delivering the passivhaus standard in the uk
DESCRIPTION
A review of the supply chain involved in new-build housing. A thesis awarded a distinction from the Welsh School of Architecture. Supervised by Professor Chris Tweed.TRANSCRIPT
Delivering the Passivhaus
Standard in the UK: A review of the supply chain involved in new-build
housing
Tom McNeil
September 2012
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of
Master of Science in Environmental Design of Buildings
WELSH SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE - CARDIFF UNIVERSITY
1
Abstract
The UK Government set an 80% carbon dioxide emissions reduction target by 2050 compared to 1990
levels. This commitment will require carbon reductions to be made in all industries including housing, which
presently accounts for around a quarter of the UK’s carbon dioxide emissions. Therefore, the need to
reduce the energy use of housing is crucial to meet these ambitious targets. The Passivhaus standard has
been proven in various parts of Europe to reduce the energy consumption of housing. This thesis explores
the opportunities for delivering the Passivhaus standard in the UK and focusses on the delivery through the
supply chain, assessing the availability of products and skills required locally in the UK and the barriers
preventing uptake. The research used a multi-method approach, using qualitative research via semi-
structured interviews, the analysis of case studies and a review into further literature. The major factor
preventing innovation through the UK supply chain is a lack of clarity in the legislation, with little incentive
to exceed the existing Building Regulations, resulting in reduced investment in research and development,
and the lack of re-education throughout the supply chain. Austria and Belgium have successfully advanced
their building standards and actively encouraged the uptake of the Passivhaus standard through incentive
schemes and other measures, which has resulted in progressive innovation in the supply chain and allowed
the production of products meeting the Passivhaus standard to advance. The researcher would recommend
that example projects are constructed using masonry cavity wall, encourage UK manufacturers to specialize
in the Passivhaus products market and ensure the Government brings clarity in the legislation and produce
a clear route map up to 2020. This should give the industry more confidence and allow companies to invest
and innovate through research and development. Incentive schemes for low energy housing and meeting
the targets of Passivhaus or equivalent should also be established in the UK.
Contents
2
Contents
Abstract .............................................................................................................................................. 1
List of figures and tables .................................................................................................................... 4
List of abbreviations ........................................................................................................................... 6
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................ 7
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 8
Low energy housing: Context and background ........................................................... 10 1.1
Research focus ............................................................................................................. 11 1.2
Research aims and objectives ...................................................................................... 12 1.3
Value of this research .................................................................................................. 12 1.4
Outline structure .......................................................................................................... 14 1.5
2 Literature Review ..................................................................................................................... 15
2.1 Climate Change ............................................................................................................ 15
2.2 The Passivhaus standard .............................................................................................. 17
2.2.1 History and background....................................................................................... 18
2.2.2 Passivhaus principles ........................................................................................... 21
2.2.3 Passivhaus planning package (PHPP) ................................................................... 24
2.2.5 Technical requirements of components .............................................................. 27
2.2.6 Passivhaus in the UK ............................................................................................ 33
2.2.7 Government policy: Drivers and barriers ............................................................ 37
2.2.8 Social barriers ...................................................................................................... 43
2.2.9 Technical barriers ................................................................................................ 44
2.2.10 Logistical barriers ................................................................................................. 45
2.2.11 Costs .................................................................................................................... 46
Supply chains................................................................................................................ 47 2.3
Literature review conclusion: Research questions ...................................................... 49 2.4
Contents
3
3 Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 50
4 Findings and analysis ............................................................................................................. 53
The role and importance of the UK supply chain ............................................................. 53 4.1
Case Study 1: Larch and Lime house ........................................................................... 58
Missing out on a growth market ...................................................................................... 62 4.2
The effect of changing the construction methods and supply chain ............................... 63 4.3
Case study 2: Wimbish development .......................................................................... 63
Case study 3: Sampson Close ...................................................................................... 65
Innovating the UK supply chain ........................................................................................ 67 4.4
Generating market demand in Passivhaus ....................................................................... 69 4.5
Learning from other European countries ......................................................................... 73 4.6
Barriers and enablers in Austria & Belgium ..................................................................... 75 4.7
5 Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 81
6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 85
Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 86 6.1
Limitations of research ..................................................................................................... 87 6.2
Recommendations for further research ........................................................................... 88 6.3
References ....................................................................................................................................... 89
Appendix A: Partial verbatim transcripts ..................................................................................... 98
Appendix B: Partial verbatim transcripts EU .............................................................................. 110
List of figures and tables
4
List of figures and tables
Table 1: Passivhaus standard energy performance requirements for the UK climate. Source: Modified after:
Siddall & Grant, (2011). (Pg. 23)
Table 2: Allocation of Ψopaq values into the Passive House efficiency classes. Source: PHI (c), (2012). (Pg. 28)
Table 3: Embodied energy relating to the travel distances of different Passivhaus suitable windows. (Pg. 55)
Figure 1: Decadal land-surface average temperature using a 10-year moving average of surface
temperatures over land. Source: Berkley Earth, (2011). (Pg. 16)
Figure 2: Location of CEPHEUS projects. Source: Schnieders & Hermelink, (2006). (Pg.19)
Figure 3: The number of Passivhaus dwellings inhabited increasing every year in Germany, with growth
continuing prior to the CEPHEUS project. Source: Schnieders & Hermelink, (2006). (Pg. 20)
Figure 4: Summary of the Passivhaus principles. Source: Modified after: Shufflebotham, (n.d.). (Pg. 22)
Figure 5: Screenshot from verification page of PHPP 2007. (Pg.24)
Figure 6: Comparison of results obtained by dynamic simulation (DYNBIL) with calculations produced with
PHP. Source: PHI, (2007). (Pg.25)
Figure 7: Boundary conditions, acceptable certification criteria and efficiency classes for glazing with map
showing the classification of regions with equivalent requirements for certified Passivhaus glazing and
transparent components. Source: PHI(c), (2012). (Pg. 29)
Figure 8: Certification procedure required by the PHI. Source: PHI(c), (2012). (Pg. 30)
Figure 9: Sections taken through Passivhaus windows. Source: Modified after: PHI(b) (2007). (Pg. 31)
Figure 10: Estimated embodied energy of a 1.2x1.2m window frame. Source: Asif et al., (n.d). (Pg. 31)
Figure 11: Passivhaus suitable external wall constructions. Source: IPHA(b), (n.d.). (Pg. 32)
Figure 12: Passivhaus projects in the UK. Source: Google, 2012. (Pg. 33)
Figure 13: Timeline of some of the key Passivhaus projects in the UK and future projects under development.
(Pg. 34)
List of figures and tables
5
Figure 14: UK Government’s preferred hierarchy. Source: DCLG (2008). (Pg.37)
Figure 15: Recommended FEES level with the range of specifications modelled. Source: ZCH (2009). (Pg. 39)
Figure 16: Diffusion of innovations curve. Source: Wikipedia, (2012). (Pg. 41)
Figure 17: Responses to the survey on the drivers for zero carbon homes in England. Source: Osmani &
O’Reilly, (2009). (Pg. 42)
Figure 18: The scope of supply chain management. Source: Oliver & Webber, (1982). (Pg. 47)
Figure 19: Research method outline. Source: Modified after: Bryman, (2008). (Pg. 52)
Figure 20: Map of Europe showing the import patterns of timber suitable windows and timber frame
laminates. (Pg. 56)
Figure 21: PHI certificate of the VPWP window. Source: VPWP, (2012). (Pg. 60)
Figure 22: Shows how the Passivhaus standard has advanced in 10 countries participating in the PASS-NET
project: Source: Intelligent Energy Europe (2012). (Pg. 75)
Figure 23: Countries participating in the PassReg project. Source: PHI(d), (2012). (Pg. 76)
Figure 24: Flow diagram of supply chain; highlighting supply and demand generated, and the important
considerations and influences on the supply chain for low energy housing. (Pg. 84)
6
List of abbreviations
Association for Environmentally Conscious Builders [AECB]
Building Research Establishment [BRE]
Building Performance Evaluation [BPE]
Conference of Parties [COP]
Cost Effective Passive House as European Standard [CEPHEUS]
Code for Sustainable Homes [CFSH]
Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform [BERR]
Department for Communities and Local Government [DCLG]
Department of Energy and Climate Change [DECC]
Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs [DEFRA]
Energy Performance of Buildings Directive [EPBD]
European Union [EU]
Fabric Energy Efficiency Standard [FEES]
Greenhouse Gasses [GHG]
Homes and Communities Agency [HCA]
International Passive House Association [IPHA]
Insulated Concrete Formwork [ICF]
Mechanical Ventilation with Heat Recovery [MVHR]
Modern Methods of Construction [MMC]
Master of Science [MSc]
National House Building Council [NHBC]
Passivhaus Institute [PHI]
Passivhaus Planning Package [PHPP]
Passive House Regions with Renewable Energies [PASSREG]
Plate-forme Maison Passive (Belgium PHI) [PMP]
Post Occupancy Evaluation [POE]
Promotion of European Passive Houses [PEP]
Research and Development [R&D]
Scottish Building Standards Agency [SBSA]
Small and Medium Enterprise [SME]
Specific Heat Demand [SHD]
Specific Heating Load [SHL]
Structurally Insulated Panel [SIP]
United Kingdom [UK]
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCCC]
Vale Passive Window Partnership [VPWP]
Welsh School of Architecture [WSA]
Zero Carbon Hub [ZCH]
7
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisor Chris Tweed for his time and input over the course of the research. My
thanks also to all the people who agreed to be interviewed and those who contributed indirectly to the
research through informal discussions.
I was awarded a Leverhulme Trust scholarship and so a special thank you to those within the Welsh School
of Architecture who deemed me worthy of the award. Thank you to the Leverhulme Trust for providing the
funding, without which I would not have been in a position to undertake the course.
Introduction
8
1 Introduction
The purpose of this thesis was to identify and understand the barriers to the development of Passivhaus
housing in the UK. It explores the supply chain of Passivhaus components, systems and construction
techniques required to progress the Passivhaus standard on a larger scale in the UK, covering the issues
relating to the supply chain in achieving this transition.
This research considers ‘local’ supply chains, meaning to be within the UK (also known as ‘domestic’ supply
chains). ‘Regional’ supply chains (i.e. within a specific region of the UK) are also considered.
Important research questions relating to this thesis include:
1. In delivering the Passivhaus standard on a larger scale, what contribution or role will the UK supply
chain have in delivering the standard?
2. Would innovation in the supply chain enable the UK to progress towards the Passivhaus standard or
other very low energy building standards?
3. Where do the drivers come from to stimulate this supply chain?
These are the most critical issues that this thesis addresses. It summarises previous research undertaken on
the standard (which includes social, technical and logistical issues) and aims to go deeper into the issue of
supply chains, as the literature review identified a lack of existing debate on this issue.
Some of the issues raised in this thesis are not necessarily applicable only to the Passivhaus standard,
although, the Passivhaus standard has been used as a precedent to show what is currently perceived, in
theory, as the best practice industry approach for reducing the energy used in housing. Some issues
affecting the supply chains of high specification building components and skills will also be relevant to other
forms of very low energy housing, as will some issues regarding legislation and policy. Passivhaus differs
from other low energy housing due to its use of specialist products such as triple glazing and low U-value
doors, highly efficient mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR) and a building fabric with very low
Introduction
9
air leakage and high levels of insulation. These are requirements of meeting the Passivhaus standard, with
the aim of ensuring that a certain level of performance and quality is achieved.
Previous academic research on the Passivhaus standard is often concerned with technical and to a lesser
extent, social Issues, often focussing on the airtightness and use of MVHR. This is a very important issue and
there are currently many Passivhaus projects in the UK where post occupancy evaluation (POE) is being
carried out to assess the energy use and how the occupants use and operate the homes, e.g. The Tigh-Na-
Cladach development, Scotland, The Larch and Lime Houses, Ebbw Vale, Wales, and Wimbish development,
England. Although this will be touched on during this thesis the main focus will be concerned with the
supply chain and how the Passivhaus standard could be delivered effectively in the UK market.
The ‘supply chain’ for delivering Passivhaus encompasses the system of organisations, people, technology,
activities, information and resources involved in delivering the Passivhaus standard for housing from the
suppliers to the customer. This in itself is a large and potentially broad issue. Specific Passivhaus products
have been focussed on, such as windows, as an example of a more specialist product required to meet the
Passivhaus standard.
This thesis does not set out to prove that the Passivhaus is the standard that the UK should adopt, but aims
to assess the body of knowledge and issues affecting its possible implementation as an improved energy
standard for UK housing.
Introduction
10
Low energy housing: Context and background 1.1
The construction of low energy housing (i.e. housing that aims for higher energy efficiency standards than is
deemed best practice by the Building Regulations) is important due to a need to reduce energy use. This
should have the effect of cutting energy bills, thus reducing the number of people in fuel poverty and
decrease carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions which contribute towards anthropogenic climate change.
The UK has entered into an agreement as part of the UK Climate Change Act (2008) which sets a legally
binding target requiring greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to be reduced by 80% by 2050 compared to 1990
levels (DEFRA, 2007). In the context of buildings the Energy Performance in Buildings Directive (EPBD)
states:
Buildings account for 40% of total energy consumption in the Union…Member states shall ensure
that by the 31st December 2020, all new buildings are nearly zero-energy buildings…Nearly zero
energy building means a building that has very high energy performance…The nearly zero or very low
amount of energy required should to very significant extent should be covered by energy from
renewable sources, including renewable energy produced on-site or nearby.” (European Commission,
2010)
Housing is responsible for around a quarter of the UK’s GHG emissions, so it would be impossible to meet
the 2050 objective without changing emissions from homes (DECC, 2011). In order to achieve this, the
building regulations from now until this date will need to significantly improve building standards. The need
to improve the energy efficiency of housing is further exemplified by the proposals to build up to 240,000
new homes per year in order to address current shortages in the existing housing stock (DCLG, 2007).
The need for the improved performance of housing has led to the creation of a number of standards which
exhibit exemplary levels of energy efficiency. In 2006 the Department for Communities and Local
Government (DCLG) launched the Code for Sustainable Homes (CFSH). This measures the ‘sustainability’ of
new homes against nine categories of sustainable design, rating the whole home as a complete package. It
Introduction
11
covers energy/CO2 , water, materials, surface water runoff (flooding and flood prevention), waste,
pollution, health and well-being, management and ecology (DCLG, 2012).
The Passivhaus standard relies on an energy performance specification which differs from the more holistic
standard of the CFSH. However, it has been demonstrated that the Passivhaus standard can be integrated
into the CFSH.
Even though the Passivhaus standard has been designed and built to in Continental Europe for over 20
years, with proven results in its ability to reduce the energy use of houses (Schnieders & Hermelink, 2006),
the uptake in the UK has been relatively slow. However, with the recent completion of larger scale projects
over the last few years, it would appear that the standard is gaining momentum in the UK.
