EECS 373Design of Microprocessor-Based Systems

Thomas SchmidUniversity of Michigan

Lecture 12: Wireless CommunicationOctober 14, 2010

1

Minute Quiz...

2

Announcements

• How do we deal with virtual timers that are close together?– Keep time running while executing current handler– When handler returns, check for time and the next virtual timer– If it is time, execute the next handler. Else, set the HW timer

4

Inter-Integrated Circuit - I2C

• What is the simplest way to connect many serial devices with just 2 wires?

• Addressing of chips• Message acknowledgment• Single master - multiple slave• Multiple master - multiple slave

• Two bi-directional open-drain lines SDA, SCL– Pull-up resistors to Vcc

• 7-bit address space with 16 addresses reserved

5

I2C

6

Dual, 256-Tap, Volatile, Low-Voltage Linear Taper Digital Potentiometer

MA

X5

38

7

______________________________________________________________________________________ 11

Message Format for WritingWrite to the devices by transmitting the device’s slave address with NOP/W (eighth bit) set to zero, followed by at least 2 bytes of information. The first byte of informa-tion is the command byte. The second byte is the data byte. The data byte goes into the internal register of the device as selected by the command byte (Figure 7 and Table 2).

Command ByteUse the command byte to select the destination of the wiper data. See Table 2.

Command DescriptionsREG A: The data byte writes to register A and the wiper of potentiometer A moves to the appropriate position. D[7:0] indicates the position of the wiper. D[7:0] = 00h

moves the wiper to the position closest to LA. D[7:0] = FFh moves the wiper to the position closest to HA. D[7:0] is 80h following power-on.

Table 1. Slave Addresses

Figure 6. Slave Address

Figure 7. Command and Single Data Byte Received

LSBMSBSTART

SDA

SCL

0 1 0 1 A2 A1 A0 ACKNOP/W

ADDRESS INPUTSSLAVE ADDRESS

A2 A1 A0GND GND GND 0101000GND GND VDD 0101001GND VDD GND 0101010GND VDD VDD 0101011VDD GND GND 0101100VDD GND VDD 0101101VDD VDD GND 0101110VDD VDD VDD 0101111

S 0 A A A P

ACKNOWLEDGE

NOP/W

HOW CONTROL BYTE AND DATABYTE MAP INTO DEVICE REGISTERS

ACKNOWLEDGE

R7 R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1 R0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

SLAVE ADDRESS COMMAND BYTE 1 DATA BYTE

R/W

Dual, 256-Tap, Volatile, Low-Voltage Linear Taper Digital Potentiometer

MA

X5

38

7

______________________________________________________________________________________ 11

Message Format for WritingWrite to the devices by transmitting the device’s slave address with NOP/W (eighth bit) set to zero, followed by at least 2 bytes of information. The first byte of informa-tion is the command byte. The second byte is the data byte. The data byte goes into the internal register of the device as selected by the command byte (Figure 7 and Table 2).

Command ByteUse the command byte to select the destination of the wiper data. See Table 2.

Command DescriptionsREG A: The data byte writes to register A and the wiper of potentiometer A moves to the appropriate position. D[7:0] indicates the position of the wiper. D[7:0] = 00h

moves the wiper to the position closest to LA. D[7:0] = FFh moves the wiper to the position closest to HA. D[7:0] is 80h following power-on.

Table 1. Slave Addresses

Figure 6. Slave Address

Figure 7. Command and Single Data Byte Received

LSBMSBSTART

SDA

SCL

0 1 0 1 A2 A1 A0 ACKNOP/W

ADDRESS INPUTSSLAVE ADDRESS

A2 A1 A0GND GND GND 0101000GND GND VDD 0101001GND VDD GND 0101010GND VDD VDD 0101011VDD GND GND 0101100VDD GND VDD 0101101VDD VDD GND 0101110VDD VDD VDD 0101111

S 0 A A A P

ACKNOWLEDGE

NOP/W

HOW CONTROL BYTE AND DATABYTE MAP INTO DEVICE REGISTERS

ACKNOWLEDGE

R7 R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1 R0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

SLAVE ADDRESS COMMAND BYTE 1 DATA BYTE

A3

Dual, 256-Tap, Volatile, Low-Voltage Linear Taper Digital Potentiometer

MA

X5

38

7

______________________________________________________________________________________ 11

Message Format for WritingWrite to the devices by transmitting the device’s slave address with NOP/W (eighth bit) set to zero, followed by at least 2 bytes of information. The first byte of informa-tion is the command byte. The second byte is the data byte. The data byte goes into the internal register of the device as selected by the command byte (Figure 7 and Table 2).

Command ByteUse the command byte to select the destination of the wiper data. See Table 2.

Command DescriptionsREG A: The data byte writes to register A and the wiper of potentiometer A moves to the appropriate position. D[7:0] indicates the position of the wiper. D[7:0] = 00h

moves the wiper to the position closest to LA. D[7:0] = FFh moves the wiper to the position closest to HA. D[7:0] is 80h following power-on.

Table 1. Slave Addresses

Figure 6. Slave Address

Figure 7. Command and Single Data Byte Received

LSBMSBSTART

SDA

SCL

0 1 0 1 A2 A1 A0 ACKNOP/W

ADDRESS INPUTSSLAVE ADDRESS

A2 A1 A0GND GND GND 0101000GND GND VDD 0101001GND VDD GND 0101010GND VDD VDD 0101011VDD GND GND 0101100VDD GND VDD 0101101VDD VDD GND 0101110VDD VDD VDD 0101111

S 0 A A A P

ACKNOWLEDGE

NOP/W

HOW CONTROL BYTE AND DATABYTE MAP INTO DEVICE REGISTERS

ACKNOWLEDGE

R7 R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1 R0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

SLAVE ADDRESS COMMAND BYTE 1 DATA BYTE

A4

Dual, 256-Tap, Volatile, Low-Voltage Linear Taper Digital Potentiometer

MA

X5

38

7

______________________________________________________________________________________ 11

Message Format for WritingWrite to the devices by transmitting the device’s slave address with NOP/W (eighth bit) set to zero, followed by at least 2 bytes of information. The first byte of informa-tion is the command byte. The second byte is the data byte. The data byte goes into the internal register of the device as selected by the command byte (Figure 7 and Table 2).

