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Design is power:
The design process and sustainability in Australian fashion design
Confirmation of Candidature Report – Part A
February 2011
Alice Payne
PhD Candidate
School of Fashion, Creative Industries
Queensland University of Technology
Principal Supervisor: Dr. Tiziana Ferrero-Regis
Associate Supervisor: Professor Suzi Vaughan
Thesis Presentation: Monograph
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abbreviations and Acronyms ................................................................................................. 3
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 4
2. Literature and Theory Review ................................................................................................ 7
2.1 Defining ‘sustainability’ .................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Sustainable Design ......................................................................................................... 12
2.3 The Fashion System ........................................................................................................ 15
2.4 Sustainable Fashion ........................................................................................................ 22
2.5 The Australian Fashion Industry ..................................................................................... 31
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 40
3. Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 42
4. Methods ............................................................................................................................... 43
4.1 Data Sources ................................................................................................................... 45
4.2 Measures ........................................................................................................................ 46
4.3 Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 48
4.4 Rigour ............................................................................................................................. 49
4.5 Timetable ........................................................................................................................ 52
5. Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 54
5. Fieldwork .............................................................................................................................. 56
6.1 Company A ..................................................................................................................... 56
6.2 Company B ..................................................................................................................... 57
6.3 Company C ..................................................................................................................... 57
7. Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 59
8. Timeline and Scholarly Activities ......................................................................................... 61
9. References ........................................................................................................................... 63
Appendix 1: Table of Australian Mass Market ......................................................................... 70
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Appendix 2: Ethical Clearance documents .............................................................................. 71
First Contact Email ............................................................................................................... 71
List of Questions ................................................................................................................... 73
Recruitment Flyer, Participant Information and Consent Forms......................................... 75
Appendix 3: Powerpoint presentation to designers ................................................................ 80
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
ECA Ethical Clothing Australia
EQM Ethical Quality Mark
GDP gross domestic product
NGO Non-government Organisation
PSS Product Service Systems
SME Small to Medium Enterprise
TBL Triple Bottom Line
TCF Textile Clothing and Footwear
TFIA Council of Textiles and Fashion Industries Australia
NB: Some documents were read on an e-reader, and hence a location number is given as a
reference rather than a page number (e.g. ‘Hamilton 2010, 1283-89’)
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1. INTRODUCTION
The research objective is to analyse the design processes of the mass market Australian
fashion industry in order to explore ways in which existing practices can shift to
accommodate the principles of sustainable design. There are three areas of inquiry that
inform this project. The first is the debate around sustainability and its definition; the
second relates to the fashion system and its recent shift to accelerated cycles of production
and consumption; the third area addresses issues in design, and specifically, Fry’s notion of
design redirection for sustainability (2009, 88). Changes in these three areas must occur to
arrive at a holistic system of ethical and sustainable fashion. A holistic fashion system should
also constitute a different engagement with fashion by consumers and clearly a shift in
slowing the fashion cycle in regards to consumption. However, there is a substantial
disparity between these theoretical changes and the actual practices of designers working in
the fashion system today. Therefore what emerges as a site for research is the perceived
space between the thinking on sustainable fashion and what is actually achievable in the
fashion system. There is a language gap between ‘design’ and ‘designer’ in Fry’s terms
(2009, 34) and what ‘design’ and ‘designer’ mean in the fashion industry. So how can a
dialogue develop between the mass market and the varied philosophies of sustainability?
This research serves to map the space between sustainable design and current fashion
design practices. To do so, I am undertaking a critical ethnographic study of designers and
design process within the Australian mass market fashion industry.
In the last twenty years, the word ‘sustainability’ has moved past its simple meaning to
represent an emerging meta-narrative: that human society needs to make concerted
changes in order to sustain and protect the natural environment, the world’s finite
resources, and a decent quality of life for all people. It has become an umbrella term for an
ethos which is increasingly a guiding force behind industry, business, and government policy
worldwide. In this era of what Slavoj Žižek has disparagingly termed ‘ethical capitalism’
(2010, 356) – ‘sustainability’ is a slippery term, applied to all manner of industries and
principles, and often seemingly at odds with the capitalist ethos of profit and perpetual
growth (Jackson 2009). In particular, marrying ‘sustainability’ and ‘fashion’ is famously
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oxymoronic (Black 2008; Scaturro 2008), and this research acknowledges this uneasy
relationship.
Design redirection for sustainability is crucial. In Design Futuring, Fry says “At its most basic,
design is power,” (2009, 233). For Fry, what is required is an ontological repositioning of
design, where design is recognised as being a future shaping / future destroying activity. A
growing body of design theory explores how designers can redirect their practice towards
sustainability (Fry 2009; Fuad-Luke 2009; McDonough and Braungart 2002). Fry criticises
much of current design thinking as being overly concerned with surface styling (2009, 6),
and of all the design disciplines, this is most true of fashion design.
Fashion is a system of continual change, propelled by the desire for novelty (Lipovetsky
1994). As such, the fashion system is inherently wasteful and polluting. The creative
excesses of the system push through greater quantities of soon-to-be discarded product.
From fibre and textile producers to designers, manufacturers and retailers, the entire
apparel supply chain is under pressure to deliver the latest trends in the quickest time at the
lowest price, though with a high environmental cost. To counter this accelerating cycle,
there has been a growing movement for sustainable or eco-fashion. This is typified by
ethical manufacturing and the use of textiles which have a lower environmental and social
impact, for instance organic or recycled fibres. The designers who design sustainable fashion
take a holistic view of the garment life-cycle, and assess the impact their garments will have
from the fibre level through to manufacturing, retailing, use phase and eventual disposal.
These designers take responsibility for their products' past, present and future. While future
scenarios proposed for the industry involve heightened user/designer interaction, co-design
and local, slow design (Fletcher 2008; 2010), these are not yet mainstream. My argument is
a top-down approach: that for now designers are best placed to adapt to a more sustainable
design methodology. How different this may be from current industry practice in Australia is
an area that needs further research.
For the Australian fashion industry to move towards a more socially and environmentally
ethical industry, change needs to occur in all market levels. Change is particularly needed in
the mass market, where larger volumes inevitably lead to greater environmental impact.
While there has been much research into issues such as transparency of the supply chain,
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there has been limited research into the role of the mass market designer and design
process for sustainability. In part, this may be because design at this market level is widely
perceived to be derivative, with a knock-off mentality (Rissanen 2007; Walsh 2009). Here,
fashion design is reduced to styling and product development, with little consideration for
the impacts of the garment throughout its lifecycle. Hence, are mass market fashion
designers able to redirect their practice? Are they ‘locked-in’ to a particular mode of design
development? Would they want to redirect their practices, or do they see the need to? This
research will privilege the voices of current designers. Through undertaking a critical
ethnography of designers working in the Australian mass market, the designers’ concerns,
views and ideas around sustainability for their industry can be fore-fronted.
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2. LITERATURE AND THEORY REVIEW
The central argument behind this research is that while redirected design practices are
required to move the fashion industry towards sustainability, there is a vast gap between
sustainability theory and the current design processes of the mass market fashion industry.
The aim of this research project is to explore this gap between theory and practice in the
context of the Australian fashion industry. This literature review explores five overlapping
areas of theory that impact on the research. First, what is meant by sustainability? This is
explored through examining the methodology, relevance and limitations of triple bottom
line thinking, as well as that of more radical theories promoting systems-level societal and
economic change. Secondly, sustainable design theory is explored to demonstrate the ways
in which design is positioned as a catalyst for change. Thirdly, an historical context is
provided for the rise of the fashion system and the role of the fashion designer within the
system. This serves to demonstrate how excess and waste has become fundamental to the
workings of the modern fashion system. Next, the breadth of enquiry into sustainable
fashion is explored, with particular reference to the mass market and the role of the
designer. The final section explores the context of the Australian fashion industry and the
current industry response to sustainability.
2.1 DEFINING ‘SUSTAINABILITY’
This section interrogates the current scope of thinking around sustainability in order to
develop a clear and applicable definition of what I mean by sustainability in the context of
this research project. ‘Sustainability’ is a term used more and more frequently in many
contexts, particularly in discussions of the challenges collectively faced by humanity. These
challenges include population growth, ecological degradation, future scarcity of fuel, food,
fibre and water, and the current and future impacts of climate change. Therefore, it is
necessary to take into account the various views as to what ‘sustainability’ could look like in
the face of these global challenges, and the implications for our economic and social
structures. Implicit in any thinking on sustainability is a questioning of the status quo of the
capitalist economic system. Under debate is how much change may be necessary to ensure
a sustainable future. Sustainable development theorist Tim Jackson (2009) acknowledges
that the world’s resources are finite and proposes a new definition of prosperity which
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extends beyond the growth of GDP. This notion is echoed by Hamilton (2010), who analyses
the political, ideological and cultural reasons as to why so little action has been taken on
climate change. Included in the debate is the recent work of the radical leftist philosopher
Žižek (2010; 2009a), who lays out the multiple crises faced by global capitalism.
As a starting point, the most commonly cited definition of ‘sustainability’ comes from the
1987 report of the Brundtland Commission. Here sustainable development is defined as
“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland and Khalid 1987, 54). This quote
has often been used in isolation from its context and hence misinterpreted and misused.1
The report stresses that economic growth is required to meet essential needs in places
where these needs are not being met, and adds that sustainable development “can be
consistent with economic growth, provided the content of growth reflects the broad
principles of sustainability and non-exploitation of others”(Brundtland and Khalid 1987, 55).
While this is a widely-accepted definition, design theorist Tony Fry argues that it is
conceptually unsound, because it “fails to acknowledge that the forms of exchange within
capitalism and ecological systems are incommensurate” (2009, 44).
The Brundtland definition of sustainable development has been fundamental in the notion
of the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) (Elkington 1998), where businesses are prompted to balance
the economic, environmental and social values which a company can build for society and
for shareholders, also known as ‘people, planet, profit’. In this business sense of
sustainability, Savitz and Weber define it as “a unified way of addressing a wide array of
business concerns about the natural environment, worker’s rights, consumer protection,
and corporate governance, as well as the impact of business behaviour on broader social
issues, such as hunger, poverty, health care, and human rights – and the relationship of all
these to profit” (Savitz and Weber 2006, xiii). As Savitz and Weber discuss, the movement
within business for Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and for TBL assessments is
1 Shell, when taken to court for using the word ‘sustainable’ in its advertising, used the definition from the
Brundtland Commission in its defence – claiming that it could be interpreted to mean “anything that helps to
meet the world’s growing energy needs, including tar sands” (Hamilton 2010, 1283-89). Shell lost the case,
however their argument demonstrates how the phrasing of the Brundlandt Commission’s words can be
willfully misconstrued.
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currently deeply embedded within many large scale companies2 and is perceived not only as
best practice towards sustainability, but also as profitable for the business. Indeed this is an
argument used by Savitz and Weber as to why business should adopt the TBL model, as a
way to find the “sweet spot”, where implementing sustainable initiatives within business
can increase market share (2006, 23-25). Currently within mass market fashion labels, TBL
remains the dominant way to engage with sustainability, as it places equal importance on
business growth as on environmental and social responsibility.
However, Fry criticises TBL thinking as being a “rhetoric” which wrongly views sustainability
as an achievable endpoint where social, economic and environmental interests converge
(2009, 44). Fry instead argues for a “sustain-ability”, a project of continual adaptation that
will necessarily exist as long as humans exist. Fry states his case bluntly: “without sustain-
ability we have nothing,” hence, “it is not a matter of the imperative of sustain-ability being
balanced with other political demands but rather that it rules them as sovereign” (2009, 48).
This view of sustainability is uncompromising, yet if one is convinced of the reality of man-
made climate change, it is the logical response to the global challenges faced long term, as
concerted systems-level change is required.
Currently, Triple Bottom Line thinking continues to be the dominant approach to
sustainability. It has also provided scope for companies to market to the new ‘ethical’
consumer. In his analysis of late capitalism, Slavoj Žižek explores the notion of ethical
consumption. To Žižek (2010), global capitalism is facing a terminal crisis, besieged by
intractable problems such as the impending ecological disaster and the growing instability of
the economic system. He describes capitalism and its ability to be “infinitely plastic” (2010,
349), to absorb the ideology of the time and turn it back upon itself. For Žižek, the current
version of capitalism is ‘ethical capitalism’. Here advertising promotes products using “socio-
ideological motifs (ecology, social solidarity)” as an added value (Žižek 2010, 356). As Žižek
put it, through buying an ‘ethical’ product, “you buy your redemption from being a
consumer”(2010, 356) He goes further, calling this act of both consumption and charity
“obscene” (2009b). Here, the evils of capitalism (waste, over-consumption, labour abuses,
global inequality) are in part alleviated by the ‘good works’ companies and consumers do.
2 Companies include Nike, Pepsi, General Electric, Walmart and Toyota (Savitz and Weber 2006)
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As he puts it, “this is how capitalism, at the level of consumption, integrated the legacy of
’68, the critique of alienated consumption: authentic experience matters” (Žižek 2009a, 903-
12). In other words, consumption has replaced the promise of individual freedom that was
inscribed in the social and political practices of 1968.
Jackson’s approach to the challenge of sustainability is more pragmatic. He examines
economic growth in relationship to ecological limits, and offers a fresh way to think about
prosperity (2009). He describes how gross domestic product (GDP) has been the policy goal
of every nation for the past century, and growth in GDP has been the primary measure of
prosperity. Yet, he says, “our technologies, our economy, and our social aspirations are all
misaligned with any meaningful expression of prosperity”(Jackson 2009, 2). While economic
growth can vastly improve quality of life in developing countries, above a certain level of
growth, people are no happier. More fundamentally, growth is predicated on continual
material throughput and consumption. In a world of finite resources, unabated economic
growth will eventually hit ecological limits. Arguably, it already has.
Jackson identifies the need for a macro-economics that considers ecological limits, as well as
a shift in the social logic of consumption. He analyses the two inter-related aspects of
economic life, firstly that the desire for profit motivates “newer, better or cheaper products
and services through a continual process of innovation and 'creative destruction'” (Jackson
2009, 88), while secondly, consumer desire for these products and services is driven by
complex social needs. According to Jackson, in our social reality, “material artefacts
constitute a powerful ‘language of goods’ that we use to communicate with each other, not
just about status, but also about identity” (2009, 99). As such, the role of consumer goods
in our lives is embedded in our psyche: “Only in modernity has this wealth of material
artefacts been so deeply implicated in so many social and psychological processes” (Jackson
2009, 99). This is particularly the case for fashion clothing, with its intimate connection to
the body and to personal identity. As Jackson acknowledges, it is a very difficult task to
encourage people to draw back on material consumption. However, Jackson does not call
for an overthrow of consumer capitalism, or to end globalization, rather he believes the first
step is to establish the limits for growth. He proposes policy interventions such as resource
and emission caps, as well as fiscal reform for a sustainable economy (2009, 172 - 4). He also
proposes societal interventions in the form of both policy and grass roots action to enable
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people to find happiness and prosperity outside of “the iron cage” of consumerism (Jackson
2009, 143).