Research focus 1.2
The research focus is on the supply chain capable of delivering the Passivhaus standard in the UK
housebuilding industry. Relevant literature indicates that the UK is not progressing as required to meet its
energy targets and more must be done in terms of innovation in the industry in order to meet these targets
(McLeod, et al., 2012). The Passivhaus standard represents a more radical response, which has the potential
to reduce the energy use in homes and help to moderate the subsequent CO2 emissions. However, the UK
may lack experience, knowledge and the local manufacturing industries capable of implementing the
standard effectively.
While this thesis will limit its focus to housing, many of the issues raised will also apply to non-domestic
buildings. It was recognised by Lowe & Oreszczyn (2008), that the non-domestic sector is more complex and
that “Over the last 30 years, many conceptual and technological advances in energy saving have come first
in the domestic sector”. Therefore, the focus will be on the housing sector in order to provide a reasonable
scope when applying the Passivhaus standard to policy and when analysing case studies.
Introduction
12
Research aims and objectives 1.3
Key research aims in order to answer the research questions include:
• A literature review, highlighting the barriers (i.e. strengths and weaknesses) of the Passivhaus standard
in the UK, identifying gaps in the body of knowledge and research.
• A review of the current supply chain of Passivhaus products and systems available to the UK market
focussing on key products and local suppliers.
• To gain academic and industry views using qualitative research methods.
• To identify issues with the current systems in place for a transition towards more energy efficient
housing.
• To develop a series of recommendations on how to improve the delivery of the Passivhaus standard in
the UK if it is deemed appropriate.
Value of this research 1.4
The literature review adds value by identifying key issues affecting the implementation of the Passivhaus
standard. This provides valuable insight into the pros and cons and developed a number of issues which
require further investigation, both in the context of this thesis and other research investigations.
The inquiry into the supply chain gave an idea of how the UK is placed to deliver the Passivhaus standard. It
has been cited that research into this topic is required. When analysing the prospect of Passivhaus housing
Lowe and Oreszczyn (2008) state: “The DCLG and Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory
Reform (BERR), need to take a view on the importance of a domestic supply chain capable of delivering
Passivhaus components and systems to the UK housebuilding Industry”. They also mention that certain UK
products such as windows, which are mass produced cost effectively to the Passivhaus standard on the
continent by a number of suppliers, could mean that a large part of the existing supply chain is rendered
Introduction
13
obsolete if trade in these products in directed abroad. This could be politically unacceptable and the
industry may take a view that these difficulties are from a failure by the Government to provide the
required support to advance the industry. They conclude by stating “If the view is taken that a domestic
supply chain is essential, a programme has to be initiated immediately to convert the existing supply chain”
(Lowe & Oreszczyn, 2008).
The University of East Anglia (UEA, 2011) commented:
The housing market crisis presents a unique opportunity to transform the quality of housing in
England, to stimulate innovation, to create new business opportunities and supply chains, and to
transform skills in the construction sector…By requiring that housing associations work with industry
partners to build low-energy passive homes, the route out of this crisis can become an opportunity to
fast-track UK construction to innovate, to develop the skills needed to build to very high quality
standards, and to develop the supply chains that will anyway be necessary in years to come.
Research by Osmani & Reilly (2009), concerning the feasibility of zero carbon homes, identified that 85% of
the construction professional respondents who were surveyed considered ‘innovation within the supply
chain’ as a significant or major driver to achieving the zero carbon target for all new homes by 2016.
Wolfgang Fiest, the creator of the Passivhaus standard, identifies the supply chain as being crucial in
delivering the standard: "It is generally important to get the industry in, the manufacturers and suppliers,
the window makers and so on. When you do that, this becomes a much less expensive solution." (Fiest,
2011)
These statements from academia and the construction industry, demonstrates the importance of this issue
in progressing towards more energy efficient housing and that further research into this area is required
within the industry.
Introduction
14
Outline structure 1.5
• Chapter 2: ‘Literature Review’: The first part of Literature review sets up the principal problem of why
we require energy efficient housing. The Passivhaus standard is then introduced giving an overview of
how this standard represents a new way of construction in the UK. Details of the barriers and issues
of the standard are assessed based on existing research. This leads into a further review concerning
the issues regarding the supply chain and gearing up the UK to adopt a stricter energy efficiency
standard.
• Chapter 3: ‘Research Methodology’: Introduces the multi-methods approach used to gather answers
to the questions arising from the literature review.
• Chapter 4: ‘Findings and analysis’: provides a commentary and explanation of the research findings
from the interviews and case studies undertaken. Quotes are taken from the verbatim interview
transcripts to back up the researcher’s argument.
• Chapter 5: ‘Discussion’: The research is considered with regard to the wider implications of the
research and builds on commentary from the analysis.
• Chapter 6: ‘Conclusion’: Provides an overall evaluation/summary of the research and offers
recommendations relating to the research findings.
Literature Review
15
2 Literature Review
This literature review examines the current body of knowledge regarding the main issues surrounding the
possible adoption of the Passivhaus standard in the UK, with an analysis of the significant barriers to
adoption. The literature review assesses the current state of the supply chain of Passivhaus products and
services in the UK.
2.1 Climate Change
This thesis is based on the premise that CO2 emissions must be limited to slow the rate of anthropogenic
climate change and that using less of the planet’s finite fuel resources will increase the UK’s energy security
for the future. Although the Passivhaus standard doesn’t directly consider CO2 emissions within its
assessment criteria, it does aim to reduce the energy required for space heating and primary energy
consumption. The less energy required for space heating should lead to reduced CO2 emissions (depending
on the fuel source). The fuel mix of the UK is made up of around 84% fossil fuels (DECC, 2012), therefore
this stands to reduce the use of fossil fuels, thus reducing CO2 emissions.
The evidence for anthropogenic climate change is overwhelming and the risks are said to be intensifying.
According to a joint statement of the academies of science of the G8+5 (2009) countries ‘‘Climate change is
happening even faster than previously estimated; global CO2 emissions since 2000 have been higher than
even the highest predictions.’’
Over a decade ago, most countries joined an international treaty – The United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This set out the general goals to attempt to reduce climate
change. In 1997 the Kyoto Protocol established legally binding targets which the registered countries must
meet. Under the Kyoto Protocol most industrialised nations agreed to legally binding emissions-reductions
targets, which would collectively result in greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 5.2% below 1990 levels
Literature Review
16
between the years 2008 and 2012 (the 'commitment period') (DECC, 2012). At the Conference of Parties
(COP) negotiations in Copenhagen in 2009 there was an agreement that the rise in global temperatures
must be kept to less than 2°C above pre-industrial levels. However, many felt that the talk in Copenhagen
and subsequent COP negotiations have failed to address the magnitude of the problems (McKibben, 2012).
Figure 1 demonstrates how land-surface temperatures have increased over time and how the current
trajectory is approaching the 2°C rise.
Figure 1: Decadal land-surface average temperature using a 10-year moving average of surface temperatures over
land. Anomalies are relative to the Jan 1950 - December 1979 mean. The grey band indicates 95% statistical and
spatial uncertainty interval (Berkley Earth, 2011).
The second significant risk to civilisation is the potential depletion of fossil fuels which we rely on for energy
supplies. The term ‘Peak fossil fuel’ refers to the likelihood of reaching a point where the production of
fossil fuel grows, reaches a maximum (peak), and then gradually declines so that it increasingly cannot meet
the demand (except at much higher prices which prevent its widespread use) (Bardi, 2009). This risk leads
Literature Review
17
to the requirement for societies to become less dependent on fossil fuel, by making more efficient use of
the fuels we currently have, and the transition towards an energy mix that is less dependent on fossil fuels
through the incorporation of renewable energy technologies.
2.2 The Passivhaus standard
The Passivhaus or ‘Passive House’ - as it is often referred to - is a quality control standard which aims to
ensure that a building certified as ‘Passivhaus’ meets a set of strict standards relating to energy and
provides occupants with a high level of comfort. The Passive House Institute (PHI) state that the Passivhaus
is not a brand name, but a tried and tested construction concept that can be applied by anyone, anywhere
with the aim to achieve thermal comfort through mostly passive measures via the use of insulation, heat
recovery, passive use of solar energy and internal heat sources (IPHA (a), n.d.). The exact definition is given
as: “A Passive House is a building, for which thermal comfort (ISO 7730) can be achieved solely by post-
heating or post-cooling of the fresh air mass, which is required to achieve sufficient indoor air quality
conditions – without the need for additional recirculation of air.” (IPHA (a), n.d.)
The standard is only loosely based on ‘passive solar’ design and the standard has been named ‘‘Passive
House’’ because the ‘passive’ use of incidental heat gains delivered externally by solar irradiation through
the windows and provided internally by the heat emissions of appliances and occupants. This, in theory,
suffices to keep the building at comfortable indoor temperatures throughout the heating period
(Schnieders & Hermelink, 2006).
In the UK it would appear that the standard is more often referred to as ‘Passivhaus’ rather than ‘Passive
House’. From this point on, the author will refer to the standard as “Passivhaus” unless directly quoting
from a source.
Literature Review
18
2.2.1 History and background
The Passivhaus standard was originally developed in Germany in the early 1990s by Professors Bo Adamson
and Wolfgang Feist. With funding by the State of Hesse, the requirements for energy-efficient houses were
researched and prototypes of new building components were developed and produced. This included
insulated window frames, reduced thermal bridges and CO2 regulated ventilation. In 1990-91, based on
plans by Prof. Bott, Ridder & Westermeyer, four terraced house accommodation units were built in
Darmstadt. The houses have been occupied since 1991. An accompanying monitoring programme provided
information about super-insulated building components, windows, ventilation heat recovery, user
behaviour, indoor air quality and amount of internal heat sources (Passipedia, 2012).
The Cost Effective Passive Houses as European Standards (CEPHEUS) project ran from 1998-2001, with the
object of demonstrating that the Passivhaus standard, which had been further developed over the past 7
years, could provide cost effective and technically feasible buildings built in a range of European countries.
Within the CEPHEUS project, 250 housing units were built to Passivhaus standards in five European
countries (see figure 2) (PHI (a), 2012).
Literature Review
19
Figure 2: Location of CEPHEUS projects (Schnieders & Hermelink, 2006).
The project claimed to demonstrate (Schnieders & Hermelink, 2006):
• Functional viability of the Passivhaus concept at all sites.
• Actual achievement of the space heat savings target.
• Practical implementability of Passivhaus buildings in a variety of building styles and constructions.
• Project-level economic viability and a high degree of satisfaction of building occupants.
Literature Review
20
The apparent success of the CEPHEUS project then went on to increase demand for Passivhaus buildings in
Germany, as is shown in figure 3.
Figure 3: The number of Passivhaus dwellings inhabited increasing every year in Germany, with growth continuing
prior to the CEPHEUS project (Schnieders & Hermelink, 2006).
The Passivhaus technology was reported to have triggered a fresh burst of innovation in the German
construction industry. Passivhaus components were made available from an increasing number of
manufacturers and by October 2003, 39 different Passivhaus windows were available. (Schnieders &
Hermelink, 2006).
The CEPHEUS project was independently funded by the Directorate General XVII of the European
Commission. The reports (all of those available in English) were produced with participation from the PHI.
No similar pilot projects were produced in the UK at this time and this could account for the slow uptake of
the standard when compared with the other nations.
Passivhaus dwellings have been built using a range of construction methods. The Passive House Database
provides a list of certified projects. The number of residential projects completed using timber frame is 158,
with 147 in masonry (Passivhaus Dienstleistung GmbH, 2012).
Literature Review
21
The NHBC Foundation (NHBC, 2011) made reference to the Passivhaus standard as “Setting the most
stringent energy efficiency targets in the world.” The Swiss, MINERGIE-P standard also sets similar
requirements based on Passivhaus standard and with a focus on a very low heating demand and high levels
of occupant comfort. This has been taken a step further in the MINERGIE-A standard which sets an
additional stipulation of having a ‘heat index’ of zero or less, which combines the fabric efficiency of the
MINERGIE-P standard with renewable technologies (MINERGIE, 2012). The Association for Environmentally
Conscious Builders (AECB) have produced a series of standards for the UK market. The Silver Standard uses
some Passivhaus principals but aims not to present a major challenge for current building methods, with
estimated savings of CO2 of 70% compared to 2006 Building Regulations. The Gold Standard is almost
identical to the Passivhaus standard or the MINERGIE-P standard, and can achieve 95% lower emissions
compared to 2006 Building Regulations (AECB, 2007).
2.2.2 Passivhaus principles
The basic principles of designing to the Passivhaus standard are that thermal comfort can be achieved by
incorporating (BRE, 2011):
• Good levels of insulation with minimal thermal bridges.
• Passive solar gains and internal heat sources.
• Excellent level of airtightness.
• Good indoor air quality, provided by a whole house mechanical ventilation system with highly
efficient heat recovery.
The most important principle is a continuous insulating envelope all around the building which minimises
heat losses through the fabric. In addition there must be an airtight layer and careful detailing to avoid
thermal bridges, as shown in figure 4. This all aims to avoid the loss of heat from the building envelope.
Literature Review
22
Figure 4: Summary of the Passivhaus principles: (a) – High levels of continuous insulation, (b) – Minimal thermal
bridging, (c) – Continuous air barrier, (d) – High efficiency MVHR, (e) – Solar gains and orientation, (f) – Comfort.
(Modified after: Shufflebotham, n.d.).
Heating is provided via the MVHR. The principle is that because very little heat is lost to the outside, heat
from passive elements such as solar radiation and internal gains from occupants and equipment can meet
most of the heating requirement of the building. A highly efficient MVHR will allow sufficient fresh air to
enter the building and allow the purging of the heat from the extract air, with the added ability to actively
heat the incoming air. This simple system means that very little additional heating is required (if any). Not
using an additional heating system can only work in buildings with minimal heat losses (Passipedia, 2012). It
is recommended that buildings are orientated to maximise passive solar gains in winter by orientating along
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an east/west principal axis so that the building faces within 30 degrees of due south (BRE, n.d). It is not,
however, a requirement and a number of successful designs have been demonstrated where a favourable
orientation was not possible due to site constraints (Fiest et al. 2005, cited in McLeod et al., 2010)
(Schnieders & Hermelink, 2006).
It is also recommended to have a low surface area to volume ratio (A/V). It is advised to design buildings
with a compact form, with a A/V value of ≤ 0.7m²/ m³ (BRE, n.d).
The set of quantitative requirements that a Passivhaus must adhere to are given in Table 1
Passivhaus standard energy performance requirements (UK Climate)
Specific heating demand (SHD) ≤ 15 kWh/m2/yr
Or, specific heating load (SHL) ≤ 10 W/m2
Entire specific primary energy demand ≤ 120 kWh/m2/yr
Airtightness n50 ≤ 0.6 ach @ 50pa
Table 1: Passivhaus standard energy performance requirements for the UK climate
(modified after: Siddall & Grant, 2011).
