DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE:

A GUIDE FOR ENGLISH FOREIGN LANGUAGE

TEACHERS IN THAILAND

____________

A Thesis

Presented

to the Faculty of

California State University, Chico

____________

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts

in

Teaching International Languages

____________

by

Kornvadee Wangkijchinda

Spring 2011

DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE:

A GUIDE FOR ENGLISH FOREIGN LANGUAGE

TEACHERS IN THAILAND

A Thesis

by

Kornvadee Wangkijchinda

Spring 2011

APPROVED BY THE DEAN OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND VICE PROVOST FOR RESEARCH:

Katie Milo, Ed.D.

APPROVED BY THE GRADUATE ADVISORY COMMITTEE: Hilda Hernández, Ph.D. Judith Rodby, Ph.D., Chair Graduate Coordinator Hilda Hernández, Ph.D.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my appreciation for the inspiration, criticism, and

patience I have received from those people who have helped make this thesis this far. I

would like to take this opportunity to thank my thesis committee chairman Dr. Judith

Rodby, who was always supportive, generous of her time, helped me put all the pieces

together, and nurture me every step of the way with unyielding support; for this I am

eternally grateful.

To Hilda Hernandez, who brought me into seeing the world of pedagogy and

gave me sharp insights to refine my thesis.

To Wangkijchinda family and my parents, thank you for always supporting

me and have given me encouragement when times were difficult.

To Alain Thay, my fiance, thank you kindly for your patience and

understanding me.

My thanks are also extended to all of my Thai, French, Korea, American and

Japanese friends, who always gave me a big smile, and encouraging words that have

inspired my work.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Acknowledgements.................................................................................................... iii

Abstract ...................................................................................................................... v CHAPTER I. Introduction................................................................................................. 1

Introduction........................................................................................ 1 Intercultural Communicative Competence and English

Language...................................................................................... 4 Purpose of Study ................................................................................ 9 Overview............................................................................................ 9 Limitations of the Study..................................................................... 10 Definition of Terms............................................................................ 11

II. Materials and Methods................................................................................ 13

The Characteristics of Thai Culture Social Norms and Cultural Values........................................................................... 15

Impact of Thai Culture on Roles Between a Teacher and Thai Students in an Educational Context ................................... 24

III. English Education System in Thailand ....................................................... 30

The Educational System and English Education in Thailand............ 30

IV. Innovative Language Classroom with Weblogs ......................................... 39

Introduction........................................................................................ 39 Theoretical Backgrounds of Learning Theories: Western

Influence..................................................................................... 41 The Use of Weblogs as a Learning Tool ........................................... 42

References.................................................................................................................. 51

v

ABSTRACT

DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE:

A GUIDE FOR ENGLISH FOREIGN LANGUAGE

TEACHERS IN THAILAND

by

Kornvadee Wangkijchinda

Master of Arts in Teaching International Languages

California State University, Chico

Spring 2011

Today's rapid globalization brings people closer together. People from

different sociocultural backgrounds adjust to fulfill their needs to become interculturally

competent due to the challenges of global competitiveness, including education. Thai

people still maintain their strong traditional culture and values with their own notion of

communicative competence, harmonious hierarchy relationships based on collectivism

and non-confrontation. This paper highlights aspects of Thai cultural values and Buddhist

religion that may influence Thai students' behaviors and attitudes in Thailand. Being

obedient, friendly and respectful to teachers are characteristics of Thai students' learning

behavior. However, Thai learners are also regarded as passive and shy learners who are

reluctant to ask questions (non-risk takers) for fear of being wrong and embarrassed.

Without an understanding of intercultural awareness and knowledge, such behaviors may

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lead to frustration and negative cultural stereotyping in language classrooms in which

foreign EFL teachers as well as Thai learners come from different cultural backgrounds.

Understanding the learners' culture, therefore, is essential for the improvement of

instructional methods as part of English language pedagogy. This thesis looks at Thai

learners' cultural backgrounds and how culture influences their learning behaviors and

attitudes in order to identify appropriate teaching approaches that suit Thai learners'

needs and preferences. Conclusions from the research suggest that in order to help Thai

students become successful intercultural communicators, they need to develop a notion of

communicative competence that includes using social networks as a supplemental tool in

class to reduce shyness and intimidation. The design of effective weblog tools along with

the development of collaborative social networks allow Thai students to express

themselves clearly and properly, as well as create a positive attitude toward learning

English. Use of weblog tools can also foster self-regulated lifelong learning which is

considered to be the heart of Thailand's new education reform with the aim of developing

Thailand into a knowledge-based economy and society.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In the globalization of education, where cross cultural differences are the

norm, raising awareness of those differences and understanding the norms and behaviors

of various cultures is essential for both EFL (English as a foreign language) teachers and

students to avoid prejudicial stereotypes. In this era of information proliferation and

technological development, intercultural understanding is more critical than ever in the

teaching of English as a foreign language, in order to provide appropriate teaching

strategies that suit target learners' needs and preferences (Baker, 2008; Dogancay-Aktuna,

2005; Wiriyachitra, 2004; Laopongharn & Sercombe, 2009).

In Thailand, English is used and taught as a foreign language rather than a

second language. The Thai government attempted to make English the official second

language to meet the needs of a globalized, knowledge-based society. However, due to

the concerns of the Thai Ministry of Education (MOE) over the saliency of Thai national

pride, Thailand has remained independent. It is the only nation in Southeast Asian that

has never been colonized by a foreign/Western power throughout 800 years of its history

(Seidlhofer, 2010). “Other countries that have declared English a second official

language were normally viewed as former colonies,” said the Education Minister

Chinaworn (Bunnag, 2010). English, therefore, can be considered the first foreign

language that students are required to study in schools.

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Functioning as an international language, English is more likely to be used for

communication, trade and tourism. Today, the term English as a lingua franca (ELF) is

often used when it is chosen as a target language of communication and considered to be

a medium of intercultural communication between speakers with different first languages

(Seidlhofer, 2010). To become interculturally competent, English language learners need

to develop an understanding of cultural knowledge and awareness that meet the needs of

local contexts (Laopongharn & Sercombe, 2009; Dogancay-Aktuna, 2005; Baker, 2008;

P. Pagram & Pagram, 2006). To meet these goals, native English-speaking teachers are in

great demand in Thailand with the expectation that native English teachers can assist

Thai students in developing language proficiency. The Ministry of Education (MOE)

believes that foreign EFL teachers can enhance intercultural knowledge for Thai students,

bridging the two cultures. “We have eyed American teachers who are retired under an

early retirement programme,” said the Education Minister Chinaworn. The reform aims

to cultivate English proficiency by providing a native English-speaking assistant in

Grades 10-12 (Chotechompupong, 2010).

However, it appears that both language students and foreign EFL teachers,

who come from different cultural backgrounds, often bring with them different levels of

expectations and beliefs about education from their own experiences in an EFL setting.

Consequently, misunderstandings and cultural stereotypes occur. To be more specific,

maintaining a harmonious relationship is important in a culture based on the hierarchical

structure, such as Thailand. The majority of Thai emotions and implications are

communicated via non verbal and indirect communication, which may be unclear and

ambiguous to foreigners. For example, some foreign EFL teachers, who are not aware

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that Thai learners don't feel comfortable sharing their thoughts for fear of being wrong

(non-risk takers), have attempted to get students involved in class discussions and

activities as much as possible as part of a Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

approach, but there is no response from Thai students due to a tradition of unquestioning

obedience to superiors (P. Pagram & J. Pagram, 2006; Deveney, 2005; Dogancay-

Aktuna, 2005). Cultural stereotypes describe Thai students as passive and rote learners,

lacking critical thinking skills. The lack of knowledge and understanding with regard to

the impact of learners' culture can severely affect students’ learning and success. For Thai

students, having a lower tolerance in uncertain situations due to cultural fear and losing

face may create the misconception of low motivation in inquiry learning (Chaidaroon,

2003; Laopongharn & Sercombe, 2009).

Of particular interest culturally, the MOE recently issued new licensing

regulations on the expertise of foreign teachers, stating that every foreign teacher, who

wishes to teach in Thailand, is required to complete a Thai culture course. The aim is to

provide foreign EFL teachers an insight into the learner’s culture, an awareness of how

much culture affects the learner’ s behavior and to apply appropriate strategies needed to

work effectively for learners of English in Thailand. According to Clause 5, Section 2 of

BE 2547's (2004), Teacher Council regulation, foreign EFL teachers need to attend “the

20 hours of the Thai Culture and Ethics Training Course,” covering Thai society,

language and culture, manners, art, music and professional ethics before applying for a

teacher's permit and visa in Thailand (Cornwall, 2010).

