics of effective teachers and then

explains ideas and techniques to achieve these different aspects ofthe profession A few

examples that coincide with the MENC guideline are listed here The Effective Teacher

Has a statement of positive expectations Creates a classroom that communicates positive

expectations Creates an inviting classroom Maximizes proximity to the students Has a

discipline plan posted (Wong amp Wong 1998 p 44 68 100 126) Students could be

given experiences to prepare the music environment not only for the physical and

psychological nature but to leam how to guide students through the environment The

NAEYC states that Teachers prepare the environment for children to leam through

active exploration and interaction with adults other children and materials (NAEYC

19861992 p 17) Some of these materials can be music centers and music games

Music centers and music games are highly recommended for early childhood

classrooms regardless of whether or not a music specialist is on staff Early childhood

educators could be educated in preparation ofthe appropriate musical environment and

just as importantly the guidance of these centers and games Achilles (1992) says a

primary goal for effective use is that music centers attract children to the area and

stimulate music making (p 71) Davis Tower amp Parker (1989) and Palmer (1993)

describe appropriate design and implementation of many music centers

22

MENC Guideline 10- Be sensitive and flexible when childrens interests are diverted from an original plan

As authorities describe below the teacher must be able to think quickly on hisher

feet when the childrens interests are not compatible with the planned lesson

The teacher also must be prepared to create an environment on the spot for that unplanned teachable moment While the children are busy at play the adult is constantly alert observing them for cues to determine their readiness for appropriate musical experiences The teacher does not feel bound to the stmctured plan but is prepared to seize the moment when the childs interests changes or curiosity is piqued during random play conversations or investigations (Andress Heimann Rinehart amp Talbert in Andress ampWalker 19731992 p 44)

Levinowitz (2001) and Campbell amp Scott-Kassner (1995) agree that teachers should be

able to strike a balance of stmctured activities and the opportunities to follow childrens

spontaneity Teachers should have knowledge and experience with many activities and

repertoire in order to stray from the planned lesson (de IEtoile 2001) If the teacher has a

large pool from which to draw she he may not feel glued to the lesson Although it

might be difficult to teach someone how to think quickly teacher education can possibly

prepare the student for this spontaneity through planned role-playing activities

observation and practicum

Previous information attests that development of an experiential and applicable

music curriculum is warranted Chapter III ofthe paper will review available texts and

supplementary materials used in early childhood music courses Chapter IV will describe

an appropriate curriculum design that is based on the findings of this paper

23

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE TEXTS AND

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

According to the findings presented in this paper and based on the personal

experience of teaching eleven semesters of this course the author offers the following

outline of appropriate course work for a non-music major Music for Young Children

course The course work would include

- Information and theories of child development from birth through age 8 mentally

emotionally physically intellectually and most importantly musically

- A brief history of music education and justification of its role in the educational society

- The role of music in guided music classes and as an integrated part of daily activities

- Appropriate amounts of song material in written form and on recordings

Appropriate amounts of age appropriate activities (ie movement games centers

listening instmments)

- Resource research of quality materials recordings children s literature songs games

and web sites

- Peer teaching experiences and practicum teaching

- Development of appropriate music modeling characteristics

An appropriate early childhood music text would be included in the course work

and should address most ofthe items listed in the above outline However few texts are

written strictly for early childhood methods Most are intended for elementary methods

but are often used in non-major music courses for early childhood majors Many early

24

childhood resources are simply repertoire The texts and supplementary reading

collections reviewed in this paper were found on the Intemet through an extensive search

of university syllabi of music for young children courses

The following frequently used texts and supplementary reading collections are

reviewed (alphabetically by author) in this paper according to guidelines listed above

Integrating Music Into the Elementary Classroom (5^ ed)

Authors Anderson and Lawrence from Kent State University state that this 500-

page text is comprehensive covering music fundamentals as well as materials and

methods for teaching music in the elementary classroom A few paragraphs describe

psychomotor cognitive and affective leaming No information is included about the role

or justification of music education Since the text is dedicated to integrating music many

examples are given Chapter 5 topically categorizes all song material in the text

Subsequent chapters provide ideas and activities for integrating music through

instrumental and listening experiences but most of these are for fourth through sixth

grades The text does include specific music lessons but the lessons consist of one song

and eight to ten procedures The complementary CD includes 40 ofthe 160 songs

included in the text most of which are not appropriate for eariy childhood The same is

tme ofthe activities No resources are given for materials recordings childrens

literature games or web sites The bibliographic infonnation is listed here Anderson

WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5^

ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

25

Music For Young Children

Author Andress is professor emeritus at Arizona State University She has

experience in music teaching as well as primary classroom teaching experience She has

many publications to her credit Andress states The author must offer a model that

reflects exemplary early childhood music experiences and educators at all levels must

take and implement whatever they can from the model The purpose of this book is to

inttoduce explain and clarify new techniques terminology and concepts through

definition and example The text includes information on developmental and

instmctional theories the implications for music education and how to put those into

practice Examples of exploratory-level play are provided for each ofthe musical ideas

(volume tempo articulation timbre rhythm melody form style) Chapter 4 discusses

how to set the environment for musical leaming in three ways permeable leaming

special interests and guided group Chapter 5 explains the teachers role as curriculum

designer evaluator materials seeker facilitator and continuous learner The majority of

the text focuses on models materials and methods for the areas of singing playing

instruments and movement Other information includes description and design ideas for

play centers music for children with special needs multiculutural music and integrating

music throughout a curriculum The text does not come with a CD The bibliographic

information is listed here Andress B (1998) Music for Young Children Oriando FL

Harcourt Brace College Publishers

26

Music A Way of Life For the Young Child (4 ^ ed)

Authors Bayless and Ramsey were both university professors Bayless former

professor at Kent State served on the NAEYC commission Ramsey former professor at

Georgia Southwestern College brings experience from being a classroom teacher and

principal to her publications Part I discuses infancy to three years old part II discusses

preschool and kindergarten and part III emphasizes music in an integrated curriculum

The text also includes information on music and children with special needs and

multicultural music Further readings and resources are listed Information in this text

presented in comprehensible manner Information on behavioral characteristics of each

age group considerations for musical lesson planning and suggested activities Song

material is notated and with each song ideas for movement and other suggestions are

listed Each chapter includes summary questions references and suggested readings The

text includes information on children with special needs The appendix briefly covers

music terminology resource materials listening activities and instmction of autoharp

guitar and recorder and classroom instruments No CD is available to accompany this

text Many some songs that are adapted may just as easily be used in original form

remaining tme to their original form Many songs have been simplified in rhythmic

notation Some listed resources are out of print or no longer available The bibliographic

information is listed here Bayless KM amp Ramsey ME (1991) Music A Way of Life

For the Young Child (4^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice Hall

27

Music Play

Music Flay is an eariy childhood music curriculum guide for teachers parents and

caregivers It is part ofthe Jump Right In series published by GIA Authors Wendy

Valerio Alison M Reynolds Beth Bolton and Cynthia Taggart eamed degrees with

Edwin Gordon also an author of this text at Temple University The curriculum is based

on Gordons 4 Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Music Play is a

compilation of music and movement activities which will ideally lay the foundation for

a lifetime of music and movement participation understanding and enjoyment for the

children It is divided into nine parts including sections on song and chants with words

as well as songs and chant without words The purpose of including songs and chants

without words is to encourage adults to create an environment in which young children

and their caregivers can focus on the content of music- its tonality and meter The authors

have found that young children who hear many songs chants and tonal and rhythmic

patters without words in a variety of tonalities and meters may begin to develop a

context for building a vocabulary in music in a way similar to that in which young

children hear many words sentences thoughts and ideas expressed by adults around

them as they build a language vocabulary Suggested movements flow weight space

and time are based on the ideas of Laban For each song or chant the music is notated

and the process for acculturation imitation and assimilation are described Music

content movement content and materials needed are listed for each songchant as well

This text comes with a CD The songs are organized by tonality (major harmonic minor

aeolian dorian mixolydian phrygian lydian and locrian) while chants are organized by

meter (usual duple usual triple unusual paired unusual unpaired and muhimetric) No

28

specific information on child development or developmental theories is included The

text does not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center-

development instrument activities and other resources are not listed The bibliographic

information is fisted here Bolton B Gordon E Reynolds A Taggart C amp Valerio

W (1998) Music Play Chicago GIA Publications

The Classroom Teachers Guide To Music Education (2^ ed)