The standard requires that the ‘primary energy demand’ target is met in all cases. This figure must include
the space heating, domestic hot water, lighting, fans and pumps and also all of the projected appliance
consumption. In addition to the primary energy demand the standard permits that either the SHD or the
SHL must be met.
The SHL is given by the formula:
1 m3/(m2h) x 30 °C x 0.33 Wh/(m3K) = 10 W/m2
The formula gives the minimum ventilation rate required for indoor air quality (0.4ac/h) which results in at
least 1m3/m2h, multiplied by the maximum design heat input (30 °C), multiplied by the specific heat
capacity of air (0.33) (Passipedia, 2012).
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2.2.3 Passivhaus planning package (PHPP)
The PHPP software is a key part of designing to achieve the Passivhaus standard. The software was first
introduced in 1998 with the English version becoming available in 2004. The software has constantly been
updated with the most recent version, PHPP 7, brought out in 2012. The software is Excel spreadsheet
based and provides the user with a verification page (figure 5) which shows how the building performs
based on the input data.
Figure 5: Screenshot from verification page of PHPP 2007.
The PHPP is based on a static thermal analysis and it is claimed by Feist (2007) that although PHPP is a
simplified model, when used for design/analysis the results compare favourably to those using dynamic
thermal analysis. Figure 6 shows a comparison with dynamic software. PHPP is aimed at being used not only
as a compliance tool to ensure the Passivhaus standard but also as a design and optimisation tool for
architects, engineers and designers (Feist, 2007).
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Figure 6: Comparison of results obtained by dynamic simulation (DYNBIL) with calculations produced with PHPP (PHI,
2007).
The use of appropriate climate data is essential for accurate design as the climate files in PHPP define the
boundary conditions upon which all of the thermal calculations are based. The BRE have now produced 22
regional UK climate data sets, applicable for use in the PHPP (BRE, 2012).
2.2.4 Certification process
No additional skills are required by anyone within the design and construction process to build to the
Passivhaus standard, however, the process is different to what many within the industry are used to.
A house will not achieve Passivhaus Certification unless it can be shown to be designed and constructed to
all the certification criteria. This will involve (Siddall & Grant, 2011):
• The use of PHPP and the entry of the correct data.
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• That all relevant design assumptions and boundary conditions accord with those established by the
PHPP.
• That the conductivities of all materials, products, components and constructions (including thermal
bridging) satisfy the relevant EN standards.
• That the internal surface temperature of the windows will not fall below 17°C on the coldest day of the
year.
• That pressure tests have been undertaken in accordance with EN 13829.
• That where MVHR is utilised it satisfies the PHI’s strict performance requirements for those systems.
• That the MVHR systems are commissioned in accordance with the requirements of the Passivhaus
standard.
• That the contractor writes a declaration confirming that the building has been built in accordance with
the contract documentation.
• Photographic records of the project are retained.
• There is a comprehensive set of construction drawings and documentation.
• Being able to demonstrate that the energy performance standards established by the PHI have been
satisfied (see table 1).
Certification must be traceable back to the PHI in Germany. There are currently a number of certification
bodies in the UK including the BRE, AECB and the Scottish Passivhaus Association. Certification can only be
achieved after the building is completed and after satisfactory airtightness and commissioning tests. A
completed copy of the PHPP must be completed by an appointed European certifier. This process costs
around £1500 ex VAT for a domestic home of moderate complexity (AECB, 2009). The use of specialised
calculation tools implies a significant amount of qualification or education of a member of the building team
and is recognised as a potential bottleneck in the implementation (Mlecnik et al., 2010).
This process requires completing as well as obtaining Building Regulations compliance, which results in
extra work for the design team and contractors, inevitably adding to the project costs.
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2.2.5 Technical requirements of components
Achieving a SHD of 15kWh/m2/yr or less means that the following guideline targets need to be achieved as
a minimum (Mead & Brylewski, 2012):
• A recommended opaque fabric thermal transmittance coefficient ( U-value) of ≤ 0.15W/m2.
• U-values for windows and doors (for both the frame and glazing, Uw) need to be ≤ 0.8W/m2K
(0.85W/m2K installed).
• Thermal bridging ideally needs to be eliminated or minimised, a psi (Ψ) value of <0.01W/m2K is
considered thermal bridge free.
• An air pressure test must result in an n50 airtightness level of 0.6ach, averaged over pressurisation and
depressurisation.
• Whole house MVHR that is 75% efficient or better, with a low specific fan power.
The PHI has been certifying components for the last 15 years, providing a quality assurance guarantee
ensuring suitability. Over 300 components have been certified according to the PHI criteria and a database
for certified components has now been established by the PHI (Passivhaus Trust (a), 2012). A building can
achieve the Passivhaus certification standard using products that are not certified by the PHI, provided that
the products used meet the necessary performance requirements. It should be noted that the use of
Passivhaus certified, or Passivhaus suitable, products and materials is not evidence of suitability in all cases.
However, the use of certified components does simplify the audit trail that is utilised by the standard
(Siddall & Grant, 2011).
Glazing and Transparent Components – There are many strict stipulations on the glazed elements which
relate to heat transfer and thermal comfort. In general window elements should be triple glazed, argon
filled, have a low-e coating and highly insulated frames. They are a critical component in achieving
Passivhaus certification.
A minimum temperature difference of volume enclosing surfaces is set at 4.2 °C. This stipulates that the
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minimum surface temperature may deviate by a maximum of 4.2 °C between any internal surfaces (eg.
glazing and walls). A greater difference may lead to unpleasant cold air descent and radiant discomfort felt
by the occupants.
The maximum U-values of installed transparent Passivhaus building components under heating dominated
situations can be calculated using this formula (PHI (c), 2012):
The heat transfer coefficient for the above formula are dependent on the climate. Economic feasibility
studies show that, in mild, heating-dominated climates, heat transfer coefficients better than those
required by the comfort criterion alone are needed to reach an economic optimum (PHI (c), 2012).
The air velocity in the living area must be less than 0.1m/s. This requirement restricts the air permeability of
a building component as well as cold air descent. For vertical surfaces, adherence to the temperature
difference requirement means compliance with the draught requirement.
Efficiency classes are set for glazing and additionally for the whole window unit based on the thermal bridge
loss coefficient (Ψopaq) of their opaque components. The frame U-values and widths as well as the glass
edge Ψ-values and lengths are included in these heat losses. Table 2 shows how the Ψ-values dictate the
efficiency class of a window unit.
Table 2: Allocation of Ψopaq values into the Passive House efficiency classes (PHI (c), 2012).
Passive House suitability is determined using the U-value of the installed/uninstalled building component
and the temperature factor at the glass edge, the coldest point of the window frame. The U-values and the
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ψ-values are to be ascertained in accordance with DIN EN ISO 10077, EN 673 and DIN EN 13947, as are the
U-values and the respective ψ-values for defined frame sections (PHI (c), 2012)
Figure 7: Boundary conditions, acceptable certification criteria and efficiency classes for glazing with map showing the
classification of regions with equivalent requirements for certified Passivhaus glazing and transparent components
(PHI (c), 2012).
Glazing U-values (Ug) for certification are ascertained according to EN 673. A different outdoor temperature
is taken for each region (see figure 7), as the glazing U-value is dependent on temperature difference
whereas 20°C is always used as the indoor temperature. In the heating-dominated regions, the outdoor
temperature used is based on the average temperature during the Passivhaus heating period: (5°C for the
UK) (PHI (c), 2012).
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The certification procedure for glazing and transparent components is outlined in figure 8. The following
documents are required for certification by the PHI (PHI (c), 2012):
• Sectional drawings showing materials with different conductivities
• Information on the thermal conductivities of the materials
• Exact product information about the spacer and drawings showing suitable installation in three
different Passivhaus wall types.
Figure 8: Certification procedure required by the PHI (PHI (c), 2012)
In order to reach the standard most window frames will be insulated and will often use a thermal break
within the frame to get down to the required U-value. Although Passivhaus builders can use any window,
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choosing a Passivhaus certified window is the easiest option as it requires less work in the PHPP software
(Holladay, 2009).
Figure 9: Sections taken through Passivhaus windows (Modified after: PHI (b), 2007)
Passivhaus windows have been constructed using a range of materials including uPVC, timber, aluminium,
aluminium-clad timber and fiberglass. They all vary in predicted service life, embodied energy and cost.
uPVC is the cheapest option and aluminium-clad timber the most expensive (Eliason, 2011). The estimated
embodied energy of a uPVC window is 3 times higher than a timber window (see figure 10). uPVC also has
an estimated service life 15 years less than that of timber window (Asif et al., n.d). Therefore this thesis will
only consider timber windows.
Figure 10: Estimated embodied energy of a 1.2x1.2m window frame. (Asif et al., n.d).
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Building Fabric – The Passivhaus standard does not dictate that a certain type of wall construction should
be used (IPHA (b), n.d.). Figure 11 shows examples of typical construction details which meet the standard
using a variety of building materials. The design of the wall construction can incorporate standard
techniques used in the UK such as cavity wall (not featured on figure 11 but demonstrated on the Denby
Dale Passivhaus, figure 13) or timber frame, or use alternative construction techniques more commonly
found in continental Passivhaus designs, such as solid masonry with external insulation, or modern methods
of construction (MMC) such as structural insulated panels (SIPs) and insulated concrete formwork (ICF)
(McLeod et al., n.d).
Figure 11: Passivhaus suitable external wall constructions (IPHA (b), n.d.)
The key requirements of air tightness, reduced thermal bridging and U-values must be met in order to
achieve certification. As with windows, the internal surface temperatures must be above 17 °C
(at Te = -10 °C and Ti = 20 °C) (PHI (c), 2012).
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2.2.6 Passivhaus in the UK
The number of Passivhaus certified projects in the UK has risen to over 20 and includes schools, offices,
multi-residential social housing and one-off dwellings. Figure 12 shows a map of Passivhaus projects
maintained by the Passivhaus Trust and figure 13 shows a timeline displaying the growth in scale of
Passivhaus residential schemes in the UK since the first certified Passivhaus dwelling completed in 2009.
Figure 12: Passivhaus projects in the UK. Completed schemes in blue and schemes in the pipeline in green (Google,
2012).
Figure 13: Timeline of some of the key Passivhaus projects in the UK and future projects under development.
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McLeod et al. (2010) conducted a study looking into whether the Passivhaus principles could be a valid
starting point from which to develop zero carbon housing, taking Wales, UK as the location under
investigation. The case study used a detached Passivhaus using two different sets of climate data, one
generated specifically for the site using the Meteonorm software and default weather data for Manchester.
The report concludes that the Passivhaus standard can be more easily achieved in a Welsh climatic context
than in continental Europe. This was also suggested by Ford et al. (2007) who conducted a study as part of
the Passive-On Project, who found the Passivhaus heating performance standard (15kWh/m2) could be
achieved in the UK. This would be as expected due to the milder winter design temperatures.
The report by McLeod et al. (2010) suggests that procurement of regionally sourced Passivhaus
components is an important objective for regional economic regeneration. It also identifies issues with the
buildability of Passivhaus houses in Wales and whether the construction industry in Wales is capable of
meeting the standard. It is suggested that MMC are the most appropriate and identifies Wales as gradually
beginning to develop an MMC capability but this may not provide sufficient quantity for several years.
Schiano-Phan et al (2008) also states the importance of using MMC to promote new ways of providing
affordable, environmentally sustainable housing which is innovative in design, relying primarily on timber
framing skills and techniques. However, McLeod et al (2010) also states that MMC and timber frame are not
a requirement of Passivhaus. Data from Austria shows that around 30% of the Passivhaus homes are built
using masonry construction (IG Passivhaus Oberosterreich, 2008 cited in McLeod et al., 2010). The UK
predominantly uses masonry methods of construction, which accounts for around 85% of new build
housing (Buildingtalk 2006 cited in Lovell & Smith 2010).
As interest in the Passivhaus standard has grown, the first UK Passivhaus conference was organised in
London in 2010. The event included a keynote speech by the former Secretary of State for Energy and
Climate Change, Chris Huhne, who stated:
I would like to see every new home in the UK reach the Passivhaus standard…This will help us to
break away from the model of homes being developed at low cost, but which are expensive to run.
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Moving toward a new concept of value in home ownership…We need a new paradigm in housing,
where value is measured in the running costs to 2050 and beyond (DECC, 2010).
This quote by Huhne acknowledges some of the major flaws in UK mass housebuilding industry, relating to
inadequate quality resulting in underperforming buildings.
There are currently a number of companies which provide Passivhaus training, which offer courses for
trades-people and the design team to become certified Passivhaus designers. There are also a few UK
suppliers distributing Passivhaus products such as windows, doors and MVHR units certified or suitable for
the Passivhaus standard. The first of these was the Green Building Store, which won a Queen's Award for
Enterprise: Sustainable Development 2009 for its 'pioneering approach to sustainability' and for providing
'cutting edge sustainable products’. Other companies that distribute Passivhaus suitable products include: R
A Scott consultants, GreenSteps Ltd, Ecohaus SW Ltd, The Passivhaus Store (AECB, 2012).
There are a number of European window manufactures that distribute Passivhaus suitable and certified
windows, these include Internorm, Energate, Variotec, Enersign, Optiwin etc. There are currently two UK
manufacturers producing Passivhaus certified windows in the UK, both from the Vale Passive Window
Partnership (VPWP) consisting of CP Joinery and Thomas Joinery.
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2.2.7 Government policy: Drivers and barriers
Passivhaus is becoming more common and the body of evidence grows for the possibility of its wider
implementation in the UK. However, there are still a number of barriers which prevent its uptake on a
larger scale. This section looks into the policy and where the UK is heading with its low carbon agenda for
housing and where the drivers come from to improve the standards.
In order to reduce the CO2 emissions from new dwellings the UK introduced a target that new homes must
be zero carbon from 2016, which equated to CFSH Level 6. The original definition defined a zero carbon
home as having “Net carbon dioxide emissions from all energy used in the dwelling are zero or better”,
which included the use of appliances (DCLG 2006). A revised definition followed in 2008 due to concerns
from the construction industry. The DCLG (2008) set out a preferred hierarchy for the delivery of, zero
carbon with energy efficiency the most important factor in delivery (see figure 14).
Figure 14: UK Government’s preferred hierarchy - showing carbon offset measures (DCLG, 2008).
This may indicate that Passivhaus adheres to the hierarchy set out by the Government due to its primary
focus being on reducing the energy used from the fabric of the building (fabric-first approach). However,
McLeod et al. (2012) states, “Although this structure appears to prioritise energy efficiency, the
introduction of ‘Allowable Solutions’ has effectively introduced a buyout clause.” This implies that it has
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become less onerous to build homes to the zero carbon standard and there has been a significant
slackening of the key energy efficiency parameters required to achieve a zero carbon dwelling compared
with the original definition. This leads to the question of whether this zero carbon approach is in line with
the energy efficiency and CO2 reduction targets set out in the UK Climate Change Act and policies in the
EPBD (McLeod et al. 2012).