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Intercultural Communicative Competence And English Language

The following statements by researchers are indicative of the culture

awareness required in the teaching of English as a foreign language in intercultural

communication:

1. To understand the role of ELT in any context it is necessary to look at the use of English within the country and in contacts outside the country, English teaching policy and practice, and importantly cultural attitudes towards both the language and teaching. (Baker, 2008, p. 143)

2. This awareness of cross-cultural variation in norms of teaching and learning

would then form the first step in developing an appropriate methodology (Dogancay-

Aktuna 2005, p. 100).

3. Communicative competence, however, also involves intercultural competence.

Thus, the teaching and learning of English in Thailand also involves an understanding of

Thai culture (Foley, 2005, p. 227).

In the field of language pedagogy understanding learners' specific culture is

also regarded as a part of intercultural communicative competence (ICC) where cultural

knowledge is being required for the pedagogical skills (Laopongharn & Sercombe, 2009;

Baker, 2008). Language teacher education programs and training in the area of

intercultural awareness are essential to the development of successful teaching and

learning strategies (Dogancay-Aktuna, 2005). Towards the definition of ICC, Dogancay-

Aktuna (2005) defined ICC as,

…the process occurring when the producers and receivers of a message belong to different cultures . . . and can be used for multiple purposes, such as for foregrounding teachers' preconceived notions of learner groups and for evaluating the sociocultural appropriateness of their proposed language teaching methodology for particular target learner groups. (100)

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Intercultural communicative competence (ICC) seems to focus on culture-

specific behaviors and looks at how people from different cultures perceive, behave and

communicate differently based on sociocultural backgrounds. According to Chaidaroon

(2003), “Communicative competence varies from culture to culture. Thai communication

competence is then different from the Western notion of competence” (p. 299). In

Chaidaroon's study, there are three types of Thai notions of competence that may cause

foreigners to misunderstand Thais regarding their shyness—“not asking for help, extreme

humility and not speaking up” (p. 301). Such behaviors, therefore, are influenced by Thai

cultural traditions and values, customs and beliefs.

To improve teaching quality with appropriate teaching methods for English

language learners, Dogancay-Aktuna (2005) asserts that EFL teachers need to develop

their intercultural awareness and understanding of characteristics of target learners. “The

teacher’s/school’s chosen methodology showed a lack of ‘fit’ with the students’ and

teachers’ cultural norms, and their expectations of what ‘good’ language teaching needs

to involve” (p. 99). The adoption models used in Dogancay-Aktuna’s study were

originally obtained from R. Scollon and Scollon's (1995) framework, which offers four

guiding questions to consider in order to suit the needs of target learners before deciding

the most appropriate teaching strategies and materials. The four questions were:

What are the historical/social/ideological characteristics of the group? How does one learn membership and identity? What are the preferred forms of communication? What are the preferred or assumed human relationships? (R. Scollon & Scollon, 1995 pp. 103-104)

Understanding learners' sociocultural backgrounds, therefore, can lead to

improving teaching quality in choosing appropriate teaching strategies that are relevant to

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target learners' needs, in order to “explore what kind of preconditioned ideas teachers

themselves have about that particular context, while showing them the dimensions over

which cultures are most likely to vary in their discourse systems” (Dogancay-Aktuna,

2005, p. 104).

Why should intercultural communicative competence become a part of

English language teaching? In the field of intercultural communication, raising awareness

of the traditions of the learners' sociocultural backgrounds, such as how language

learners' behavior is set in the language classroom, has become a crucial part of providing

appropriate pedagogical approaches, including choosing teaching techniques and

activities used in the language classroom. Foreign EFL teachers, thus, compare and

contrast two different culture groups. They also are able to perceive and explore

significant cultural preconditions in assessing the sociocultural appropriateness of their

chosen teaching methodologies. Chaidaroon's (2003) study found the following:

Viewing communication competence as a set of skills may be useful when we first conceptualize the notion but it isolates communication competence from its cultural context and disregard, some hidden assumptions the communicator have in their minds. (p. 300)

J. Pagram and Pagram (2006) state that to provide an appropriate teaching

approach in an EFL environment, foreign teachers need to be concerned with and

perceive the value of cultural differences. This includes being aware of the cultural

conflict where traditional customs might influence Thai learners' behaviors, including

knowing how to adapt and import the value of western culture and education for effective

intercultural communication. By developing a sense of intercultural communication, we

can diminish our prejudices. A lack of ICC knowledge for foreign EFL teachers can lead

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to failure in learning due to culture differences between Thai and Western cultures in

teaching and learning approaches (Chaidaroon, 2003; Laophongharn & Sercombe, 2009).

In addition, Dogancay-Aktuna (2005) attests to the need for knowledge of ICC when he

says, “[I]gnoring the students’ norms and expectations—that is, what students bring to

the classroom—is denying the learners’ experiences” which can lead to negative or

ineffective classrooms (Dogancay-Aktuna, 2005, p. 100). Oftentimes, foreign EFL

teachers have commonly applied Western teaching approaches without considering the

impact on learners' culture, which can severely affect students' learning and success.

In turn, Baker (2008) has argued that raising cultural awareness and

understanding of other cultures can be beneficial for both students and teachers. It can

lead to improvements in instructional methods and teaching practices. To become

interculturally competent and proficient in language, students also need to enhance their

knowledge of culture in order to communicate effectively in intercultural contexts.

EFL learners also need to get involved in and practice the 5 C's, consisting of

communication, culture, connection, comparison and community goals, to become

proficient in both language skills and communication skills (the National Standards in

Foreign Language Education, 1999). Consequently, Thai learners need to master English

language skills as well as cultural awareness as a means of intercultural communication.

The conception of ICC has been based on the needs of both Thai language learners and

foreign EFL teachers to improve intercultural communicative competence

socioculturally. It seems that through the notion of ICC, acknowledging and raising

awareness of cultural differences can enhance both students’ and teachers' interactional

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effectiveness and intercultural communication in today's global culture without biased

evaluation or cultural stereotypes.

This study raises awareness of cultural differences for foreign EFL teachers,

who have little or limited knowledge of Thai culture, promoting mutual understanding

between the foreign teacher and the Thai learners. It also encompasses the cultural

appropriateness of the teaching framework for instructor decisions that are appropriate

for Thai learners' needs and preferences in primary and secondary schools. For the future

of education in Thailand, integrating weblogs in language classrooms as a new way of

learning English can establish a positive language learning environment where Thai

learners can practice not only the target language, but also ICC in accordance with the

goal of Thai education reform.

In this study, the following research questions are investigated:

1. What are the characteristics of communicative competence in Thai culture?

2. How does Thai culture create a way of learning? And to what extent do the Thai

cultural values affect the Thai learners' learning perceptions and behaviors?

3. Based on research findings, what critical factors need to be considered when

teaching Thai learners, and what features of teaching methodologies are most appropriate

for Thai learners' needs and preferences?

4. What are the benefits and limitations of using weblogs in the classroom?

5. How can weblogs enhance the Thai learners' English performance or change

their learning styles?

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Purpose of Study

The purpose of this thesis is twofold: to give foreign EFL teachers an

awareness of Thai cultural characteristics by looking critically at Thai students' learning

styles and the Thai classroom environment in secondary schools. This is essential for

successful teaching in the field of intercultural communication. To better understand the

underlying cultural diversity, the Hofstede's (2009) cultural dimension model is presented

as a conceptual framework that identifies Thai cultural traditions and values, which can

also be applied to understand the characteristics of the Thai learners' behavior and

learning styles. Major factors in the Thai educational system are also addressed (see

research questions 1-3 above). The second purpose of the study is to offer

recommendations for integrating weblogs as a supplemental tool to promote positive

learning and attitudes toward English language learning, as well as to improve the Thai

students' English proficiency skills, encouraging them to become interculturally

independent lifelong learners (see research questions 4-5 above).

Overview

This thesis is organized into five chapters. Chapter I introduces the problem

statement and provides an introduction to Intercultural Communicative Competence in

language teaching. This chapter also details the purpose of study, research questions,

limitations of the study, and definitions of key terms.

Chapter II offers insights into Thai culture, social behavior and norms,

providing an understanding of the cultural values and norms with the characteristics of

Thai culture: the concept of karma, the concept of krengjai, the concept of face, the

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concepts of bunkhun and mai pen rai. This chapter also looks into the cultural dimensions

using Hofstede's (2009) model. The impact of the dominant cultural values and norms on

Thai students' behavior and the needs and preferences of Thai learners in language

classrooms are also addressed. This chapter will also examine the salient aspects of

intercultural communicative competence in EFL classrooms in Thailand.

Chapter III includes a brief history of the Thai educational system and the

context of English education in Thailand, including certain problems and difficulties

found in that educational system, as well as the Thai learners' English ability.

Chapter IV offers a review of the innovative technologies drawn from

Western influence that can change the way education is delivered across the English

curriculum in ESL/EFL settings. This chapter also identifies the theoretical framework

for the use of successful weblog in second/foreign language learning.

Chapter V concludes by considering the challenges in using weblogs to

enhance and support EFL classroom learning. This chapter also recommends using a

weblog tool as a useful learning tool that has the potential to develop proficiency in

English for English language learners in Thailand. Weblogs can be used to facilitate a

new learning adventure and experience in a way that may help Thai learners build

confidence and become independent learners.