Jackson’s views are echoed by Clive Hamilton in Requiem for a Species (2010). Hamilton
explores the empirical data which points to the widely-held conclusion within the scientific
community that climate change of two degrees Celsius above 1990 levels is now
unavoidable (2010, 283 - 92). With such an overwhelming consensus among scientists,
Hamilton debates why so little action has been taken against climate change at a policy
level. Like Jackson, he points in part to the economic imperative of growth, saying “growth
fetishism and consumerism are embodied in our institutions and embedded in our
understanding of the world” (1784-92). Hamilton points out that the debate has become
highly politicised, and “the facts are filtered through an opaque ideological lens” (1684-92).
Particularly in the US, climate change has become a battle of left and right wing ideologies,
with proponents of free market capitalism viewing the climate debate as part of a leftist
agenda to increase government regulations on industry. For Hamilton, the notion of
‘sustainability’ is now moot; it is his view that “despair is a natural human response to the
new reality we face and to resist it is to deny the truth” (3297-3306). From despair, he says,
we can move to acceptance and then to action. Necessarily, action in the context of both
Jackson and Hamilton’s writing is more than the TBL methodology. The grave challenges
posed by environmental threats, coupled with population growth, dwindling oil reserves3
and the need to dramatically curb carbon emissions means that triple bottom line thinking
alone is not enough; rather a reframing of values and economic goals is needed.
In my research project I consider the scope of thinking around sustainability as a spectrum,
ranging from the mainstream TBL and CSR concerns to the more radical notions of Žižek,
Jackson and Fry which explicitly critique (in different ways) the current economic and social
model of developed nations. Sustainability is not a destination to be arrived at, but an
ongoing, long term project that must be increasingly embedded in economic, social and
political life – of which the fashion system is part. Fundamental is the recognition that the
current trajectory of consumption is hitting ecological limits. There are contradictory views
3 According to the International Energy Agency Report released in November 2010, ‘peak oil’ occurred in 2006 (World
Energy Outlook 2010 Presentation to the press 2010), however the discovery and use of unconventional sources of oil such
as tar sands and shale gas will continue to grow.
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as to how the world should grapple with this global challenge, but common to all
philosophies of sustainability is the belief that the status quo is unsustainable.
2.2 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN
Design for sustainability is one of the key theoretical areas informing this research project.
Many of the wider issues within design can be related to the fashion discipline. In the past
decade, design has increasingly been mobilised as a force to move society towards a
sustainable future (McDonough and Braungart 2002; Fry 2009). Key theories to be explored
in this section are Fry’s call for redirective design practice and Fuad-Luke’s notion of design
activism. According to all theorists, the commitment on the part of the designer to the
project of sustainability is fundamental for the emergence of a design system which is
directed towards sustainability. For both Fry and Fuad-Luke, a commitment to sustainability
necessarily comes before a commitment to the market.
A critical notion of Fry’s is that “design designs,” or in other words, designed objects go on
to design other consequences that their designer never intended (2009, 30). Fry says it is
partly this unacknowledged ability of design to go on designing that has led humankind to
the current state of what he calls “defuturing” (2009, 6). Equally, it is only the recasting and
redirecting of the very nature of design that can halt this defuturing. His challenge to
designers is “broaden your gaze (beyond the design process, design objects and design’s
current economic positioning), engage the complexity of design as a world-shaping force
and help explain it as such” (2009, 3). He argues that designers are not the authority on
design people assume them to be; rather they are overly concerned with style and services
and have little awareness of the broader implications of their practice (2009, 120). Fry calls
for a redirective design practice, which he defines as, “akin to a new kind of (design)
leadership underpinned by a combination of creating new (and gathering old) knowledge
directed at advancing means of sustainability while also politically contesting the
unsustainable status quo” (2009, 57).
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Redirective practice “takes design beyond a disciplinary model” and becomes a meta-
practice that can enable conversations and engagement across design disciplines (2009, 56).
For designers to redirect their practice they must:
place the current needs of the market in second place to the politico-ethical project of gaining sustain-ability.
This is not to unrealistically suggest that all commercial considerations are abandoned but rather that they are
strategically and economically repositioned under the imperative of working together under sustain-ability (2009,
46).
Fry offers a number of approaches to redirection, one of which is platforming. Platforming is
a strategy whereby a smaller team within a larger organisation forms an internal change
platform of redirected practice. Their aim is two-fold: firstly to design and develop products
and services which contribute to the project of sustain-ability, secondly to promote an
ongoing educational environment for the team members. The platform’s activities would,
over time, build processes and education to the degree that the redirected practice of the
smaller team can be applied to that of the larger organisation (2009, 126). Platforming is an
approach which has potential within the mass market fashion industry; however its
implementation and success would depend heavily on an ideological commitment to
sustainability on the part of both the company and the designers involved.
Allastair Fuad-Luke’s approach to sustainability and design is through the notion of ‘design
activism’. Fuad-Luke (2009) embraces multiple approaches including co-design, eco-
efficiency and slow design, placing them all under the umbrella of ‘design activism’. Fuad-
Luke’s notion of the ‘design activist’ is a useful starting position for this research, as it
embraces many notions of what form design for sustainability can take. He defines design
activism as “design thinking, imagination and practice applied knowingly or unknowingly to
create a counter-narrative aimed at generating and balancing positive social, institutional,
environmental and/or economic change” (2009, 27). He expands on this saying, “aspiring
design activists have to be prepared to take on multiple roles as non-aligned social brokers
and catalysts, facilitators, authors, co-creators, co-designers and happeners (ie making
things actually happen)” (Fuad-Luke 2009, 189). Fuad-Luke argues for greater emphasis on
the ‘now’, the ‘continuous present’ in which concrete design change can be made (188).
Crucially he says, “design needs to break out beyond the visions of business” (Fuad-Luke
2009, 189). In the context of fashion design, design activism works against the modus
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operandi of the globalised fashion system in an attempt to bring about positive social and
environmental change.
Co-design and/or participatory design involves designers and users working together to
develop products and services. Fuad-Luke says, "co-design is imbued with political ambitions
regarding power and inclusion because it invokes notions of direct, anticipatory and deep
democracy whereby the participants have a voice and that voice informs the design
process,” (2009, 148). While it is an approach which has gained the most ground in
architecture, elements of co-design can be witnessed within fashion. Fletcher refers to it as
“participatory design”, and cites this as a means to liberate users from the passive
consumption of fashion garments by empowering them to actively take part in the design
and making of their garments (Fletcher 2008, 187). Participatory design “contests top-down
only decision making” and instead looks to the users for input into the design of products
and services that will directly impact their lives (Fuad-Luke 2009, 148).
Fry argues that while co-design or the democratisation of design has an important place, the
designer “needs to be a leader, initiating as well as reacting” (2009, 172). Fry has
commented that this democratisation of design, where anyone can be designer or co-
designer, “increases the number of uncritical practitioners” (2009, 172). Despite its
potential, co-design is a neutral activity4; it can be as easily deployed for or against a
sustainable future. What is critical to the success of co-design as a strategy for change is the
political will of the designer and the co-designer, and their shared commitment to
sustainability.
For my research project, the notions of design activism and redirective practice hold exciting
possibilities for application within the fashion system, and both are being used to some
degree already. This is discussed further in section 2.4. However, neither Fry nor Fuad-Luke
deal specifically with fashion or clothing design. The difficulty is that Fry’s criticism of
current design as being trivialised and overly concerned with appearance is only too true of
fashion design. Particularly in the mass market, design decisions are primarily aesthetic
4 Threadless, the online t-shirt company and social networking site is an example of successful co-design and
mass customisation(Wu 2010), though not with the primary aim of sustainability.
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choices. This makes the implementing of design-level change to the mass market especially
difficult.
2.3 THE FASHION SYSTEM
In part, this research project stems from the paradox of sustainable fashion. Fashion
“celebrates senseless destruction” (Calefato 2004, 123), and as such it is in apparent
opposition to the project of sustainability. To provide a context for this claim, this section
will explore the historical rise of fashion and its development into a complex global system.
In a broad sense, fashion refers to the movements of tastes and trends, whether in the
context of apparel, of lifestyle, of societal values or of philosophical thought. In a specific
sense, fashion refers to the system of novelty propelling the design, production,
merchandising and consumption of clothing. It is the desire for novelty and newness that
drives consumption of fashion (Campbell 2001, 533; Lipovetsky 1994). This section explores
theories such as the democratisation of fashion and the principle of individualism
(Lipovetsky 1994), the movement of trends through the fashion system (Vinken 2005;
Jackson 2007), and the aesthetic marketplace of fashion (Entwistle 2009). Importantly, this
section also chronicles the role of the designer within the fashion system and explores
previous research specific to the design process of the fashion designer (Sinha 2002; Fatma
2006; Au ,Taylor and Newton 2003).
Lipovetsky (1994, 101) parallels the rise of fashion with the rise of democracy and
individualism. He argues that the fashion system is unique to the West and a characteristic
of modernity itself. The development of fashion began in the late fourteenth century, as a
growing valorisation of individuality and personal identity stimulated the desire to
distinguish oneself from others through difference (Lipovetsky 1994, 725-29). For fashion to
emerge, “the present had to be deemed more prestigious than the past...what was novel
had to be invested with dignity” (Lipovetsky 1994, 740-44). However, it was not until the
late nineteenth century that fashion as we understand it today developed. Lipovetsky
defines the period of 100 years of fashion as spanning from the 1860s (beginning with the
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couturier Worth) through to the 1960s. This period was characterised by the release of two
haute couture seasons per year, spring/summer and autumn/winter. The garment models
shown in the haute couture collections would be disseminated in an orderly flow through
the fashion system to reach the high street. The end of the 100 years of fashion was marked
by the rise of ready-to-wear, “an industrial production of clothing accessible to all that
would nevertheless be “fashion”, inspired by the latest trends of the day” (Lipovetsky 1994,
4185). According to Lipovetsky, this was the period when mass production came into its
own, and was the beginning of the mass democratisation of fashion. Lipovetsky concludes
that it was the desire for novelty inherent in the modern subject which allowed the system
to flourish. The diffusion of the haute couture styles through to the lower market levels was
possible through mass production.
The subcultural movements of the 1960s and 1970s left their stamp on the fashion system;
fashions no longer progressed in an orderly line from haute couture genius to street, instead
fashions could also move from the street up to haute couture (Vinken 2005). Hence, Vinken
terms fashion since the 1970s as ‘postfashion’ (2005, 34). Steele (1997) defined the 1970s as
the period of ‘antifashion’, where a multiplicity of styles and trends emerged with a highly
individualistic ‘anything goes’ sensibility. She uses ‘antifashion’ to refer also to the
subcultural fashions which pushed the boundaries of taste and decency (e.g. punk).
Lipovetsky also analyses the youth subcultural styles that first emerged in the 1950s and
60s. In his view, the term ‘antifashion’ is not entirely correct, as he believes that these
subcultural styles do not oppose fashion, but in fact mirrored the broader shift occurring
within fashion for greater individualism (1994, 1627).
Lipovetsky identifies the paradox of the rise of fashion and of democracy. On the one hand,
fashions in apparel, in music, or in lifestyle have become increasingly ephemeral, yet on the
other the democratic system itself remains relatively stable:
Here is the paradox of consummate fashion: whereas democratic society is more and more capricious
in its relation to collectively intelligible discourses, at the same time it is more and more balanced,
consistent and firm in its ideological underpinnings...the securing of the principles of individualistic
ideology is what allows meanings to enter into their merry dance (3109-13).
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This ‘merry dance’ of fashion can be witnessed not only in apparel but in all aspects of
consumer culture. The individualistic ideology embodied in fashion has led to highly
specialised, segmented markets for all consumer goods, with a plethora of product choices
available through which one can express one’s own identity and individuality. Like
Lipovetsky, Jackson claims this phenomenon is unique to modernity, and that “the sheer
wealth and enormous variety of material goods has a democratising element to it” (2009,
99). The over-consumption and waste of consumer culture stems in part from the logic of
the fashion system which has infiltrated all areas of contemporary society. As Jackson asks,
“but what does this continual cycle of ‘creative destruction’ have to do with human
flourishing?” (Jackson 2009, 96).
This ‘creative destruction’ is intrinsic to a cultural system which celebrates frivolity. In
Lipovetsky’s analysis, there is no longer a grand narrative of history; the present era is one
where the ideological struggles of the mid twentieth century have lost all ground. What has
replaced this “heroic reign of ideology” (1994, 3120) is the new ideology of the ephemeral
and the novel, or the logic of consummate fashion. As he puts it, “people live less and less
according to systems of dominant ideas; like the rest, such systems have been swallowed up
by frivolity,” (3136-40).5 Following Lipovetsky’s analysis, this poses a difficulty for
‘sustainable fashion’, and indeed for the larger debate surrounding social responsibility and
ecological concerns. It may be that these concerns are meta-trends, to be tried on or
shrugged off by a public that is enamoured with novelty. Just as ‘greed is good’ was the
mantra of the 1980s, so catchcries like ‘green is the new black’ (Blanchard 2007) may
support the notion that sustainability is a trend that will inevitably pass, rather than being
the new paradigm that proponents such as Fry or Fuad-Luke argue for.
In Lipovetsky’s view, since the 1970s until today, the position of fashion clothing is one of
“polymorphous fragmentation”, the reign of a fashion system of “flexible rules,
5 Vinken interprets Lipovetsky to mean ‘post-ideological’ here (2005, 34). Žižek (1989) rejects the idea that contemporary
society is post-ideological, saying this is an illusion (7) and that "If our concept of ideology remains the classic one in which
the illusion is located in knowledge, then today's society must appear post-ideological: the prevailing ideology is that of
cynicism; people no longer believe in ideological truth; they do not take ideological propositions seriously. The
fundamental level of ideology, however, is not of an illusion masking the real state of things but that of an (unconscious)
fantasy structuring our reality itself. And at this level, we are of course far from being post-ideological society. Cynical
distance is just one way - one of many ways - to blind ourselves to the structuring power of ideological fantasy: even if we
do not take things seriously, even if we keep an ironical distance, we are still doing them” (33).