Command ByteUse the command byte to select the destination of the wiper data. See Table 2.

Command DescriptionsREG A: The data byte writes to register A and the wiper of potentiometer A moves to the appropriate position. D[7:0] indicates the position of the wiper. D[7:0] = 00h

moves the wiper to the position closest to LA. D[7:0] = FFh moves the wiper to the position closest to HA. D[7:0] is 80h following power-on.

Table 1. Slave Addresses

Figure 6. Slave Address

Figure 7. Command and Single Data Byte Received

LSBMSBSTART

SDA

SCL

0 1 0 1 A2 A1 A0 ACKNOP/W

ADDRESS INPUTSSLAVE ADDRESS

A2 A1 A0GND GND GND 0101000GND GND VDD 0101001GND VDD GND 0101010GND VDD VDD 0101011VDD GND GND 0101100VDD GND VDD 0101101VDD VDD GND 0101110VDD VDD VDD 0101111

S 0 A A A P

ACKNOWLEDGE

NOP/W

HOW CONTROL BYTE AND DATABYTE MAP INTO DEVICE REGISTERS

ACKNOWLEDGE

R7 R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1 R0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

SLAVE ADDRESS COMMAND BYTE 1 DATA BYTE

A5

Dual, 256-Tap, Volatile, Low-Voltage Linear Taper Digital Potentiometer

MA

X5

38

7

______________________________________________________________________________________ 11

Message Format for WritingWrite to the devices by transmitting the device’s slave address with NOP/W (eighth bit) set to zero, followed by at least 2 bytes of information. The first byte of informa-tion is the command byte. The second byte is the data byte. The data byte goes into the internal register of the device as selected by the command byte (Figure 7 and Table 2).

Command ByteUse the command byte to select the destination of the wiper data. See Table 2.

Command DescriptionsREG A: The data byte writes to register A and the wiper of potentiometer A moves to the appropriate position. D[7:0] indicates the position of the wiper. D[7:0] = 00h

moves the wiper to the position closest to LA. D[7:0] = FFh moves the wiper to the position closest to HA. D[7:0] is 80h following power-on.

Table 1. Slave Addresses

Figure 6. Slave Address

Figure 7. Command and Single Data Byte Received

LSBMSBSTART

SDA

SCL

0 1 0 1 A2 A1 A0 ACKNOP/W

ADDRESS INPUTSSLAVE ADDRESS

A2 A1 A0GND GND GND 0101000GND GND VDD 0101001GND VDD GND 0101010GND VDD VDD 0101011VDD GND GND 0101100VDD GND VDD 0101101VDD VDD GND 0101110VDD VDD VDD 0101111

S 0 A A A P

ACKNOWLEDGE

NOP/W

HOW CONTROL BYTE AND DATABYTE MAP INTO DEVICE REGISTERS

ACKNOWLEDGE

R7 R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1 R0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

SLAVE ADDRESS COMMAND BYTE 1 DATA BYTE

A6 A2 A1 A0 ACK

Dual, 256-Tap, Volatile, Low-Voltage Linear Taper Digital Potentiometer

MA

X5

38

7

______________________________________________________________________________________ 11

Message Format for WritingWrite to the devices by transmitting the device’s slave address with NOP/W (eighth bit) set to zero, followed by at least 2 bytes of information. The first byte of informa-tion is the command byte. The second byte is the data byte. The data byte goes into the internal register of the device as selected by the command byte (Figure 7 and Table 2).

Command ByteUse the command byte to select the destination of the wiper data. See Table 2.

Command DescriptionsREG A: The data byte writes to register A and the wiper of potentiometer A moves to the appropriate position. D[7:0] indicates the position of the wiper. D[7:0] = 00h

moves the wiper to the position closest to LA. D[7:0] = FFh moves the wiper to the position closest to HA. D[7:0] is 80h following power-on.

Table 1. Slave Addresses

Figure 6. Slave Address

Figure 7. Command and Single Data Byte Received

LSBMSBSTART

SDA

SCL

0 1 0 1 A2 A1 A0 ACKNOP/W

ADDRESS INPUTSSLAVE ADDRESS

A2 A1 A0GND GND GND 0101000GND GND VDD 0101001GND VDD GND 0101010GND VDD VDD 0101011VDD GND GND 0101100VDD GND VDD 0101101VDD VDD GND 0101110VDD VDD VDD 0101111

S 0 A A A P

ACKNOWLEDGE

NOP/W

HOW CONTROL BYTE AND DATABYTE MAP INTO DEVICE REGISTERS

ACKNOWLEDGE

R7 R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1 R0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

SLAVE ADDRESS COMMAND BYTE 1 DATA BYTE

R/W

Dual, 256-Tap, Volatile, Low-Voltage Linear Taper Digital Potentiometer

MA

X5

38

7

10 _____________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 3. START and STOP Conditions

Figure 4. Bit Transfer

Figure 5. Acknowledge

Bit TransferOne data bit is transferred during each clock pulse. The data on the SDA line must remain stable while SCL is high. See Figure 4.

AcknowledgeThe acknowledge bit is a clocked 9th bit that the recipi-ent uses to handshake receipt of each byte of data. See Figure 5. Each byte transferred requires a total of nine bits. The master controller generates the 9th clock pulse, and the recipient pulls down SDA during the acknowl-edge clock pulse, so the SDA line remains stable low during the high period of the clock pulse.