Limitation of the Study

This study focuses on current characteristics of Thai learners in mainstream

secondary schools in Thailand. Therefore, this thesis is limited by the lack of access to

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research related to the social and education environment and the new generation of Thai

learners who are adopting Western cultural traits and lifestyles in Thailand.

Definitions of Terms

A Blog or Weblog

A weblog is a type of online diary or journal that allows people around the

world to create, share and contribute ideas across the Web, allowing users to text

messages, add links and upload files in the online collaboration tool. The blog is

increasingly used in educational settings in order to enhance effective learning

environments and stimulate more interaction among the students in an educational

context. As put forth by Michael Wesch, a 2009 National Geographic emerging explorer,

“Humans click on a web page 100 billion times a day. A blog is born every half second.

It’s no longer just linking information, but people. We’ll have to rethink a few things:

copyright, authorship, identity, ethics, aesthetics, governance, privacy, commerce, love,

family, ourselves” (National Geographic, 2009, para. 7).

Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC)

Intercultural Communicative Competence is focused on culture-specific

behaviors and how people from different cultures perceive, behave and communicate

differently, based on sociocultural backgrounds. Understanding learners' specific culture

in the field of language pedagogy is also regarded as a part of intercultural

communicative competence (ICC), which is well-known as cross-cultural communication

where cultural knowledge is being required in the language classroom.

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Web 2.0 Technologies

Web 2.0 is an advanced technological innovation system in the 21st century

which allows people to share their thoughts, experiences and interests by gathering and

uploading information over the Internet via social networking services. Facebook,

YouTube, Weblogs and Wikis are examples of the more popular web 2.0 tools for

collaboration which are widely being used across the globe for both personal purposes as

well as academic purposes

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CHAPTER II

MATERIALS AND METHODS

There are innumerable examples of misunderstanding of verbal and nonverbal

messages in Thai culture, which often amuse foreigners. The following comments have

been taken from various weblogs:

… people can understand other cultures - but Western values and Thai values are indeed very different - and hence it is difficult when one tries to live in the other culture...Thais value serenity, interdependence, sanook [fun], and hierarchical relationships - the use of the word "jai" in so many phrases also is an important part of understanding the importance Thais place on things of the heart/emotion. (Falangsur, personal communication, January 24, 2011) The Americans assume that the Thais understand what they are saying because they

are smiling and nodding, but actually the Thais are just being polite and might not have a

clue what you are talking about (Anonymous, personal communication, November 17,

2009).

The Thai Smile Means Thais Are Happy - Nope, it really doesn't. Common folk lore says there are more than 40 different types of Thai smile and they all mean different things. Sure, Thais smile when they're happy, just like any of us. But, Thais also smile when they're confused, embarrassed, and angry and even when they're sad. . . Thais don't like confrontation and smiling is a way of trying to avoid it, but it doesn't mean they're happy when they're doing it (C. James, personal communication, March 30, 2010). There are a lot of comments made by Western men about their Thai wives that never say exactly what they want, that they just say “Yes” or “Ok” all the time. Thai people call this 'krengjai' which basically means not wanting to upset and it can be extremely confusing and frustrating for western men because it can seem like they are hiding or do not want to be open. Nothing could be further from the truth; the reality is that it is part of Thai culture (Angella, personal communication, March 22, 2010).

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Mai pen rai- oh well…it’s OK.. not a lot, I can do about it…. it will work out… Oh, how I wished more Western’s used this philosophy…instead of insisting things be fixed immediately or whatever it is they believe they have an urgent need for (Gina, personal communication, October 5, 2009).

As implied in the passages above, much has been written from Western

viewpoints on Thai people's social behavior. Western people have trouble making sense

of the Thai culture and its people. They tend to confuse Thai cultural norms and values.

In particular this applies to Westerners who are not aware of Thai culture or do not have

sufficient basic background knowledge of its culture. In Thai schools, Thai culture also

influences Thai learners' behavior and learning styles.

This finding can be supported by Deveney’s questionnaire study (2005) that

asked twenty-nine primary and secondary English teachers, who worked in international

schools in Thailand, how the culture has impacted Thai students’ learning attitudes and

behaviors in the classroom.

Teacher 1: It's sometimes a challenge for me to challenge my Thai students. (p. 161) Teacher 2: Awareness of Thai culture, e.g. not being confrontational, avoid raising voice are the important factors that need to be considered in teaching Thai students. (p. 160)

The Asian educational system such as in Thailand, China and Japan tends to

form a sort of social hierarchy where teachers are placed in a position of authority, and

students need to show respect to the teacher. “Even if Asian students have studied

English and attended ESL classes, they often find American professors speak faster than

they can comprehend and faster than they can take notes. They rarely ask questions

because in their culture it is impolite to ask a professor to slow down and answer

questions” (Beaven, Calderisi & Tantral, 1998, para. 6).

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The main purpose of this research is to explain how Thai cultural values and

Buddhist religious beliefs influence the Thais' beliefs and behaviors. To provide an

appropriate teaching approach and understand Thai students' behavior, foreign EFL

teachers need first develop a deep understanding of learner' cultural values and

sociocultural background (Chaidaroon, 2003; Dogancay-Aktuna, 2005; Laopongharn &

Sercombe, 2009). This chapter will describe the characteristics of Thai cultural grouping,

using Hofstede's' (2009) cultural dimension model, to elucidate why Thai people behave

differently in certain situations. The influence of culture on Thai students learning

behavior is also addressed.

The Characteristics of Thai Culture

Social Norms and Cultural Values

The majority of Asian cultures are well known for their indirectness and

tendency to communicate via nonverbal communication. The dominant element that has

molded Thai culture, and controlled people's lives has been Buddhism, the national

religion of Thailand (95% of Thais are Buddhist). The deeply rooted belief drawn from

the Buddhist philosophy of life and Confucian values is reflected in Thai students'

attitudes, for example, attitudes toward the concept of authority (Nguyen, 2005; Baker,

2008; Deveney, 2005; P. Pagram & Pagram, 2006).

Interestingly, the national curriculum in Thailand also states the role of Thai

culture as part of the National Education Plan (2002-2016) that schools need to embrace

and foster student development in accordance with the values of Thai culture and norms.

In section 33 of the 1999 National Education Act, we read,

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The National Education Plan focused on the integration of all aspects of the quality of life. It emphasizes human-centered development and integrated and holistic scheme of education, religion, art and culture. In this regard, Thai people shall attain full development in terms of physical and spiritual health, intellect, morality and integrity as well as a desirable way of life that focuses on living in harmony with other people. (Office of the Education Council, Education in Thailand, 2004, pp. 17-18)

Buddhist principles have played a dominant role as a foundation of the Thai

educational system and practice in Thai society. Adamson’s study (2003) also described

the influences of Theravada Buddhism, the main religion of Thailand, borrowed from

Hinduism, which plays a significant role in the way that Thai society sees itself and how

religious beliefs influence Thai culture. One cannot understand people's behavior without

having some knowledge of the values of the culture (Hofstede, 2009). Numerous studies

have considered the impact of Thai culture on patterns of Thai social behavior and Thai

learners' learning styles (Deveney, 2005; Foley, 2005; Baker, 2008; Chaidaroon, 2003;

Adamson, 2003). There are numerous important concepts in Thai culture which influence

the Thai perspectives, as illustrated in the following examples: the notion of karma, the

concept of krengjai, the concept of bunkhun, the concept of face and the concept of mai

pen rai.

Thai Buddhism: The Concept of Karma

The concept of “karma” is an example of the Buddhist religious influence on

Thai beliefs. The term in Sanskrit, defined as good and bad actions and thoughts, is a

primary concept in the way Thai society sees itself, and understands life and social

behavior. For example, one will suffer or succeed in life is determined by one’s own

actions (good/bad) in one's past life. One, therefore, needs to keep in mind, seeing things

the way they really are and attempt to do good actions which lead to the accumulation of

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good karma for the next life (Nguyen, 2005). Thai’s should avoid confrontation in any

circumstances and should not lose their tempers with other people, especially with high

status people, in order to live in peace and harmony within the society (Knutson,

Komolsevin, Chatiketur & Smith, 2003). Clearly, the concept of “karma” can have a

considerable effect on how Thai students try to maintain interpersonal relations and avoid

confrontation with a high degree of tolerance toward teachers.

The Concept of Krengjai

For the term Krengjai doesn't have direct equivalent in English, but the

nearest equivalent definition is translated as, consideration or diffidence for others with

respect and shyness, especially toward older people. Komin (1991) (cited in Knutson et

al., 2003, p. 67) defines the term krengjai as,

… to be considerate, to feel reluctant to impose upon another person, to take another person's feelings (and ego) into account, or to take every measure not to cause discomfort or inconvenience for another person. (p. 164)

As a result, being krengjai reflects good manners which will maintain

relationships. The Thais are taught to be careful of what they say. A Thai person,

therefore, would hesitate to refuse others or argue for fear of breaking the relationship,

especially with one’s superiors.