Bumsed is professor of music and coordinator of music education at Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University Referring to the text he states Its

major purpose is to develop an understanding of why music education is important how

music education works and how music can be a powerful force for the classroom

teacher Information of Piaget Gardner and Gordon is included Some information of

the history and justification of music education is included Instmction of guided music

classes is the major part of this text while only a few integration ideas through language

arts and social studies are given The text includes about 60 songs but has no CD The

text includes three to five class activities for each element of music but with no

indication of age appropriateness Theoretical information is given with each element

The only resources listed are suggested recordings One page is dedicated to early

childhood The bibliographic information is listed here Bumsed CV (1999) The

classroom teachers guide to music education (2^^ ed) Springfield IL Charles C

Thomas

29

Music hi Childhood From Preschool Through the Elementary Grades

Campbell and Scott-Kassner are professors of music at the University of

Washington and University of Central Florida respectively Both authors have lectured

and written on music and children Music in Childhood From Preschool through the

Elementary Grades is a thorough and comprehensive text designed as a core text for

music education students as a supplementary text for general education students and as a

professional reference for student and practicing teachers This text covers such topics

as theories of instmction use of technology multiculturalism curricular innovation

assessment and meeting the needs of exceptional children The first two chapters discuss

historical and theoretical information regarding music education The inclusion of

Chapter 3 Methods of Teaching Music to Children can be helpful and troublesome It

is important for the classroom teacher to be aware ofthe methodologies Dalcroze

Kodaly Orff and Comprehensive Musicianship however it is perhaps too much to

expect the non-musician to fully comprehend the techniques and applications of these

methodologies Students should not leave a one-semester course thinking they are

capable Kodaly teachers or Orff teachers as these methodologies require years of

study and implementation In addition instmctors ofthe non-major music education class

for young children may not have the sufficient training in each of these methodologies to

appropriately apply them even with the explanations and samplings given in the book

The text is extensive in its information and instmction of non-pitched percussion

instmments (body percussion woods gourds skins metals) pfrched instmments (barred

30

percussion instmments recorder) harmony instmments (autoharp guitar keyboards)

Chapters 4 through 10 include teacher directed musical experiences and educational

sequences although many are for older children The text includes a chapter on

integrating music into the curriculum The text has limited repertoire song material is

limited to about 30 songs and few are appropriate for birth through second grade The

book does not come with a CD The resources listed are for catalogs The bibliographic

information is listed here CampbeU PS amp Scott-Kassner C (1995) Music in

childhood From preschool through the elementary grades New York Simon amp

Schuster Macmillan

First Steps In Music For Infant and Toddlers

First Steps in Music for Infants and Toddlers is a complete curriculum designed

for children from birth through 36 months Author John Feierabend professor of music at

the Hartt School of Music and coordinator ofthe National Center for Music and

Movement in the Early Years is a leading early childhood educator He has compiled a

comprehensive selection of songs and rhymes that are notated in this book and are

available on CD The song is also written at the bottom of each page without notation

Although not a formal textbook the book is intended as a curriculum to lead parent child

classes It includes complete lesson plans for a three-year curriculum including a

classical movement component The First Steps in Music curriculum is based on an

extensive survey of research related to the development of singing and movement skills

in young children as well as many years of practical experience sharing musical

activities with this young age ft is a combination of a research-based curriculum quality

31

literature and practical experience that makes the First Steps in Music curriculum

unique Sections ofthe book are delineated by genres The beginning of each genre

includes visual and written instmctional techniques for the adult These explain different

activities for young infants or older infants and toddlers Also on these pages are Things

to Remember a list of reminders for lesson planning Sections on lesson planning and

sample lessons are also included Most ofthe song material is taken from Feierabends

field study CDs are available with all song and rhyme material The songs are written in

notation and as verse for those who do not read music No review of music fundamentals

or instruments technique instmction is included Although the activities and song material

can be used with children older than 3 years of age no directions for such interaction are

given It is not a thorough text however No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of integration into

other areas Guidance of center-development instmment activities and other resources

are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Feierabend JM (2000) First

Steps in Music for Infant and Toddlers Chicago GIA Publications

Music In Preschool (3 ed)

Written by the famed Hungarian teacher Katalin Forrai and translated by Jean

Sinor Music in Preschool is a music education text based on the Kodaly Method Katalin

Forrai studied under Zoltan Kodaly and developed the method and materials of preschool

music education It is extremely thorough in every aspect goals method instmctions

and particularly the extensive materials and instmction of development of musical skills

The songs activfries and lessons are highly sequential and age appropriate Music in