Slave AddressThe MAX5387 includes a 7-bit slave address (Figure 6). The 8th bit following the 7th bit of the slave address is the NOP/W bit. Set the NOP/W bit low for a write command and high for a no-operation command. The device does not support readback.

The device provides three address inputs (A0, A1, and A2), allowing up to eight devices to share a common bus (Table 1). The first 4 bits (MSBs) of the factory-set slave addresses are always 0101. A2, A1, and A0 set the next 3 bits of the slave address. Connect each address input to VDD or GND. Each device must have a unique address to share a common bus.

P

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SCLDATA STABLE,DATA VALID

CHANGE OFDATA ALLOWED

9821

STARTCONDITION

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CLOCK PULSE FORACKNOWLEDGMENT

NOT ACKNOWLEDGE

ACKNOWLEDGE

StopCondition

How can we cut the cord?

7

Modulation is Key to Wireless Communication

• Transmit information over an analog pass-band channel• AM/FM Modulation

8

• Alphabet of M=2N alternative symbols, each of size N• If we have fs S/s, the data rate is N·fs bits/s• Fundamental Digital Modulation

• Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)• Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)• Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)• Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Phase Shift Keying

• Binary PSK (BPSK) M=2• Quadrature PSK (QPSK) M=4• 8PSK (M=8), 16PSK (M=16)• Differential PSK (DPSK) Differential QPSK (DQPSK)• Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

9

O-QPSK Constellation

BPSK Constellation

Figures from wikipedia.org

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

• Adds amplitude modulation to phase shift keying

10

16-QAM Constelation

11

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Radio-location

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Radio-location

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ISM – 6.78 ± .015 MHz ISM – 13.560 ± .007 MHz ISM – 27.12 ± .163 MHz

ISM – 40.68 ± .02 MHz

ISM – 24.125 ± 0.125 GHz 30 GHz

ISM – 245.0 ± 1GHzISM – 122.5 ± .500 GHzISM – 61.25 ± .250 GHz

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932

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1215

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2000

2020

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2155

2160

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2300

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2310

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5.0

5.15

5.25

5.35

5.46

5.47

5.6

5.65

5.83

5.85

5.92

5

6.42

5

6.52

5

6.70

6.87

5

7.02

57.

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7.12

5

7.19

7.23

57.

257.

307.

45

7.55

7.75

7.90

8.02

5

8.17

5

8.21

5

8.4

8.45

8.5

9.0

9.2

9.3

9.5

10.0

10.4

510

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10.6

10.6

8

10.7

11.7

12.2

12.7

12.7

5

13.2

513

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13.7

514

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14.2

14.4

14.4

714

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15.13

65

15.3

5

15.4

15.4

3

15.6

315

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17.2

17.3

17.7

17.8

18.3

18.6

18.8

19.3

19.7

20.1

20.2

21.2

21.4

22.0

22.2

122

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22.5

5

23.5

5

23.6

24.0

24.0

5

24.2

524

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24.6

5

24.7

5

25.0

5

25.2

525

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27.5

29.5

29.9

30.0

ISM – 2450.0 ± 50 MHz

30.0

31.0

31.3

31.8

32.0

32.3

33.0

33.4

36.0

37.0

37.6

38.0

38.6

39.5

40.0

40.5

41.0

42.5

43.5

45.5

46.9

47.0

47.2

48.2

50.2

50.4

51.4

52.6

54.2

555

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56.9

57.0

58.2

59.0

59.3

64.0

65.0

66.0

71.0

74.0

75.5

76.0

77.0

77.5

78.0

81.0

84.0

86.0

92.0

95.0

100.

0

102.

0

105.

0

116.

0

119.

98

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200.

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248.

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250.

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PLEASE NOTE: THE SPACING ALLOTTED THE SERVICES IN THE SPEC-TRUM SEGMENTS SHOWN IS NOT PROPORTIONAL TO THE ACTUAL AMOUNTOF SPECTRUM OCCUPIED.

AERONAUTICALMOBILE

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ALLOCATION USAGE DESIGNATIONSERVICE EXAMPLE DESCRIPTION

Primary FIXED Capital LettersSecondary Mobi le 1st Capital with lower case letters

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCENational Telecommunications and Information AdministrationOffice of Spectrum Management

October 2003

MOBIL

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TRAVELERS INFORMATION STATIONS (G) AT 1610 kHz

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3 x 107m 3 x 106m 3 x 105m 30,000 m 3,000 m 300 m 30 m 3 m 30 cm 3 cm 0.3 cm 0.03 cm 3 x 105Å 3 x 104Å 3 x 103Å 3 x 102Å 3 x 10Å 3Å 3 x 10-1Å 3 x 10-2Å 3 x 10-3Å 3 x 10-4Å 3 x 10-5Å 3 x 10-6Å 3 x 10-7Å

0 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz 100 MHz 1 GHz 10 GHz 100 GHz 1 THz 1013Hz 1014Hz 1015Hz 1016Hz 1017Hz 1018Hz 1019Hz 1020Hz 1021Hz 1022Hz 1023Hz 1024Hz 1025Hz

THE RADIO SPECTRUMMAGNIFIED ABOVE3 kHz 300 GHz

VERY LOW FREQUENCY (VLF)Audible Range AM Broadcast FM Broadcast Radar Sub-Millimeter Visible Ultraviolet Gamma-ray Cosmic-ray

Infra-sonics Sonics Ultra-sonics Microwaves InfraredP L S XC Radar

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This chart is a graphic single-point-in-time portrayal of the Table of Frequency Allocations used by theFCC and NTIA. As such, it does not completely reflect all aspects, i.e., footnotes and recent changesmade to the Table of Frequency Allocations. Therefore, for complete information, users should consult theTable to determine the current status of U.S. allocations.