The Concept of Bunkhun

Because of the interdependent society of Thailand, gratitude is highly valued

through the concept of bunkhun, which refers to a reciprocity process of receiving and

returning debts of gratitude. For example, parents are considered very important to the

Thai family because of giving life and care (Foley, 2005). Knutson et al. (2003) wrote,

“the term bunkhun further enhances the role of rhetorical sensitivity in Thai interpersonal

18

relationships” (p. 67). Thais are taught to honor their parents and should be grateful to

their parents for raising and teaching them. The hard work of parents should be paid back

by being obedient to parents, taking care of them, especially aging parents, and giving

them respect and dignity.

The Concept of Face

Thai society does not readily accept change and avoids the risks of unexpected

circumstances (Hofstede, 2001). Deveney's study (2005) stated that the concept of face

can be compared to the word honor and shyness—if one gives an incorrect response, one

would feel publicly embarrassed and look foolish in front of other people (losing face).

The virtue in the face of Thai culture, Vongvipanond (1994) wrote, “Like in many

languages, face comes to mean 'reputation, honor, respectability, credibility and integrity.'

A Thai can lose, save, earn or gain and salvage his/her face” (sec. 5, para. 2). This is

evidenced in Deveney’s study (2005) in the following responses from Western teachers

teaching English in Thailand.

I think they [Thai students] are shy. They think, ‘if I [Thai students] put my hand up and get the wrong answer I am a fool’...[T]hey are too shy to show-off...They are not brave enough to speak in class...It is because they are shy and don’t understand. They are afraid to be embarrassed and that their friends might laugh at them. (p. 164)

In Thai schools, students feel embarrassed and ashamed if they have a wrong

answer, so it is better for them to not answer and keep quiet in order to avoid losing face

in the class.

The Concept of Mai pen rai

Being humble is an ultimate goal in the Buddhist way of life. To maintain

social harmony, as stated in a Thai proverb, “One should not lift yourself up to threaten

19

others” (Chaidaroon, 2003, p. 303). Thai students are not taught to show off in front of

others or talk about their achievements. Hence, in Thai culture Thai students express

disagreement indirectly to maintain good human relationships because of the social

concept derived from Buddhist beliefs. One well known word in Thai: mai pen rai which

has different meanings depending on the context. Vongvipanond (1994) defines the term

mai pen rai as “'It does not really matter.' or 'It is not a problem'” (sec. 2, para. 1).

“Interpersonal conflicts do not lead to an open confrontation unless one is ready to take

the risk of losing a relationship” (sec.2, para. 6). The concept insists that Thai people

need to stay calm and carry on under pressure with positive thoughts in order to avoid

confrontation.

Geert Hofstede, an influential Dutch sociologist and psychologist in the

twentieth century, studied cultural diversity in management research and proposed the

understanding how cultural differences influence how people behave. He obtained his

data from surveys of more than 1,000,000 people, who filled out over 100,000

questionnaires in over forty countries, while working at IBM as a psychologist. He

collected the data on cultural statistics within a large multination area. In relation to the

concept of culture, Hofstede defines cultural differences on his own website, Itim

International (2009), as more of “a source of conflict than of synergy... a nuisance at best

and often a disaster” (para. 1). He emphasized the term of culture as “software of the

mind” (p. 2), in which people acquire the culture within social environments and are

shaped by the environment in which they grow up. Hofstede further points out that the

most significant aspect of culture is formed by values, making people behave naturally

and instinctively, often unconsciously. After a decade of research, the author finally

20

developed a pioneer model of the cultural dimensions consisting of five key features of

cultural dimensions: Power distance (relative inequalities of wealth and status),

individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation.

A. Power Distance (PD): High Power Distance (Hierarchy) and Low Power

Distance (Egalitarian)

Hofstede (2009) asserts that there are two core values of cultural relationships—

hierarchy and egalitarianism. Some national cultures are much more hierarchical than

others, and there couldn't be any society without hierarchy. Culture is divided into two

parts: one is egalitarian or low power distance index (PDI), where everyone prefers the

maximum possible equity or views members as equals. The high PDI or hierarchy side,

refers to the people in the society, who accept the social inequality of power where

individuals are treated unequally. In other words, there are classes based on status (social

prestige power), education, politics and ethnicity.

Based on Hofstede's study (2009), Thailand's scores for Power Distance and

Uncertainty Avoidance are relatively equal, at 64 out of 100. These are considered to be

high compared to the Asian average score based on the scores of China, Hong Kong,

Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, South Korea and Taiwan. His research demonstrated that

Thai people tend to accept inequality in the society as a part of their culture, which is

regarded as hierarchical.

Adamson (2003) points out that in traditional Thai education, the Buddhist monks

were representative of the teachers of the culture and were seen as self-sacrificing. The

role of the Buddhist monks was to be the source of knowledge (arithmetic, law, reading,

writing, etc.) and to reinforce proper morals, values and knowledge to the learners so that

21

they would become humble and good persons in Buddhism. Buddhists need to show

respect through politeness and their genial demeanor to the monks or teachers who are

regarded as of high status in Thai society. Consequently, young people are not taught to

voice contrasting views, and need to behave appropriately in the presence of older people

in Thai society. Nguyen (2005) also explained that Thai parents perceive themselves as

not being involved in schools because they consider teachers as high status and

representatives of goodness.

B. Individualism: High Individualistic Society and Low Individualistic Society

(Collectivism)

Individualism and collectivism are conflicting views, influenced by factors such as

the nature of national culture, ethnic culture, gender, society and family relationship. An

individualist culture is one in which people view themselves as individuals primarily.

They value independence and are self-oriented. One lives primarily for oneself, and other

people expect the same thing. While a collectivist culture emphasizes the needs of the

group members to be more significant than the needs of individuals. People show respect

for traditions and take more responsibility for each other in order to create and maintain

harmony.

For the dimension of individualism, Hofstede maintained that Thailand is a low

individualistic society. Thai culture is considered as a collectivist society based on

Theravada Buddhism, while people in individualistic cultures, such as the US, are more

self-centered and direct. Specifically, Thai society, like other Asian countries, tends to be

group-oriented, and individuals treat family members as the primary source of identity.

Thai people tend to stay close with their family members, helping and supporting each

22

other. Thais emphasize the needs of group members as more significant than their own

needs, because they value interdependence and acknowledge the important of social

hierarchy in order to preserve a harmonious family relationship.

C. Masculinity and Femininity

In masculinity cultures, people tend to value material objects, possessions and

achievement. Men are expected to dominate, play crucial roles and exert a significant

influence and power structure on that society. Such countries are Switzerland and the

USA. A society that has a low masculinity score (femininity culture) is found in societies,

where women are treated equally to males with a low level of inequality between males

and females. People tend to seek harmony and conformity in a group, avoiding

confrontation and direct criticism. Hofstede's study (2009) showed that Thai culture is

more feminine, focusing on harmonious interpersonal relationships, especially within the

family.

D. Uncertainty Avoidance (UA): High Uncertainty Avoidance and Low Uncertainty

Avoidance

The uncertainty avoidance index refers to the degree of anxiety in uncertain

situations. People in high uncertainty avoidance cultures attempt to avoid risks because

they expect their lives to be structured by setting various rules and instructions. People in

uncertainty avoiding countries believe that “there can only be one truth and we have it”

(Hofstede, 2009, para. 4). On the other side, cultures with low uncertainty avoidance will

avoid many regulations and more willingly accept risks. They are open for new things

and tend to appreciate value differences.

23

Hofstede (2009) indicated that the average Asian scores on the uncertainty

avoidance index are 58 out of 100, while Thailand is 64, and the United States is 46.

Uncertainty avoidance in Thailand means a high level of intolerance in unstructured

situations. Consequently, Thai society does not readily accept change and tends to avoid

risks or uncertainty.

E. Long-term Orientation: High Long-term Orientation and Low Long-term

Orientation

The fifth dimension that Hofstede (2009) found can be seen in Confucian

philosophy and how highly a society values traditions. In most Asian countries, high long

term orientation scores indicate great respect for traditions, and great value for

harmonious relationships. Countries with low long-term orientation ranking expect that

everyone lives by the same standards and rules. Acknowledging the influence of Thai

Buddhism, Foley (2005) also suggests that the Thai people tend to be indirect and

emphasize emotion and connection, which lead to harmonious relationships. Thai people

appreciate consideration for the other person, for example, family, friends and

community in a relationship-oriented society. They are good at cooperating with each

other, eager to compromise in order to avoid conflict or offending others, and to maintain

and contribute to a peaceful and relaxed lifestyle.

