Design and Structure of Research

Dr. Syed Rifaat Hussain

What is Research Design?

• Research design consists of the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena.

Major components of Research Design• The research question.• The Theory.• The data• Use of data

Choosing a topic• Individual preferences.• All research projects must satisfy two criteria:• 1. It should pose a question that is

“important” in a real world. The topic should be consequential for political, social, or economic life, for understanding and predicting events that might be harmful or beneficial.

Choosing a topic….contd• 2. A research project should make a specific

contribution to an identifiable scholarly literature by increasing our collective ability to construct verified scientific explanations of some aspects of the world.

What is contribution to knowledge?

•Choose a hypothesis that has not been systematically studied and evaluated•Test an existing hypothesis – falsify or verify.•Throw new light on an existing controversy•Design research to illuminate or evaluate unquestioned assumptions in the literature•Examine unexplored dimensions of an important topic•Show that theories or evidence designed for some purpose in one literature could be applied in another literature to solve an existing but apparently unrelated problem

Improving theory and data

• Choose theories that could be wrong.• Choose the one that is capable of generating

as many observable implications as possible.• In designing theories be as concrete as

possible.• Test theories under auxiliary statements

Improving Data• Data are systematically collected elements of

information about the world.• Record and report the process by which the data

are generated.• Collect data on all possible observable

implications of your theory.• Maximise the validity of your measurements• Ensure that data collection methods are reliable.• All data and analyses should be replicable

Improving the use of existing data

• Use data to generate inferences that are unbiased.

• Efficiency: maximize the information used for descriptive or causal inference.

• Specify causal mechanism and conditions under which data predictions would hold.

Purpose of the research design•Offers a guide that directs the research action and helps to rationalise the use of time and resources•Helps to introduce a systematic approach to the research operation. Outlines sequence of steps for all aspects of the study•Entails openness and accountability for research purposes•Helps to control, minimise or even eliminate eventual influences on data collection and through this on the quality of data•Offers order and clarity in the process of study•Makes the steps of the research design clear, enabling the researchers to foresee and prevent eventual errors, bias and distortions•Encourages the effective organisation and coordination of the project, particularly when it includes more than one researcher•Makes replication easier and more effective

•Enables accurate assessment of the validity and reliability of the study•Enables accurate estimation of the costs of the study and required personnel.

Steps of the Research DesignTopic and methodology

What is the research topic and which methodology will be employed?

Methodological construction of the topic

How will the research topic be addressed in the study?

Sampling Procedures

Where and when will the topic be studied, and who are the subjects?

Data Collection Where will the subjects be found and How will the data be gathered?

Data Analysis and Interpretation

How will the data be processed and in what way will they be interpreted?

Reporting How will the findings be communicated to the community and interested parties

Types of Research Designs

• Qualitative or Descriptive• Quantitative

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Designs Compared

Procedure Quantitative Models Qualitative Model

Research Topic Selection of Research topic and methodology

Selection of Research Topic and methodology

Methodological construction of the topic

Definition: precise, accurate and specific; employ operationalization; Hypothesis formulated before the study

Definition: general, and loosely structured; employ sensitising concepts; Hypothesis formulated through/after the study

Methods, sampling and Projections

Well planned and prescriptiveSampling: well planned before data collection; is representative; Measurement/scales: employ all types

Well planned but not prescriptiveSampling: well planned often during data collection; Measurement scales: mostly nominal; field research

Data Collection Use quantitative methods; employ assistants

Use qualitative methods; single handed

Data processing Quantitative and statistical analysis; inductive generalisations

Qualitative; data collection and analysis occur simultaneously; analytic generalisations

Reporting Integrated findings Mostly not integrated finding

Descriptive Research

• How do adolescents spend their time?

Questions raised by Descriptive Research

Correlational Research

• Example: Are children’s friendships related to their relationships with their siblings?

Interpretation

• Affective experience• Emotional support• Working through issues• Particular child characteristics

Experimental Research

• Example:• Does drawing improve improve children’s

memory for an event?

Experimental Design

• Random assignment• Random sampling rare• Representative sampling• Selection bias• Subjective variables

Measures:

• Independent variable:• drawing vs telling alone• Dependent variable:• memory performance

Example:

Pre-design decisionsPriority – follow institutional guidelinesBe in close touch with your supervisorsBreadth and depth – do not bite off more than you can chewEquipment requirements: computers.Time – use a time-set design to use time constructively.Resources – adequate resources for field visits, surveys, interviewsLimits and constraints – taboo subjects and forbidden territory. Whether permission required or will it be granted.

Choosing a topic•Stick with your expertise and areas of interest•Need to be able to handle the topic within the time parameters of the institutional regulations•Resource constraints and accessibility to the research field•Topics should be researchable in general terms and by means of methodology you chose•Avoid metaphysical and abstract issues – life after death.

How do I do it?•Explore your research topic•Define your research topic accurately•Operationalise the topic•Any hypothesis•Data generating instruments – survey research, interview schedule and Sampling questions.

Data collection decisions•Which methods will be employed to gather the data•Will assistants/researchers required •Do documents need to be printed and distributed to respondents?•Assistants – their capabilities and training needs•Dealing with non-responses•Checking data for fairness, accuracy, reliability

Data Analysis Decisions•Will the analysis be quantitative or qualitative?•If quantitative will computers be required?•If so , are the computers equipped with appropriate programs?•Is help in data entry and processing required?•Are funds available for these services?•In qualitative research, will you need assistance with transcription of the results or other tasks? Language skills, translation needs.