Why should you care about Wireless Embedded Systems?

12

Digital Radio

13

Source

Source

Source

Destination

Destination

Destination

Multiplex

Demultiplex

MAC

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Limited bandwidthTime dependent

Noisy

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• Path loss proportional to 1/dn

• Typical path loss constants

• Problems– Channel is time-varying and can be significantly different for nodes at

the same distance– Link can even be asymmetric, i.e., the link between node 1 and 2 is

different than the one from node 2 to 114

Environment nFree Space 2Urban area cellular radio 2.7-3.5Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 - 5In-building Line of Sight 1.6 to 1.8Obstructed in building 4 to 6Obstructed in factories 2 to 3

No Disk Model Connectivity

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Zhou et al, Impact of Radio Irregularity on Wireless Sensor Networks

16 meters

13 meters

Taxonomy of MAC Protocols

• Random-access vs. Scheduled • Time Slotted vs. Non-slotted• Peer-to-peer vs. Master-slave• MAC level retransmission

16Adapted from M. Srivastava EE202B Lecture

Some Common Examples

• ALOHA– Random, slot-less or slotted, peer-to-peer

• IEEE 802.11 infrastructure DCF and ad-hoc mode – Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)– Random, slot-less, peer-to-peer

• IEEE 802.11 infrastructure PCF– Scheduled (polling), slot-less, master

• Bluetooth Piconets– Scheduled (polling), time-slot (with frequency hopping), master

• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

17

Multi-Hop Routing

• Different protocols and algorithms for different goals• Any-to-any routing

– DSDV, DSR, AODV

• Geographic Routing– Nodes know their own and their neighbor location– Address is physical location of node– Forward to neighbor closest to address

• Directed Diffusion– Data, not node, centric– Nodes publish data, users subscribe

• Flooding, Gossiping, Trickle• Collection• IPv6 LoWPAN RPL (‘ripple’)

– proactive distance vector approach– optimized for low-power networks 18Ack: Culler, MobiHoc ‘05

Power Aware MAC Protocols

19

TI CC2520, TI MSP430, Actel SmartFusionPower Comparison

• TI CC2520– RX 18.5mA– TX 33.6 mA @ +5 dBm, 25.8 mA @ 0 dBm– < 1 uA in power down

• TI MSP430F5437A– Active Mode: 5.7 mA, 3.0 V @ 25 MHz– Standby Mode: 2.1 uA, 3.0 V

• Actel SmartFusion– MSS running at 100 MHz, 40 mA– MSS in WFI at 100 MHz, 20 mA– Stand By: 3 mA on 1.5 V, 1 mA on 3.3 V– Time Keeping: 10 uA on 3.3 V

20

Time is Energy

21

Time Uncertainty Problem

Asynchronous Approach

(long preambles: e.g. 1212B @ 2.2%)

Synchronous Approach

(frequent sync packets: e.g. every 15s)

Adapted from M. Srivastava EE202B Lecture

Receiver Initiated MACs

22

! "#$%&$'

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,"-"

,"-"

./01&/2/13/)4$2567891:;

"<=12'/%;:*;;*>%12*:$1?871@;

(A-A12B'%/'>B%&12*:$C1DE71@;

!

! F

F

Figure 1. A-MAC communications timing and flow. Asender listens (L) for a receiver’s probe (P) which it auto-acks (A) precisely 192 µs later. The sender subsequentlytransmits a data frame (DATA) after a short but randominterval, perhaps on a different channel, which the re-ceiver acknowledges with a second probe and then listensbriefly for an auto-ack before returning to sleep.

3 A-MAC Design OverviewThis section presents the design of A-MAC, a receiver-

initiated link layer for low-power wireless networks thatsupports several services under a unified architecture. Weground our discussion in the context of the IEEE 802.15.4standard. The basic A-MAC design requires a sender tofirst listen for a probe frame from the intended receiver, thenacknowledge the frame using the 802.15.4 standard’s sup-port for hardware automatic acknowledgments (auto-ack orHACK), then pause for a short, random delay, and finallytransmit the data frame if the channel is clear.

Figure 1 shows the critical time constants of an optimizedA-MAC communication over 802.15.4. In this figure, theprobe, labeled P, is a standard data frame transmitted bythe receiver with the acknowledgment request bit set. Thesender, upon receiving this probe frame, generates an auto-ack, labeled A. The 802.15.4 standard stipulates that theauto-ack must be generated precisely 12 symbol periods (192µs) after the end of P. The auto-ack frame is 11 bytes long1

and requires 352 µs to transmit. A sender transmits a DATAframe with a short, random delay after the auto-ack A, poten-tially on a different channel as stipulated in the probe. A sec-ond probe acknowledges the data frame. If the second probedoes not trigger an auto-ack, the receiver goes to sleep.

This design choice – to use an auto-ack – departs fromprior work in which receiver-initiated MACs simply send adata frame in response to a probe [17, 33]. This decision ismotivated by the observation that the most consequential de-cision that a low-power MAC makes after polling the chan-nel is whether to stay awake or go back to sleep. Since thisdecision must be made on the order of one hundred thousandtimes or more per day in a typical low-power MAC, being in-decisive or incorrect can get very costly very quickly. If theMAC decides traffic is pending when none exists – a falsepositive – then the radio will remain on, wasting energy. Ifthe MAC decides no traffic is pending when some is – a falsenegative – then the sender’s energy is wasted, communica-tion latency increases, and packet goodput drops.

1A hardware auto-ack or HACK frame includes: preamble (4),start-of-frame delimiter (1), length (1), frame control (2), sequencenumber (1), frame check sequence (2).