As illustrated above, Hofstede's (2009) research made clear that Thai culture

has a form of social hierarchy in a collectivist culture where people have a low tolerance

for ambiguity and attempt to avoid risks of unexpected circumstances (a high uncertainty

avoidance ranking). In Thailand, family background and social status are more important.

Thailand is categorized in the collectivist oriented culture. This is influenced by the fact

24

that Thailand has been strongly influenced by the hierarchical society and collectivism.

By contrast, American culture places a high value on equality and individualism even

within families. The culture emphasizes independence. Thus, Americans are more self-

reliant and have a high tolerance, accepting risks in uncertainty situations (Hofstede,

2001). Collectivistic or high-context cultures display social harmony and selflessness, as

opposed to the low-context or individualistic cultures, which prefer direct and explicit.

Impact of Thai Culture on Roles Between a Teacher and Thai Students in an

Educational Context

Hofstede's (2009) model makes us aware of culture diversity, and the culture

differences and behavioral tendencies underlying people's behavior in certain situations.

Hofstede's cultural dimension can be applied in the field of EFL instruction to explain

why the learning styles adopted by Thai learners are attributed to Thai cultural values in

terms of facing difficulties in learning English language. From the result of Hofstede's

(2009) research on Thai people's behavior, the following are characteristics of Thai

culture: hierarchy, collectivist, relationship-oriented and high uncertain avoidance based

on Buddhist values. In looking more closely at Thai cultural characteristics, His research

points to challenges that both the ESL instructors and Thai learners face in the language

classroom.

In the high context culture of Thailand, one which values hierarchy, there

appears to be a one way communication and teacher-student inequality. According to

Taylor (2008), “In school, the teacher knows best. Copy down what the teacher puts on

the board. That is what will be on the exam” (para. 2). The classroom is structured around

25

top-down communication, where teachers are highly respected as gurus, superior to the

students, and seen as the center of the class. On the other hand, students, who are

regarded as having a low position, tend to be well-behaved, listen silently to lectures, and

do not feel comfortable to voice their opinions or ask questions. The students rarely speak

up because it is inappropriate for students to ask questions or share different points of

view (Taylor, 2008; Knutson et al., 2003). To do so would be considered a form of

confrontation-aggressive and rude in Thai culture rooted in the Buddhist belief.

Comparing Thai students' behavior between an international school and a Thai school in

Thailand, Foley (2005) has found that students in Thai schools function in a more

unequal relationship toward the teachers than the international school students. In Thai

schools, students must use formal and polite words, when referring to people of higher

status, and are not allowed to call their teachers by name, while teachers at the

international school are viewed as creating a friendly relationship. The Thai language

provides various ways of saying the word “I” and “you,” depending on the status of the

audience/receiver. “A simple example to illustrate this would be the range of words for

‘I’‒ phom, kraphom, dichan, chan, rao, khaphachao, kha, and ku” (Foley, 2005, p. 228).

As mentioned before, Thai culture is considered a collectivist society where

the needs of the group members are more significant than the needs of individuals. In the

classroom, the teacher is seen as the student's second parent. Students must show the

proper respect and become obedient to the teachers. Bunkhun towards teachers can be

expressed on National Teacher's Day, when all Thai students show their expression of

gratitude and appreciation by giving flowers to the teacher (Foley, 2005). In particular,

26

Thai students' expressions of disagreement are indirect in order to maintain good human

relationships because of the social concept derived from Buddhist beliefs. From the

Western viewpoint the Thai have a problem with conscious expression. They say what

people want to hear, instead of their genuine feelings. Frequently, they say “yes,” but

mean “no.” Thais regard it as rude behavior if one expresses disagreement openly with

another person (Adamson, 2003).

Deveney's study (2005) expressed the following Western teacher viewpoints:

“It may be hard to judge reactions and feelings by facial expressions or body

language...they may smile and pretend to understand instructions” (p.163). Most

Westerners don't know that Thai people always smile when they feel embarrassed, fear

and remorse as well. Therefore, there are a lot of variations of the smile, and much is

hidden behind it in Thai expressions of non-verbal communication which confound many

Westerners.

Furthermore, the concept of saving face, as the underlying value, is found in

collectivist cultures. Losing face or embarrassment occurs when making mistakes or

being afraid of looking stupid. These attitudes characterize the value of collectivism. Do

not stand out from the group, try to be like everyone else. If Thai students don't

understand what the teachers say, they will remain silent instead of asking questions

(High Uncertainty Avoidance). Asking a lot of questions, the Thai learners think that they

would bother other classmates (krengjai), and the teachers would think they are stupid or

have not learned the material properly. Parallel to that, the main factors that significantly

influence how Thai learners behave differently from foreign EFL teachers' expectations

can be explained by the concept of face, which is prevalent in Thai Buddhist beliefs. For

27

example, Thai students don't ask questions and seem to be passive learners in Thai

schools.

In his study, Deveney (2005) cites the following responses from foreign

teachers teaching English in Thailand toward Thai learners:

[Foreign EFL teacher 1]: Thai children are taught not to speak in class. [Foreign EFL teacher 2]: They think, if I [a Thai student] put my hand up and get the wrong answer I am a fool. [Foreign EFL teacher 3]: They are too shy to show-off. Thai school children wait until someone else speak first, then they try and answer better than that first student. (p. 164)

In an Asian country like Thailand, students feel embarrassed and ashamed if

they have the wrong answers so it is better for them to not answer and keep quiet in order

to avoid losing face in class. The concept of saving face is a vital motivator that can be

represented by the way they act. As put forth by Taylor (2008),

If a student asks a question in class, s/he leaves her/himself open to two possible 'loss of face' scenarios. By asking a question, it implies that a) either the teacher did not explain the topic well enough for the student to understand - thus opening up a loss of face situation for the teacher in front of the class, or b) the students was too dumb to have understood what the teacher was saying and so the student loses face amongst her/his classmates. (para. 4)

As a feminine culture in Hofstede's (2009) definition, social norms and

relationships play a vital part in the classroom. Thai students only focus on the right and

correct answer and do not encourage speaking up, discussing, or attracting attention in

class. His study showed that cultures of masculinity focus on high student performance,

allowing students to communicate openly and debate in the class, while in feminine

culture classroom, social norms are more important. In addition, with regard to

femininity, Deveney (2005) also acknowledges that there is no gender issue found in Thai

classroom. Girl students are more likely to talk and control classroom conversation. One

28

of the teachers in the study responded that “I expect girls to be quieter and more reluctant

to speak than the boys” (p.163). P. Pagram and Pagram's study (2006) also indicated that

the nature of the Thai learner is “social constructivist in nature” (p. 5). This is

demonstrated by the Thai learning style that is passive; students show signs of shyness,

remaining silent in the classroom. The concept of face in traditional Thai culture is also

evidence of cultural influence. “Thai students don't take risks, they have no initiative and

they don't confront problems...they hate making mistakes and take criticism badly”

(Deveney, 2005, p. 167).

Another Thai concept that is obviously present in Thai social behavior is

“sanuk,” which can result in negative reactions from Western teachers. The meaning of

sanuk can be translated as having a good time. Thais tend to integrate fun and enjoyment

into every activity, even serious work, whereas Westerners try to separate appropriate

work and leisure (Adamson 2003; Vongvipanond, 1994).

Unlike in Western societies, Atkinson (1997) argued that (as cited in Long,

n.d.) Asian societies are structured with a form of collectivism, have a unique set of

cultural values and expectations. As such, they attempt to maintain harmonious

relationships, and don't have practice or experience cultivating the skills that are

associated with critical thinking. Thai students may appear uncritical in learning. In

addition, Raktham (2008) found “instead of asking teachers, students had a marked

tendency to turn to their friends for help. . . the student would often first check the answer

with his/her friends before answering the teacher” (p. 57). Consequently, influenced by

Thai cultural values and Buddhist religious beliefs, Thai students prefer to remain silent,

seem to be passive, and appear reluctant to ask questions of teachers for fear of giving the

29

wrong answer or showing off. In contrast, regardless of culture and social practice,

everyone is capable of practicing and improving critical thinking skills. When students do

not express their voice or their opinion in the class, it doesn't imply that they don't have

an opinion or lack understanding. This misconception is likely to lead to assumptions that

Asian students lack critical thinking skills (Long, n.d.).

30

CHAPTER III

ENGLISH EDUCATION SYSTEM

IN THAILAND

This chapter focuses specifically on the educational system and English

language curriculum in Thailand. It examines the current status of English education and

the critical issues present in the quality of Thai education. This study also suggests the

need to integrate technology into language classrooms and curricula to promote Thai

learners taking charge of their education. The author hopes that these educational reforms

will lead to increased self-esteem and more positive attitudes toward learning English.

The Educational System and English

Education in Thailand

English has spread throughout the globe. English permeates Thai society,

where it serves extensively as a lingua franca used by a majority of users who are non-

native speakers of English. This refers to “... how people actually use it and make it

work—and a consideration of the implications for the teaching and learning of the

language” (Seidhofer, 2010, p. 340). In the language classroom, English is being taught

in Thailand as an foreign language or international language to be used in communication

with people from all over the world, enabling learners to become successful intercultural

communicators (Laopongharn & Sercombe, 2009). Teachers of English language learners

31

need to seek and provide appropriate materials, effective policies, and practices that need

to be taught to English language learners.