The Zero Carbon Hub was formed in June 2008 with the purpose to “Facilitate the mainstream delivery of
low and zero carbon homes” (ZCH, 2012), and is managed by a range of stakeholders across the UK
construction industry. A task group was set up to define a fabric energy efficiency standard (FEES) for zero
carbon homes, with the job to “Examine the energy efficiency metrics and standards which will realise our
ambition of the highest practical energy efficiency level realisable in all dwelling types” (ZCH, 2009). The
task group used a performance metric of kWh/m2/yr, which allowed for the comparison of different fabric
energy efficiencies independent of fuel type, contrary to the overall zero carbon metric of kg/CO2/yr. The
Task Group recommended that the minimum FEES should be set at:
• 39 kWh/m2/yr for apartment blocks and mid terrace houses.
• 46 kWh/m2/yr for semi-detached, end of terrace and detached houses.
It was claimed that:
This sets a challenging but realistic increase in dwelling performance…Government was considering
challenging standards such as Passivhaus...On balance and taking into account a range of important
decision criteria the Task Group decided that the above levels would be more appropriate. (ZCH,
2009)
Figure 15 shows how this compares to the Passivhaus standard. The figures are based on the UK SAP
methodology minus internal domestic hot water gains (ZCH, 2009). When considering the comparisons the
Task Group acknowledged that “Trying to achieve Passivhaus performance using typical current designs
does not take advantage of the role passive solar gains and optimised orientation can play.” (ZCH, 2009).
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Therefore, it could be expected that designing using principles of the Passivhaus standard and the PHPP
software may lead to further reductions in the performance of SPEC D (Passivhaus equivalent).
Figure 15: Recommended FEES level with the range of specifications modelled (ZCH, 2009).
The report also stated that:
When initially reviewing these results there were, in general, two views expressed. One being that
the Passivhaus range of performance (Spec D) represented the ‘level’ of ambition required and that
the resulting construction specifications were indeed buildable. The opposing view was that a
construction specification closer to A or B was a pragmatic, buildable level suitable for a minimum
standard…47% of people had serious concerns about the buildability of Specification D (Passivhaus)
at mass scale in 2016. (ZCH, 2009)
However, no information is given in the report regarding the personnel involved in the study.
The resulting advice from the ZCH will mean an increased level of on-site renewables and allowable
solutions must be included to achieve the zero carbon goal, when compared against higher specification
fabric options such as the Passivhaus standard. This would suggest that the focus is being taken away from
the performance of the building. Grant (2012) argues that energy demand targets should be set for
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buildings, and be independent of any renewables that might just happen to be located on site, nearby or
otherwise linked to the building through supplier agreements or allowable solutions.
Reports from the ZCH give the impression that the route to zero carbon by 2016 is being watered down to
make it easier to achieve required energy efficiency standards posed by the building fabric, with the result
of more emphasis being placed on renewable energy generation.
Changes are being proposed to the Building Regulations Part L: Conservation of Fuel and Power due in 2013
to act as an interim step for the longer term targets in 2016 and 2020. Proposals for England represent an
8% decrease in CO2 emissions compared with the 2010 Part L (equivalent to current CFSH level 3) and the
Government state “The Government would use the recommendations of the Zero Carbon Hub as a starting
point for future consultation to identify cost-effective levels for on-site carbon emission levels (‘carbon
compliance’ targets).” (DCLG, 2012)
From a housebuilders perspective there are a number of drivers to push towards achieving the zero carbon
target and lower energy housing. Osmani & O’Reilly (2009) list these drivers as:
Business – Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has some potential to drive towards advancing the industry.
A survey of 20 of the UK’s largest house builders revealed that 70% report publicly on their approach to
sustainability, with 65% having a corporate sustainability policy WWF (2007). Investing in achieving high
standards of environmental and social performance was also linked to attracting high calibre employees
and customers.
Cultural – Customer demand is a key driver. Promoting a culture of sustainability could be spurred by
Government initiatives. Lutzendorf and Lorenz (2007) refer to the integration of sustainability factors in
property valuations as being important in developing this culture. This drive in culture may be particularly
pertinent when considering the shift in culture required to live in, or buy, a Passivhaus.
Legislative – The route towards zero carbon will be a major driver in pushing the industry. At present,
legislation is likely to be the most influential driver for house builders to build zero carbon and those who
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adopt a pro-active attitude will benefit financially by meeting future standards more efficiently (Carter,
2006, cited in Osmani & O’Reilly, 2009). This could be better illustrated by the Diffusion of Innovation
adoption curve developed by Everett Rogers in 1962 (see figure 16). Diffusion stages show individual
decisions about the timing of adoption to a given innovation. The timing of adoption reflects assessments of
risk and cost, with innovation being inherently risky and disruptive. Positive reasons for both first mover
and second-mover advantage can be found, with advantage tipped to the second-mover under conditions
of uncertain profitability (Hoppe 2000; Tellis and Golder 1996; Jensen 1982, cited in Koebel et al. 2003).
Late movers, however, run the risk of losing competitive position (Bryant et al. 1990, cited in Koebel et al.
2003).
Figure 16: Diffusion of innovations curve. Successive groups of consumers adopting the new technology (shown in
blue), its market share (yellow) will eventually reach saturation level (Wikipedia, 2012).
Rogers defines five perceived attributes of an innovation that can help explain the rate of adoption of an
innovation: relative advantage, complexity, trialability, observability and compatibility (Rogers 2003, cited in
Mlecnik et al. 2010). There is an on-going debate surrounding these energy labels for highly efficient
houses, saying that: “Less complex procedures might be more cost effective, but more complex procedures
might be a better guarantee of energy performance.” (Visscher & Mlecnik, 2009). Passivhaus may be
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considered as relatively complicated due to the rigour and quality control required to achieve the
certification.
A study by Adeyeye et al (2007) asked 32 UK architects about their views on current energy policies and
energy conservation legislation on building design, via a questionnaire survey. The survey results appear to
reveal that several factors can influence the implementation of energy legislation including: Financial
drivers - Energy conservation is highly influenced by cost, which results in clients not engaging with
environmental agendas due to no perceivable benefits or immediate payback. This results in architects
being forced to only meet minimum requirements. This also relates back to the cultural issues highlighted
by Osmani & O’Reilly (2009). Architects were of the opinion that clients are unlikely to notice the value of
energy conservation features in briefs and proposals. This suggests that incentives should be provided to
embrace an energy efficiency culture (Adeyeye et al., 2007).
The study by Osmani & O’Reilly (2009) focussed on the housebuilders. They conducted interviews and
questionnaires seeking to gain insights into house builders’ current practices and the challenges facing the
housebuilding industry in England. The respondents rated the most influential drivers to zero carbon
housing developments. Figure 17 shows the results of the study and shows that legislative drivers have the
highest impact on house builders current work practices.
Figure 17: Responses to the survey on the drivers for zero carbon homes in England.
(1 = not a driver – 5 = major driver). Osmani & O’Reilly (2009).
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Government policies were highlighted, such as the Energy White Paper as an important driver. This was
surpassed by the importance of ‘environmental legislation’ as the most critical driver for zero carbon
homes. Making the standard compliant with Part L of the Building Regulations is the most effective way of
driving the industry towards zero carbon homes.
Key cultural drivers were identified through innovation in the supply chain. This was rated as a significant
driver by 85% of the surveyed respondents. The report highlighted that “Supply chain could be a major
driver if new technologies and products are developed; however, the lack of innovation within the supply
chain is a major barrier” (Osmani & O’Reilly 2009). Manufacturing industries were highlighted as having an
inability to gradually invest in new technologies to innovate products and systems.
The Passivhaus standard represents an even greater change to the industry compared to what is now being
proposed by Government legislation with regard to the proposed future standards for the building fabric
and energy efficacy the building (not accounting for renewable energy). A whole series of social, technical
and logistical barriers must be overcome in order for its progression on a larger scale.
2.2.8 Social barriers
One of the big issues facing the future growth of the Passivhaus standard is the human influence. In order
for any piece of architecture to be successful it must work for the occupants and provide a pleasant
environment in which to live.
• Airtight building envelopes and MVHR are a relatively new concept in the UK. Ziegler (2011)
undertook a questionnaire survey of 166 people in Wales asking whether they could accept living in a
house which uses an MVHR unit to provide fresh air. 44% of the respondents reported that they
could live with the adaption, 28% could probably live with it, while 24% were either undecided or
could not live with it.
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• Consumer aspirations also are an issue. Typically in the UK it may be expected that a house has a wet
central heating system and a fireplace. Matteini (2010) asked 100 people what they felt was
important in a house. 8% of respondents regarded a fireplace as very important, with 28% saying it is
not important. The most important factor from this research was low energy bills, with 63% of
respondents regarding this as very important.
• Ziegler (2011) asked people whether they would like to live in a Passivhaus. The majority (48%) of the
general public said Maybe, where as 59% of building professionals said Yes. The response from the
general public would imply a general lack of education and understanding of the standard, as neither
a positive or negative opinion was given. The positive response from the building professionals
implies people are aware of the possible advantages that living in a Passivhaus could bring.
2.2.9 Technical barriers
There are a number of technical barriers to progressing the Passivhaus standard in the UK:
• Airtightness must be checked throughout the build process with detailed drawings on site which aid
contractors to minimise gaps and also prevent thermal bridging.
• Timber frame is perceived to be the most effective way of achieving the Passivhaus standard because
of the ease of achieving the required airtightness, but this is not the typical/native way to construct
housing in the UK. Doubts exist over how effective cavity wall construction can be in achieving the
Passivhaus standard. A lack of thermal mass inherent in lightweight timber frame may potentially
cause issues with overheating.
• Filters of MVHR systems are often said to be neglected by occupants, which can cause problems with
inadequate ventilation (Scottish Building Standards Agency (SBSA), 2008, cited in Tweed & McLeod
2008)
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• Commissioning of the MVHR system is vital to achieving satisfactory conditions. If the commissioning
is not fully carried out the whole building will not function correctly.
• Currently a scarcity of research regarding health issues associated with internal air borne pollutants
in airtight UK dwellings using mechanical ventilation. Further research is needed to strengthen UK
domestic ventilation guidance and regulations (McLeod et al. 2012)
• Adoption of new construction details for large house builders (PEP 2012).
2.2.10 Logistical barriers
• Because Passivhaus is a voluntary certification scheme there is still a requirement to assess the
building using the Building Regulations SAP software to gain code compliance. A scheme wishing to
be certified as a Passivhaus in the UK must therefore meet the criteria in both SAP and PHPP, which
increases the work required by the design team and adds to the costs. The AECB has been lobbying to
give a Passivhaus dwelling ‘deemed to satisfy’ status for meeting the 2013 Building Regulations.
However, there are no references to Passivhaus standard in the draft regulations for changes to Part
L in 2013 (Thorpe, 2012).
• Education through the whole supply chain is currently an issue. Bere (cited in Buxton, 2012) states “It
needs architects to lead and get to grips with technical issues…Taking the time to go into a
collaborative approach with the contractor right from the drawing stage.” This additional
collaboration may be a new way of working for many design teams.
• The UK housebuilding industry is potentially unprepared for the challenges posed by tougher
standards. It neither has the technology to deliver on them, nor knows what would be required to do
so (Lowe & Orenszczyn, 2008). Mead (cited in Buxton, 2012) states:
There’s a lot of technical expertise that goes into Passivhaus that’s probably above best
practice in the UK, although this is getting better…There is a missing link when it comes to
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implementing it on site — contractors aren’t used to working to the level of detail and
attention needed, especially when it comes to airtightness.
• Public support and rhetoric over the last 15 years in the UK have focussed on support for large
construction firms, ignoring the fact that a lot of effective innovation has been taken by small
companies. Structural features of large companies that impede rather than facilitate training
education and learning from experience should be identified (Clarke, 2006, cited in Lowe &
Orenszczyn, 2008).
2.2.11 Costs
Cost is a key issue when considering the Passivhaus standard and is one of the major barriers to its
continued development in the UK. The extra costs in building to the Passivhaus standard in comparison to a
typical house meeting Building Regulations are from the Passivhaus products such as triple glazing, MVHR
and to a lesser extent the airtight tapes and higher levels of insulation. Some of the additional costs could
be recouped by the reduced need for a traditional wet heating system.
Costs will be higher due to the extra rigour in the level of detail required at the design and construction
phase when considering airtightness and thermal bridging which goes beyond current best practice. The
process of getting the building officially certified by the PHI also adds cost (see section 2.2.4).
There appears to be a lack of fully transparent data on the additional costs in the UK and hence proposed
estimates are often difficult to substantiate.
The CEPHEUS project (see section 2.2.1) provided a set of cost comparisons. On average over the 12
projects, the specific extra investment costs were 91 Euro/m2, or 8% of the total building cost (Schnieders &
Hermelink, 2006). However this figure fluctuated greatly. A project in Austria reported additional costs of
17% compared with another project in Austria reporting 0% additional costs.
Literature Review
47
Supply chains 2.3
A supply chain is defined as “The network of organizations that are involved, through upstream and
downstream linkages, in the different processes and activities that produce value in the form of products
and services in the hands of the ultimate consumer” (Christopher 1992). The flow of a typical UK
construction supply chain is shown as the route of products and services through from suppliers to the final
product (i.e. a house occupied by the end user), as shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18: The scope of supply chain management, reproduced from original image (Oliver & Webber 1982).
The UK has problems in construction related materials and component supply industries, with UK
companies unable to produce all of the goods needed by the construction industry and many are now
sourced from overseas. The trade deficit (imports minus exports) in construction stood at £2.8 billion at the
end of the 1980’s. Since 1990, the UK has lost many manufacturers and suppliers with an estimated
105,000 jobs lost from the beginning of the 1980’s to the mid 1990’s (Flanagan et al. 1995, cited in Agapiou
et al. 1998). There are many reasons for the UK’s lack of competitiveness. Agapiou et al (1998) claim
“Dumping of subsidized products by foreign manufacturers and cheap imports from low wage economies”
as two reasons but accept that the reasons are complex and different for each sector of the market.
The construction industry is very competitive. Good management practices within the supply chain and
Just-in-Time (JIT) building materials management practices give potential to reduce costs ensuring
contractors are competitive. This requires contractors and suppliers to develop relationships with the free
exchange of information between them (Agapiou et al. 1998). Education and understanding is therefore a
key ingredient for a successful supply chain in delivering a desired product.
Literature Review
48
Using supply chains based in the UK may provide an easier exchange of information and the facilitating of
an improved supply chain capable of reducing costs as relationships between the supply chain and
contractor are formed. However, this may not always result in reducing the transport distance of products
and services. If the supply chain required for a project in south England is from Scotland this may result in
higher transport costs and increased embodied energy when compared with a supply chain from some
areas of Europe. Regional supply chains would always be capable of providing the lowest travel distance
and possibly the best level of service.