! "#$%&'(

)*&+&,-&./

#$%&'0)1&2%&./

! "#$%&'3)1&2%&./

4,56&2

7

7 !

! 4

! "4,56&2 7 !89:

! "4,56&2 7 !

! " 7 !89: 7

9:

7

;.<=&'+$>>,5,$2

?<+@+<56

Figure 2. A contention-free transfer (left) and a collision(right). Although the auto-ack frames collide, they do sonon-destructively, so the receiver correctly decodes theirsuperposition as a valid frame. Hence, the receiver con-cludes that traffic is pending, so it retransmits a probewith an explicit contention window, which Node 3 wins.

Clearly, making a good decision about whether to stayawake or go to sleep is a critical one, but it is not an easy onefor many reasons. First, external interference (e.g., 802.11network) might be mistaken for legitimate radio activity.Second, a receiver might overhear a partial packet sent toa different node, and stay awake until it can conclude thatthe packet is destined elsewhere. Third, hidden terminalsmight cause packets from multiple senders to collide at thereceiver. Note that it might not be possible for the receiver todifferentiate collisions from interference, forcing the radio tostay awake for shorter than required or longer than desired.

Our design reliably and efficiently balances these con-flicting needs by using backcast, a link layer primitive thatallows a node to probe all of its neighbors in parallel androbustly distinguish the case of zero replies (indicating nopending traffic) from the case of one or more replies (indi-cating pending traffic) [13]. In the former case, the MAC canturn off the radio quickly2 and return to a sleep state. In thelatter case, the MAC would leave the radio on to receive theauto-ack frame and any additional data frames. Note that allsenders with pending traffic for a particular receiver concur-rently transmit an auto-ack, as Figure 2 shows. Althoughthese auto-acks collide, they do so non-destructively withhigh probability. Therefore, the receiver can decode theirsuperposition as a valid frame and conclude that traffic ispending. In the case of a data frame collision, the receiverretransmits the probe with a larger contention window.

All other link layer services are implemented above thebackcast synchronization primitive using a combination ofhardware auto-acks and judicious frame filtering. Unicast,in principle, could be implemented by auto-ack-ing framesbased on the probe source address. Broadcast and wakeupcould be implemented by auto-ack-ing all probes whichhave the ACK request bit set in the 802.15.4 frame controlfield. Pollcast could be implemented by including a pred-icate in the probe itself, which is quickly evaluated by thesender and if found true, then auto-acked. Unfortunately, theneeded hardware support is lacking in modern radios, requir-ing some creative contortions, which we describe next.

2Since the radio would not signal a start-of-frame (SFD) event.

! "#$%&$'

($)$*+$' ! "

,"-"

,"-"

./01&/2/13/)4$2567891:;

"<=12'/%;:*;;*>%12*:$1?871@;

(A-A12B'%/'>B%&12*:$C1DE71@;

!

! F

F

Figure 1. A-MAC communications timing and flow. Asender listens (L) for a receiver’s probe (P) which it auto-acks (A) precisely 192 µs later. The sender subsequentlytransmits a data frame (DATA) after a short but randominterval, perhaps on a different channel, which the re-ceiver acknowledges with a second probe and then listensbriefly for an auto-ack before returning to sleep.

3 A-MAC Design OverviewThis section presents the design of A-MAC, a receiver-

initiated link layer for low-power wireless networks thatsupports several services under a unified architecture. Weground our discussion in the context of the IEEE 802.15.4standard. The basic A-MAC design requires a sender tofirst listen for a probe frame from the intended receiver, thenacknowledge the frame using the 802.15.4 standard’s sup-port for hardware automatic acknowledgments (auto-ack orHACK), then pause for a short, random delay, and finallytransmit the data frame if the channel is clear.

Figure 1 shows the critical time constants of an optimizedA-MAC communication over 802.15.4. In this figure, theprobe, labeled P, is a standard data frame transmitted bythe receiver with the acknowledgment request bit set. Thesender, upon receiving this probe frame, generates an auto-ack, labeled A. The 802.15.4 standard stipulates that theauto-ack must be generated precisely 12 symbol periods (192µs) after the end of P. The auto-ack frame is 11 bytes long1

and requires 352 µs to transmit. A sender transmits a DATAframe with a short, random delay after the auto-ack A, poten-tially on a different channel as stipulated in the probe. A sec-ond probe acknowledges the data frame. If the second probedoes not trigger an auto-ack, the receiver goes to sleep.

This design choice – to use an auto-ack – departs fromprior work in which receiver-initiated MACs simply send adata frame in response to a probe [17, 33]. This decision ismotivated by the observation that the most consequential de-cision that a low-power MAC makes after polling the chan-nel is whether to stay awake or go back to sleep. Since thisdecision must be made on the order of one hundred thousandtimes or more per day in a typical low-power MAC, being in-decisive or incorrect can get very costly very quickly. If theMAC decides traffic is pending when none exists – a falsepositive – then the radio will remain on, wasting energy. Ifthe MAC decides no traffic is pending when some is – a falsenegative – then the sender’s energy is wasted, communica-tion latency increases, and packet goodput drops.

1A hardware auto-ack or HACK frame includes: preamble (4),start-of-frame delimiter (1), length (1), frame control (2), sequencenumber (1), frame check sequence (2).

! "#$%&'(

)*&+&,-&./

#$%&'0)1&2%&./

! "#$%&'3)1&2%&./

4,56&2

7

7 !

! 4

! "4,56&2 7 !89:

! "4,56&2 7 !

! " 7 !89: 7

9:

7

;.<=&'+$>>,5,$2

?<+@+<56

Figure 2. A contention-free transfer (left) and a collision(right). Although the auto-ack frames collide, they do sonon-destructively, so the receiver correctly decodes theirsuperposition as a valid frame. Hence, the receiver con-cludes that traffic is pending, so it retransmits a probewith an explicit contention window, which Node 3 wins.