The educational system in Thailand is divided into two levels, primary

education and secondary education, which consists of primary school (6 years), lower

secondary school (3 years), and upper secondary school (3 years). Thai is the national

language and the main language of instruction, even English language classrooms (P.

Pagram & Pagram, 2006). English was introduced in Thailand during the reign of Rama

III (1824-1851). Traditionally, Thais, who studied English and literature, were working

only for higher court officials and administrators. After 1921, there was a change in the

English curriculum in Thailand. English became a core subject to be taught beginning in

fifth grade classrooms; however, rote memorization teaching methods and drill played

major roles in the teaching methodology (Punthumasen, 2007). Later, the national

syllabus based on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), focused on all four English

language skills, and was adopted as early as the 1970's into teaching methods that can

increase communication effectiveness. This teaching approach introduced and applied

EFL pedagogy, emphasized teacher-student interactions, and enabled students to practice

and communicate in English in an open environment, along with the assistance of the

British Council, a private language school where Thais could improve their knowledge of

English, to a great extent (Baker, 2008).

In the early 1990's, English was made a compulsory subject at all stages of the

schooling (Baker, 2008; P. Pagram & Pagram, 2006). English language education had

become a core subject and a significant feature of education with the aim of building

language knowledge and developing positive attitudes towards English in both public and

32

private schools throughout the country. English language education in the region,

particularly in South East Asia, has been considered one of the core school subjects

required for entrance into colleges, which is quite competitive. Pursuing higher education

at colleges, universities and community colleges is a common goal in Thailand (Baker,

2008; Prapphal, 2008). In 1999, under the Thai National Education Act of B.E. 2542

(1999), many schools in Thailand attempted to implement the concept of a learner-

centered approach in EFL classes with the intention of encouraging Thai learners to take

charge of their learning and become lifelong autonomous learners. The Thai government

and the Ministry of Education (MOE) attempted to establish a quality and credible

educational system influenced by Western educational systems. Its aim was to change

from a traditional top down approach to a learner centered approach in all subject areas in

order to meet the challenges of international education (Nonkukhetknong, Baldauf &

Moni, 2006).

At present, the MOE has launched the second phrase of new education reform

(2009-2018), which promulgated the 1999 National Education Act. This reform put an

emphasis on four main areas: quality of teachers, quality of students, the quality of

materials and resources, and the development of educational administration. For English

curriculum, the ultimate goals of this reform are to improve English language proficiency

of Thai learners, to encourage Thai students to become motivated lifelong learners, and to

increase positive attitudes and motivation toward English in Thailand (Khaopa, 2010). To

improve the quality of life for Thai people and to prepare Thai students to succeed in

education, Abhisit Vejjajiva, the 27th and current Prime Minister of Thailand has

recognized that English language proficiency is critical to the nation's economic success

33

and prosperity. He has also remarked that the educational system needs to be reformed

and innovated to meet the challenges of globalization (Bunnag, 2009).

There have been concerns about the implementation of the learner centered

approaches which have been adopted from Western models into the Thai educational

system. Numerous studies suggested that although the learner-centered method has a

great potential as ways of promoting students' constructive self-learning, it is important to

consider how effectively this approach can support a Thai context (Nonkukhetkhong et

al., 2006; Wiriyachitra, 2004; Punthumasen, 2007; Baker, 2008). Hallinger (2001)

explains that the framework of student-centered learning runs completely opposite to the

characteristic of Thai learners' learning styles in Thai culture. It can be implied that

“[T]eachers develop new relationships with their students” (p. 4). Considered a form of

social hierarchy in Thai society, Hallinger (2001) further points out that the MOE uses

the term student-centered instruction, instead of using the term student-centered learning,

which implies that the status and the role of the teacher should still be loyal to the

authorities. He further describes the characteristics of the learner-centered classroom that

suits English language learners in Thailand. Educators in Thailand need to provide a

“classroom climate” (p. 9) where Thai students feel free to voice an opinion and are

actively encouraged in their learning and classroom activities. However, traditional

teaching approaches are still applied in instructional methods in the Thai classroom. “...

in developing learner-centered classrooms, the Ministry’s goal would not be to eliminate

teacher-directed instruction. Rather the goal would be to ensure that all teachers are

trained to use both teacher-directed and student-centered approaches competently” (p.

11). According to Hallinger (2001), “educators in Thai schools still lack a clear

34

understanding of the centerpiece of the current reform agenda, the learner-centered

classroom” (p. 3). Nonkukhetkhong et al. (2006) also assert that the learner-centered

approach has not yet been applied properly in Thai classrooms. Many Thai educators

have not been sufficiently trained on how to integrate new learner-centered teaching

effectively, and lack understanding of the basic concepts underlying the learner-centered

approach.

To be more specific, numerous studies have acknowledged that for over 10

years, Thai students have been taught via the traditional lecture format where students

play passive roles in class in a hierarchical and collectivist culture. Both the Thai

educational system as well as the Thai learner’ learning styles are highly influenced by

social and cultural-historical factors (Deveney, 2005; Baker, 2008; P. Pagram & Pagram,

2006; Laoponharn & Sercombe, 2009). Traditional teaching approaches such as teacher-

center approaches and rote memorization teaching methods are still prevalent and remain

in use in most classroom settings at the primary and secondary levels in Thailand. While

teachers are expected to follow a strict and authoritative model, Thai students are still

taught to be passive learners, doing exercises from the textbooks and showing a lack of

motivation which leads to negative attitudes toward English learning (Wiriyachitra,

2004). The poor quality of teaching methods and assessment tests are also one of the

main causes of poor performance of Thai learners. Most language students in Thailand

are being taught by Thai teachers who use Thai as the main language of instruction and

do not provide sufficient opportunities for students to practice communication skills.

Although Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) focusing on all four

language skills has been incorporated into the English curriculum in Thailand since the

35

beginning of the 19th century, reading and writing skills are the main focus, along with

the rudiments of English grammar with little integration of speaking and listening skills.

Thai teachers of English rarely apply or follow the principles of communicative language

pedagogy, due to the absence of well-formed curriculum, work load, insufficient funds,

large class size (60), and under-qualified English teachers (Punthumasen, 2007). In

reality, Thai students don't have opportunities to practice English in their daily lives,

therefore, they are unable to apply the knowledge that they have learned in the class to

contexts outside of the classroom in real situations (Prapphal, 2008; Wiriyachitra, 2004).

Despite learning English since primary schools for over ten years, Thai

students have limited English proficiency and poor language competence. The results of

English language assessments of the average level of Thai students' English proficiency

in primary and secondary levels show a sharp decline during the period 2002-2004. “In

upper secondary level at grade 12, average marks in 2003-2004 were 39.41 and 32.45

respectively” (Punthumasen, 2007, p. 3). Furthermore, the perception of the low level of

English proficiency can be supported by the fact that Thais' level of English ability is

ranked among the lowest in Southeast Asia. According to the official results obtained in

the TOEFL exam in 2009 (Test of English as Foreign Language), Thai students came in

fifth-to-last in English proficiency tests in the Southeast Asia region, with a score of 74.

Even though the average TOEFL scores of Thai learners between 2006-2009 continues to

rise every year: 71, 71, 72 and 74 respectively, the average level of English proficiency of

Thai learners is considered in the unsatisfactory level. Singapore was ranked in the first

place with a score of 99 out of 120. This shows that the level of English proficiency of

Thai learners is considered to be low, and they are still struggling to learn and acquire

36

basic English proficiency (TOEFL, 2009). In addition, some scholars argued that

considering the fact that Thailand has remained independent for over 800 years, the Thai

people are very nationalistic and tend to preserve their culture and language. This might

be the reason why the average Thai person still has a low level of English proficiency

(Baker, 2008; Punthumasen, 2007; Prapphal, 2008).

Turning to the specifics of English language learners' needs in the era of

globalization, numerous studies focus on the relationship between intercultural

communication and English language. In order to become successful cross cultural

communicators, Thai learners need to modify their notion of communicative competence

with respect to the concept of face and the concept of krengjai (Laopongharn &

Sercombe, 2009; Dogancay-Aktuna, 2005). To become successful learners of EFL in the

aspects of intercultural communication, the language learner not only acquires language

content, as well as language skills, but also needs to develop communicative competence

and intercultural awareness, gaining cultural knowledge of a target language in the

process of language learning. As can be seen from existing research presented in Chapter

II, Thai learners’ learning behaviors are influenced by Thai cultural values and traditions.