In terms of global trade the EU operates free trade agreements between all European nations. This opens
up the market for products and skills to be freely traded. This will lead to certain countries being able to
produce products and goods at lower costs than other countries based on the cost of labour. Therefore
certain parts of the supply chain may be required to be based in other countries due to economic reasons.
Literature Review
49
Literature review conclusion: Research questions 2.4
The literature review has highlighted where the Passivhaus standard sits within the UK housing market and
the issues and barriers affecting its potential to grow to become adopted on a larger scale. The issues
arising have pointed towards the importance of gearing up the supply chain to enable the standard to be
more effectively implemented. The literature review has also highlighted the rigour required to meet the
Passivhaus standard and the methods of construction which prove to be the most applicable.
The Passivhaus standard has shown substantial growth in the last few years and the issues surrounding the
supply chain involved in the Passivhaus standard are complex with various drivers and barriers evident at
different stages. Research points to a lack of innovation in the supply chain being a major barrier, but with
little research or knowledge on how this innovation could be created to drive towards the construction of
lower energy housing and the Passivhaus standard in the current housing market.
The key questions which have been identified from the literature review are:
1. In delivering the Passivhaus standard on a larger scale, what contribution or role will the UK supply
chain have in delivering the standard?
2. Would innovation in the supply chain enable the UK to progress towards the Passivhaus standard or
other very low energy building standards?
3. Where do the drivers come from to stimulate this supply chain?
Methodology
50
3 Methodology
The research strategy adopted is a qualitative multi-method research approach. The multi-method
approach is a strand of a mixed method approach as described by Spratt et al. (2004).
Methods used include:
• In-depth semi-structured interviews.
• Analysis of case studies.
• Additional research from documents.
The research strategy also uses elements of the grounded theory approach, as shown in figure 19. This
research strategy was adopted to gain the richest source of information and identify key issues which could
be researched further, both during the course of the research and for future research.
The aim of the interviews was to gauge the opinions of professionals working in the supply chain. The
interviewees were chosen from within each area of the supply chain to get a holistic overview of delivering
Passivhaus housing in the UK. This information was supplemented by gaining the opinions of people from
outside the supply chain, who either have an academic view, or have influence on Government policy and
legislation which may affect the supply chain. Questions were phrased differently depending on the
background, expertise and position within the supply chain of the interviewee, as questions which apply to
one sector may not be applicable to another.
An interview template was offered to the participants prior to the interviews taking place. In some
instances the interviewee did not require the template. However, the researcher used the template in the
interviews to maintain a focus and to keep the interviewee on subject. Where possible the interviews were
conducted face-to-face. If this proved impractical for the interviewee a telephone interview was conducted,
and in some cases the interviewee preferred to respond to the interview questions via email.
All the participants had prior knowledge of the Passivhaus standard. However, the sample group will be
selected so that not all participants are necessarily in favour of progressing the standard, which will give a
Methodology
51
balanced view to the argument. A sample size of 20 was used. The limitations of a small sample size need to
be recognized. However, the professionals contacted were carefully selected and answers were diverse.
The research aimed for a high quality of response and therefore people were chosen based on their
knowledge of the issues surrounding the Passivhaus standard, including people with direct experience of
building to the standard on a larger scale, supplying PH products or have influence on policy and legislation.
Because of the diversity of the participants and their different roles in the supply chain, quantitative data
gathered by way of questionnaires would be inappropriate for this study based on the research scope and
time frame.
The case studies analysed projects in the UK that have been recently completed and which have achieved
Passivhaus certification. The projects range from those exhibiting best practice in terms of using local
supply chains to those which, for various reasons, could not. In some instances little information was
available on the project therefore, members of the team responsible for the project were contacted. The
number of case studies available was limited as there are very few Passivhaus projects completed to this
date other than one off private residential schemes. The projects studied represent a sample of these and
have been constructed in various parts of the UK, using different construction methods, design teams and
supply chains. The three case studies are the Larch and Lime House, the Wimbish Development and
Sampson Close (See figure 13).
An open and honest approach has been taken for this research. The opinion of the interviewees has been
presented in an impartial manner with no attempt at bias towards a particular viewpoint. The researcher
has no invested interest in presenting a particular viewpoint for personal gain or gain of the research
institution. Interview prompts were planned before hand with a view to ensure the interviewee understood
the question and their responses were as relevant as possible. This was important as some of the questions
were fairly open ended and in some instances more clarity was required. The prompts were designed not to
encourage a certain response but more to help facilitate the interviewee to give a meaningful response
based on their own experience.
Interviews were undertaken after gaining acceptance from the WSA ethics approval committee. A record of
Methodology
52
all the interview transcripts has been kept along with the voice recordings. Partial verbatim transcripts can
be found in Appendices A and B, which include the research questions and any prompts used and only the
most relevant information has been included. The method of analysis uses a thematic approach and
integrates responses from the interviews with information gathered from case studies and additional
literature. This method is proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006, cited in King & Horrocks 2010), whereby
extracts from the interviews are embedded within an analytical narrative that illustrates the story relating
to the research question and goes beyond a description of the data.
Figure 19: Research method outline. (Modified after: Bryman, 2008 pg. 370).
Findings & Analysis
53
4 Findings and analysis
The data analysis is conducted using a thematic analysis approach. The data contained in Appendices A and
B has been analysed by reference to the key themes which relate to the thesis research questions. The key
themes identified are:
• The role and importance of the UK supply chain (includes case study 1: Larch and Lime House).
• Missing out on a growth market.
• The effect of changing the construction methods and supply chain (includes Case Study 2: Wimbish
development and Case study 3: Sampson Close).
• Innovating the UK supply chain.
• Generating market demand in Passivhaus.
• Learning from other European countries.
• Barriers and enablers in Austria and Belgium.
The role and importance of the UK supply chain 4.1
The responses from the interviewees suggest that a UK supply chain capable of delivering the products and
construction skills is vital in delivering the Passivhaus standard on a larger scale. It appears that people
believe that there is a need for better performing products, but issues with cost and lack of experience
must be considered. One interviewee stated the importance of these products and systems being available
in the UK, but also states that costs are a major factor and UK must be able to be cost competitive “There is
always a market for better performing products produced in the UK. However, costs must always be
considered… When procuring a project in the UK, it is has been difficult to find products and systems which
meet the required Passivhaus performance criteria.” [Specialist in Passivhaus project management].
Others also commented that local supply chains would make the process of delivering Passivhaus easier and
Findings & Analysis
54
with a better guarantee for replacement products and maintenance: “The UK would definitely benefit,
Importing products often adds cost and it’s difficult to then source replacement parts” [Project manager &
client’s agent] and another commented: “A very good reason for going with UK products is that replacement
products can be easily sourced, which isn’t the case when importing from abroad. This takes out an element
of risk.” [Specialist in Passivhaus project management].
Although there may be a potential benefit to the UK economy, the current supply chain of construction
products relies on an expanded product pool throughout Europe and issues relating to embodied energy
were raised, which highlighted the fact that products sourced from other areas of Europe, will often not
result in products with higher levels of embodied carbon (depending on the product destination within the
UK). A couple of the interviewees raised this point: “Local supply chains may benefit the UK economy.
However, it may be more economical to have a larger supply area such as central Europe. But is the carbon
footprint of that lower?” [Passivhaus Consultant & distributer of Passivhaus products].
From speaking to a number of suppliers of Passivhaus suitable products a route map concerning the
importation of Passivhaus suitable windows was produced outlining values for the embodied energy of the
various methods of importation (see figure 20 in conjunction with table 3). The GBS are the major UK
importer of Passivhaus windows and will therefore represent a large part of the UK market. Figure 20 and
table 3 show a comparison between the embodied energy required for importing products from different
areas of Europe, using London as the destination import location. The information is representative of the
frames and the windows and does not include the raw materials or the glazing. However, if the raw
materials were factored in, the UK frames would have much higher embodied energy by sourcing the
timber from New Zealand. The other European frames source their timber from a variety of locations
around Northern Europe (Butcher, 2012). The example in figure 20 shows the embodied energy of the
German windows is less than those produced in Wales (when distributing to London). The cheapest frames
are sourced from Lithuania but this is due to the reduced cost of labour in that country. If costs and
embodied energy are taken into account Germany would be the preferred source destination. However, the
production of windows in the UK has other benefits including the potential to add economic benefit
Findings & Analysis
55
through job creation and the possibility of an improved service and replacement system.
Thomas joinery and GBS are currently undergoing R&D into the manufacture of outward opening windows
for the UK market, to complement their range of tilt and turn models.
UK distributer Manufacturing
country
Approximate
cost
Travel distance
(to London)
Embodied energy
(£/m2) (km) (tonnes of CO2e / tonne)
GBS Lithuania 400 3690 0.39
GBS Poland 500 2550 0.27
GBS Germany 650 900 0.10
GBS Austria 650 1930 0.21
CP joinery UK 860 340 0.04
Thomas Joinery UK Unknown 1630 0.17
Table 3: Embodied energy relating to the travel distances of different Passivhaus suitable windows (not including raw
materials transport). Costing was obtained from the distributers. Embodied energy relates to travel distances only and
was calculated in accordance with The Environment Agencies Carbon Calculator (2007). Travel distances were
calculated based on transport primarily by road, using The AA Route Planner (2012).
Figure 20: Map of Europe showing the import patterns of timber Passivhaus suitable windows and timber frame laminates.
Findings & Analysis
57
The market for Passivhaus products and systems is more developed in other parts of Europe. Interviewees
were asked about the benefit to be gained if the UK could produce cost effective products compared with
the European market, an interviewee stated:
It will take both [European and UK supply chain]. You get cheaper labour in Eastern Europe, however,
you get cheaper snagging costs from a UK manufacturer, so if there are any issues, for example with
windows that are the wrong size or the glass breaks these can be easily sorted out. We will be relying
on an expanded European market, but we will have more specialised UK manufacturers. [Passivhaus
Consultant & distributer of Passivhaus products]
This comes down to the same rules that govern any sort of trade. Table 3 shows that Lithuania and Poland
can produce Passivhaus suitable frames at a cheaper cost than is possible in the UK. This was highlighted by
an interviewee and the issue of quality was raised:
If the products are being produced in similar level first world countries, the UK should be able to
produce the same products, and with a reduced transport cost, should make for cheaper products. If
the products are from other European countries with lower wage costs then they will be capable of
manufacturing products cheaper. However, these may not be to the same quality. [Architect & Policy
Advisor]
Quality is certainly an issue and so too is the level of experience of production. The German and Austrian
markets manage to have reduced costs, maintain high quality and have similar embodied energy values to
those of the UK (when distributing to London). An interviewee illustrates the point that it doesn’t just come
down to labour costs:
I do not think it will come down to cheaper labour costs, but actually about how the supply chain is
geared up to deliver the quantity required. Most of these products will be delivered from the EU
where production costs are similar, but experience of delivering the products is more advanced than
the UK. [Policy Advisor]
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58
The UK market for Passivhaus products and systems is still very young. An interviewee highlights this issue:
“Until the market grows in the UK, projects will be procured on lower costing products.” [Environmental
Design Consultant].
As the market grows so should the product-pool which may bring down costs: “Products can be made more
cost effective if enough companies produce them in the UK and having an increased product-pool will drive
down costs. This product-pool of Passivhaus products is increasing year on year.” [Project Manager & Client’s
Agent].
A project which aimed to address not only the issues of local supply chains but also regional supply chains
capable of delivering Passivhaus certified homes in the UK was the Larch and Lime Passivhauses in Wales.
Case Study 1: Larch and Lime house
These two detached dwellings were built in Ebbw Vale, Wales, as part of a Passivhaus Design Competition
run by the United Welsh Housing Association, BRE (Wales), Blaenau Gwent County Borough Council and the
Welsh Government. The project aimed to demonstrate how designing and building to the Passivhaus
standard can help meet tough modern energy requirements and keep CO2 to a minimum. It was hoped that
the lessons learned will help ensure the success of larger-scale social housing developments in the future.
One of the requirements was to maximise the use of locally sourced materials, products and skills which
result in the development of a skilled and experienced regional supply chain able to work on other
Passivhaus projects (Constructing Excellence Wales, n.d).
The competition was won by Bere Architects. At the time of construction the Larch House was the UK’s first
zero carbon (CFSH Level 6) certified Passivhaus. Learning from the development of the Larch house, The
Lime house aimed to go further to promote the local use of materials, improving delivery and maintenance
issues and identifying cost savings. The exemplar projects aimed to be prototypes by which lessons could be
Findings & Analysis
59
learned and the ideas and knowledge taken forward to larger social housing schemes, stimulating Welsh
low carbon industries at the same time (Design Commission for Wales, 2012).
The Supply Chain
At the time of the design competition there was a reported dearth of local skills able to deliver the
Passivhaus standard with no local Passivhaus products available (Constructing Excellence Wales, n.d). Nick
Tune, Director of BRE, stated:
We wanted to develop a range of Welsh-made construction materials and products that could meet
the high sustainability criteria now essential in developing a low carbon built environment…Most of
the homes meeting high levels of sustainability in the UK use a primarily international supply chain. If
we can use our own products and materials, we are creating local growth through the construction
supply chain and this is key to the future economy of Wales (Building4Change, 2011).
Both the Larch and Lime houses incorporated timber frames made from locally grown timber manufactured
by Holbrook Timber Frame Ltd. The researcher deemed it necessary to gather further information about the
process of producing timber frames to the specification of Passivhaus and the challenges faced.
It was found that quality can sometimes be an issue when using Welsh timber and even though large
quantities are available there is no appetite from the saw mills to use it: “We have large quantities but
strangely it’s not as easy to source UK timber as it is to source Scandinavian timber.”[Holbrook Timber].
One of the major challenges was up-skilling on site, although up-skilling in the factory is not as such an issue
when using timber frames. Collaboration between architect/producer was cited as being a key factor: “The
process required a lot of collaborative design detailing between architect and us. In general designing to the
Passivhaus standard requires a much more collaborative process than a standard building. This is not a
typical way of working in the UK.” [Holbrook Timber].
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60
Education is clearly an issue when building to the Passivhaus standard. This initial collaboration and
consultancy between the different members of the design team and supply chain is likely to be where a lot
of extra time and money is invested in these exemplar projects.
The windows are a critical component of achieving the Passivhaus standard (See Section 2.2.5 for technical
details). The windows in the Larch house were imported from a German manufacturer, whereas the Lime
house windows were produced in Wales. The Welsh Passivhaus windows were designed and manufactured
through the VPWP, which was formed through Woodknowledge Wales. The consortium of Welsh
businesses worked in partnership to design and construct the triple glazed, Passivhaus certified windows,
which used Welsh larch for the frames. Figure 21 shows a section diagram through the window with the
required thermal break in light green.
Figure 21: PHI certificate of the VPWP window (VPWP, 2012).