32

Preschool is intended as a curriculum for Hungarian children ages three to six years old

ft was published in 1974 One must remember however American children in the 21

century receive such little music instmction or interaction before entering Kindergarten

So although this book is intended as a curriculum for 3 to 6-year-olds in todays

American public and private schools it could easily be utilized through the second grade

The difficulties of this text for a non-musician lie in the music theory solfege ear

training and written music No specific information on child development or

developmental theories is included although much information on the role of music

education is discussed A recording ofthe song material is not available The text does

not explain methods of integration into other areas Guidance of center development and

other resources are not listed The bibliographic information is listed here Forrai

Katalin (1995) Music in preschool (^^ ed) (Jean Sinor Transl) Hungary Kultura

(Original work published 1988)

Leading Young Children To Music (6 ^ ed)

According to the authors Gerber and Haines this text deals with music and

music-related experiences for preschoolers through eight-year-olds The materials it

contains are designed for use by both music specialists and classroom teachers in dayshy

care centers nursery schools and the primary grades The text is divided into three main

parts The first section focuses on music in education It introduces developmental

profiles of children musical experiences and musical learnings and a chapter on cultural

diversity The second section contains the actual musical experiences arranged

developmentally Section three is dedicated towards music as an integrated subject The

33

appendices include song accompaniment ideas for autoharp omniharp and guitar music

notation sources and resources Each chapter includes bibliographic notes and related

activfries for students No specific theories are presented in this text History and

justification of music education is not addressed A CD is not available The

bibliographic information is listed here Gerber LL amp Haines BJE (2000) Leading

Young Children to Music (6^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice-Hall Inc

The Musical Classroom Backgrounds Models and Skills For Elementary Teaching (5 ed)

Author Hackett is music emerita at San Francisco State University Author

Lindeman is professor at San Francisco State University The text is divided into four

sections backgrounds for teaching music model experiences for teaching music

instruments and song Each chapter includes special projects references and a summary

According to the authors the text is designed for the elementary education majors with

no music background Three pages are dedicated specifically to early childhood No

child development information or theory is included although some background of music

education is included The text is geared more towards guided music classes but some

integration information addressing technology and holiday activities is included The text

has a huge amount of song material 135 songs are included in the text and on the

accompanying CD Activities are incorporated into the model lessons Lists of resources

include web sites distributors books recordings and software The bibliographic

information is listed here Hackett P amp Lindeman C (2001) The musical classroom

backgrounds models and skills for elementary teaching (5 ed) Upper Saddle River

NJ Prentice Hall

34

New Approaches To Elementary Classroom Music (3 ed)

Herrold is professor of music at San Jose State New Approaches to Elementary

Classroom Music attempts to give students a background in music fundamentals while

building skills that are a prerequisite to effective teaching in K-6 classrooms The text is

intended for use in a one-semester course for prospective elementary classroom

teachers and is designed to accommodate a variety of musical backgrounds Each

chapter includes Assignments for Teacher Preparation which create leaming

experiences for individuals small groups and ideas for peer teaching Each chapter also

includes lists of resources A sheet for evaluation of practice teaching is given The text

uses a wide variety of repertoire and includes information on National Standards There is

information on the role of music in the elementary classroom developing singing in the

primary grades and Piaget and child development in music Little information or

activities for children younger than Kindergarten is included The available CD includes

only some ofthe song material The chapters on music fundamentals are quite extensive

The instmction for playing instmments is also quite extensive covering elementary

classroom percussion instmments Orff instmments autoharp chromaharp omniharp

recorder baritone ukulele guitar and piano The text says complete lesson plans for

each ofthe three elementary leaming levels (K-2 3-4 5-6) are outlined for future

teachers to use in peer teaching or field experiences However preparation activities of

the teachable elements which are the bulk of eariy childhood experiences are not

included Dalcroze Orff and Kodaly methodologies are the basis for the sequencing of

the lesson outiines The bibliographic information is listed here Herrold R (2001) New

35

approaches to elementary classroom music (^^ ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice

Hall

Music In the Elementary Classroom Musicianship and Teaching

The authors Hoffer and Hoffer professors at the University of Florida state An

increasing number of colleges and universities are combining the teaching of music

fundmentals and music methods in a single course for fiiture elementary school teachers