Such values as a relationship-oriented culture, collectivistic culture, and social hierarchy

are characteristic of Thai culture. Interestingly, Chaidaroon’s study (2003) reveals that

the concept of communicative competence differs in Thai and Western cultures. The Thai

perceives shyness, politeness, and maintaining relationships as a part of competent

behavior, especially when doing business in Thailand. From the Western perspective,

three major skills define the concept of being a competent communicator: motivation,

cognition and performance. Communicative competence is, thus, concerned with how

37

learners are able to use the target language to communicate functionally and effectively

in real world situations. Therefore, from the Western perspective, Thai students have

failed to give an expression directly because their notion of cultural communicative

competence is different. The author further describes the fact that because of the concept

of krengjai in traditional Thai culture, Thai students, therefore, do not show off or share

different points of view with their teachers in order to maintain social respect in Thai

society. Hence, because of the constraints of the cultural norms and values, the Thai

educational system needs to find “'a middle way' to create the future of Thai schooling”

(Hallinger, 2001, p. 1). Instead of importing the whole education policy from abroad,

Thailand needs to maintain balance between preserving their traditions while adapting to

Western education systems.

To produce successful learners, the teacher has a significant role that can help

students by encouraging them to participate in discussions, as well as motivating them to

speak up with confidence. Once foreign EFL teachers become aware of the learning

characteristics of Thai learners, understand Thai learners' cultural values, perspectives

and learning styles, they will be able to provide appropriate teaching methods, teaching

strategies and teaching tools that suit the learner' needs and preferences. These will

enhance students’ motivation as well as helping them become competent in intercultural

communication (Laopongharn & Sercombe, 2009; P. Pagram & Pagram, 2006; Baker,

2008). The need to create a positive classroom environment has been identified as a

major contributing factor for students to overcome (Nonkukhetkhong et al., 2006; Baker,

2008; Hallinger, 2001; P. Pagram & Pagram, 2006; Chaidaroon, 2003). One effective

way to establish a safe classroom environment, where Thai students can develop

38

confidence and feel safe enough to take risks, is by implementing technology as a

supplemental learning tool used to promote and facilitate engaging and meaningful

learning in the classroom. Technology has been suggested as a way to enhance students'

motivation and positive attitudes towards learning. The students, therefore, will be more

motivated to achieve success. Thai students should be challenged and engaged in active

learning, compelled to discuss and share their thoughts with peers, rather than being

passive learners. Robin Mason (1998) noted that many schools are now increasingly

using online technology in the classroom setting because it takes away geographical

limitations, and breaks down "traditional hierarchies and establishes a new kind of

democracy about what constitutes knowledge” (as cited in Ziguras, 2001, p. 46). In the

next chapter, the author introduces weblog tools for adapting learning activities into new

language classroom practices that can boost students' motivation and encourage them to

discuss and express more thoughts while learning English.

39

CHAPTER IV

INNOVATIVE LANGUAGE

CLASSROOM WITH

WEBLOGS

In this chapter, the author introduces the weblog, a new learning tool, as a

means to stimulate language students' engagement in classroom learning. This chapter

also describes basic concepts and features of weblogs; and examines how this tool can be

effectively integrated into second/foreign language teaching and learning. This chapter

will also investigate some of the theories that have been proposed to facilitate the

second/foreign language acquisition process.

Introduction

In recent years numerous studies have found that socially-based technology

tools in the EFL classroom have a positive impact on student achievement and have

drawn much attention in education. Research indicates that the tools can enhance student

engagement, raise student motivation, promote class participation and discussion between

teacher and learner, and interaction among students grounded in computer-supported

collaborative learning (CSCL) (Campbell, 2003; Glogowski, 2005; Liou & Peng, 2009;

Huffaker, 2005). In the past few decades, technology tools and applications that are most

commonly used in instructional practices for second language classroom were e-mail,

40

word processing, web pages and classroom discussion. However, research regarding the

effectiveness of these tools on learning in ESL/EFL contexts has shown that technology

tools still enjoy limited use in classrooms (Jones, 2006). Jones's study (2006) found that

“blog software is an asynchronous interactive computer-mediated communication tool.

Web pages are static, blogs are dynamic” (p. 10).

A number of educators have examined technology applications, such as

weblogs, which can provide and support communication for language learners with the

concepts of social interaction and collaboration. Weblogs are designed to facilitate the

exchange of information. This tools enable users to gather a massive amount of

information and share their interests in an online social network, enabling them to

develop an ability to express their own ideas actively and critically (Glogowski, 2005;

Liou & Peng, 2009; Huffaker, 2005). As a result of the global challenges of technology,

social networking sites are embedded in many aspects of our daily lives and have

dramatically changed the way people think and live. Learning today is being shaped by

the growth of technology and social media tools that have the potential for cultivating a

learner’s interests by influencing learning performances. Social networking technologies

such as weblogs can be used as a collaborative learning tool to develop language

activities in teaching English language learners.

The weblog is a term that Jorn Barger created in 1998, to describe a type of

website where bloggers (users) feel free to express their personal thoughts to the public.

Weblogs enable them to syndicate their own profile data, interact and share their thoughts

with others. Blog is a shortened form of Weblog, “because it is writing a log on the web”

(Jones, 2006, p. 9). The weblog, therefore, is a type of technology tool that offers new

41

opportunities for free expression and communication, allowing users to share their

thoughts and provide feedback within social networks in creative ways without concern

for the issue of face for Thai learners. Jones's study (2006) reveals that English language

learners, who have experienced using weblogs, advocate for their use as a tool to enhance

teaching and learning because they are user-friendly tools. “Blogs gave them perspectives

from others outside the class; they felt added to what their classmates could provide” (p.

219). Regarding the characteristics of blogging, learners are able to publicly share and

exchange their thoughts in a collaborative learning environment. The use of weblogs can

also establish positive teacher-student classroom interactions, enhancing student's

motivation to build confidence in language learning, as well as engage in social

interactions that promote the cooperative construction of knowledge.

Theoretical Backgrounds of Learning

Theories: Western Influence

There are several ways in which weblogs can be incorporated in the language

classroom setting. Campbell (2003) has developed three types of blogs for use in an ESL

classroom, based on three functional requirements, namely, personal, educational and

journalistic purposes (Campbell, 2003).

The Tutor Weblog

This blog is to promote learners' reading practices. Learners can choose to

read about many interesting topics and post their thoughts after reading as a blog post.

This type of blog promotes self-directed study, where learners are requested to write a

response, independently.

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The Class Weblog

This type of blog is a collaborative tool during a class discussion. It is possible

to use it in various courses such as literacy and reading practice, writing, conversation

practice, and so on. Students are encouraged to reflect on how they learn in greater depth,

what they already know, and what they have just learned, for example.

The Learner Weblog

This type of blog offers opportunities to practice a sense of ownership of

experiences with practical, legal and ethical issues. Students can be encouraged to

construct their own knowledge by sharing and posting their thoughts on their own blog.

This is particularly helpful in reading and writing classes (Campbell, 2003).

The Use of Weblogs as a Learning Tool

With the increasing exposure to technology, educators are strongly interested

in social networking tools that promote new ways of learning in ESL/EFL classrooms.

According to Jones (2006), “Educators who use blogs have suggested possible classroom

applications, such as: (a) learning journals, (b) thinking journals, ( c ) reflective journals

. . . (g) group discussion and collaborative writing spaces” (p. 12). With a greater variety

of functions, such as with video, audio, chat rooms, online discussion, and additional

websites, implementing a weblog in class allows students to actively participate in

learning, and encourages them to share their opinions as more active and self-motivated

learners. Weblogs can be used to support language learners in performing tasks as well as

in developing new learning styles in a collaborative learning environment. If employed in

conjunction with appropriate strategies, weblogs are capable of promoting

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self-authorship, collaborative learning, peer feedback, and critical thinking skills

(Campbell, 2007; Glogowski, 2005; Liou & Peng, 2009; Huffaker, 2005).

Self-Authorship

Considering traditional Thai classrooms in which learners are expected to be

passive, the weblog tool offers multiple pathways that allow learners to become more

intellectually engaged and enthusiastic about learning. Blog applications used with

dialogue journals and E-mail allow ESL learners to exercise their own voice, particularly

in reading and writing courses. Given a lot of practice in writing tasks via the use of

weblog, language learners become more confident to express their own opinions. Larson

and Maier (2000) observe that teachers and students mutually participate and engage in

the writing process on the blog. From the teacher's view, students are writers who are

capable of creating meaningful thoughts and reflective work in a community of practice.

The authors state that “understanding how authorship is mediated by classroom language

and literacy practices will inform current theoretical conceptions of how literacy as a

social and cultural practice is constructed in interaction” (p. 470). Glogowski (2005)

reported that her students are considered writers who value their authorship and

contribute to insightful conversation. The author uses a term “thoughts made visible”

(para. 5) to describe the blog feature that provides an interactive environment for anyone

to leave comments and post tips about articles. Hence, implementing weblogs as a

writing tool in the language classroom, thus, enables learners to play a central role, and

put down their thoughts and opinions. Not only do language learners improve their

language skills; but they can also develop self-authorship, helping them to become better

44

writers and encouraging them to face their shyness and fear via use of weblog publishing

tools.