Findings & Analysis
61
Since producing the window the joiners have produced further Passivhaus windows aimed at the wider UK
and European market using accoya timber sourced from New Zealand. A representative of Thomas Joinery
identified the issues of producing Passivhaus windows in the UK, stating that sourcing the materials cost
effectively is a major issue:
Sourcing the materials competitively is the hardest part. It’s very hard to use local timber in the UK
and source in volume. You need the timber to be laminated [thermal break within frame] which can
only be sourced from Europe. This is a big problem in the supply chain which has a knock on to costs
and makes it hard to compete with north and north east Europe as they can source the laminates
easier than we can in the UK. The current source of timber laminates has the monopoly on the
market. Laminating can be done in-house but this would prove expensive due to high labour costs.
Both Thomas Joinery and CP Joinery also laminate in-house using accoya timber but this proves very costly
(see table 3). Other issues include the additional shipping costs of importing the laminates to the UK and
cost perception, as stated: “When people buy in the UK they would expect a cheaper product than if they
were importing because they don’t have to ship it in.” [Thomas Joinery]. This demonstrates that although the
Lime house demonstrated best practice by sourcing regional materials for the windows, to make this work
on a larger scale and remain cost effective would require importing products to drive down costs. However,
manufacturing the windows in the UK will still enable a boost to the local economy and help to advance the
supply chain of Passivhaus products. Cost is obviously the key issue: “To reduce manufacturing costs and be
cost-competitive against similar Passivhaus imported windows and doors, investment and funding are
needed. This has not yet been forthcoming.” (Bere Architects, n.d).
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Missing out on a growth market 4.2
A potential danger that the UK might face is that it misses out on a potential growth market in Passivhaus
products and methods of construction (e.g. MMC), which may benefit to the UK economy and construction
industry as highlighted in Section 4.1.
The interviewees do not appear to regard building timber frames to the airtightness of the Passivhaus
standard as a problem for the UK: “The timber frame manufacturers in this country are beginning to catch
up with other European countries. Systems are much better now than they were a couple of years ago.”
[Specialist in Passivhaus Project Management]. More of an issue is the products and the re-education required,
as one interviewee stated: “If there is one thing we can produce cheaply in the UK its timber frames, and
undercutting foreign frames will be easy when the market is there. It is very different for windows, doors
etc. However, the main thing is the education of the people who design and build.” [Environmental Design
Consultant].
The interviewees often refer to education being very important in ensuring this market is not missed, with
R&D required to innovate the products to achieve the required standards. It may be the case that some of
the capacity to produce these products has been lost. As one interviewee stated: “The UK can’t do it all in a
global market. Maybe look to have German manufacturers set up in the UK. It’s likely though that most of
this market capability has been lost. The UK seems very bad at transferring R&D into the market place to
take advantage of it.” [Construction Skills Director].
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63
The effect of changing the construction methods and supply chain 4.3
As stated during the literature review (Section 2.2), building to the Passivhaus standard requires a much
more rigorous process with a focus on airtightness. If the Passivhaus standard were to be adopted on a
larger scale, how would this affect the UK construction industry and what sort of innovation in the supply
chain - from the products to the construction processes - must occur for it to happen. Timber frame
techniques are often said to be more favourable for Passivhaus, with more examples of certified projects,
but this is not the typical way of constructing in the UK. Would a shift to timber frame and Passivhaus
potentially cause SMEs to suffer and result in a supply chain incapable of delivery?
Two case studies show how the Passivhaus standard has been achieved on a larger scale.
Case study 2: Wimbish development
The rural social housing scheme at Wimbish, Essex, consists of 14 dwellings, 3 of which are shared
ownership, built by Hastoe Housing Association. The scheme also met the CFSH level 4 and won the
Passivhaus Trust’s national award for best domestic residential scheme in 2012. The construction method
used was thin joint masonry with externally applied insulation. The client wanted a build system which
would be economical, meet the performance requirements and reflect their preference for using local
materials and labour. The thin joint masonry technique had previously been employed on other schemes
meeting the CFSH level 4 (Passivhaus Trust (b), 2012).
A member of the team involved in delivering the scheme was contacted to gain further information about
the project and the challenges that were faced during delivery. The Passivhaus windows proved to be very
expensive and issues occurred with obtaining replacements, which wouldn’t necessarily be the case when
using a local suppliers, as stated by the interviewee: “We imported the windows from Austria with
additional costs around 30% compared to standard windows, in part due to the specification but also due to
the need to import…Problems occurred when replacements were required. This was a lengthy process and in
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64
some cases they are still not replaced.
The interviewee stated that thin joint masonry was chosen as a construction technique instead of a timber
panel (MMC) system: “We also wanted to achieve CSFH level 4 so it was important to use local suppliers.
That is one reason we didn’t use a timber panel system which would have required importation…Thin joint
masonry meant that local labour and skills could be used”. The interviewee went on to highlight the
challenges of using this technique:
Thin joint masonry is a slower process than using timber panels, therefore costs can be higher.
However, currently high specification timber panel systems are expensive when imported from
abroad…We had a few problems with the thin join masonry with cracking and issues with
airtightness…Significant education was required throughout the workforce to ensure the airtightness
target could be met. Initially the sub-contractor had very little knowledge about the airtight
membranes and subsequently weren’t installed with enough care and attention to detail at first.
From the interview it became clear how important education of the workforce is in the process, especially
when trialling a new construction method which hasn’t been widely used to construct to the Passivhaus
standard before: “It took a few months before the contractor realised that re-education was required,
thereafter, toolbox talks began on site between the contractor and the sub-contractors. On the next project
these toolbox talks occurred from day one.”
This same team are now moving on to develop another Passivhaus scheme using a more traditional cavity
wall construction. Although not the same construction type, methods of knowledge transfer through the
supply chain should improve the process and help to reduce costs. The importance of knowledge transfer in
the supply chain was highlighted by Agapiou (1998) (Section 2.3).
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Case study 3: Sampson Close
This social housing project in Coventry consists of 23 Units (18 flats and 5 houses). The scheme was
commissioned by Orbit Homes and constructed using timber frame MMC techniques, with the main frame,
insulation, doors and windows being constructed in panels off site in Germany and shipped over the UK.
The MVHR units were Austrian Passivhaus certified supplied by the GBS and windows imported from
Austria and pre-installed in the MMC frames in Germany.
A member of the team involved in delivering the scheme was contacted to gain further information about
the project and the challenges that were faced during delivery, they stated: “When procuring Sampson
Close we struggled to find products and systems to meet the performance requirements from UK companies,
although, the market is improving all the time.” This project highlights the UK’s inexperience of building to
the Passivhaus standard with project teams being put off using UK companies due to a lack of experience,
which would increase the risk factor of the project. The interviewee stated:
At the time of procurement it was felt that it would be too much of a risk to the client to use a UK
company. Most of what the UK manufacturers showed us was theoretical and they didn’t have the
experience…It was important for this first Passivhaus scheme to go with a frame that we knew would
work from a company that has experience and could ensure the Passivhaus quality standard could be
achieved.
It was hoped that this project could be used as a platform for learning, enabling future projects to use local
supply chains, as stated: “The idea was that this then acts as a learning curve to understand the process of
building to Passivhaus, enabling us to move forward to establish and use local supply chains for future
projects.”
It would be a lot to expect for a private company to educate a local supply chain without any investment, as
was the case with the Larch and Lime project where Government funding was provided. Without
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66
investment this sort of additional cost is unlikely to be accepted in the client’s budget in the public or
private markets.
Both case studies demonstrate the difficulties of achieving the Passivhaus standard in the UK with the
current supply chain. Alternative methods of construction have been favoured over traditional
masonry cavity wall in order to ensure the airtightness required for Passivhaus, due to the element of
risk involved in not achieving Passivhaus certification. This is due to the techniques and the standard of
build quality required for Passivhaus being in their infancy in the UK. Many of the interviewees felt that
contractors are pricing high because of the lack of experience in building to Passivhaus. One
interviewee stated: “Inexperience usually costs more than just money; time lost, incorrectly installed
equipment can be costly. But premiums are charged for using unfamiliar technology and systems.”
[Supply Chain Manager].
With these alternative techniques seeming to favour building to Passivhaus, is there a danger that smaller
builders might struggle with the additional rigour and the changing construction methods? The
interviewees responded on this subject that short term, Passivhaus may present more of an opportunity for
SME’s to specialise within the supply chain, as stated: “There are opportunities for both SMEs and larger
contractors. Because of the need for care, attention to detail required when designing to Passivhaus it’s
probably a bigger opportunity for smaller builders if they are properly educated”. [Passivhaus Consultant &
distributer of Passivhaus products].
It was also stated by a few of the interviewees that the mass housebuilders are a long way off and would
struggle with Passivhaus. Smaller scale builders and contractors may find it easier to innovate and
specialise: “The smaller contractors often have smaller gangs of subcontractors which can aid in promoting
the transfer of skills and knowledge.” [Project Manager & Client’s Agent] and “In some instances smaller
companies are more open to innovation and can exercise greater quality control.” [Technical Architectural
Director]. This was also mentioned by Clarke (2006) (Section 2.2.10).
The biggest problems are likely to come from the very large management led contractors, which have no in-
house workforce and therefore have a large chain of subcontractors, “These types of systems will fail and
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are failing. The private house builders will always be last on the uptake.” [Passivhaus Consultant & distributer of
Passivhaus products].
Another interviewee voiced concerns over the rigour of Passivhaus:
If the Passivhaus standard was implemented the small scale builders may not be able to handle the
rigour of the standard and not be able to tool up to the added costs. Small scale builders are already
struggling in parts of the UK and additional costs may mean they are lost to the system. This might
mean builders walk away if they can’t reach the standard and then the UK would have a supply and
demand issue. [Construction Skills Director]
If, however, the industry is to advance, companies must be competitive in a changing market and not be
resistant to change. This issue gained a mix of responses and it appears that in the short term, SMEs may
benefit if they can educate themselves and specialise in the market. However, if the Passivhaus standard
was to be legislated too early there are concerns that SME’s may struggle at first, as stated: “It might be a
challenge for small scale builders at first. However, the industry learns and catches up quickly…When the
CFSH was introduced, the first 6 months required a lot on consultation, but after a few mistakes everyone
begins to understand what they need to do.” [Specialist in Passivhaus Project Management]
Innovating the UK supply chain 4.4
This section looks at what is being done to innovate the supply chain to be able to build to Passivhaus and
higher levels of energy efficiency, and whether this innovation would generate increased demand for low
energy housing. Interviewees were asked if at any point in the supply chain there are incentives to
encourage local supply chain development. The unanimous response was that nothing is currently being
done. With regard to investment it appears product manufacturers find it hard to secure any investment, as
stated: “We struggle for our windows to get any investment for our manufacturing base in the UK from
lenders. Window manufacture seems to have gone abroad, unless it’s plastic.” [Passivhaus Consultant &
distributer of Passivhaus products].
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For the wider construction industry nothing is done by Government, as stated: “Very little and certainly not
by Government. There are large contractors in the UK who do not trust supply chains and will hawk
contracts around just to get the cheapest price.” [Technical Architectural Director].
There appears to be some help and information out there offering guidance to the supply chain but no
direct investment. One interviewee stated, “The Government has many bodies aimed at encouraging low
energy projects but the delivery along the supply chains remains patchy. This is because the traditionally
conservative construction industry is slow to respond and there are many new technologies to undertake
and master.” [Supply Chain Manager].
There is a general agreement that funding is required in this area, as stated: “Government investment will
always be positive to encourage local supply chains. Local supply chains could form part of the tender
process in the future, by using a points scoring system whereby if local supply chains are used you get a
higher score.” [Project Manager & Client’s Agent].
However, it would seem unlikely that any investment will be forthcoming. Several interviewees stated that
a major reason for this appears to be due to EU procurement laws and the fact that local supply chains are
in conflict with global economics. One stated: “Government help would be beneficial, but it always runs the
risk of being classified as state aid. Under EU procurement rules any such assistance has to be carefully
instigated.” [Policy Advisor].
Demand does not tend to be stimulated by innovation in the supply chain. The demand is stimulated via
regulation and the supply chain is then forced to catch up, with little or no help. This could be a reason why
progress appears so slow in the UK market. This was stated by a number of interviewees and one said:
Standard practice by Government is not to invest in the supply chain but to increase standards using
the Building Regulations, and CFSH for housing associations. This forces the supply chains to catch up.
It’s not pushed at the supplier end. The supply chains must supply the demand that is created in the
market. [Specialist in Passivhaus Project Management]
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If direct innovation through the supply chain will only come some from increased demand this leads to the
question of where the drivers come from to stimulate this demand.
Generating market demand in Passivhaus 4.5
The issue of supply and demand would appear critical in delivering the Passivhaus standard on a larger
scale. One interviewee stated: “Until people can see that the market is going towards Passivhaus people
won’t set up. The UK definitely lacks a clear market signal.” [Passivhaus Window Manufacturer]. This was
expressed by many of the interviewees and these thoughts were summed up by a statement indicating that
the UK has all the required skills but lacks direction: “The UK has the skills in manufacturing and
construction to deliver the standard. The market will be flooded when a clear market signal is given.”
[Academic & Passivhaus Consultant]. The lack of a clear market signal was a common response among
interviewees. A professional who sits on the Building Regulations advisory board in Wales made this
statement: “It comes down to supply and demand, but I don’t believe that the Passivhaus standard will
become the norm in the UK and most of the major house builders are very anti the standard, as it is too
complicated and requires too much on site control to deliver the standard.” [Policy Advisor] This statement
was echoed by another person involved in policy advice. There is demonstrable growth in the standard over
the last few years in the UK, however, the people that have an influence on policy seem doubtful over the
prospect of larger scale growth in the Passivhaus standard. However, as mentioned in the Introduction
(Section 1), these issues do not just relate to the Passivhaus standard (which has been taken as the low
energy housing precedent), but also consider the innovation and delivery of low energy housing through
the supply chain.
The interviewees felt that the UK lacks a clear market signal and clarity in the legislation. If the industry
cannot predict future demand it will be too risky to invest in R&D and education to deliver a product which
may not have a market once developed. This lack of clarity seems to be a major cause for a dearth of
innovation in the UK supply chain. An interviewee summed up some of the key issues:
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There must be a clear path on where the industry is going. This would allow people to plan and build
businesses to respond to the future. Currently ‘Allowable Solutions’ confuse everything. It would too
risky as aspirations towards zero carbon are always changing. Therefore no innovation in products in
the UK until clear legislation is there…The problem is that house builders make excellent profits and
increasing the standards threatens to take away this profitability. [Environmental Design Consultant]
The issue of confusing targets and allowable solutions was highlighted in Section 2.2.7 as a potential issue.