18
overabundant choice, and generalised self-service” (1994, 1634-38). Fashion goes on
“accelerating its ephemeral legislation, invading new realms and drawing all social spheres
and age groups into its orbit” (Lipovetsky 1994, 78-81). As Anne Hollander notes, "the new
freedom of fashion in the last quarter-century has been taken up as a chance not to create
new forms, but to play more or less outrageously with all the tough and solid old ones, to
unleash a swift stream of imagery bearing a pulsating tide of mixed references" (1994, 166).
The result is a plurality of fashion styles and trends, coupled with a quickening cycle of
micro-innovation in the mix of colour, cut, detailing and fabrication within apparel.
The complex movement of trends and aesthetic styles within the fashion system is explored
by Entwistle (2009) in her research into fashion buyers and fashion models. She defines the
fashion system as an aesthetic marketplace: “in aesthetic markets aesthetic value is the
value generated around the commodity and the business of selling it” (2009, 738-47). Here
fashion is not so much the marketing of garments; rather it is the marketing of the aesthetic
values which the garment embodies. The implication is that, in fashion, the design of the
physical product is always primarily governed by aesthetics. These aesthetic values are not
stable; they shift as dictated by the views of actors within the fashion system. Hence, once
trends move on, the aesthetic value of a garment declines. If aesthetic value is integral to
the fashion garment, how easy is it for fashion designers to move beyond aesthetics and
instead design with sustainability as the central concern?
These aesthetic values which are traded as commodities are defined by the actors within
the system. Entwistle describes the fashion system as a series of interrelated aesthetic
markets comprised of many actors, saying, “instead of grand theories about what motivates
fashionable dress, we need to look at the multiple and overlapping practices that constitute
fashion, from the many actors who make it – designers, photographers, models, fashion
buyers, journalists and the like – to the many people who wear it” (Entwistle 2009, 192-
200). The actors she focuses on are the high fashion buyers and stylists whose buying
decisions influence the worldwide flow of fashion trends. Their buying decisions stem from
their own “tacit aesthetic knowledge” which is embodied, sensual and performative (2009,
4491). While on the one hand “high fashion depends upon global flows of aesthetic
knowledge”, on the other hand it is firmly local, with centres of fashion where knowledge is
shared face to face (Entwistle 2010, 3). This has particular significance for the Australian
19
fashion system. As Weller writes, Australia is on the periphery geographically and hence in a
subordinate relationship to flows of global fashion knowledge, with Australian mass market
fashion viewed by overseas traders as “unadventurous and derivative” (2007, 54).
Australian designers and buyers rely on face to face sharing of knowledge through
designers’ overseas travel to trade fairs and fashion shows, though in recent years this has
been heavily supplemented by online research. Entwistle’s theory of interconnected
markets demonstrates the complexity of the system, where a few well-placed individuals
have profound influence over the ways in which trends flow through the fashion system.
Fashion marketing writer Jackson also has conducted research into how trends develop,
focusing on trend forecasting services. He describes fashion trends as “aspects of the
appearance and construction of fashion products that relate to a particular season”(Jackson
2007, 171). As he describes it, today’s fashion markets are highly fragmented and “as such a
season can carry many different fashion colours and stories to satisfy the diversity of tastes
among various consumer segments” (Jackson 2007, 171). In some markets, there are up to
fourteen different seasons a year, in stark contrast to the twice-yearly model of the one
hundred years of fashion. As Fletcher maintains, in the past fifteen years, the speed of the
entire fashion system has accelerated (2008, 162), with monthly or weekly product drops in
store. The acceleration of trend cycles results in the faster production and consumption of
clothing. This speed has been made possible through agile supply chains and an increase in
cheap off-shore manufacturing. Fast fashion clothing is cheap to purchase and hence
perceived by consumers as disposable.
The mass market traditionally sits at the bottom of the trends cycle. The role of the designer
at all market levels is to adapt and interpret the trends they have sourced. As Wilson (2003)
explains, now
styles develop from the fusion of diverse sources rather than from the 'creative genius', the designer
at the top. Innovation, it is argued, is as likely to come from the 'street' as from Paris. The successful
popular fashion chains, such as in Britain, Top Shop, drink from the same source and at the same time
as the top designers. All alike seek inspiration from the same fabric fairs, colour and fashion
forecasters and of course see the same films, listen to the same music and travel to the same
destinations (2003, 266).
20
While they may ‘drink from the same source’, a designer must develop a sense of what the
right trend is for their target customer. Generally, the mass market high-volume fashion
designer will take less design risks than a designer in the higher end, as a mass market label
must appeal to a large audience. The design process begins with this initial sourcing and
interpretation of trends information. From here, the collection can be developed. As Burns
and O’Bryant (2007) describe, the generalised steps of the mass market fashion design
process are: market and trends research; sourcing and refining inspiration; developing the
range concept, mood boards and colour palette; fabrication and trims sourcing; drawing
design roughs; embellishment and/or print design; finetuning design development sketches
(DDS) or technical drawings; finalising the collection; patternmaking (drape or flat-
patternmaking); production of the first sample. The order of these tasks may vary
considerably – for instance drape might be used earlier in the process to develop design
ideas. This is a ‘textbook’ example of the design process. There has been little research into
the specifics of the design processes followed in the Australian fashion industry. In order to
explore the potential for redirective practice within the industry, it is first necessary to plot
the steps within the Australian mass market design process and the ways in which designers
make decisions.
In the mass market, the designer bears less resemblance to the public perception of the
heroic, inspired designer of the high end. In the mass market, it is common practice to
imitate (or even ‘knock-off’) designs of other, usually higher-end brands. This uneasy
relationship between imitation, originality and outright creative theft has been discussed at
length by US copyright law academics Raustiala and Sprigman (2006). In their analysis,
“copying functions as an important element of – and perhaps even a necessary predicate to
– the industry’s swift cycle of innovation”(Raustiala and Sprigman 2006, 5). For this reason,
the potential for redirective practice is particularly problematic in the mass market. The
fashion designer becomes little more than a stylist or product developer, tweaking existing
designs to give them the right “aesthetic values” for their target customer.
Despite this, the role of the fashion designer remains the focus of my research, largely due
to the potential role of designers to design for sustainability, as outlined by Fry and Fuad-
Luke. The design process of fashion designers remains an area that is under-researched. In
the past fifteen years there have only been a handful of studies exploring mass market
21
fashion designers and their design process. Fatma (2006) analyses the role of inspiration and
how Turkish fashion designers and students developed inspiration and then synthesised it
into a fashion collection. Researchers Au, Taylor and Newton (2003) have conducted a
number of comparative studies into the design process of Japanese and European designers.
By comparing their responses to set questions they built models of the theories each set of
designers commonly used6. Sinha (2002) analyses the role of creativity in fashion design,
particularly focusing on how designerly thinking is demonstrated by designers, and exploring
how this may be mobilised for use in other areas of the business.7 Her findings have
relevance to my project, as ‘designerly’, creative thinking is required for designers to
imagine new methods and processes for sustainability. Most importantly, little is known
about how mass market fashion designers view the challenge of sustainability, and whether
it is of value to them. According to Fry (2009), crucial to design for sustainability is the need
for designers to be personally engaged with the issues, and to be willing to be agents of
change.
In conclusion, fashion simply meant clothing, it may be easier to redirect fashion design
practice towards sustainability. However, fashion is primarily a system of continual change
and micro-innovation which happens to be expressed through clothing. Fashion is unique
among design disciplines in that the aesthetic values held within a garment are its market
value. Hence, an unfashionable yet still physically wearable garment has very little market
value to consumers enamoured with novelty. The fashion design process in the mass market
is driven by the complex cycling of fashion trends through the system. As the system
accelerates and customers expect more new product, more often, and at a lower price,
there is proportionally less time to devote to the design of each product. Fry (2009, 6)
condemns the trivialising of design and its reduction to mere styling – yet arguably fashion is
styling and aesthetics first, physical product second. This remains the fundamental dilemma
and challenge at the heart of this research project: reconciling the need for re-directed
practice with the reality of what fashion is and how the fashion system operates.
6 I have drawn on some of Au’s questions for my own interviews. See Appendix 2.
7 For one of these studies she conducted interviews with a number of British designers across various market levels within
the British fashion industry.
22
2.4 SUSTAINABLE FASHION
“To be sustainable means that you take out of a system the same amount of energy
as you put in, with no pollution or waste. A sustainable process is one you can do
forever without exhausting resources or fouling the environment...There has never
been, nor is there now, a sustainable business or a sustainable fashion on this
planet.”
Chouinard in Hethorn and Ulasewicz (Hethorn and Ulasewicz 2008, ix)8
This section explores the breadth of practice in sustainable fashion, with a specific focus on
the mass market and on the role of the designer and the design process. Key challenges
facing the fashion industry are its endemic waste, its polluting practices, decentralised
manufacturing, high carbon emissions and energy consumption, the ecological impact of
fibre production and the social impact on workers’ health and quality of life (Fletcher 2008;
Black 2008; Hethorn 2008). The level of engagement with sustainable fashion in the fashion
industry exists along a spectrum ranging from the TBL and CSR concerns of big companies
who aim to 'green' their business through supply chain scrutiny (DeLong 2009), to small
labels employing innovative design and production strategies (Rissanen 2008), through to
design activists who wish to distance themselves and their practice from the hegemony of
the global fashion system (von Busch 2009). Further complicating the issue is the growing
trend for ‘ecofashion’, pitched to the consumer as both fashionable and ethical.
The pursuit of novelty which characterises the global fashion system has led to
unprecedented levels of material throughput and waste. ‘Sustainable fashion’ often
describes fashion where the high environmental and social impacts inherent in the current
model of production and consumption are recognised and redirected. However, as
8 Yvon Chouinard, founder and owner, Patagonia
23
Chouinard’s quote above implies, it is more accurate to see sustainable fashion as the
movement towards this aspiration, as a journey rather than an endpoint (Fletcher 2008).
Figure 1: Garment Life-cycle Assessment
Throughout the garment life-cycle, there are issues which can be addressed by all actors
within the fashion system, whether at the level of fibre, manufacture, consumer use phase
or how and where the garment is disposed of. Life-cycle assessment is a quantitative tool to
assess the environmental impacts of materials and products. In the context of this research,
the garment life-cycle assessment (Figure 1) is used as a means to demonstrate the scope of
enquiry into sustainable fashion. Life-cycle thinking enables the designer to plan for the
impacts the product will have in both input (the impact of the extraction of raw materials in
pre-production) and output (the emissions and waste generated by the product during
production, use and disposal) (Vezzoli and Manzini 2008). The life-cycle of a fashion garment
begins at fibre (cradle), moving through to textile production, garment design process,
manufacture, distribution, retail, use phase and eventual disposal (grave). Design
interventions can be made in each stage. For instance, the retail phase can be explored
24
through Product Service Systems (PSS), where services are designed to replace product,
thereby partially reduce the volume of product sold9. Cradle to cradle design and
manufacturing aims to bypass the grave to reuse valuable fibres via closed loop
manufacturing methods10 (McDonough and Braungart 2002). Much of the ‘sustainable
fashion’ or ‘ecofashion’ available as mass produced items has focused on the fibre phase of
the life-cycle through the selection of renewable, lower-impact fibres (e.g. organic cotton,
organic wool, bamboo, lyocell and hemp). The production phase of the life-cycle has also
received attention through supply chain scrutiny to preserve the rights of workers
manufacturing the garments11.
Fashion researcher Black (2008) explores the growing market for ethically produced
garments made from ecologically responsible fibres12, saying, “in the contemporary climate
it is no longer sufficient for a retailer to sell goods – they also have to take responsibility for
the stages involved in their manufacturing process” (30). In an age of homogenised products
available globally, consumers desire this connection with the product. Black describes the
efforts made by UK mass market retailer Marks and Spencer (M&S), who for the past
decade have been implementing business-wide policies to tackle the areas of climate
change, waste, fair partnerships, health and the use of sustainable raw materials. Some of
their initiatives include launching organic cotton, using recycled polyester for garment labels
and encouraging consumers to launder their garments at lower temperatures. They have
recently formed a partnership with charity organisation Oxfam, encouraging consumers to
recycle their used M&S clothing via Oxfam shops in exchange for a voucher to use at M&S
9 Although not positioned as being a strategy for sustainability, Australian fashion industry analyst Hanrahan
predicts PSS to be a major part of Australian fashion retailing into the future. Examples include in-store
garment alteration / tailoring services, already installed by London’s Suitsupply, or styling advice and new-
season workshops (Hanrahan 2010).
10 Examples include Patagonia’s Common Threads program, where polyester garments are closed loop
recycled (Patagonia 2010), and Loooloo homewares use of biodegradeable textiles (Loooloo 2010).
11 See descriptions of practices and materials used by American Apparel (Smestad 2010), Nike (DeLong 2009), Patagonia
(McDonough and Braungart 2002; Hethorn and Ulasewicz 2008), M&S (Black 2008) & Gorman (Diviney and Lillywhite
2009).
12 Fletcher analyses the current high use of cotton and polyester in the global fashion industry, and compares these fibres
with other fibres. Fibres touted as more sustainable such as bamboo, wool, organic cotton also have other issues involved
in their production.
25
stores (Chua 2010). These are interventions which consider a holistic view of the garment
life-cycle, from cradle to grave and beyond to reuse and recycling. As Black says, the
industry response to M&S’s initiatives has been positive, but it is less certain “how
[customers] will buy into the new ethics of the M&S brand, which ultimately, must translate
into sales” (2008, 31).
Marks and Spencer’s strategy is part of the rising popularity of ecofashion within the fashion
industry. Winge (2008) provides an analysis of the rise of ecofashion and its historical roots.