By presenting the fundamentals of music in a series of boxed sections in close proximity

to the related teaching suggestions the book maintains the close bond between what is

taught and how it is taught The text is divided into four sections The first section

discusses the value of music the roles ofthe classroom and music teacher and planning

instmction The second and third sections describe practical methods of teaching

elements The fourth section is devoted to integration No information or theories of child

development are mentioned although there is some background of music education The

text does include information on guided music classes and the integration of music Song

material and activities are provided but few are appropriate for early childhood The

resources provided are primarily of other textbooks The bibliographic information is

listed here Hoffer ML amp Hoffer CR (1987) Music in the elementary classroom

musicianship and teaching San Diego CA Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Music In the Elementary School (5th ed)

The authors Nye and Nye professors at the University of Oregon state the text is

designed as a text and resource book for the elementary education major the music

36

education major the students teacher and the teacher-in-service The text is divided into

three parts The first is of leaming development and planning The second discusses

characteristics of sound movement and rhythm The last part addresses singing

harmonizing and playing pitched instruments The text includes discussion of Piaget

Hunt and Bruner as well as some information on brain development History and

justification of music education are present in the text There is no discussion of

integration of music The book contains descriptions of activities but not the experiences

themselves The repertoire included in the book is minimal Few ofthe songs and

activities are appropriate for early childhood There are not many resources listed and

many are outdated The bibliographic information is listed here Nye RE amp Nye VT

(1985) Music in the elementary school (5th ed) Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall

Music In Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching

Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching by Palmer and Sims is a

compilation of articles and ideas by leading authorities in early childhood music It is

edited by Mary Palmer and Wendy Sims and published by MENC Palmer is professor of

music education at the University of Central Florida Sims is professor of music

education at the University of Missouri-Columbia This book is for adults who will

share music with young children where ideas for music experiences are given as

starting points In addition descriptions of developmental characteristics of children with

special emphasis on musical development provide guidelines for devising classroom

experiences to meet the varies needs of young children The text is comprised of articles

a set of practical music activities resources and research Seven articles deal with a

37

number of issues conceming music and the young child Topics include music and

movement capabilities of children long range goals for music programs guidelines for

music activities and instmction developing music concepts music for children with

special needs and evaluation in eariy childhood music Leading eariy childhood music

educators contributed to the texts music activity ideas which include the notated music

additional experiences expected reaction and teacher tips The classroom music

experiences address contrasts in music movement illustrated song books song play

story play musical conversations singing games and listening to music throughout the

day Although it certainly is not lacking in appropriate information song material and

activity ideas are limited No CD is available No specific information on child

development or developmental theories is included The text does not explain methods of

integration into other areas The bibliographic information is listed here Palmer M amp

Sims W L (Eds) (1993) Music in Prekindergarten Planning and Teaching Reston

VA Music Educators National Conference

Music Fundamentals Methods and Materials For the Elementary Classroom Teacher

Rozmajzl is Associate Dean ofthe CoUege of Arts and Sciences and professor of

Music at Boise State university The authors state Music Fundamentals Methods and

Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher provides a thorough presentation ofthe

basic fundamentals of music required of a musically knowledgeable teacher The text is

divided into four sections teaching the elements of music to children developing musical

skills organizing the musical experience and teaching music in specialized areas A

paragraph on the Leaming Theory applied to music education is given for each ofthe age

38

groups 4 to 5-year-olds 6 to 7-years-olds 8 to 9-year-olds and 9 to 10-year-olds No

information is given about the role or justification of music education A few actual

examples of activities for music instmction in guided and integrated classrooms are

presented but without specification of age appropriateness The text includes a number of

songs about 20 of these are usable in early childhood No supplementary CD is available

Few ofthe activities are appropriate for early childhood No resources are given The

bibliographic information is listed here Rozmajzl M amp White RB (1996) Music

fundamentals methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher (2 ed)

New York Longman

Based on the findings presented in this paper it appears an appropriate text for an

early childhood music class for non-majors would be Music for Young Children by

Barbara Andress This text met most ofthe criteria established earlier According to

Andress this text is intended to meet the needs ofthe children to be served In doing so