If the system was simplified and made clear a suitable route to the long term objectives could be
established, which would then allow for R&D and innovation for those companies wanting to be at the
forefront of very low energy housing labels such as Passivhaus. Another interviewee expressed this point as
“The industry and the supply chains don’t trust what the Government says so they don’t want to put money
into R&D […] There is a real reticence in the supply chain to commit to R&D until the Government comes up
with a clear time frame.” [Architect & Policy Advisor]
The interviewees views correspond to those found in the study by Osmani & O’Reilly (2009) (Section 2.2.7)
with most people feeling legislation is a major driver One interviewee stated:
Legislation is obviously the key driver and will create an instant demand but this will not happen in the
UK. There is a fad of Passivhaus being fashionable at the moment but the standards embedded in the
Welsh consultation document for the changes proposed for the 2013 Building Regulations mean that
even if you built a Passivhaus you still wouldn’t achieve Building Regulation compliance in Wales.
[Architect & Policy Advisor].
Throughout the process cost and profit are always a critical concern, as indicated by Adeyeye et al (2007)
(Section 2.27). Costs are influenced by the level of skills and knowledge available which is partly down to
the educational system in place to support this transfer of knowledge in the industry. An interviewee
highlighted issues related to a lack of public interest in Passivhaus:
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A key issue is that larger scale house builders are out to make money. Therefore, they will only build
houses to Passivhaus if they have to, or, if people are willing to pay more money for them. I don’t
think house buyers are interested or willing to pay more money at the moment…People might become
more interested when energy becomes even more expensive. People will then demand more energy
efficient homes but I’m not sure when this tipping point will be. At the moment there is no driver by
the consumers. [Specialist in Passivhaus Project Management]
It is unlikely that Passivhaus will form part of legislation in the foreseeable future, therefore, other market
forces produced via the consumer are the only options for increasing the demand, as stated:
Market forces are also important. The housing associations and housebuilders will have to respond to
the pubic wanting a Passivhaus and people being able to differentiate between a Passivhaus and a
non Passivhaus by paying more for a Passivhaus or less for a non-Passivhaus. There would have to be
demonstrable benefits that you could prove and these would need to be spelled out to the general
public. [Architect & Policy Advisor]
These alternative market forces may come from education and through this education a cultural shift in
what the general public want and expect from a house. This relies on the successful POE from the current
Passivhaus schemes. One interviewee makes this point and identifies the power of mass media in
persuading the general public: “Once the customer realises that the buildings are more comfortable to
inhabit, the value will go up and the value of uncomfortable housing will go down…It could be a case that
one documentary produced at the right time by someone famous will drive it.” [Passivhaus Consultant &
distributer of Passivhaus products] This will require the Passivhaus to be substantially better performing and
warrant the additional costs.
These comments reflect the need for the education of the general public, who must demand a Passivhaus
over other house types due to the perceived benefits in comfort and reduced energy bills. However,
currently in the UK there isn’t the body of evidence to prove this to the public or the industry. Education
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right through the supply chain is vital, but demand is essential: “Demand must be created through
legislation and value, and through education of the supply chain, which will only happen through
experience. However, this is a looped cycle because education will only take place when the demand is
there.” [Project Manager & Client’s Agent]
The question of how this demand can be created is critical as it has been identified that innovation in the
supply chain in the UK will happen through increased demand. The interviewees came up with a range of
responses on measures to increase demand:
• Increase the value of Passivhaus housing by the value reflected in the level of comfort achieved in a
house - Comes through POE results showing UK examples of increased comfort and then through
education of the general public.
• Increased value through reduced energy bills – Comes from increased energy prices, and through
building performance evaluation (BPE) and POE showing UK examples of reduced energy use and then
through education of the general public. This integration of sustainability factors into property
valuations was identified in the literature review by Lutzendorf and Lorenz (2007).
• Committee or task force outlining a proposed market route. Made up of members who have a reduced
level of influence from the housebuilding industry and NHBC.
• A clear and well defined route towards ‘zero carbon’ and the goals of the EPBD, with a clear definition
of ‘allowable solutions’. Potentially this could allow the industry to invest in R&D allowing innovators in
the industry a reduced level of risk.
• Promote a culture of self-build with schemes selling land to individuals.
• Funding into the supply chain for low energy products (although unlikely due to EU procurement laws).
• The industry as a whole would need a step change in the way it does business, from colleges and
universities to the building profession would need to learn and promote the standard, and
demonstrate that it can be achieved on a repeat basis and at an affordable price.
• Increase funding to Local authorities for social housing projects.
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The last point on the list refers to a way the UK Government prepares the supply chain for future energy
standards by setting stricter targets for social/affordable housing. However, it would appear that the
funding available for these schemes has been reduced in recent years resulting in social landlords acquiring
funding in other ways, meaning that advanced standards (CFSH level 3 – which equates to an estimated 8%
CO2 reduction compared to Part L 2010 (Welsh Government, 2012)) have not necessarily been met as
hoped. It would appear that this mechanism is an excellent way for the Government to prepare the supply
chain for improved energy efficiency in housing and for future legislation, but not enough is being done to
fund or enforce this. One interviewee who works on social housing schemes said: “Funding has been
reduced for social housing schemes and if the Government doesn’t have the mechanism of advanced
standards in social housing to prep the supply chain, this could have a detrimental effect on how the supply
chain develops and the industry moves forward.” [Specialist in Passivhaus Project Management]
Learning from other European countries 4.6
Learning from other countries on how they prompted innovation in their supply chains to deliver the
Passivhaus standard and other low energy housing models could be adopted as part of the UK strategy to
increase demand and drive innovation. The interviewees felt learning from other countries would be a
positive step but many felt sceptical about the possibility of change occurring in the UK system: “In Austria
for example the Government provides mortgage reductions if you build to Passivhaus. Therefore, there is an
incentive there for people. This sort of incentivisation stimulates a clear market signal.” [Academic and
Passivhaus Consultant].
Local authorities have greater influence and power in making their own legislation in other parts of Europe.
This is not the case in the UK and there may be political opposition to such change. However, the ideas are
worth exploring. One interviewee voiced their thoughts on the present Government and examples of local
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authorities that have driven change in their housing market: “They [the Government] tend to be reactive
and wait until it’s too late. Local authorities are the ones who could help and should go and see how it’s
done in Europe, eg. Frankfurt, Hannover, Brussels etc.” [Technical Architectural Director].
Potential problems lie in the way policy in the UK is developed and the way our economy is run. If policy is
heavily influenced by groups that stand against industry change, this will result in an industry sluggish to
innovate. The issues lie deep within how the industry is run and which organisations have the greatest
influence. A number of interviewees made reference to the capitalist economic structure, with the free
market economy in the UK preventing Government influencing local authorities, as stated:
We have a free market economy in this country where the market economy is everything. Until we
have a change in society where Government becomes involved in the industry nothing will change.
Maybe put more power in the hands of local authorities. However, the industry is run by big
organisations that would override any regional policies. [Passivhaus Consultant & distributer of Passivhaus
products]
It was acknowledged that many countries have had stricter energy efficiency standards for a long time,
giving their supply chains time to prepare. It was pointed out that this is because they have had a clear
route to follow which has allowed R&D and investment throughout the supply chain, something the UK
lacks, as stated:
Germany has had higher performance requirements for quite some time. The risk for the UK is that we
are coming from a low base and we are trying to run to a very high level. Germany have done all this
over a planned timeframe which have allowed their supply chains to develop, this allows companies
to plan and develop the supply chains and undertake R&D because they have certainty in each step.
[Architect & Policy Advisor]
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Barriers and enablers in Austria & Belgium 4.7
The research has identified a need for further research into how the UK could advance its energy standards
through methods to stimulate demand. There appears to be a general feeling of frustration in the UK about
advancing the energy standards. The lack of clarity in the legislation and the market seems to be the major
factor in preventing the innovation in the supply chain. If the UK is unable to innovate the supply chain
through new legislation and market forces, the question is; how was this achieved in other countries?
Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium and France all provide a framework for grants, cheaper loans and
tax reduction and associated quality control procedures (Mlecnik et al. 2010). None of these market
stimulants exist in the UK. Two countries in particular that have advanced the popularity of the Passivhaus
standard are Austria and Belgium (see figure 22). Austria proved to be the fastest adopter and has over
1,000,000 m2 surface area of Passivhauses (Barta et al. 2009, cited in Mlecnik et al. 2010).
Figure 22: Shows how the Passivhaus standard has advanced in 10 countries participating in the PASS-NET project
(Intelligent Energy Europe, 2012).
A scheme was set up in May 2012 called ‘PassREg’. PassREg will look at front runner regions such as
Hannover, Brussels and Tyrol, with the hope that the strategies and mechanisms put in place in these
regions will be adapted and then implemented by aspiring regions wanting to increase demand in the
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Passivhaus standard to facilitate the implementation of the EU’s 2010 EPBD (Intelligent Energy Europe
2012). The BRE have signed up as a project partner in the scheme along with many other European
countries (see figure 23).
Figure 23: Countries participating in the PassReg project (PHI (d), 2012)
Two interviews were conducted with European experts in the industry. Interviewees were selected based
on their background in the Industry and knowledge of the issues. In some instances when transcribing the
interviews the language has been modified to aid the readers understanding, however, care was taken to
not alter the meaning or context. Both experts are supporters of the Passivhaus as a route to low energy
housing.
Appendix B shows the partial verbatim transcripts for these interviews. The questions relate to how the
popularity of the Passivhaus standard was advanced in their country, the methods that helped innovate the
supply chains and how the building standards were raised. The information aimed at presenting some
suitable drivers which could be employed in the UK to drive the industry forward and to innovate the UK
supply chain. This should help to answer the third research question (Section 1).
The CEPHEUS projects appeared to be influential in both countries. It was because of these projects, which
showed demonstrable benefits of Passivhaus which formed the initial driver, as stated: “The CEPHEUS
projects spread the knowledge to all the provinces in Austria…Once the CEPHEUS projects were completed
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and results came through the market demand was stimulated.” [Architect & Director of Energy Institute,
Voralberg, Austria]. From this the Government set up incentive schemes in both countries. This first step is a
missing link in the UK at present. Although these projects provide demonstrable evidence of success in
other countries no such projects exist in the UK with such a level of transparent POE. The stage after this
was described as:
Lobbying groups were set up in Vorarlberg province and these groups then spread across Austria…
Incentive schemes were set up. The higher the energy standard of the house/flat the more support
you receive. The maximum amount of money, step 5, was the Passivhaus standard or
equivalent…Tried to get more interest in self-owned housing and flats. This gained public support and
developers found people then wanted to go beyond the normal standards. [Austria]
A similar incentive approach was adopted in Belgium.
In 2007 the Government launched incentives…A Grant of up to 100 €/m2 if you achieve the
Passivhaus standard was made available for everyone. They wanted to know if incentivising in this
way would create a reaction in the industry. People didn’t care about Passivhaus or CO2, they only
wanted the grant to save money. This made the cost price of Passivhaus drop dramatically especially
in larger housing. [Architect, Director Plate-forme Maison Passive (PMP), Brussels, Belgium]
It would appear that the incentive schemes worked to help promote the standard and in the early stages
made it more cost competitive in the market place. With increased demand in the Passivhaus standard this
created a shift in the building culture and forced the supply chain to innovate and advance to ensure the
new market demand could be filled. Both interviewees found that this new demand then brought about
innovation in the local supply chain, as stated: “Architects who produced the first Passivhaus project in
Austria produced their own wooden Passivhaus window. The demand for Passivhaus spurred on this
innovation.” [Austria]. In Belgium most of the products originally came from Austria and Germany but now
they are being produced more cost effectively locally, as stated:
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Nothing but stimulating the market has created a growth in the local market of Passivhaus products.
In the beginning the products mostly came from Austria and some from Germany. Now more than
50% are made in Belgium and triple glazing is not a special product anymore. Austrian and German
frames have become cheaper to match the market in Belgium. Belgium products have been created in
response to market stimulation. [Belgium]
A potential problem in the UK appears to be the reliance on masonry cavity wall as a construction
technique employed by many housebuilders, and it was the author’s perception that Germany and Austria
rely more heavily on timber frame making a transition to Passivhaus easier. In both countries it appears that
various provinces tend to favour different techniques and Passivhaus has been constructed using a range of
construction types, as stated: “Depends on the province and the developer…A lot of timber but also all other
types. Using cavity wall is very difficult to achieve with Passivhaus. Joining the two skins of brick is therefore
a problem…Passivhaus has been adapted to the typical types of construction.” [Austria]. This highlights a
potential problem with cavity wall construction being used for Passivhaus, although successful examples do
exist in the UK. In Belgium the Passivhaus standard has also been adopted into local techniques: “All types
of construction are used. Mostly for housing using brickwork with plastering directly on bricks which helps
with airtightness. Building to the Passivhaus standard was integrated into local techniques.” [Belgium].
This presents an issue for the UK, requiring either a shift away from cavity masonry or the successful
implementation of the Passivhaus standard with this construction type. If the Passivhaus standard has a
chance of substantial growth it must be repeatedly demonstrated using the most typical construction
techniques in the UK.
The author was interested in how this demand was stimulated in the respective countries and whether
innovations in the supply chain, changes in culture, or advances in legislation proved to be the main drivers.
Change is inherently difficult to achieve in any country as mentioned by the Austrian respondent: “In all
countries it is difficult to get the higher standards because the building industry knows they will have to
work harder and earn less money at first whilst they are on the learning curve.” [Austria] This is central to
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the problem in the UK, perhaps more so in England than Wales because of the way the advisory bodies are
funded. It was mentioned that in Austria the regional Governments have more control over the industry:
“Local Governments in Austria have much more power [9 Federal Governments]. They can set their own
targets which effectively stimulates competition. Other Governments then follow and push each other.”
[Austria]. This would also relate to a cultural shift whereby advancing low energy building standards is seen
as a very positive step which might foster competition between regions.
Belgium used a series of grants and incentives and have now set a long term plan to integrate the Belgium
Passivhaus standard into legislation:
Implemented the law in 2011 [Brussels legislation – all new builds and retro fits built using the
Belgium Passivhaus standard as of 2015 (IPHA (c), n.d)]. Initially the other political parties were
against it. They wanted to know if the market could handle the changes, they wanted to see impact
studies, is it possible? The party leader showed them the results of the grant scheme from 2007 and
showed how the market reacted and this was satisfactory. [Belgium]
Both interviewees agreed that it is vital to have demonstration projects built all over the country using a
range of construction techniques, as stated by both interviewees:
“Make building to the Passivhaus standard as similar to traditional techniques as possible. Working
with the contractors to achieve this was the single biggest factor in stimulating.” [Belgium]
“The best way would be to have demonstration projects all over the country in different construction
methods, developed by highly skilled Architects, designers and craftsmen so that the buildings work
very well.” [Austria]
This was demonstrated in the Wimbish development (Case study 2), where efforts were made to use a local
labour force and techniques that are more common in that region.
The responses highlighted a number of actions which have potential to advance uptake of the standard:
• Incentive schemes offering financial support if the Passivhaus standard (or equivalent) is achieved.