The interest in ‘ecofashion’, a term often used interchangeably with sustainable fashion, has
been a growing trend within the fashion system for the past ten years. Winge (2008)
analyses this trend according to the Marxian notion of the commodity fetish -- where the
object for exchange (the commodity) holds “additional, intangible, and even mystical and
magical values and powers” (Winge, 517) which make it desirable (fetishised) by the
consumer. She distinguishes between the current ‘ecofashion’ and the ‘eco-dress’ of the
1960s to 1990s. Eco-dress was deliberately antifashion, typified by cloth such as hemp. In
the eco-dress of the 1960s to 1990s, the ‘hippie’, handmade aesthetic “often represented a
form of deliberate and cultivated anti-fashion, and empowered the wearer through visual
support of sociopolitical ideals and values associated with the protection of environmental,
human, and animal rights” (Winge 2008, 514). Consequently, the wearer of eco-dress
embodied these values, and the dress (the commodity) was fetishised for holding and
displaying those values within it. However, the fashion system adopted the tropes of eco-
dress (the handmade aesthetic, hemp sandals etc) as an aesthetic style to be displayed, so
hence the original antifashion stance of eco-dress was nullified in the ecofashion of the
twenty-first century. Unlike the rough handmade textures of eco-dress, ecofashion is
sophisticated with refined fabrication and finishes. As such, it has a far wider market appeal
than eco-dress did, as eco-fashion can be as chic and celebrity-endorsed as other
contemporary fashions. As Winge says, “the commodity fetish of ecofashion is the fetishistic
desire to own and wear fashionable design clothing—worn by celebrities—with eco-
conscious properties” (2008, 519). Yet these eco-conscious properties such as ethical
production or sustainable materials are intangible values held within the garment, they are
not visibly displayed on the garment as they once were in eco-dress. This sophistication of
ecofashion is often lauded, and compared favourably to the coarseness of eco-dress.
26
However, Winge believes that the consumer is tied more closely to the display of the
fashionable properties of the ecofashion garment, rather than to its intangible ethical values
(2008, 520). This may prove problematic for the ecofashion movement, as a celebrity-
endorsed (or trend-driven) product has an unstable consumer base, quick to follow the next
big thing. Winge notes that attempts in the past to promote values through celebrity in this
way have failed, such as the 1994 anti-fur campaign (2008, 520). This serves to demonstrate
how uneasily sustainability and fashion sit together. Ecofashion has made important inroads
into ‘greening’ the industry through more responsible practices, however as it is exists
within the logic of the fast-moving fashion system, it is subject to the system’s fickle trends.
Thomas (2008) suggests that a ‘lexicon’ for ecofashion is required. Ecofashion brands use
their principles as a selling point, a way to differentiate themselves from their competitors.
The difficulty is that the ambiguity of terms surrounding ‘sustainable’ fashion has led to a
confusion of concepts among consumers, brands and the fashion media. Sue Thomas uses
the phrase ‘Green blur’ to discuss this phenomenon, a term invented by Cotton
Incorporated (Thomas 2008, 533). Also, ‘greenwashing’ – making false or misleading
environmental claims about a garment – inevitably rose in the fashion industry as eco-
fashion, organic and ethical living became a major fashion trend. Greenwashing leads to
cynicism on the part of consumers, and serves to undermine attempts to design responsibly.
The growing trend for sustainable fashion is also addressed by Lewis (2008). As he describes
it, although global fashion is governed by mass industry, individuals within the system
contribute to it, and as the handmade, the personalised and the ethical become valorised,
these potential disruptions to the system are instead absorbed by the industry as a “new
glamour” to be marketed (Lewis 2008, 236)13. Here, as Žižek (2009b) has described, the
counterculture is redeployed in the service of the system it tries to rout. Like Black (2008),
Lewis sees sustainable fashion as an oxymoron, made so by “vacuous attempts to
circumvent the core problems of sustainable production for unaccountable and equally
uncontrolled consumption”(2008, 236). Lewis says that currently within the fashion system,
“sustainable practices are engaged within the profit-led mechanism” (241), and as such he
questions the motives and integrity of businesses promoting their sustainable fashion. Lewis
13
This parallels Zizek’s idea of ‘ethical capitalism’ – the counterculture is redeployed against itself.
27
comments that, “other than using “sustainable fabrics” and being “fair” to workers,
sustainable fashion designers are reluctant to pose profound questions about the fashion
system or its *sustainable fashion’s+ motives as an alternative system” (256-7). Fashion is a
system firmly embedded within profit-led consumer capitalism. Hence, the continual change
of fashion styles has a direct correlation with profit, particularly in the mass market.
Whether this means that attempts to design sustainably within this system can only ever be
‘vacuous’ is debatable.
The mass characteristics of fashion and its effects on the individual are noted by Fletcher,
who calls the cheap, mass produced high street fashion “passive fashion” (2008, 192), with
consumers increasingly disempowered and disconnected from the material processes of
their garments. As she says, “instead a myth is created of a ‘genius’ designer, who
synthesises trends, concepts and fabric into an inviolable piece. The result is deskilled and
ever more inactive individuals, who feel both unrepresented by the fashion system and
unable to do anything about it” (2008, 186). Part of the solution is to foster co-design
strategies, and to empower users to reclaim lost skills such as mending and sewing their
own clothing. In the work of Otto von Busch, these skills have become a form of design
activism, where the activities of the user-maker are a protest against the hegemony of the
fashion system. He has released a series of ‘cookbooks’ detailing how users can cut up old
garments to remake them into new garments, “to insert them back into the fashion system,
‘acting in reverse consumerism’” (Fletcher 2008, 197). This form of design activism acts
against the prevailing logic of the fashion system, and as such it could not be genuinely
adopted by the mass market.
The endemic waste of the fashion system is combated by designers who either use recycled
or upcycling methods within their design process. Fletcher discusses designers such as Junky
Styling who ‘upcycle’ old suits to make fashion. Rissanen (2008) explores the role of the
designer and patternmaker within the design process, proposing a design collaboration to
eliminate fabric waste in the cutting process. Rissanen cites designers such as Mark Liu and
MATERIALBYPRODUCT who have developed innovative techniques to make garments with
no wasted fabric. In Mark Liu’s case, the print of the textile conceals the cutting and
stitching lines that the maker follows, and the irregular seam allowances become an integral
part of the final design. These designers are small scale, niche, avant-garde designers. The
28
appearance of the clothing is highly idiosyncratic and the designers must have a high degree
of control over every aspect of their process. Could these techniques be implemented in the
design process of the mass market? Could the mass market designer work more closely with
patternmakers to design for less-waste, or even for zero-waste? Certainly, strategies that
increase the efficiency and decrease the waste of a fashion company would be attractive to
a mass market company.
Technological advances in fashion manufacturing can also help combat the issue of waste.
Suzanne Loker explores the role of new technology in bringing about a more sustainable
industry (2008). Loker believes that technologies can improve the efficiency of production
processes and help reduce the flow of waste through the system by making better matches
between production and consumption (2008, 98). These technologies include seamless
knitting, made-to-order clothing, and fibre-to-fibre recycling technology14. High tech
textiles, designed at the nano-level or the fabric level15, can monitor the health of the user,
can be self-cleaning, or can generate power for personal devices or ‘display’ new prints and
designs electronically as the user desires (Loker 2008, 101-106). Body scanning can ensure
that garments correctly fit customers, so that the volume of waste generated by poorly-
fitted garments can be avoided (Loker 2008, 109). Here the role of the designer will be to
develop ways to use these innovations to create a product more closely matched to the
needs of the customer. Again, these strategies are in the profit interest of the mass market
and hence may be utilised.
Fletcher explores the notion that a move to sustainable fashion requires system-level
change in her analysis of speed (2010). ‘Fast fashion’ refers to fashion produced rapidly
according to changing trends, often produced under poor labour conditions and from
monoculture fibres such as cotton or polyester (Fletcher 2008, 163). The high speed of
production, the rapid shifts in trend and the fast consumption and disposal of these items
has a high environmental and social impact. As she says, fast fashion has become a “tool
that is used to increase sales and deliver economic growth with attendant ecological and
14
Teijin textiles and Patagonia developed the Common Threads program, where polyester garments can be collected at
end of life and reprocessed into ‘virgin-quality’ polyester fibre for reuse (Patagonia 2010).
15 However, these technologies may also go on to have unintended side effects, such as nano-particles entering the
natural environment.
29
social effects” (2010, 259). Slow fashion is increasingly pitched as the philosophical opposite
to fast, an idea developed from the slow food movement. It is characterised by high-quality
ethical garments designed to be trans-seasonal or not subject to changing trends. However
to Fletcher much of slow fashion thinking has remained “locked in” to the existing economic
and industrial structures of the fashion system (2010, 262). Here she references Jackson’s
critique of economic growth, saying “we seem to think, for example, providing long-term
supply chain relationships are promoted or garments are designed to be trans-seasonal,
volumes can keep increasing and current economic preferences can be maintained” (2010,
263). It is not that ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ are a dichotomy of good and bad practices; rather it is
the way ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ are employed to serve the system, in this case the overarching
system of continual economic growth as a measure of prosperity and success. To Fletcher, a
slower sustainable fashion system can have fast-moving parts within it, such as “newness,
change and fashion symbolism” (2008, 164), yet in a sustainable system, the speeds of fast
and slow must be in balance. More fundamental to the creation of a sustainable fashion
system will be the economic and industrial thinking which underpins it. How can or will this
industrial thinking be able to shift is another question.
For now, an ideological chasm exists between the systems-level change Fletcher and
Jackson advocate and the current profit and trend-driven fast fashion processes of the mass
market. Sitting between the two positions is the worthy TBL attempts of high volume
companies such as Marks and Spencers, Nike and American Apparel who have implemented
changes to their materials and production as part of the overall company strategy. However,
as will be explored in the next section, many mass market companies in Australia have no,
or only a tokenistic, commitment to sustainability. What steps could designers working for
these companies take towards sustainability? Does the profit motive of their company
govern every aspect of their design process, or is there room for designers to redirect
elements of their process within the larger enterprise?
Difficulties face the emergence of a sustainable fashion system, the most advanced of which
would require systems-level societal and economic change. More likely is the continued
emergence of a spectrum of choices. This is explored in the four scenarios developed in the
Fashions Futures 2025 report (Bennie 2010). The Fashion Futures 2025 report is a joint
venture by fashion brand Levi Strauss and non-profit UK organization, Forum for the Future.
30
It is written primarily for fashion companies and designers, with the aim that by preparing
for a number of possible long-term scenarios, businesses can adjust their methods now, and
develop innovative practices to ensure they are able to adjust to meet future challenges.
The report synthesizes the current breadth of practice in sustainable fashion to develop four
future scenarios which depict the global fashion industry in fifteen years time. According to
the report, in fifteen years, the effects of climate change may have led to higher costs for
natural resources, individual carbon credit systems, water shortages and potentially social
instability, with a high number of environmental refugees. The nature of the fashion system
will have been forced to adjust, and some of these adjustments may include a slower model
of fashion consumption as clothing becomes more expensive and hence scarcer and more
precious to users. Conversely, technological innovations in fibre recycling, design for
disassembly and smart textiles may increase disposability of garments. The strength of the
report lies in its high level of detail supported by wide-ranging research. Its approach is also
highly pragmatic. Instead of rhetoric such as ‘the fashion industry must change its polluting
practices’, it presents the case that the industry will be forced to adjust its practices through
external circumstances. Already, with higher fuel and fibre prices16, it is in the profit
interests of the mass market company to explore more sustainable design processes.
Interventions into the processes of the fashion system can help redirect the system towards
sustainability. The spectrum of sustainability emerges when the motives behind the
redirection are examined. At the most radical end of the spectrum, fashion design activists
call for systems-level change, while the other end of the spectrum mass market companies
may employ greenwashing strategies to cultivate an appearance of sustainability. However,
regardless of the ideology behind the redirection, all attempts towards sustainability need
to be fostered. Due to the high material throughput of the mass market, even small changes
can have a large impact. Throughout the life-cycle of the fashion garment, the
environmental and social impacts of the garment can be assessed so that the garment can
be redesigned to mitigate these impacts.
16
According to Jo-Ann Kellock, CEO of TFIA, cotton and polyester prices rose significantly in 2010, and she
expects this trend to continue throughout 2011 (Bryant ,Kellock and Zimmerman 2010).
31
2.5 THE AUSTRALIAN FASHION INDUSTRY
As the primary site of data collection, it is necessary to explore the context of the Australian
fashion industry. This section will cover the expansion of the Australian industry and provide
analysis of the design processes and context of the mass market. This section also explores
the emergence of policy to effect change in the industry. The Australian fashion industry,
although without haute couture, is a microcosm of the fast moving global fashion industry,
with a distribution of both large mass market players and smaller avant-garde and designer
labels. On the periphery geographically, Australia has developed its own particular fashion
sensibilities in response to both distance and climate. In the past twenty years the local
fashion industry has seen the gradual dismantling of tariffs and the restructuring of supply
chains. Hence the majority of clothing designed in Australia is manufactured offshore, and
the local manufacturing industry is in terminal decline. This has led to a profound skills
shortage. This and other challenges faced by Australia’s Textile, Clothing and Footwear (TCF)
sector are explored in a number of key government and industry reports, notably the
government-commissioned Building Innovative Capability report (Green 2008), and Diviney
and Lilywhite’s reports into corporate social responsibility and sustainability (2007; 2009).
Australian dress has long been noted for its casual and relaxed aesthetic in keeping with the
climate and the ideals of the egalitarian society. As the dress historian Maynard has
commented, since colonial days, Australians have looked to Europe for fashionable
guidance: “Australia being in the end a provincial player, the products of our local industry
are commonly and unfairly derided in favour of the imported, so in a sense Australia's
fashion industry has a never-ending identity crisis" (2000, 70). Australia continues to look to
the fashion centres of Europe and the United States for trends guidance. However, there
have been genuine contributions made by Australian fashion to the wider fashion system.
These are most notably swimwear (Schmidt and Tay 2009), surfwear such as Billabong and
Rip Curl, and in the Australian country styles typified by R.M. Williams and Dri-za-bone
(Craik 2009).
The Australian fashion industry has experienced considerable turbulence in the past twenty
years. Prior to the 1990s, the Australian Textiles, Clothing and Footwear (TCF) sector was
protected by quotas on imports of overseas products (Kellock 2010). This quota system was
32
dismantled under Free Trade Agreements of the 1980s and 1990s. As a result, tariffs on
imports were reduced each year from 1993. In January 2010, the last tariff was removed. In
order to remain competitive, the 1980s and 1990s saw many Australian companies move
their manufacturing off shore, predominantly to China. As Gill (2008) maintains, this was
part of a world-wide trend for developed countries to move manufacturing offshore. A
landmark review of the TCF sector Building Innovative Capabilities (Green 2008) analysed
the many challenges facing the Australian industry, including the decline of manufacturing
and the need for an ethical quality mark for companies to comply with corporate social
responsibility. The report made a number of recommendations, including additional
government funding to promote innovation within the sector. This funding began to be
rolled out in the form of grants throughout 2010 (Australian Government Department of
Innovation 2010).