Clearly, making a good decision about whether to stayawake or go to sleep is a critical one, but it is not an easy onefor many reasons. First, external interference (e.g., 802.11network) might be mistaken for legitimate radio activity.Second, a receiver might overhear a partial packet sent toa different node, and stay awake until it can conclude thatthe packet is destined elsewhere. Third, hidden terminalsmight cause packets from multiple senders to collide at thereceiver. Note that it might not be possible for the receiver todifferentiate collisions from interference, forcing the radio tostay awake for shorter than required or longer than desired.

Our design reliably and efficiently balances these con-flicting needs by using backcast, a link layer primitive thatallows a node to probe all of its neighbors in parallel androbustly distinguish the case of zero replies (indicating nopending traffic) from the case of one or more replies (indi-cating pending traffic) [13]. In the former case, the MAC canturn off the radio quickly2 and return to a sleep state. In thelatter case, the MAC would leave the radio on to receive theauto-ack frame and any additional data frames. Note that allsenders with pending traffic for a particular receiver concur-rently transmit an auto-ack, as Figure 2 shows. Althoughthese auto-acks collide, they do so non-destructively withhigh probability. Therefore, the receiver can decode theirsuperposition as a valid frame and conclude that traffic ispending. In the case of a data frame collision, the receiverretransmits the probe with a larger contention window.

All other link layer services are implemented above thebackcast synchronization primitive using a combination ofhardware auto-acks and judicious frame filtering. Unicast,in principle, could be implemented by auto-ack-ing framesbased on the probe source address. Broadcast and wakeupcould be implemented by auto-ack-ing all probes whichhave the ACK request bit set in the 802.15.4 frame controlfield. Pollcast could be implemented by including a pred-icate in the probe itself, which is quickly evaluated by thesender and if found true, then auto-acked. Unfortunately, theneeded hardware support is lacking in modern radios, requir-ing some creative contortions, which we describe next.

2Since the radio would not signal a start-of-frame (SFD) event.

from P. Dutta et. al “Design and Evaluation of a Versatile and Efficient Receiver-Initiated Link Layer for Low-Power Wireless”

Talking to a Radio, TI CC2520

23

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CC2520 DATASHEET 2.4 GHZ IEEE 802.15.4/ZIGBEE® RF TRANSCEIVER SWRS068 – DECEMBER 2007

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!==";"G!.4!0OJ.'+//O!'(10)(//*3!UO!+!,.')('(10)(//*)!'(11*'0*3!0(!06*!SPI!+13!4(,*!789:4V!L6*!,.')('(10)(//*)!W.//!4*13!.140)5'0.(14!0(!==";"G!+13!.0!.4!06*!)*4J(14.U./.0O!(-!06*!instruction decoder!0(!*I*'50*!06*!.140)5'0.(14!()!J+44!06*,!(1!0(!(06*)!,(35/*4V!!L6*!*I*'50.(1!(-!+1!.140)5'0.(1!()!*I0*)1+/!*X*104!Y*V2V!)*'*J0.(1!(-!+!-)+,*Z!,+O!)*45/0!.1!(1*!()!,()*!*I'*J0.(14V!L6*!*I'*J0.(14!J)(X.3*!+!X*)O!-/*I.U/*!,*'6+1.4,!-()!+50(,+0.12!0+4>4V!L6*O!'+1!-()!.140+1'*!U*!54*3!0(!0).22*)!*I*'50.(1!(-!(06*)!.140)5'0.(14!()!06*O!'+1!U*!)(50*3!(50!0(!789:!J.14!+13!54*3!+4!.10*))5J0!4.21+/4!0(!06*!,.')('(10)(//*)V!L6*!exception controller!.4!)*4J(14.U/*!-()!6+13/.12!(-!06*!*I'*J0.(14V!!

TI CC2520 GPIO Configuration

24

!

CC2520 DATASHEET2.4 GHZ IEEE 802.15.4/ZIGBEE® RF TRANSCEIVER

SWRS068 – DECEMBER 2007

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

11.1 Reset Configuration of GPIO Pins

C'5!>5)52!)52201=!<;>!+,-.!/01)!(>5!()!)';F1!01!2'5!2(495!459;FA!C'0)!0)!(9);!2'5!3;1<0=8>(20;1!2'(2!0)!8)56!F'51!2'5!657035!0)!01!E,G%A!-<!(!60<<5>512!+,-.!)528/!0)!>5R80>56?!2'5!+,-.)!'(75!2;!45!>5@3;1<0=8>56!575>:!20Q5!$$%#%&!'()!4551!01!E,G%A!!C'0)!/(>20389(>!>5)52!3;1<0=8>(20;1!F()!)5953256!);!2'(2!$$%#%&!9;;S)!()!Q83'!90S5!$$%T%&!()!/;))0495A!!

Table 8: GPIO reset state

GPIO pin

Dir Value Pull up

Extra drive

Polarity Signal GPIOCTRLn value (hex)

Description

&! .82! &! L;! L;! ,;)02075! 39;3S! &J&&! KGUV!39;3S!)0=1(9!F02'!#&W#&!682:!3:395A!

K! .82! &! L;! L;! ,;)02075! <0<;! &J%X! U0='!F'51!;15!;>!Q;>5!4:25)!(>5!01!2'5!DY!Z-Z.A!E;F!68>01=!DY!Z-Z.!;75><9;FA!