Andress also meets the needs ofthe early childhood educator

39

CHAPTER IV

INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRICULUM

When designing a student-centered music curriculum for early childhood non-

music majors one must consider the following (1) the most appropriate skills and

information to be presented (2) students backgrounds (3) the most appropriate teaching

sequence of these skills and information Thus far this paper has addressed numbers one

and two Most studies of non-music majors pertain to the perceived strengths and

weaknesses ofthe students confidence factors ofthe students and implementation

quantity of music activities in an actual classroom setting (see Review of Literature) And

although much has been written ofthe childs musical development sequence the same is

not tme ofthe early childhood majors musical development or appropriate sequence of

curriculum for these students

What seems to be of great importance to the design ofthe curriculum are not only

the materials and information but also the presentation sequence in the curriculum It is

perhaps the sequence as much as the materials which would elicit a more effective

curriculum The following studies by Barry (1992) and Hoermann (1976) might help the

curriculum planner to sequence the curriculum in a more effective manner and have been

influential in the curriculum design described in this paper

Barry (1992) questioned students about their musical background and confidence

in performing various music tasks Considering her findings she describes five

instmctional units Students feh most comfortable in informal music activities and using

songs to reinforce other subject area therefore these activities could be used in the

40

beginning of a course to help build confidence Students also feU comfortable using

recordings to teach a song consequently instmction on choosing appropriate recordings

and correlating activities could also occur towards the beginning of a course Students

were less confident in leading a familiar song or teaching a new song These topics could

occur after two or three weeks of class when students have achieved a level of

confidence Lastly students felt least able to teach basic music concepts This topic

should occur after the students feel able to successfully accomplish smaller parts of

teaching music (ie teaching new songs or leading movement activities) It appears that

instmctors should move from the known to the unknowai in teacher training just as they

would in teaching Research demonstrates that non-music major courses have these or

similar components (see Review of Literature)

In this curriculum the first part ofthe semester is spent allowing students to

acquire appropriate musical behaviors through informal musical experiences and

instmction of using music for extta-musical learnings Students are instmcted on how to

integrate quality music into non-music areas showing how music is tied to other areas

Integration is experienced in many assignments A few examples are

-Students categorize repertoire and movement activities into subjects such as

flowers animals transportation etc (see Week 2)

-Students research and write detailed bibliographies of childrens literature

containing musical ideas in addition to aspects of geography science

language and history (see Week 123)

-Students explore using instruments with childrens literature (see Week 7)

41

Through these assignments students are instmcted on how to see a musical activity for

its ability to create a quality cross-curricular experience as well as a quality musical

experience

During the beginning ofthe semester students also participate in informal music

activities Some examples are given below

-Students participate in mock lessons lead by the instmctor (see Week 1)

-Students plan an experience in either a permeable leaming setting or special

interest area (Andress 1998) that is presented to the children at the

assigned preschool school (see Week 4)

-Students lead or teach songs to their peers using a CD after completing a CD

review (see Week 4)

During the latter part ofthe semester when students begin to feel more confident

students are instmcted on how to lead music-focused activities thus modeling the

importance of music in daily life The process of mastering how to lead guided group

music is described below

Hoermann (1976) provides an example of a systematic music-focused instmction

for classroom teachers Hoermanns program includes three stages for music skill

development The first stage involved the teachers observing the music specialist

teaching children in the classroom The second stage required the classroom teacher to

imitate and repeat activities in front of peers The final stage was actual implementation

of teaching children while being supervised by a music specialist Although her program

of teacher training in music is intended for in-service classroom teachers in New South

Wales Australia the basic format could be easily adapted to the early childhood music

42

course In this curriculum music-focused activities are experienced in pre-service teacher

education in the following ways instructor-lead modeling observation peer teaching

and practicum Some examples are

-Students participate in instmctor-lead model lessons in (see Week 1 and 5)

-Students are assigned observation at the preschool school each week throughout

the semester (see Appendix B)

-Students teach songs to peers using the whole-song method or the phrase method

(see Week 8)

-Students meet at assigned preschoolschool to teach guided music lesson (see

Week 11)

Instmctors of this type of course have many responsibilities particularly if

utilizing this curriculum The instmctor should develop a good relationship with a

preschool schools principal staff and music specialist so the students may participate in

observation and practicum with the children there The instmctor should also be

confident in the music specialists ability to incorporate the appropriate methods Perhaps

it would be most effective if the students were allowed to observe the instmctor teaching

the children The instmctor should also gather all supplementary readings (see Appendix