Currently, the Australian fashion industry is highly fragmented. While 86 per cent of the
industry is comprised of small to medium enterprises (SME)17, the remaining 14 per cent of
businesses are large entities controlling 50 per cent of the market share (Kellock 2010, 244).
These larger, high volume enterprises are the site of research for this study. I have
developed a preliminary map of the mass market fashion industry (Figure 2). This map is
based on retail presence and pricepoint, and necessarily will be expanded as the study
develops, as it only displays a fraction of the mass market companies operating in Australia.
Based on this map, the area I am referring to as the mass market covers pricepoints ranging
from an average of $17 (SES) to $204 (Veronika Maine) per garment. This is a considerable
price range, and as such I distinguish between these market levels by referring to
designations such as upper mid-market, mid-market, lower-mid market and discount. This
data is included in Appendix 1.
17
In Australia, a SME is now defined under the 2009 Fair Work Act as having under 15 employees, however in
Europe an SME has 50-100 employees (Kellock 2010, 245).
33
Figure 2: Map of the Australian Mass Market
34
The majority of large companies manufacture off shore, and as such little remains of
Australia’s manufacturing industry, with only a few large clothing factories still in operation
(Walsh 2009, 3). A report from TCF industry analyst Cathy Hewish states that in the 2010-11
period 77.7 per cent of the women’s wear market will be manufactured overseas. This has
risen from 53 per cent ten years ago (O'Loughlin 2010). The report goes on to say that 75 to
85 per cent of all apparel in Australia has been sourced from China. In contrast to this
decline in on-shore manufacturing, the profile of Australian fashion design has risen in the
past fifteen years, with Australian fashion being exported to the world. These exports are
driven by high end, high profile labels such as Colette Dinnegan, Akira and Sass and Bide.
Events such as Australian Fashion Week, established in 1996, are credited in part for the
marketing of Australian fashion to the world (Whitfield 2010, 193).
Manufacturing remains a key challenge for the industry. For small high end and emerging
labels, it is growing harder to produce small runs of garments locally, while off shore
manufacturers require high volumes. Jo-Ann Kellock, the Executive Director of the Council of
Textile and Fashion Industries of Australia Limited (TFIA) maintains that there are many
talented and innovative young designers working within the industry, but “locally made
products will continue to be an issue unless the industry...can find skilled sample machinists
– the need is critical and will continue to grow” (in Pomazan 2010, 268). Elsewhere, Kellock
maintains that the industry is polarised between big players who can afford to invest in new
technology and the smaller businesses and independent designers without the capital to
take advantage of new technologies (2010). She writes that “there is an urgent need to
address a high-tech, short-run manufacturing model for the Australian fashion industry”
(Kellock 2010, 251). The challenge of manufacturing within Australia has implications for
design redirection for sustainability. There are now less opportunities for collaboration
between mass market designers and skilled sample machinists, so designers work primarily
from flat drawings and are less engaged with the materiality of the garment in its early
stages of development.
Research into sustainability in the Australian fashion industry tends to focus either on the
innovative design processes of small designers, or on the overall brand strategy of big
companies. The design process of the designers working in big companies has been largely
ignored. There are a number of smaller scale designers and businesses operating in Australia
35
whose practices have implications for a sustainable fashion industry18. The most widely-
recognised of these is Gorman, who utilises organic fabrics and have employed an
environmental consultant to assess the business’ carbon footprint. Regarding Gorman’s
design process, English and Pomazan write, “the core garments’ designs are not trend-
driven; the design impetus is to produce long-lasting, high-quality classic garments that may
be worn until they wear out” (2010, 236). Designer Lisa Gorman considers several phases of
the garment life-cycle within the product design, including low-impact fibres, water-based
textile printing, ethical manufacture and reduced packaging in the retail phase (English and
Pomazan 2010). Gorman was also used as a case study in Diviney and Lillywhite’s report
Travelling Textiles (2009), which demonstrated how a ‘product roadmap’ can be built for a
fashion garment. Similar to a life-cycle assessment, this product roadmap traced and
assessed the supply chain of two Gorman garments. The report highlighted the challenge of
designing sustainable fashion when faced with opaque and fragmented global supply chains.
Encouragingly, Lisa Gorman and her label demonstrate how a personal commitment to
sustainability can infiltrate throughout the fashion business and consider many aspects of
the garment life-cycle.
As discussed by Loker (2008), technical innovation in the fashion industry is an opportunity
for the industry to better use resources for sustainability. Innovation in the field of textiles is
strong within Australia, driven by research from bodies such as the CSIRO. The CSIRO has
developed technical textiles which are wrinkle free, stain resistant and odour resistant, as
well as high strength textiles utilising carbon nanotubes for military and sportswear
(Pomazan 2010, 272). Australia’s textile innovations have led to interdisciplinary projects
between artists, designers and scientists at the cutting edge of fashion technology. Pomazan
describes the work of artist Donna Franklin who collaborated with the University of Western
Australia to ‘grow a dress’, a process where fermented wine is converted into a cotton-like
cellulose material (2010, 273). Another experimental collaboration was between fashion
label High Tea with Mrs Woo and Australian Network of Technology’s ReSkin project of
2007, where wearable technologies were inserted into garments (Cranny-Francis 2008).
While these projects may be some way from commercialisation, they demonstrate the
18
Bird, MATERIALBYPRODUCT, Rachael Cassar, Tiffany Treloar, Pure Pod, Etiko, Bamboo Body, Tierra Ecologia,
Little Green Dress and many more.
36
capacity for innovation within the Australian fashion industry. However, although the
capacity is there, the innovations occur within the confines of the current system in which
design and R&D is on-shore, while manufacturing is off-shore.
Despite innovation in some areas, there is a wide-spread perception that Australian fashion
designers, particularly in the volume market, rarely innovate but instead directly copy
overseas designs. In an interview with fashion researcher Sylvia Walsh, TCF industry
consultant Kerry Dickson comments:
Mainstream, medium to large scale, retail-driven Supply Chains seeking lowest price, quickest delivery
and with a ‘knock-off’ mentality mean that the design component is one of direct copying at worst
and adaptation at best. Many design concepts and product ideas are electronically sourced and cheap
imports flood stores with limited design points of difference. The department/chain store ‘designers’
limit fashion choice as they are not sufficiently confident (or funded) to support local emerging
designers (Walsh 2009, 3).
Arguably, a “knock-off” mentality is inbuilt into the fashion system. The dissemination of
trends and styles relies upon a designer or product developer’s ability to rapidly source,
adapt and even directly imitate the work of other designers (Raustiala and Sprigman 2006).
However, as Weller (2007) describes, being in the southern hemisphere, Australian fashion
businesses have traditionally operated a season behind the seasons of the northern
hemisphere. As such, they were well-placed to source current overseas garments and
directly adapt them or copy them for the forthcoming Australian season. As Weller writes,
unlike their northern hemisphere counterparts, “Australia’s local mass market firms are not
forced to develop fashion predictions or mechanisms to second guess the market”(2007,
53). Rissanen comments that,
Sometimes the existing garment is given directly to the patternmaker to create a pattern from. This in
effect is copying and it is doubtful whether making the garment in a fabric different to the original
constitutes fashion design. One might expect this to be more common in ‘lower’ levels of the fashion
system (mass-market), but the author has witnessed this practice within the Australian designer
ready-to-wear market (2007, 5).
This tradition of copying rather than original design development has profound implications
regarding sustainability. To redirect design practice, there needs to first be design. The
challenge for mass market Australian fashion design is to promote under-utilised design
37
talent towards developing an industry that can move beyond this copying mentality. Is there
scope for this design talent to be redirected towards designing for sustainability? Can design
innovation be fostered on a small scale within the larger company, similar to Fry’s notion of
platforming? 19
There are some indications that design in the Australian mass market is moving away from
direct copying20, and developing strategies and partnerships to include a greater amount of
original designs in their collections. Recently there have been a number of design
collaborations between independent designers and mass market retailers. Both Sportsgirl
and Target have partnered with emerging Australian designers to develop capsule
collections21. This has helped promote the larger company as being fashion forward and
innovative, while also expanding the exposure of the independent designers. This strategy
has implications for the mass market fashion industry, as the government grants offered to
SME could enable independent labels to partner more often with large companies and lead
to more innovative designs within the mass market.
Walsh (2009) in her report Australian Fashion Directions – Getting it Right discusses design
talent, fashion education and skill loss within the industry and how the TCF can respond to
these issues into the future. As a researcher for the Victorian Government and the
International Specialised Skills Institute, Walsh travelled to the UK, the US and Europe to
explore questions such as “how are the challenges of reduced tariffs, in tight financial and
labour conditions, being faced by innovative designers and creative manufacturers in ways
that may be adopted in Australia?” (Walsh 2009, 6). She conducted interviews with
designers, manufacturers, students and educators. Her recommendations include a “talent
incubator” where the highest level of design and industry talent is nurtured, as well as an
emphasis on skills acquisition in fashion education, with educators who are also
practitioners (Walsh 2009, 27). This is an important long-term approach in fostering
19
See section 2.2 Sustainable Design
20 This is supported by interviews I have conducted with designers, who say Australian labels are being forced
to move away from direct copying due to competition with Chinese wholesalers who also directly copy
overseas product, but produce it cheaper and faster.
21 Target has worked with Yeojin Bae, TL Wood and Gail Sorronda, while Sportsgirl has worked with Romance
was Born (Pomazan 2010).
38
innovative practice which can flow on to sustainable design. Walsh identifies that the
Australian industry response to sustainability lags behind the international response of
other developed nations (2009, 10). She recommends that the Ethical Quality Mark (EQM)
be established, as did Green (2008). Regarding sustainability issues, Walsh says Australia is
in the greenwash stage, referred to in the US and the UK as the stage
where there is significant talk about environmental responsibility and fair trade but very little action.
It is time to fully support moves to legislate for ethical business behaviours, eco-consciousness and
industry codes of practice. The TCF Industry will play its part if it fully supports moves on an authentic,
auditable EQM (2009, 28).
The Brotherhood of St Laurence, a Melbourne-based NGO has published several reports
relating to the Australian fashion industry, sustainability and corporate responsibility.
Diviney and Lillywhite authored the Ethical Threads report which mapped the ethical
treatment of workers within the Australian garment manufacturing industry. They found
that many outworkers are paid wages well below the award, for example, $2.50 to produce
a shirt which took an hour to make (2007, 4). Like Walsh, they also found “the Australian
industry was lagging behind other countries in promoting responsible business
practice”(2009, 17). Emer Diviney, the co-author of the Ethical Threads and Travelling
Textiles reports, was also the director of Ethical Clothing Australia (ECA)22. Through
accreditation with ECA, a number of fashion labels who manufacture within Australia are
now able to display the ECA label to demonstrate that their garments are ethically
produced. These businesses include high end label Ginger and Smart, mid market retailer
Cue and mass market retailer Bardot. ECA researchers are currently working on a feasibility
study for the implementation of an ethical quality mark on behalf of the TCF Industries
Innovation Council (Adams 2010). This has future implications for the mass market fashion
industry, as design and product development practices may need to shift to comply with the
new regulations on corporate social responsibility. This will be an opportunity for designers
to examine a broader view of the garment life-cycle within their process.
Mass market investigations into sustainable practices have a company-wide focus rather
than a design-level focus. There is some evidence that the environmental impacts of life-
22
Emer Diviney resigned from ECA in February 2011 (Ragtrader 2011).
39
cycle phases such as the use, retail, disposal and recycling phases are being considered. For
instance, Target Australia has introduced biodegradable shopping bags (retail phase), and
encourages consumers to launder garments on lower temperatures (use phase) (Target
2009). These are important steps at a company level, but to make the same changes at a
design level would mean designing garments to which are biodegradeable, or designing
garments which can be laundered less often or not at all23. The Sussan Group is the biggest
retailer of womens’ clothing in Australia, and includes Sportsgirl, Sussan and Suzanne Grae.
Pomazan reports that Sussan Group has been preparing for the possible introduction of an
Emissions Trading Scheme since 2007, and they aim to be carbon neutral by 2012 through
reduced emissions and the use of renewable energy and recycled materials (2010, 238). This
strategy, while employed at a company level, has had some impact at a design level.
Industry magazine Ragtrader reported in 2010 that Sportsgirl recently presented a niche
vintage collection made from recycled materials, indicating there is potential for the mass
market to explore upcycling within the design process24 (Bryant ,Kellock and Zimmerman
2010). Also exploring the end-of-life and second life phases, mid market retailer Country
Road has developed a partnership with the Red Cross charity organisation, encouraging
consumers to recycle their old garments in order to divert textile waste from landfill.
Customers are encouraged to return their unwanted Country Road garments to in-store
collection bins. This is an important acknowledgment of their products’ impact in the
disposal phase; however this scheme is unlikely to have an impact on the nature of the
product designed. To design for this phase, garments could be developed with the ability to
be disassembled or closed-loop recycled.
In conclusion, the challenges faced by the Australian fashion industry, such as the loss of
manufacturing and the large market share of the big mass market players, are challenges
faced by the local fashion industries throughout the developed world. Regarding
sustainability, Australia lags behind in implementing the initiatives of Europe and the US in
terms of ethical labeling for environmental and social sustainability. In the past, due to their
23
The Australian workwear label King Gee has made use of nano-technology textiles in work shirts which repel
odour at the fibre level (Stead 2010).
24 Another approach to reuse is American Apparel’s. The US based global retailer includes vintage clothing for
sale amidst new product.
40
geographical location, Australian fashion companies were well placed to watch trends
unfold overseas before sourcing product directly for the forthcoming season. Therefore,
design innovation was rare in the Australian mass market, as overseas brands took the
design risks and Australian labels tweaked them to the local market a season later. This is
changing, as companies are under increasing pressure to develop their own product in the
face of competition from overseas online stores, coupled with a faster trend cycle and
fashion forward consumers. Designers in the mass market need to be savvier and as ‘on top’
of the trends as they can be, and for this reason more local brands are designing in-house
and relying less on sourcing of overseas product25. This is encouraging; it demonstrates that
already design practices in the Australian mass market are changing through necessity. This
research will explore this phenomenon as well as the potential for further changes to be
made in order to redirect practice towards sustainability.
CONCLUSION
This literature review had focused on several key overlapping areas of theory. These include
the thinking around sustainability and the role of design, the nature of the fashion system,
the breadth of exploration into sustainable fashion and the current context of the Australian
fashion industry. Like all other industries, the global fashion industry faces significant
challenges in the coming decades. These include both environmental and social issues, from
post-peak oil to climate change and a carbon price. The movement towards 'sustainability' is
a response to these challenges which has developed into a robust debate surrounding the
consumption culture of the West, the dominant belief in the need for economic growth, and
the need to redesign and redirect our designed systems and objects.