Collaborative Learning

The importance of interaction in classroom discussion is based on the idea of

collaborative learning. Huffaker (2005) stated that online technology is not only about

one who interacts or presents oneself online. It also facilitates active learning through

interaction with others. For instance, questioning, negotiating, and sharing can promote

and stimulate individual learners to develop and clarify their thinking critically. Students

are expected to be active participants, engaging in collaborative learning and activities. In

the Huffaker's study, the blog is both an "individualistic and collaborative" (94) tool in

promoting literacy, reading and writing through storytelling and dialogue. Each student

has his or her own work. At the same time, students need to work in cooperative groups

to accomplish a shared goal or task. For the author, the blog is, thus, considered as an

effective reading and writing visual aid that can facilitate the collaboration process by

making contributions to the entire class, promoting peer learning and encouraging quality

in work for language classrooms in all academic disciplines.

One of the most well-known constructivist learning theories was developed by

Lev Vygotsky (1981). Known as A Social Development Theory and The Zone of

Proximal Development (ZPD), Vygotsky's theoretical framework focuses on social

interaction and its roles in learning development. Vygotsky believes that social skills are

essential to influencing student learning processes and outcomes in the development of

cognition (cited in Moll, 2004). According to Vygotsky (1981), any function in the

child's cultural development appears twice or on two planes. First it appears on the social

45

plane, and then on the psychological plane. First it appears between people as an

interpsychological category, and then within the child as an intrapsychological category.

(Cited in Moll, 2004, p. 113)

The author defines the inter-psychological plane as the learning process

through social interaction in which individuals are influenced by interaction while

participating in learning activities. After gaining knowledge and skills through interaction

with others, students move from inter-psychological to intra-psychological processes in

which individuals are able to construct their own knowledge and eventually able to work

on their own. In addition, Vygotsky promoted the idea of a potential development level

he referred to as the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Vygotsky asserts that there

are two different levels in the process of learning development. One is what learners can

actively learn without assistance or the “actual development level;” the other is what

learners can do and learn with mutual assistance, in peer interaction or “the potential

development level.” The idea of the ZPD shows that learning occurs when students can

gather knowledge from various sources in their environment: textbooks, materials,

teachers, peers, parents, internet, etc. (Riddle, 1999).

Campbell (2007) also points out the challenge of the weblog. It allows many

blog owners to connect with their readers and enables bloggers to go back and forth on

related subjects through the use of trackback functions. These enable blog owners to

know or keep track of who is linking and talking on their weblogs. Having a conversation

in collaborative distributed learning on the blog, students are able to develop new ideas

and respond thoughtfully in various discourses. The blog brings learners together so that

they can communicate, share knowledge and help each other within the same community.

46

Therefore, using blogs as interactive tools for learning enables students to acquire

knowledge and skills, allowing them to construct knowledge for themselves as well as

develop their points of view.

Peer Feedback

In collaborative learning environments, students are not only encouraged to

take charge of their own learning; but they are also required to be responsible for their

peers' work. In a weblog learning environment, the use of peer feedback via the learners’

blog has been generally supported and applied in the reading and writing classroom as a

valuable and effective aid especially in L1 (first language) classrooms (Campbell, 2007).

Liou and Peng (2009) noted that the weblog provides students an opportunity to develop

their thinking skills, revise their own learning, and experience a peer response activity.

However, with regard to L2 (second language) learners, peer feedback may

turn out to be ineffective and even inappropriate for some cultures. In certain collectivist

cultures, where there is some degree of social hierarchy in the classroom, peer feedback

is considered unacceptable because students believe that teachers are the only source of

knowledge. Peers would not have sufficient knowledge to give constructive comments

(Jones, 2006). Liou and Peng (2009) assert that after training ESL students in peer

reviews based on a rubric developed by Liu and Sadler (2003), the Chinese students

clearly and concisely produced more comments on writing; they were more revision-

oriented. However, the result showed that although students had been trained on how to

respond to others, they rarely adopted the peer comments in their final work (only 47.7%

were adopted by students) (Liou & Peng, 2009, p. 522). The authors assumed that it

might be because some learners have a limited English proficiency level, so the receivers

47

may not trust and feel uncertain about their peers’ response. According to Jones (2006),

“they preferred for me [teacher] to edit their papers and not each other because they did

not feel confident in their peers' editing abilities (p. 227).

In order to address those problems, Jones (2006) recommends guidelines for

ESL learners on how to write comments with a mix of critical and non-critical comments,

called the “sandwich approach” (p. 230). The author further reveals, “The critical

comments the students received served as a didactic purpose for writing improvement,

whereas the non-critical comments served to stimulate them to write” (p. 241). To

provide effective peer feedback, students need to be taught and trained on how to give

appropriate feedback first. The peer feedback questions should be clear and more specific

in order for students to make the feedback more meaningful. With regard to the

difficulties in peer feedback activity, the lack of knowledge is a key to explaining why

the students are reluctant and not confident in commenting on their peers' works.

Critical Thinking Skills

Cognition always emerges in everyday practice through social interaction

within the collaborative distributed learning environment. Brown et al. (1993, p. 210)

speculated that “we want [students] to harness technology as a mean of enhancing their

thinking-planning and revising their learning goals, monitoring and reflecting on their

own progress as they construct personal knowledge” (Brown et al., 1993, p. 210). The

use of the weblog in asynchronous discussion forum appears to be an effective learning

tool that can promote critical thinking skills in collaborative learning environments.

Crichton and Labonte's study (2003) (cited in P. Pagram & Pagram, 2006, p. 2) proposes

two types of technological tools. One is the synchronous learning system which provides

48

live-interaction between students and teachers. This type of learning is commonly used in

academic distance learning, e.g., videoconference, teleconference phone and web-based

audio. Another is the asynchronous learning system which is currently and more

commonly used in the online learning classroom, allowing students time and space to

work either together or independently. Such technological tools are Weblog, E-mail,

online discussion forums and bulletin boards. In editing and revising, students learn

through social interaction. They not only develop the skills for self-directed learning, but

are also engaged actively in the critical thinking process (Jones, 2006).

The asynchronous learning provides students time and space to encounter

open-ended questions. It challenges their thoughts, allowing anyone to form and express

opinions, and to learn from other viewpoints. In a project described by Arend (2009),

most students appeared to appreciate the challenge of this effective tool, in which

instructors and learners create an open forum to share their thoughts and multiple

viewpoints during discussion. This is evidenced in the following:

Online discussion forum helped me see how others looked at various

problems and encouraged me to look closer at my methods (p. 10) ...because I was

required to respond to their questions as well, I tended to think a bit more about what they

had said. Also, if someone posted a comment that I completely disagreed with, I went

back to the text or Internet to find a credible source to give credit to my opinion. The

questions [the instructor] posed, coupled with the requirements of interacting with other

students, and helped me to form my own opinion. (Arend, 2009, p. 11)

Moreover, the valuable aspect of online discussion is that both teachers and

students exchange questions and answer online without the limitation on time and space.

49

“The time delay of asynchronous discussions allowed students to process and think

more” (Arend, 2009, p.12). In online discussion, students have more time to think of their

responses and review the information before submitting. In turn, teachers can encourage

students to think critically and express their viewpoints. According to Arend (2009), “If

an online instructor wants students to be thinking critically in a course, he or she should

use discussions as an open-ended, informal space for students to share multiple

viewpoints and problem-solving strategies” (p. 17). Consequently, teachers should carry

out the guidance role by asking extended-answers questions and open-ended questions

where critical thinking can occur. Instead of feeding students the answers, teachers

should be asking neutral questions. Students; therefore, need to be encouraged to express

their opinions and have their voice heard in the discussion.

However, there are several obstacles to implementation of weblogs in

classroom learning and teaching. Jones's study (2006) found that three main factors in

using blogs for ESL writing students are “technical problems, peer editing and audience

participant” (p. 234). “Editing was a problem. The students did not have enough

confidence in their writing to accept each others' feedback on grammar” (p. 223). “I know

there were going to be some technical problems, so I was not frustrated, but the students

were” (p. 224). Despite obstacles, the benefits of blogging far outweigh the

disadvantages. The use of weblogs can also provide students with an opportunity to meet

people around the world, raising them awareness of other cultures.

In conclusion, as technology has become more widely accessible, integrating

weblogs as a tool in the language classroom would appear to be a way to use social

networking sites to enable students to practice language skills, especially in writing and

50

reading skills in a technologically friendly environment. Weblogs will also promote

collaborative work, where students mutually share and exchange knowledge, reflect and

cultivate their own thoughts to develop a sense of ownership. As a result, the weblog can

inspire enthusiasm and a strong commitment to learn (Brown et al., 1993; Jones, 2006;

Campbell, 2003; Campbell, 2007; Glogowski, 2005; Arend, 2009).

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