B) and listening materials (see Appendix B) and place them on reserve either in a

listening library or a music education library Copies of examples and forms are available

in the Appendix B and should be made for the students to keep in their notebooks

Possibly the most important tool for the instmctor is positive reinforcement towards the

students The instmctor should always be prepared to encourage the students to

participate in all activities but in a non-threatening manner

43

The ideas on teacher training research previously presented in this paper and the

use of Andress book are used in the design of this music curriculum presented in

Appendix A The prescribed curriculum is detailed week by week Each weekly unit first

includes the In Class topics and activities The students homework assignments are

listed next in the following categories Reading Writing Listening and Materials All

materials for the course including a syllabus observationpracticum guidelines

discography required reading list examples and overhead forms can be found in

Appendix B Page numbers for these materials are included in the curriculum

Because the curriculum is based in part on the MENC framework for teachers the

corresponding framework number is included in parentheses next to many assignments

topics or activities throughout the curriculum However the majority of this curriculum

is based on the eleven semesters college classroom instmctional experience ofthe

author years of elementary and early childhood music and movement classroom

instmction ofthe author and the authors collaboration with in-service classroom

teachers-

44

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Planning the music course work for a non-music major eariy childhood class can

be challenging Few music textbooks specific to early childhood are available Many

more music texts geared for elementary majors are available but include little

information of eariy childhood years (birth through 8-years-old) In addition these

elementary music texts often place a major emphasis on the fundamentals of music

Studies are included that show this focus may not be the most productive in developing

generalists who will provide quality musical experiences in their classrooms

To determine course content studies ofthe practical music skills and

understandings of classroom teachers were presented as were studies of musical self-

perceptions of non-majors This paper addresses the MENC position statement on early

childhood music that provides a musical framework for early childhood educators

(MENC 1993) The paper also addresses which skills and understandings would assist

educators in meeting the MENC framework The most pertinent skills and understandings

for the course curriculum were determined considering these studies and the MENC

framework

This paper includes a review of widely used texts to determine if they met the

determined criteria An appropriate text was selected to use in the course Considering

studies of sequence in curriculum a music course was designed to effectively meet the

needs of non-music majors The developed sequential curriculum is provided in a weekly

format that includes in class topics and activities as well as homework assignments

45

On the basis of this study it may be concluded that further research may be

needed Recommendations for further study include

(1) Studies ofthe expectations course instmctors university leaders and school

districts have for future generalist teachers in music instmction or use

(2) The effects of implemented curriculums based on MENCs Position Statement

on Early Childhood Education

(3) The effects a student-centered curriculum has on the students attitudes and

motivation as well as the future implications of this type of curriculum

(4) Studies of non-music majors musical development

It is important to remember that a curriculum is never completely developed or

finalized It is an ongoing project because ofthe students ever-changing requirements

availability of materials instmctor backgrounds and new research findings Conclusions

in this paper are specific to this course but may not be appropriate for all music for

young children classes Many of these ideas could be adapted to meet the needs of

another course

46

REFERENCES

Achilles E (1992) Current perspectives on young childrens thinking In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 67-74) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Alzarez B (1993) Developing music concepts In M Palmer amp Sims WL (Eds) Music in Prekindergarten (pp 29-32) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference

Anderson WM amp Lawrence JE (2001) Integrating music into the elementary classroom (5 ed) Belmont CA WadsworthThompson Leaming

Andress B (1989) Music for every stage How much What kind How soon Music Educators Journal 76 (2) 22-27

Andress B Heimann H Rinehart Camp Talbert G (1992) Music in early childhood The environment In Andress B amp Walker L M (Eds) Readings in Early Childhood Education (pp 43-50) Reston VA Music Educators National Conference (Reprinted from Music in Eariy Childhood 1973 Reston VA Music Educators National Conference)

Andress B (1998) Music for young children Fort Worth TX Harcourt Brace College Publishers

Aronoff F W (1972) No age is too early to begin Another look at young children and mnsio-raovtmQxA Music Educators Journal 60(7) 18-25

Atterbury BW amp Silcox L (1993) The effect of piano accompaniment on kindergarteners developmental singing ability Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (I) 40-47

Austin J (1995) Future classroom teachers ability self-perceptions and attributional responses to failure in music Do music fundamental classes make a difference Research Perspectives in Music Education Florida Music Educators Association Retrieved Febmary 28 2004 from the World Wide Web VAVW

musicartsusfedurpmeaustinhtm

Baney C (nd) Wired for sound The essential connection between music and development Early Childhood News Retrieved April 282004 from the World Wide Web http wwwearlvchildhoodcomArticlesindexcfmA=69ampFuseAction =Article

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