Within the fashion discipline, the response to these issues has led to the rise of 'sustainable
fashion' theory, where the workings of the fashion system from a micro to macro level are
scrutinised in the context of global challenges. Largely, it is the pursuit of novelty which is
the primary driver of the fashion system, and it is arguably this pursuit which has led to the
waste and pollution the industry is criticised for. The challenge for sustainable fashion
25
This observation stems from conversations I have had with mass market designers
41
designers is whether to work within this capricious system or to move outside of it to a new
way of making and wearing clothing. The middle ground is carefully walked by a number of
designers and fashion labels who through innovation have developed new ways to design,
manufacture and retail garments.
In Australia, the mass market is the site of largest volume and hence the greatest
environmental impact. Strategies to move the mass market to a more sustainable footing
tend to focus on brand-wide policies to use renewable energy, or to recycle and use
biodegradable bags. In light of Fry’s notion of redirective design practice, there is potential
for the mass market designer to explore how shifts within their design processes could
contribute to a more sustainable industry. However, for redirective practice to occur, the
designer needs to have a total commitment to the principles of sustainability. There has
been little research into how Australian designers design in the mass market, or into their
personal views on sustainability in the fashion industry. Australia has many highly skilled
designers whose designerly thinking could be harnessed by the companies they work for to
design for a sustainable future. In part, this research project will explore whether this kind
of redirection is within the bounds of possibility for the Australian mass market.
Two key points emerge from this literature review. The first is that the mass market fashion
system is structurally in opposition to the principles of sustainability. Secondly, that the
breadth of enquiry into sustainable fashion exists along a spectrum, ranging from systems-
level change and design activism, through to TBL and then to greenwashing. The task of this
research project will be to explore the gaps between the thinking on sustainability and what
is achievable within the constraints of the current fashion system in Australia.
42
3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The thesis will identify and analyse the current methods designers use to develop a
garment, and identify which elements could be shifted in the process to develop
sustainably-considered designs. While most strategies to ‘green’ the mass market focus on a
company-wide approach such as becoming carbon neutral or using organic cotton, my area
of interest is the position and voice of the mass market designer within the system. I am
interested in the philosophies, practices and opinions of individual designers within the
mass market, the way they design products, their relationship to those products and what a
‘sustainability’ for the industry looks like to them. Following on from this premise, the
research questions include:
Can the more radical notions of sustainability be reconciled with the modus operandi
of the mass market?
What do designers within the mass market do, what is their design process, and do
they believe they have the capacity (or the need) to alter their process?
How big is the gap between designer as activist and designer as mass market product
developer?
What strategies can be developed for mass market designers to redirect their
practice? To what extent is redirective practice possible?
43
4. METHODS
The research is a critical ethnographic study of designers and their design process within the
Australian mass market fashion industry. Data will chiefly be gathered through semi-
structured interviewing and observation of designers and product developers in the fashion
industry. The interpretative framework of the research is informed by theories of ‘design for
sustainability’ (Fry 2009; McDonough and Braungart 2002) and design activism (Fuad-Luke
2009, Fletcher 2010). ‘Design for sustainability’ and design activism are linked to notions of
social justice, equity and ecological responsibility. This relationship of power and justice to
sustainability influenced my decision to work within the framework of contemporary critical
theory.
Kincheloe and McLaren reconceptualise critical theory as "a critical social theory [that] is
concerned in particular with issues of power and justice and the ways that the economy;
matters of race, class and gender; ideologies; discourses; education; religion and other
social institutions; and cultural dynamics interact to construct a social system” (2005, 306).
Kincheloe and McLaren retain the notion of objective grounding of liberationist struggles
that was at the core of the Frankfurt School, most famously in the neo-Marxian critiques of
capitalism and consumption by Adorno and Horkheimer (1972), opening up areas of analysis
and intervention that have emerged with post-colonialism, feminism, new identities and
new religious fundamentalism. For Kincheloe and McLaren critical theory is concerned with
“what could be, what is immanent in various ways of thinking and perceiving” (2005, 308).
Consequently, “critical theory should always move beyond the contemplative realm to
concrete social reform” (Kincheloe and McLaren 2005, 308). The idea of ‘what could be’ and
what is immanent is of particular interest when exploring sustainability and a sustainable
future, as Fry has discussed with his notion of ‘being-in-time’ (2009, 147) and Fuad-Luke in
his discussion of designing the ‘now’ (2009, 196). Thus critical theory is particularly suited to
this project which seeks to expose, or unmask, the discrepancy between the values and
practices of contemporary institutions and systems (the fashion system in this case) and the
concern for social, ethical and environmental change.
I will undertake a critical ethnography of designers working in the Australian mass market.
Critical ethnography, in addition to the objectives and tasks of traditional ethnographies has
44
a practical outcome that is designed to bring about change, or as expressed by Thomas
(1993, 4) “critical ethnography is conventional ethnography with a political purpose”.
Critical ethnography is the performance of critical theory (Madison 2005, 15). According to
Madison (2005, 14-15), the positionality of the researcher is the key to critical ethnography;
the paradigms under which the researcher operates and his/her relationship with power
and bias must be explicit. As a critical ethnographer, I must recognise that I am entering the
field with certain views, preconceptions and a specific commitment to the principles of
design for sustainability. For this reason, self-reflexivity will be of vital importance
throughout the research process. Through highlighting my own subjectivity, I can better
monitor my own interactions in the field. Secondly, Madison identifies dialogue/otherness
as a crucial theme of critical ethnography. In this sense, “dialogue keeps the meanings
between and the conversations with the researcher and the Other open and ongoing”
(2005, 14). For this reason, of primary importance to the research project is the dialogue
and relationships I develop as researcher with the designers and product developers I
encounter in the field.
Thomas outlines the methods used by critical ethnographers to collect data. The first task is
the preliminary literature review which will help identify the research questions. From here,
“it is crucial to identify the types of informants who are most likely to possess “insider’s
knowledge” of the research domain” (Thomas 1993, 27). It is not essential to enter the field
with immovable research questions, as unexpected themes may emerge from the data
collection which may move the project in a new direction. Most importantly, potential
inaccuracies in findings can be minimised through selecting a variety of data sources,
including interviews, documents, other surveys and existing data sets (Thomas 1993, 39).
Thomas says,
For critical ethnographers, the limits of relevant data may seem to close in much tighter and sooner,
because we are looking at topics for which conventional native accounts may not always be sufficient
when the answers are pre-patterned rhetoric that reflects learned accounts rather than actual
reasons (1993, 38).
For this reason, the critical ethnographer must be willing to explore “the gap between
onstage rhetoric and backstage action [which] becomes a way of teasing out the
contradictions that subjects must resolve when faced with competing demands of their daily
45
existence” (Thomas 1993, 38). Designers working in the mass market fashion industry may
well face contradictions between the actions of their working life and their personal views
on the need for sustainability. The critical ethnographer explores these gaps between
thought and action.
4.1 DATA SOURCES
Data for this research project will be gathered from a number of sources. These include:
1. Semi-structured interviews with Australian designers and product developers
Up to six companies will be explored as case studies within this research project. Depending
on the size of the company, between 3 and 12 designers /product developers/design
assistants per company will be interviewed on up to three occasions over the course of the
study. These companies have been identified as suitable for data collection by their brand
recognition within the Australian market, by their high volume of goods and by their mid to
low price range. The aim is to have a mix of both retailers and wholesalers, as well as both
fashion-forward brands and more conservative brands. However, who I can interview,
where, for how long and whether I can interview them subsequently is dependent on the
agreement of the company in question.
2. Observations within the field, recorded as field notes
I will conduct observations within the field, making notes and from these develop a
narrative of my time spent with each company. Some of the observations will stem directly
from the interview experience, some from the visual appearance and impressions of the
workplace environment. In subsequent visits to companies, if permitted I will act as a helper
or ‘work experience’ person, to both observe and participate in the daily tasks of the
designers and assistants. Once gathered into field notes and reflections, these experiences
will be a data source. As in the case of the interviews, this data source is dependent upon
the agreement of the company.
3. Text-based data from websites and industry magazines
46
The research will require me to regularly monitor innovations within the field of sustainable
fashion as well as the context of the Australian fashion industry. To do this, I will gather text-
based information from websites and publications focusing on these areas. In sustainable
fashion, I will sample from websites such as ecoterre.com or treehugger.com. Also, I will
closely monitor both scholarly and practice-based developments in research in the field. For
the Australian industry, I will gather data from industry websites and publications, such as
TFIA and ragtrader.com and the fortnightly Ragtrader magazine. The text gathered as data
will include editorials, interviews with designers and company executives, press releases,
blog postings and comments. The websites and social networking sites of Australian
companies will also be used as a data source in order to create a picture of the industry,
with its players, their pricepoints and target customers.
4. Visual data gathered from sketches of garments, advertising and marketing material
of companies and, where permitted, photographs of designers’ work and work
process.
The context of the Australian fashion industry and the movement of trends and shapes can
be in part captured through imagery. For this reason, I will examine and sketch garments in
store display, as well as analyse the styles of the garments as represented through
advertising material. The purpose of this is to be able to discuss with designers precise
details and, depending on the context, designers may also provide me with sketches to
illustrate a point in the interview, or to demonstrate a technique they use. Subject to their
permission, these may also be gathered as visual data.
4.2 MEASURES
I have entered the field with a framework of topics for enquiry as outlined in my research
questions. Initially, this framework will inform the data that I gather. However, being an
exploratory qualitative study, as data is gathered, new questions and topics for further
enquiry may arise. The interviews are semi-structured, and the questions provided are a
guide.
47
Research Questions Interview questions Additional Data
What do designers within the
mass market do, and what is
their design process?
What are the methods you use to
gather new design ideas?
How do you analyse the collected
information for developing new
design ideas?
What is your definition of good
design?
How do you evaluate your designs?
Literature review on mass
market design process
Visual analysis of mass market
designs
Can the more radical notions
of sustainability be reconciled
with the modus operandi of
the mass market?
What issues do you feel are most
important in developing a
sustainable industry?
Where, in your view, does the chief
responsibility for sustainability lie?
Identify these notions via
literature review
Source examples of designers
and users working in this way
What strategies can be
developed for mass market
designers to redirect their
practice? To what extent is
redirective practice possible?
How long should a [a particular]
garment last, ideally?
How do you feel about your
designed garments entering the
second hand market?
What is ‘sustainable’ fashion to you?
What is the most complex or
challenging part of your job, and
why?
How would you describe the
lifecycle of your garments?
Finding examples of how
design practice is being
redirected in fashion and in
other disciplines.
How big is the gap between
designer as activist and
What is your definition of fashion? Defining a fashion activist via
48
designer as mass market
product developer?
What are the major design
constraints you have to face?
Describe how you decide what your
customers would like to buy.
What is your view on the trend for
‘eco-fashion’?
literature
4.3 PROCEDURES
The procedures for this project are suggested in part by Madison’s Critical Ethnography:
Methods, Ethics, Performance where she discusses the idea of ‘world travelling’. World
travelling means to enter the world of the field being studied and encounter “the language,
the aesthetics and taste, the norms of civility, and the emotional landscapes” (Madison
2005,101). I enter the field with the view to learning the rules and procedures that govern it
and the interactions between the actors within it. The field work within fashion companies
will, ideally, involve me visiting the workplace on a number of occasions over the course of
the three year study. This may prove problematic, as my contact person or participating
designers may leave the company in this time. For this reason, I have designed two possible
procedures to be followed.
The first, and the ideal procedure, is that I conduct initial semi-structured interviews with
designers where they can discuss their design process, the challenges they face, their key
tasks and their views on design for sustainability. I conducted pilot interviews with Company
A and with Company B in October and November 2010. After data coding and initial
analysis, I can return to the company six to twelve months later to either conduct further
interviews or to spend a day as a participant observer to gather further data. It is important
that at the end of the study I return to the company to present my findings to the
participants for comments and/or feedback. This data gathered from fieldwork would be
supplemented by the data gathered from external sources such as websites and industry
publications. This data is gathered through fortnightly - monthly assessments of the field of
49
research using tools such as online search engine alerts and articles taken from the industry
publications I subscribe to either as emailed newsletter or as hard copy.
In the event that companies are not able to accommodate more than one visit, or that I
cannot arrange access to further companies, I have considered a second procedure. Firstly,
the two initial sets of fieldwork conducted in Australian companies will be coded
ananalysed. This analysis will point to areas that need further data, which may also suggest
the type of data and the method which would be needed to gather it. For example, if further
data is needed relating to designer’s views on sustainability and fashion, then it may be
appropriate to design a quantitative online survey to be distributed, followed up by more
detailed qualitative surveys where participants can write short answers to the questions. It
may also be possible to conduct semi-structured interviews with designers independently of
the company they work for. In this case, we could discuss generalities about their process
and experiences, rather than specifics about individual companies’ workplace practices.
However these procedures may each require a new application for ethical clearance and /
or further consultation with the Faculty Research Ethics Advisor.
4.4 RIGOUR
The rigour of the research will depend on a number of factors, from methods of data
collection, the data chosen, to my ethical conduct within the field and my handling and
analysis of the data. Potential problems that arise may impact on the rigour of the research,
for instance if permission to interview designers is denied or later withdrawn. My approach
to this is to ensure the study is multi-method, in that data is collected from multiple sources
in a number of ways.
Potential problems, as touched upon in the procedures section, include not having access to
the companies and designers I wish to study. While I have already gathered material from
three companies, it is not certain that I will be allowed back for subsequent visits. It is also
possible that some companies cannot be studied as I ideally intend, with two visits and then
a feedback session. Other companies may only allow me access on one occasion for
interviews, while a third company may only allow access for a single day of participant
50
observation – such as in a work experience program. This has implications as to whether the
cases can be effectively compared and contrasted if the methods used to gather the data
were wildly different. If this situation were to arise, I would reassess my methods and
procedures as to how I handle the data.
Particular to critical ethnography is the reflexive positioning of the researcher within the
research. For this reason, to ensure rigour within the context of a critical ethnography, it is
necessary for me to keep detailed reflections throughout the research project. I need to
make explicit my own assumptions, biases and the subjectivity of my observations. The very
act of going into a company to assess design process for sustainability carries the implication
that the current processes are ‘unsustainable’ in an environmental or human rights context.