%! .82! &! L;! L;! ,;)02075! <0<;/! &J%[! U0='!F'51!2'5!18Q45>!;<!4:25)!01!2'5!DY!Z-Z.!5J3556)!2'5!/>;=>(QQ(495!2'>5)';96!;>!(2!95()2!;15!3;Q/9525!<>(Q5!0)!01!2'5!DY!Z-Z.A!\9);!'0='!68>01=!DY!Z-Z.!;75><9;FA!

"! .82! &! L;! L;! ,;)02075! 33(! &J%]! $95(>!3'(1159!())5))Q512A!H55!ZHGHC\CK!>5=0)25>!<;>!652(09)!;1!';F!2;!3;1<0=8>5!2'5!45'(70;>!;<!2'0)!)0=1(9A!

T! .82! &! L;! L;! ,;)02075! )<6! &J%\! ,01!0)!'0='!F'51!HZN!'()!4551!>5350756!;>!2>(1)Q02256A!$95(>56!F'51!95(701=!DYWCY!>5)/5320759:A!

#! -1! C05!2;!=>;816!;>!MNN!

L;! L;! ,;)02075! ! &J]&! L;!<81320;1!

!

11.2 GPIO as Input

^'51!3;1<0=8>56!()!01/82?!2'5!+,-.!/01!3(1!45!8)56!2;!2>0==5>!;15!;<!K*!60<<5>512!3;QQ(16!)2>;45)!OH55!)5320;1!K#P!()!)';F1!01!2'5!+,-.!3;1<0=8>(20;1!2(495!01!)5320;1!K%A*A!C'5)5!3;QQ(16!)2>;45)!(>5!(!)84)52!;<!(99!2'5!H,-!01)2>8320;1)!(7(09(495A!C'5!3;QQ(16!)2>;45!0)!2>0==5>56!4:!(//9:01=!(!>0)01=!;>!<(9901=!56=5!2;!2'5!+,-.!/01!65/51601=!;1!2'5!)52201=!01!2'5!+,-.,.E\D-C_!>5=0)25>A!^'03'!3;QQ(16!)2>;45!2'5!/01!2>0==5>)!0)!)52!4:!2'5!X!EHI)!01!+,-.$CDE1A!!Example:!H52!8/!+,-.%!2;!>81!H\$`!01)2>8320;1!;1!>0)01=!56=5A!!

! H52!+,-.,.E\D-C_a%b!2;!cKdA!+,-.!/01!%!)52!2;!>0)01=!56=5!(32075A!! H52!+,.-$CDE%aXe&b!2;!fK&&&!&K&Kg!A!+,-.!/01!%!0)!1;F!(1!01/82!(16!3;1153256!2;!2'5!H\$`!01)2>8320;1A!!

!

TI CC2520 Power States

cc2520driver.h! RX RadioState_turnOn()

! Active RadioState_standby()

! LPM1 RadioState_turnOff()

! LPM2 Not implemented yet RadioState_shutdown()

25

!

CC2520 DATASHEET 2.4 GHZ IEEE 802.15.4/ZIGBEE® RF TRANSCEIVER SWRS068 – DECEMBER 2007

!

"#! !WWW.TI.COM

!

12 Power Modes $$%&%#!'()!*'+,,!-./,+!0.1,)!()!1,)2+34,1!4,5./6!78!(55!*',),!-./,+!0.1,)!*',!)9--5:!;.5*(<,!3)!(--53,1!*.!*',!23+293*6!!78!Low Power Mode 2!=>?@%A!*',!13<3*(5!;.5*(<,!+,<95(*.+!3)!*9+8,1!.BB!=CDEFGEHI#A!(81!8.!25.2J)!(+,!+98838<6!H.!1(*(!3)!+,*(38,16!K55!(8(5.<!0.195,)!(+,!38!-./,+!1./8!)*(*,6!!78!Low Power Mode 1!=>?@LA!*',!13<3*(5!;.5*(<,!+,<95(*.+!3)!.8!=CDEFGEHILAM!49*!8.!25.2J)!(+,!+98838<6!N(*(!3)!+,*(38,16!O',!-./,+!1./8!)3<8(5)!*.!*',!(8(5.<!0.195,)!(+,!2.8*+.55,1!4:!*',!13<3*(5!-(+*6!!78!Active mode!*',!13<3*(5!;.5*(<,!+,<95(*.+!3)!.8!=CDEFGEHILA!(81!*',!2+:)*(5!.)2355(*.+!25.2J!3)!+98838<6!O',!-./,+!1./8!)3<8(5)!*.!*',!(8(5.<!0.195,)!(+,!2.8*+.55,1!4:!*',!13<3*(5!-(+*6!!

12.1 Switching Between Power Modes

P',8!*',!1,;32,!'()!4,,8!38!>?@%M!(55!+,<3)*,+!2.8*,8*!3)!5.)*6!O.!4+38<!*',!1,;32,!9-!*.!(2*3;,!0.1,M!(!+,),*!3)!+,Q93+,1!.+!*',!1,;32,!/355!4,!38!(8!98J8./8!)*(*,6!O',!+,),*!2(8!4,!(--53,1!,3*',+!4:!),**38<!*',!DEREO8!-38!5./M!.+!3))938<!(!+,),*!38)*+92*3.8!=RDERA!.;,+!*',!R?76!7*!3)!+,2.00,81,1!*'(*!*',!DEREO8!0,*'.1!3)!9),1M!4,2(9),!3*!/355!<3;,!(!2.8*+.55,1!)*(+*!(81!(9*.0(*32!)*(+*!.B!*',!2+:)*(5!.)2355(*.+6!!S,B.+,!,8*,+38<!>?@%M!3*!3)!)*+.8<5:!+,2.00,81,1!*'(*!*',!1,;32,!3)!+,),*6!O'3)!/(:M!*',!2.8B3<9+(*3.8!/355!(5/(:)!4,!*',!)(0,!/',8!*',!-./,+!*.!*',!13<3*(5!-(+*!3)!+,0.;,1M!(81!3*!3)!5,))!53J,5:!*'(*!*',+,!/355!4,!3))9,)!/3*'!29++,8*!)-3J,)!.+!.*',+!)31,!,BB,2*)!.B!*',!-./,+!4,38<!+,0.;,16!!