This position could be challenging to the designers interviewed, as it suggests a moral
judgment of themselves as designers and as human beings. Sustainable fashion and textiles
is associated with words such as ‘good’, ‘fair’ and ‘ethical’, while unsustainable fashion is
deemed ‘bad’, ‘polluting’, ‘wasteful’ and ‘exploitative’. As the researcher, I need to be aware
of these loaded words and their potential impact.
In the context of critical ethnography, Madison discusses Conquergood’s notion of ‘dialogic
performance’(Madison 2005, 125-8). His model identifies four offences an ethnographer can
commit. The first is entering the field for one’s own personal benefit - ‘the custodian’s rip-
off’, the second is ‘the ethnographer’s infatuation’ where the researcher superficially
identifies, or becomes infatuated with the Other. The third offence is the ‘curator’s
exhibition’, where the researcher sees the Other as exotic and remote. The fourth offence is
the ‘skeptic’s copout’, where the researcher refuses to enter into the realm of Otherness
and engage with another’s identity. To Conquergood, the fifth position, that of dialogic
performance, sits at the centre, at the point where the four offences overlap. It is this
stance that becomes the ethical alternative for the researcher. As Conquergood describes,
The aim of dialogic performance is to bring self and other together so that they can question, debate
and challenge one another. It is a kink of performance that resists conclusions. It is intensely
committed to keeping the dialogue between performer and text open and ongoing (Conquergood,
1982 in Madison, 2005).
51
This notion of dialogic performance will act as a guide in my interactions in the field. Later, I
can reflect upon and assess my interactions. The process of transcribing the interviews will
also serve as a way to analyse these interactions.
As a researcher within QUT, I must also abide by the universities code of conduct for
researchers. I received ethical clearance from the QUT Human Research Ethics Committee
(approval number 1000000677) in July 2010. During this process, I submitted my first
contact emails, list of questions for semi-structured interviews and all the material I would
give to prospective participants. These can be found in Appendix 1. Companies who
participate are to be kept anonymous, and all data associated with them is to be monitored
for specifics that could reveal the company’s identity (e.g. logo descriptions). In the data
records and in the thesis, companies will be referred to as ‘Company A’, ‘Company B’ and so
on. Interview participants will be given code names. In the interview transcripts, these nom
de plumes will be used instead of the actual company and participant names. As discussed
in 4.1, to develop the context of the Australian fashion industry, text-based data will also be
gathered from websites and publications relating to the industry. If this publically available
data relates to, for example, Company A, then it will be instead coded by the company’s real
name and not linked or coded to the Company A data records coded within NVivo 8. This
ensures that the publically-available data which may support other parts of the research
project cannot be linked to the data gathered from the fieldwork, thus ensuring the
anonymity of the company.
52
4.5 TIMETABLE
Date Data collection Status
March – May
2010
Data collected for literature and contextual review Ongoing through
candidature
July 2010 Ethical clearance received
July – Aug
2010
Initial contact with companies to arrange visits Completed
Oct 2010 First set of interviews with Company A Completed
Nov 2010 First set of interviews with Company B Completed
Jan 2011 First set of interviews with Company C Completed
Feb – Mar
2011
Contacting Companies E and F In discussion
June 2011 First set of interviews with D In discussion
July – Sep
2011
First set of interviews with Companies E and F To be confirmed
Oct – Dec
2012
Second visits to companies Companies A, B, C and D To be confirmed
Jan - Mar Second visit to companies E and F To be confirmed
53
2012
Oct – Nov
2012
Presentations to companies To be confirmed
54
5. ANALYSIS
Analysis for critical ethnography, as for more traditional ethnographies, begins with the
sorting and grouping of the themes and patterns that emerge throughout the period of data
collection. The six companies I explore will be initially held as ‘cases’ within NVivo 8 (Bazeley
2007, 42 -3). The other forms of data I am gathering, such as text-based data relating to
sustainable design processes may be held as a number of separate cases.
In keeping with the need for rigour and a multi-method approach, data will be coded within
NVivo 8 in a number of different ways so that later in the analysis I can query the data from
multiple perspectives. I have created several a priori or theoretically derived free nodes
within NVivo 8 as a starting point for data coding. These include ‘trends’, ‘China’, ‘design
tasks’, ‘price’, ‘design restraints’, ‘environmental’, ‘workers’, ‘Australian customer’ amongst
others. These a priori codes will necessarily change and expand as data collection continues.
In fact, some nodes may never have data attached, but nonetheless I will keep them within
the NVivo research file as a record of the coding assumptions I began with (Bazeley 2007,
76). As I continue with the transcription and coding of initial interviews, more coding
choices will present themselves, and from here I can decide how to organise the nodes into
trees within NVivo.
Bazeley (2007) discusses the use of in vivo codes which are derived direct from the data,
from the speech and expressions of the participant. In fashion design, as in any professional
discipline, there is a ‘language’, a particular mode of speech or phrasing that is unique to
this field and may hold meaning to the participants that is not clear to the interviewer. By
coding these directly as in vivo codes, it will help to map the context of the ‘world’ I am
travelling through.
My field notes and reflections will also be coded in NVivo. For each fieldwork experience I
write a narrative outlining the event. This narrative is created from field notes and memory
triggers such as re-listening to transcribed interviews. Extensive observations and field notes
will be coded in NVivo, as well as the semi-structured interviews with designers and also
data gathered from websites relating to sustainable fashion and/or the Australian mass
market fashion industry. These examples will range from press releases to features on
designers. To provide an example, in the interviews designers may mention an overseas
55
company such as Marks and Spencer, Topshop or Zara. For this reason, external data
gathered from websites and trade publications relating to these companies from websites
can also be coded in NVivo. The two data sources can then be analysed in relation to each
other.
This data coding will allow a picture to be built up of the Australian fashion industry in the
context of sustainability and the design processes employed. Using the software I can make
queries and form connections between various data sources. The six companies will be
assembled as individual case studies and a comparative methodology used to plot the
differences and similarities between the companies, the views of their designers and of the
witnessed design process at work in each company. This can in turn be compared and
contrasted with data gathered from other sources, such as data relating to sustainability
and the design process.
56
5. FIELDWORK
After I received Ethical Clearance in July 2010, I began the process of approaching
companies to participate in the study. My aim was to involve up to six companies in the
research, and that the companies would include mid-volume and high-volume wholesalers
and retailers from a number of market levels ranging from upper middle market to mass
market. To date, I have been in discussions with eleven companies regarding this research.
Two refused to participate, two more indicated they would be willing to participate in the
future, four were non-committal and four have agreed for me to visit their workplace. In
order to fit in with each company’s availability, I was able to conduct fieldwork with the first
company in October 2010, with the second in November 2010 and with the third in January
2011. While I have written about my experiences in the form of field notes, I have not yet
transcribed all the interviews. I had plans to meet with the fourth company in March 2011,
however at the company’s request this visit is now delayed until June 2011.
The interviews are conducted in the workplace of the designers, sometimes in the design
room or in a shared office space, sometimes in a private meeting room. Before I commence
the interviews I present a brief Powerpoint presentation to the design team and other
interested parties. This outlines my research interest, its context and the kinds of questions I
will be asking. I have included this Powerpoint in Appendix 2.
6.1 COMPANY A
Company A is a ‘fast fashion’ wholesaler, stocked in approximately 120 locations across
Australia, including department store concessions. The company is a womenswear label,
with a customer aged between 16 and 25. The design team I met with oversee three brands,
one being a specialised subsidiary of the main brand, while the third brand is a unique entity
with a slightly older target customer and a higher pricepoint. Across all three brands,
approximately 60 individual garment styles are designed each month. The company makes
monthly drops of stock in stores. The design process begins three months out from delivery
of stock to stores. The majority of garments are manufactured in China at a factory owned
by a close family relative of Company A’s owner. Some patternmaking and sampling is
conducted in the Australian headquarters, some in China. I interviewed seven people
57
involved in the design process, including the design room manager, senior designers and
design assistants.
6.2 COMPANY B
Company B is a discount retailer, with approximately 200 stores Australia wide. The
company sells womenswear, menswear and children’s wear. While some of the brands in
store are sourced from Company B’s strategic partners, approximately 10 brands are indent
brands and designed in-house. An estimated 4000 product styles per year move through the
retailer, including the styles of the strategic partners. Some of these styles are classics
stocked year round, others are ‘fast fashion’ styles which may only be on the retail floor for
a relatively short time. In the eight months prior to my visit, Company B had dramatically
reordered its design process, moving from a model where buyers sourced product for
adaption, to the establishment of a dedicated in-house design team. The garments are
designed in Australia, but patternmaking, sampling and manufacturing is conducted in Hong
Kong. Designers oversee the design development process via online video conferencing. I
interviewed ten people involved in the design process, including the senior design room
manager and designers in menswear, children’s wear, womenswear, intimates and
footwear.
6.3 COMPANY C
Company C is a wholesaler and retailer. It is comprised of three labels which operate
independently of each other with a separate design team for each label. The biggest of the
three labels, Label 1, is an upper mid-market retailer with a market presence of X stores
Australia wide. It is designed and sampled in Australia, with garments manufactured in
China and freighted by sea to Australia. On this occasion, I was unable to interview
designers from Label 1.
Label 2 is an upper mid-market wholesaler with department store concessions. The
garments are sampled and manufactured in China. A collection comprises up to eighty
garments, and there are four collections released per year. A collection will be released in
stages over several months. I interviewed the design team, comprised of a head designer
and design assistant, and observed while they developed designs through hand sketching.
58
They allowed me to observe them in the workplace for half a day. I was able to examine
sample garments from the forthcoming collections and discuss the design process of
individual garments with the designers.
Label 3 is a fast fashion lower mid-market wholesaler with department store concessions.
Like Label 2, it is also sampled and manufactured in China, however it has a younger, more
trend focused customer base. The label develops in excess of 60 garment styles per month. I
interviewed the head designer.
59
7. DISCUSSION
In his book Doing Critical Ethnography, Thomas says, “borrowing Marx’s dictum that it is not
sufficient to study the world without also attempting to change it, the critical ethnographer
also identifies ways by which alternative interpretations of cultural symbols can be
displayed” (1993, 43). In other words, the critical ethnographer aims to move beyond a
study of what is, to explore what could be. I do not yet know what this may mean for my
research. In the early months of the project, I imagined this could mean proposing a new
model of design process in the mass market. This now seems highly simplistic; I was
designing the study for an outcome, rather than allowing the data and realisations which
may be gained in the fieldwork guide me. In essence, this study is to be explorative. At this
point in the study, I believe the most useful way forward is to immerse myself in the
fieldwork and begin to form connections that could shed light on the research problem.
This research is caught between two poles. On the one hand I align myself with the
philosophies of Fuad-Luke (2009), Fry (2009), Fletcher (2008, 2010) and Jackson (2009). All
are arguing for a systems-level change to ensure that our designed objects lead us towards a
sustainable future, as opposed to the unsustainable one we are facing. On the other hand,
my fieldwork will be conducted in the mass market fashion industry, the site of consummate
fashion, increasingly disposable and propelled by novelty. The literature review explicitly
critiques the capitalist system; the site I am investigating exists because of it.
What emerges as a site for research is the perceived gap between the thinking on
sustainable fashion and what is actually achievable in the current fashion system. It is the
language gap between ‘designer’ and ‘design’ in Fry’s terms and what ‘design’ and ‘designer’
mean in the fashion industry. So how can a dialogue develop between the mass market and
the philosophies of sustainability? How is the design process different in the mass market
from the work going on in design for sustainability? Essentially, this research comes down to
a clash of two separate world views, one where economic growth is central, and the second
which places the emphasis on sustainability and a recognition of the finite limits of the
earth. Žižek’s ethical capitalism, endlessly mutable, has absorbed the left-wing
environmental concerns as a way to continue economic growth, as a way to create
‘authentic’ experience for the consumer (2009a, 903-12). While Triple Bottom Line thinking
60
has helped ‘green’ the industry in many important ways, it operates within the (arguably)
flawed logic of capitalist growth, and as such has led to greenwash and confusion.
Talking to designers within the Australian mass market fashion industry will not resolve the
fundamental paradox at the heart of this research. However it will serve to map the spaces
between the two poles, as well as to gauge the potential within the mass market design
processes for redirective practice. Listening to the views and voices of individuals designing
within the fashion system is the research starting point.
61
8. TIMELINE AND SCHOLARLY ACTIVITIES
Time Elapsed (in months for 3 yr study) May-10 Aug-10 Nov-10 Feb-11 May-11 Aug-11 Nov-11 Feb-12 May-12 Aug-12 Nov-12 Feb-13
PhD Milestones
Stage 2 - 24/5/2010
Confirmation - 23/02/2010
Annual Progress - 30/8/2010, 30/9/2011
Final Seminar - 23/11/2012
Lodgement - 23/02/2013
Generic Capabilities
Advanced theoretical knowledge and analytical skills,
as well as methodological, research design and
problem-solving skills in a particular research area;
Develop
method
ATN More
Critical and
Creative
Thinking
Advanced information processing skills and knowledge
of advanced information technologies and other
research technologies; AIRS
Independence in research planning and execution,
consistent with the level of the research degree
Competence in the execution of protocols for research
health and safety, ethical conduct and intellectual
property ;
Submitted
Ethics
Application
Complete
H&S training
Skills in project management, teamwork, academic
writing and oral communication;
Stage 2
Project
management
seminar
ATN Leap
Communica
tion and
Leadership
ATN Leap
Project
Mangement
Grad Cert in
Research
Commercial
isation
Awareness of the mechanisms for research results
transfer to end-users, scholarly dissemination through
publications and presentations, research policy, and
research career planning. Journal Conference
Publication
Workshop Journal
Presentatio
n Workshop Conference Journal
Product
developmen
t
Thesis Writing
Title & Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Methodology
Data Analysis 1
Data Analysis 2
Data Analysis 3
Data Analysis 4
Discussion
Conclusion
ALICE PAYNE - PhD Timeline
Meeting Final Seminar timeline
Confirmation Seminar
Develop tools - interview methods,
negotiate with participants for access Coordinate Fieldwork participants
Develop skills in key software, Endnote,
Nvivo 8 Seminar, Managing Data seminar Data analysis
62
ALICE PAYNE - PhD Timeline - cont.