Active mode

R,*!DEREO8I#R,*!CDEFGEHIL

R,*!DEREO8ILR,*!$R8I#

P(3*!98*35!RTIL

P(3*!98*35!+,<95(*.+!'()!)*(4353U,16!V),!(!*30,.9*6

RWTR$TXX=D(13.!09)*!4,!315,A

RWTR$THRHT?

R,*!DEREO8I#R,*!$R8IL

R,*!CDEFGEHI#R,*!F?7T&I#

LPM1

LPM2

R,*!DEREO8IL!R,*!CDEFGEHIL

P(3*!98*35!+,<95(*.+!'()!)*(4353U,16!V),!(!*30,.9*6

RDER

RWTR$THRHT?

R,*!$R8I#

Active mode

RDER

R,*!$R8I#!(81/(3*!98*35!RTIL

R,*!$R8IL

R,*!$R8IL

!Figure 7: Procedures for switching between power modes.

!

RX

TI CC2520 Power States (2)

• Switching state is NOT instantaneous• Depends on

– Radio hardware switch on/off times (e.g. crystal bootup)– SPI communication speed for initial configuration after shutdown

• Power Draw– RX: 18.5mA– TX: 33.6 mA @ +5 dBm– Active Mode: 1.6 mA– LPM1: 175 uA– LPM2: 30 nA

• Wake-Up and Timing– LPM2 ! Active Mode: 0.3 ms (regulator + XOSC startup time)– LPM1 ! Active Mode: 0.2 ms (XOSC startup time)– AM ! RX or TX: 192 us– DOES NOT INCLUDE SPI TRANSFERS!

26

TI 2520 Driver Bootup

27

Turn On Radio

Initialize Radio AM ! RX

Mostly driver limitations, and slow SPI Clock @ 160kHz

TI CC2520 Extra Features

• Received Signal Strength RSSI– 8-bit signed – Calculated for every packet receivedvoid Radio_receive(uint8_t seqn, uint16_t panid, uint16_t saddr, uint16_t daddr, uint8_t* payload, uint8_t length, int8_t rssi);

– Approximately related to received signal power asP = RSSI - OFFSET [dBm]where OFFSET ! 76 dBm

• CCA– Clear channel assessment– Measures noise level of RF channel– High noise level indicates on-going communication– Implemented, but not exported in current driver

• Many many more features– See TI CC2520 Datasheet

http://focus.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/cc2520.pdf28

Radio Modules

• IEEE 802.15.4 Radios– X-Bee

• Out-of-the-box RF communication• Serial UART interface (API or AT Commands)

– Atmel AT86RF230– STM32W (Cortex-M3 & Radio on a chip)

• ANT– e.g. Nordic nRF24AP1 or nRF24AP2– Nike+ and in many iPhones/iPods

• WiFi– DigiConnect ME WiFi

• Cellular– Telit GM862, GSM/GPRS & GPS– Runs Python Scripts

• RFID, DASH7, Bluetooth, Z-wave, RuBee, NFC29

Some References

• Prabal Dutta, Stephen Dawson-Haggerty, Yin Chen, Chieh-Jan Mike Liang, and Andreas Terzis, “Design and Evaluation of a Versatile and Efficient Receiver-Initiated Link Layer for Low-Power Wireless,” ACM Sensys 2010 (http://www.eecs.umich.edu/~prabal/teaching/eecs373-f10/readings/p101-dutta.pdf)

• Joseph Polastre, Jonathan Hui, Philip Levis, Jerry Zhao, David Culler, Scott Shenker, and Ion Stoica, “A Unifying Link Abstraction for Wireless Sensor Networks,” Sensys 2005

• Gahng-Seop Ahn, Emiliano Miluzzo, Andrew T. Campbell, Se Gi Hong, Francesca Cuomo, “Funneling-MAC: A Localized, Sink-Oriented MAC for Boosting Fidelity in Sensor Networks,” ACM Sensys 2006.

• Kevin Klues, Gregor y Hackmann, Octav Chipara, Chenyang Lu, “A Component-Based Architecture for Power-Efficient Media Access Control in Wireless Sensor Networks,” ACM SenSys 2007.

• Nicolas Burri, Pascal von Rickenbach, and Roger Wattenhofer, “Dozer: Ultra-Low Power Data Gathering in Sensor Networks,” ACM/IEEE IPSN 2007.

• Wei Ye, Fabio Silva, and John Heidemann, “Ultra-Low Duty Cycle MAC with Scheduled Channel Polling,” ACM Sensys 2006.

• M. Buettner, G. Yee, E. Anderson, R. Han, “X-MAC: A Short Preamble MAC Protocol for Duty-Cycled Wireless Sensor Networks,” ACM Sensys 2006.

• Amre El-Hoiydi and Jean-Dominique Decotignie, “WiseMAC: An Ultra Low Power MAC Protocol for Multi-hop Wireless Sensor Networks,” First International Workshop on Algorithmic Aspects of Wireless Sensor Networks (Algosensors 2004), July 2004.

• S. Ganeriwal, I. Tsigkogiannis, H. Sim, V. Tsiatsis, M. B. Srivastava, and D. Ganesan, “Estimating Clock Uncertainty for Efficient Duty-Cycling in Sensor Networks,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2008. (Accepted)

• J. Polastre, J. Hill, D. Culler, "Versatile Low Power Media Access for Wireless Sensor Networks," ACM Sensys 2004.

30