Time Elapsed (in months for 3 yr study) May-10 Aug-10 Nov-10 Feb-11 May-11 Aug-11 Nov-11 Feb-12 May-12 Aug-12 Nov-12 Feb-13
Coursework
Advanced Information Retrieval Skills (IFN001
Mandatory for PhD candidates)
Research Process
Accessing Literature
Consider Methodologies
Consider Resourcing
Develop Methods
Implement and Analysis of Pilot
Revising Methods
Access Sample
Fieldwork
Deliver Tools
Gather Results
Presentation to Designers
Approvals/Agreements/Applications
Intellectual Property
Ethics 14/07/2010
Industry Participation Agreements
Health & safety 7/07/2010
Write Up Scholarship
Outputs
Conference Papers
Ignite!* Sustain**
Journals/Book chapter
BookCh^^ Journal^
Product / System Development
Time Elapsed (in months for 3 yr study) May-10 Aug-10 Nov-10 Feb-11 May-11 Aug-11 Nov-11 Feb-12 May-12 Aug-12 Nov-12 Feb-13
* Ignite! 10 CI conference, 10 minute description of research, Oct 28 2010
** International Conference of Sustainability, Hamilton, New Zealand, paper presented, Jan 7 2011
^ Journal article submitted to International Journal of Sustainability, under peer review, February 2011
^^ Book chapter submitted, in peer review process.
63
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Smestad, L. 2010. The Sweatshop, Child Labor, and Exploitation Issues in the Garment Industry. Fashion Practice 1 (2):147–162
Stead, L. 2010. King Gee shirt takes the stink out of work. Courier Mail. http://tfia.assets0.blockshome.com/assets/J5FzoNF5Sn5xevH/king-gee-shirt-takes-the-stink-out-of-work.pdf (accessed March 4, 2010).
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Walsh, S. 2009. Australian Fashion Directions – Getting it Right: Victorian Government (TAFE)/ISS Institute/Fellowship.
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Žižek, S. 2010. Living in the End Times. London: Verso.
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APPENDIX 1: TABLE OF AUSTRALIAN MASS MARKET
Data was gathered for this table by averaging retail pricepoint across five representative
garments of the company. This is by no means an accurate average, as some companies
have a wide variety of high to low pricepoint in which case their average may sit them lower
in the market than expected. As there are hundreds of mass market wholesalers and
retailers operating within Australia, this table and the corresponding mass market map
(Figure 2) remain very much a work in progress.
Retail presence was gauged by checking each company’s website for the number of stores
or stockists Australia wide. Stores in New Zealand or in other countries were not counted.
As data on volume is difficult to collect or to accurately estimate, retail presence is used as a
guide only.
Pricepoint Retail Presence
SES 17 43
Best and Less 25 198
Rivers 26 184
Kmart 28 183
Big W 29 150
Target 33 283
Cotton On 35 300
Supre 36 142
Katies 53 145
Dotti 69 120
Bardot 70 120
Sass 77 77
Sportsgirl 79 108
Ladakh 79 120
Colorado 84 107
Sussan 89 180
Suzanne Grae 89 190
Wombat 89 120
Forever New 93 52
Bluejuice 93 80
Basque 115 65
Witchery 135 154
Country Road 138 150
Bebe Sydney 138 37
Katherine 146 60
One Teaspoon 153 250
Sportscraft 157 53
Seduce 160 75
Cue 185 127
Veronika Maine 204 60
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APPENDIX 2: ETHICAL CLEARANCE DOCUMENTS
FIRST CONTACT EMAIL
Dear (title, name),
I am a PhD candidate in Fashion at Queensland University of Technology. My research
project is on the design process and sustainability in the Australian fashion industry.
I would like to interview designers and product developers in your company and observe
them as they work. This research has been approved by the QUT Human Research Ethics
Committee (approval number 1000000677). All data I gather would be anonymous,
confidential, and non-identifiable to your label.
I believe my research can be of benefit to your company. I know from your website that you
have a strong commitment to Corporate Social Responsibility, as well as an environmental
policy for the label. One outcome for the research may be the development of a product or
a system to enable designers to manage the process of designing to meet these ends. I am
interested in learning about the particular challenges faced by Australian fashion labels and
gaining the perspectives of designers. I would like to learn from your designers and also
share my own experience and thefindings of the research with them.
Following this email is a letter from my supervisor, Dr Tiziana Ferrero-Regis.
I am looking forward to hearing from you.
Kind regards,
Alice Payne
[Following is a support letter from my supervisor, Dr Tiziana Ferrero-Regis]
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Dear Sir/Madam,
My name is Tiziana Ferrero-Regis and I am the supervisor of Ms Alice Payne, PhD candidate
at the Queensland University of Technology, Creative Industries Faculty.
Ms Payne is undertaking a research project focussed on fashion sustainability in Australia in
the mass market. This is an important research that fits within the objectives of the Fashion
degree at QUT. We are committed to sustainability which is a strong part in our
undergraduate curriculum. We have already a stream of higher degree and Honours degree
researchers currently working on different topics in fashion sustainability. Ms Payne’s
research is the first to be undertaken in the field of the mass market industry. I believe this
is an important step toward an understanding of sustainability from the point of view of the
real world and in projection of a future in which resources will be scarce. I am certain that
this research will generate valuable insights and a model for innovation in this field.
Fashion at QUT is a relatively young discipline (six years), but it has generated top graduates
such as Gail Reid and Jason Wu. In a national survey of university degrees in fashion (CEQ –
Course Experience Questionnaire), QUT Fashion is rated first for overall student satisfaction
in the last three years. Indicators include completion, skills and graduate experience.
I hope you will take this opportunity to collaborate with QUT on this important project.
Please, do not hesitate to contact me directly at this email address should you require
further information.
Yours sincerely,
Dr Tiziana Ferrero-Regis
Lecturer, Fashion History and Theory
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LIST OF QUESTIONS
This is a list of indicative questions for semi-structured interviews. The questions may change
depending on the interviewees’ responses.
1) What is your definition of fashion?
2) What are the major design constraints you have to face?
3) What are the methods you use to gather new design ideas?
4) How do you analyse the collected information for developing new design ideas?
5) What is your definition of good design?
6) How do you evaluate your designs?26
7) Can you describe your design process, from initial idea to first sample?
8) Who is involved in the process, and what is their contribution?
9) Describe how you decide what your customers would like to buy.
10) Where do you find inspiration?
11) How important is the trend forecasting to your design work? Which type of trends
are important e.g. colour, fabric, detail, catwalk, celebrity fashion, consumer lifestyle
12) How important to you is the way clothing makes people feel?
13) What is the most enjoyable part of your job, and why?
14) What is the most complex or challenging part of your job, and why?
15) How would you describe the lifecycle of your garments?
16) What role does costing play in the design process?
17) How long should a [a particular] garment last, ideally?
18) How do you feel about your designed garments entering the second hand market?
19) What is ‘sustainable’ fashion to you?
20) Do you believe your customers are concerned or interested in the issue?
21) What is your view on the trend for ‘eco-fashion’?
22) There are new methods trialled such as design for disassembly, closed-loop
manufacturing, vertical integration, design-for-zero waste.
23) How do you feel about each method?
24) Are these methods suitable or unsuitable for your label, and why?
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Questions 1 – 5 were adopted from Au’s study.
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25) What issues do you feel are most important in developing a sustainable industry?
26) Where, in your view, does the chief responsibility for sustainability lie; in consumer
behaviour, fabric production, manufacturing supply chain, or design?
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RECRUITMENT FLYER, PARTICIPANT INFORMATION AND CONSENT FORMS
PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
Information for Prospective Participants
The following research activity has been reviewed via QUT arrangements for the conduct of research involving human participation.
If you choose to participate, you will be provided with more detailed participant information, including who you can contact if you have any concerns.
Design is power: the design process and sustainability in Australian fashion design.
Research Team Contacts
Ms Alice Payne — PhD candidate — QUT Dr Tiziana Ferrero-Regis — Lecturer — QUT
0410 277 161 07 3138 0194
[email protected] [email protected]
Please contact the researcher team members to have any questions answered or if you require further information about the project.
What is the purpose of the research?
The purpose of this research is to understand and assess how the various design processes of the Australian fashion industry may accommodate ‘design for sustainability’ in the future. In a projected future of scarcer resources, new labelling regulations and changes to government policy, the industry needs to be better equipped to manage these challenges. The experiences and views of practicing designers and product developers are vital to this research.
Who is funding this research?
This research is funded by an Australian Postgraduate Award stipend and Creative Industries Faculty PhD research support funds. The funding bodies will not have access to personally identifying information about you that may be obtained during the project.
Are you looking for people like me?
The research team is looking for designers and product developers working in Australian fashion labels.
What will you ask me to do?
Your participation will involve being interviewed on up to three occasions for between 30 – 60 minutes each. Subject to yourself and your company’s agreement, I would also like to observe your design activities during your design process.
Are there any risks for me in taking part?
The research team does not believe there are any serious risks for you if you choose to participate in this research. There may be a small risk that some questions and discussion may be uncomfortable for you. Please feel free to indicate if this is the case and that topic can be skipped, or should you prefer, the interview terminated. It should be noted that if you do agree to participate, you can withdraw from participation at any time during the project without comment or penalty.
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Are there any benefits for me in taking part?
This project will offer an opportunity to share your knowledge and experience and provide your views on the future of your industry. This research may be used for future recommendations to industry, so by contributing, your voice can be heard and your concerns responded to.
Will I be compensated for my time?
To recognise your contribution, and as a ‘thank you’ for your time, participants will be given movie vouchers. At the end of the project, participants will be given a record of relevant findings for their own information.
I am interested – what should I do next?
If you would like to participate in this study, please contact the research team for details of the next step.
You will be provided with further information to ensure that your decision and consent to participate is fully informed.
THANK YOU! RM Reference Number: 1000000677
PARTICIPANT INFORMATION for QUT RESEARCH PROJECT
Design is power: the design process and sustainability in Australian fashion design
Research Team Contacts
Ms Alice Payne — PhD candidate
School of Fashion, QUT
Dr Tiziana Ferrero-Regis — Lecturer
School of Fashion, QUT
0410 277 161 07 3138 0194
[email protected] [email protected]
Description
This project is being undertaken as part of PhD project for Alice Payne. The project is funded by an Australian Postgraduate Award stipend and Creative Industries Faculty research support funds. The funding bodies will not have access to the data obtained during the project. The purpose of this project is to analyse the design processes of the mass market fashion industry to explore how the industry can move towards ‘sustainability’. The research team requests your assistance because you are a fashion designer currently working in the Australian fashion industry.
Participation Your participation in this project is voluntary. If you do agree to participate, you can withdraw from participation at any time during the project without comment or penalty. Your decision to participate will in no way impact upon your current or future relationship with
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QUT or with your current workplace. Your participation will involve 2 - 3 interviews at your workplace or other agreed location. Each interview will take approximately 30 – 60 minutes, and will be audio-recorded, with your permission. Questions will include: Can you describe your design process, from initial idea to first sample? Who is involved in the process, and what is their contribution? Where do you find inspiration? What is ‘sustainability’ to you? What issues do you feel are most important in developing a sustainable industry? The researcher would also like to observe your activities about / during your design process, subject to your approval and availability.
Expected benefits It is expected that this project will benefit you, as it is an opportunity for your views to be heard on the future of your industry. It may also benefit the wider Australian fashion industry, by pointing to ways in which the industry can adapt to future challenges. To recognise your contribution, and as a ‘thank you’ for your time, participants will be given movie vouchers. At the end of the project, participants will be given a record of relevant findings for their own information.
Risks There are no serious risks beyond normal day-to-day living associated with your participation in this project. There is a small risk that some questions and discussion may be uncomfortable for you. Please feel free to indicate if this is the case and that topic can be skipped, or should you prefer, the interview terminated.
Confidentiality All comments and responses will be treated confidentially and will be made anonymous when the audio-recording is transcribed. The names of individual persons are not required in any of the responses. If you request for certain comments to be attributed to you personally, you will have the opportunity to verify these comments prior to final inclusion.
Only the primary researcher will have access to audio recordings of interviews. These recordings will not be used for any other purpose other than the transcribing of the interview material. It is possible to participate in the project without being recorded. All interview data, including audio recordings and transcriptions, will be kept for five years before being destroyed.
Consent to Participate We would like to ask you to sign a written consent form (enclosed) to confirm your agreement to participate.
Questions / further information about the project Please contact the researcher team members named above to have any questions answered or if you require further information about the project.
Concerns / complaints regarding the conduct of the project QUT is committed to researcher integrity and the ethical conduct of research projects. However, if you do have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of the project you may contact the QUT Research Ethics Officer on +61 7 3138 5123 or email [email protected]. The Research Ethics Officer is not connected with the research project and can facilitate a resolution to your concern in an impartial manner.
Thank you for helping with this research project. Please keep this sheet for your information.
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CONSENT FORM for QUT RESEARCH PROJECT
Design is power: the design process and sustainability in Australian fashion design
Research Team Contacts
Ms Alice Payne — PhD candidate
School of Fashion, QUT
Dr Tiziana Ferrero-Regis — Lecturer
School of Fashion, QUT
0410 277 161 07 3138 0194
[email protected] [email protected]
Statement of Consent By signing below, you are indicating that you:
have read and understood the information document regarding this project
have had any questions answered to your satisfaction
understand that if you have any additional questions you can contact the research team
understand that you are free to withdraw at any time, without comment or penalty
understand that you can contact the Research Ethics Officer on +61 7 3138 5123 or [email protected] if you have concerns about the ethical conduct of the project
agree to participate in the project understand that the project will include audio recording
Name
Signature
Date / /
Media Release Promotions From time to time, we may like to promote our research to the general public through, for example, newspaper articles. Would you be willing to be contacted by QUT Media and Communications for possible inclusion in such stories? By ticking this box, it only means you are choosing to be contacted – you can still decide at the time not to be involved in any promotions.
Yes, you may contact me about inclusion in promotions No, I do not wish to be contacted about inclusion in promotions
Please return this sheet to the investigator.
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WITHDRAWAL OF CONSENT FORM FOR QUT RESEARCH PROJECT
Design is power: the design process and sustainability in Australian fashion design
Research Team Contacts
Ms Alice Payne — PhD candidate
School of Fashion, QUT
Dr Tiziana Ferrero-Regis — Lecturer
School of Fashion, QUT
0410 277 161 07 3138 0194
[email protected] [email protected]
I hereby wish to WITHDRAW my consent to participate in the research project named above. I understand that this withdrawal WILL NOT jeopardise my relationship with Queensland University of Technology.
Name
Signature
Date / /
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APPENDIX 3: POWERPOINT PRESENTATION TO DESIGNERS
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