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• Attempts to get more interest in self-owned housing and flats.
• Adopt existing construction styles to the regions with demonstration projects all over the country built
using different techniques. De-mystify that it’s not just a German standard which requires MMC and
timber frame.
• Inspire architects through interesting architectural demonstration projects by famous architects.
• Allow regional Governments/authorities to set their own targets.
• Provide a free source of advice
• Knowledge transfer in each stage of the supply chain – get architects to talk to architects, contractors
to contractors etc. Knowledge transfer is more effective when people talk to the people with the same
profession.
Discussion
81
5 Discussion
Local supply chains capable of delivering the Passivhaus standard will be critical to its growth. However,
there are issues with producing the products in the UK. It has been demonstrated that producing windows
cost effectively is difficult and has resulted in the environmental credentials of the UK windows being
compromised by having to import timber from New Zealand. Because of the trade regulations UK
manufacturers cannot be seen to have an advantage in the EU market, which will make it increasingly
difficult to compete with the established markets of Germany and Austria, where experience and volume
can also bring down costs, or the markets of Lithuania and Poland, where cheaper labour can reduce costs.
It is felt that the UK manufacturers have the possibility to supply a niche market that wants a very high
quality local service which can ensure replacements are quick and easy to source and the service is efficient.
However, in the current economic climate projects are being costed on such tight budgets that these issues
are not top priority. If embodied energy calculations were considered in the market, and maybe in the
future they will, the UK manufacturers have a potential to supply products with very low embodied energy,
if a regional supply chain can be established, as was the case in the Lime House (Case study 1). Perhaps
Government funding should be offered to local manufacturers, only if they manufacture their products
from a purely regional supply chain and demonstrate low embodied energy, which would spur innovation
through R&D in products with high environmental credentials. Otherwise the market should rightly be
opened up to the whole of Europe. UK Passivhaus window manufacturers might be more competitive if
they concentrate on products specific to the UK market, such as outward opening windows and windows
for refurbishment projects.
In pushing towards the Passivhaus standard and lower energy housing cost is such a critical issue
throughout the supply chain. It is difficult to strike a balance between using local products and systems,
keep costs down and also consider the embodied energy of the process. These issues were demonstrated in
both Case Studies 2 and 3.
Discussion
82
Education is crucial to successfully deliver the Passivhaus standard. This education is required throughout
the supply chain. When there is more experience and confidence the costs will begin to reduce. Case
studies 2 and 3 both acknowledged that the process was a learning curve which they hope to build on in the
future. The Wimbish development (Case study 2) hopes to use the same contractor to ensure lessons learnt
with regard to disseminating knowledge can be put into practice on the next Passivhaus scheme, despite
the construction type changing from thin joint masonry to cavity wall.
In the short term the Passivhaus standard represents opportunities for smaller scale companies to
specialise if the demand continues to grow (see figure 13). However, in the current market demand is being
stunted and education in the supply chain prevented, from a lack of clarity in the legislation and the future
aspirations of the Government, when considering Passivhaus and low energy housing. Without a
guaranteed future demand it would appear that innovation in the supply chain in the UK will be slow. The
five perceived attributes of an innovation that can help explain the rate of adoption of an innovation are:
relative advantage, complexity, trialability, observability and compatibility (Rogers 2003). Relative
advantage must be demonstrable through step changes in legislation. The proposed plans for zero carbon
housing by 2016 have been continuously changed and the present situation in the UK construction
legislation appears to be confusing for the supply chain. The Zero Carbon Hubs proposals in England for
allowable solutions appear to create a buyout clause which would indicate that any change to the fabric of
new homes will be relatively small based on the proposed FEES. The Passivhaus standard represents a
fabric-first approach which should be capable of dramatically reducing the energy consumption of housing
and thus reducing the CO2 emissions, without such an emphasis on renewable energy generation. The
result of the lack of ambition in the Zero Carbon Hubs proposals leads to a lack in industry innovation within
the housebuilding sector in England, which in the long run could result in the UK falling further behind in
low energy products and construction skills, possibly leading to a dearth of future skills in these areas.
Figure 24 shows how the author perceives the supply and demand process to work with regard to
Passivhaus and other low energy housing. The ‘Key’ demonstrates the processes starting with market
forces, which is dictated by Government initiatives. These Government initiatives and legislation are fed
Discussion
83
through a process involving drivers from economics and environmental pressures, and then through filters
which form policies relating to the cultural influences of the country. These initiatives then feed the
demand through the supply chain. Each step of the supply chain is then influenced by considerations.
Depending on whether each consideration is successfully adhered to, will depend on whether the local
supply chain will be capable of delivering the process/product. The construction phase of the supply chain
must then take into account cost, which will be dependent on the available skills. If the whole process can
be made viable then the successful delivery of a low energy home, with the benefits to the consumer that it
bring, will encourage more projects to be demanded. At present in the UK this system does not appear to
be conducive to the construction of Passivhaus housing. Missing steps occur at almost every phase and
especially in the lack of incentivisation to go beyond the minimum regulatory requirements.
The UK has opportunities to learn from other European countries that have advanced energy standards in
housing. Despite the UK being behind other countries in terms of their supply chains, this also opens up
more opportunities for the UK to learn from other European countries and employ successful schemes that
were adopted to innovate. The author accepts that the first stage is to provide demonstrable evidence that
the Passivhaus standard does actually save energy in a UK context, therefore has the potential to reduce
CO2 emissions from the building fabric. This evidence could start to appear through acceptable and
regulated POE if the projects described in this research are successful. However, if the Government are
serious about reducing energy demand in housing, schemes should probably be set up to encourage the
Passivhaus standard even before this evidence is in place, through looking at the success in other parts of
Europe, however, this evidence on its own doesn’t appear to be enough to cause a catalyst for innovation..
Figure 24: Flow diagram of supply chain; highlighting supply and demand generated, and the important considerations and influences on the supply chain for low energy
housing
Conclusion
85
6 Conclusion
The important questions relating to this research topic were identified as (Section 1):
1. In delivering the Passivhaus standard on a larger scale, what contribution or role will the UK supply
chain have in delivering the standard?
2. Would innovation in the supply chain enable the UK to progress towards the Passivhaus standard or
other very low energy building standards?
3. Where do the drivers come from to stimulate this supply chain?
In researching these questions it was hoped to identify issues with the current systems in place for a
transition towards more energy efficient housing and develop a series of recommendations on how to
improve the delivery of the Passivhaus standard in the UK (Section 1.3).This has been achieved through a
multi-methods approach using a literature review, the analysis of case studies and industry engagement via
semi-structured interviews. The research approach looked at the issues of local supply chains and focused
on Passivhaus products, with a particular emphasis on windows. The research then progressed to approach
broader issues through the supply chain including construction processes, and finished by analysing policy
in the UK which lead to looking at how lessons could be learnt from adapting initiatives used in other
European countries.
The standard is still in its infancy in the UK and the research indicates that the major drivers for change will
come from Government legislation. However, the supply chain for Passivhaus products and systems is
growing in the UK. There are now a number of UK manufacturers of Passivhaus certified windows, some
small scale distribution companies distributing the products, and experience is slowly growing as the
number of Passivhaus certified houses completed using different construction methods has increased. The
Passivhaus window manufacturers in the UK may struggle against competition for Continental Europe,
however, niche areas of the market could be exploited and specialist products using regional materials and
low embodied energy solutions should be explored. It is felt especially important to show how the
Conclusion
86
Passivhaus standard can be achieved using masonry cavity wall construction in the UK, allowing an easier
integration into standard UK building practices.
Research points to the supply chain being crucial to developing the Passivhaus standard but innovation at
present might be slow due to a lack of incentivisation in the current system to go beyond building
regulations. There are a number of options for increasing demand through non regulatory means which
over time would reduce the cost associated with meeting the Passivhaus standard, these focus on cultural
changes and representing energy saving and comfort in the value of homes. The UK has the potential skills
to build to Passivhaus, and examples would demonstrate that fact, but generating the demand to push the
industry to change and innovate is the key driver. Other countries have effectively driven towards the
Passivhaus standard and lower energy housing by the introduction of incentive schemes which promote low
energy housing, enabling the supply chain to innovate and grow in these areas, which gradually reduces the
costs of meeting the lower energy standards. Therefore it should be possible to learn lessons from these
countries and use these mechanisms and drivers to put the UK on a path to lower energy housing.
Recommendations 6.1
Based on the evidence gathered from the literature review and the analysis of case studies and interviews
the author has a number of recommendations relating to the research questions posed.
In order to drive the supply chains in the UK, increased demand is the major force and the possible ways to
achieve this are as follows:
• Government should first of all clearly define its route to achieve the EPBD targets. This should be
done through an organisation with less of an invested interest than the Zero Carbon Hub. This is the
case in Wales; where devolved regulations and an advisory board funded by Government, the
proposals for a revised Part L show increased energy efficiency targets compared with England’s
Conclusion
87
proposals. More emphasis should be placed on the fabric of the building and less on off-site and on-
site renewable energy generation.
• Put more power in the hands of local authorities within the UK.
• Incentive schemes should be offered to go beyond the existing Building Regulations, thus expanding
the market, as was the case in Austria and Belgium. This may incur costs to the Government as first,
but has the potential to create innovation and education which will make the cost of building to
tougher energy standards drop in the long term.
• Invest in exemplar projects. Repeat the Larch and Lime project in other areas of the UK using a
masonry cavity construction.
• Prior to successful POE in the UK, set up an education campaign for the supply chain and the public
demonstrating the perceived benefits. This could be Government funded, as is the case in Belgium,
where free advice on how to build to the Passivhaus standard is given.
• Government investment in products through an innovation grant with an emphasis on low embodied
energy and the use of regional materials.
• Ensure the PassReg project gains momentum and enables the successful transfer of knowledge
between countries.
Limitations of research 6.2
It is accepted by the author that many of the issues surrounding the Passivhaus standard could not be
covered in great detail. This may leave the reader feeling that some important issues have been glossed
over. The use of MVHR for instance requires further research and full testing in the UK via POE.
The author appreciates that the issues surrounding low carbon policies is complex. The decisions by policy
makers and Government must include the thoughts of everyone from within the industry and they must try
to make decisions which benefit the country as a whole, considering the economy as well as the
Conclusion
88
environment (as shown in figure 24).
Recommendations for further research 6.3
• A review of suitable investment models which the Government could implement to stimulate the
growth of low energy housing and ways to drive innovation in the supply chain.
• An economic review of the benefits that producing high specification building components could
bring to the UK economy.
• A study into the most effective ways of transferring knowledge between countries, supply chains and
to the general public.
• Create a housing model using masonry cavity wall details which replicate those of the mass
housebuilders, but designed to reach Passivhaus certification.
• Education related research. How can the quality of housebuilding be improved through education in
colleges and through advances in on-site training to educate a new generation of builders to build to
higher energy efficiency standards.
• University and Industry collaboration to innovate low energy products for a UK market.
• POE and BPE on a large scale across all Passivhaus projects. This evidence based research must be
demonstrable to have any significance on future Government Legislation.
References
89
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Appendix A
98
Appendix A: Partial verbatim transcripts
Question 1: Would the UK benefit from producing local supply chains capable of producing Passivhaus
products (such as windows, doors, MVHR, air tight frames)?
Prompts:
- What are the benefits to the construction industry of using local supply chains?
- Economically, socially, environmentally? Is there a need for local supply chains?
“There is always a market for better performing products produced in the UK. However, costs must always
be considered […] When procuring a project in the UK, it is has been difficult to find products and systems
which meet the required Passivhaus performance criteria.” [Specialist in Passivhaus project management]
“Absolutely, and this is something the PHI encourages. The best examples are a number of specialist
manufacturers in Austria, many of whom have benefited from support from local authorities.” [Technical
Architectural Director]
“The UK would definitely benefit economically, I believe this is a huge market” [Passivhaus consultant]
“Definitely, yes. Importing products often adds cost and difficult to then source replacement parts” [Project
manager & client’s agent]
“Local supply chains are important; it is being done in the UK with some specialist building suppliers
sourcing and stocking Passivhaus accredited products, such as the Green Building Store. Before Green
Building Store all products were coming from the continent […] It requires education of the building
suppliers to stock what is required, such as airtight tapes, which many haven’t even heard of […] The current
products produced in the UK aren’t up to the standard, due to a lack in demand.” [Environmental Design
Consultant]
“With windows most of the issues have been resolved by the existing manufacturers, my suggestion would
be to build in the UK through a partnership with an existing manufacturer. Getting certification to ph
standard i believe is expensive so using an existing design would reduce this.”
“Absolutely, the UK is a land of small and medium-sized enterprises (SME’s) and has big opportunities to
specialise” [Construction Skills Director]
“Local supply chains may benefit the UK economy. However, it may be more economical to have a larger
supply area such as central Europe. But is the carbon footprint of that lower? Emotionally I would say, yes.”
[Passivhaus Consultant & distributer of Passivhaus products]
Appendix A
99
“It would be a benefit to the UK and the economy. But depending on the size of the market for Passivhaus
will depend on the how big the benefit will be.” [Architect & Policy Advisor]
Question 2: Do you think producing Passivhaus products and systems could become cost effective or will
importing from overseas always be capable of producing the products cheaper?
“A very good reason for going with UK products is that replacement products can be easily sourced, which
isn’t the case when importing from abroad. This takes out an element risk.” [Specialist in Passivhaus project
management]
“It will take both. You get cheaper labour in Eastern Europe, however, you get cheaper snagging costs from
a UK manufacturer, so if there are any issues, for example with windows that are the wrong size or the glass
breaks these can be easily sorted out. The UK will need to rely on both - We will be relying on an expanded
European market, but we will have more specialised UK manufacturers, especially in the retrofit market
where a local supplier could cope with different styles […] Always going to be expensive to manufacture in
the UK due to high labour costs so would be at the expensive end […] We manufacture 1/3 in the north of
UK and import the rest from Lithuania. None of our windows are Passivhaus certified, which means you
need to put more work into the PHPP. You can easily get Ug of 0.55 W/m2K. Therefore this can reduce the
cost of your frame. However, we also import certified windows from Austria and Germany but these are
very expensive and tend to be at the top end of the market.” [Passivhaus Consultant & distributer of Passivhaus
products]
“If the products are being produced in similar level first world countries, the UK should be able to produce
the same products, and with a reduced transport cost, should make for cheaper products. If the products
are from other European countries with lower wage costs then they will be capable of manufacturing
products cheaper. However, these may not be to the same quality.” [Architect & Policy Advisor]
“Germany and other Passivhaus countries do have the lead currently although a UK-manufactured supply
chain would be possible, if the constraints were removed” [Supply Chain Manager]
“I do not think it will come down to cheaper labour costs, but actually about how the supply chain is geared
up to deliver the quantity required. Most of these products will be delivered from the EU where production
costs are similar, but experience of delivering the products is more advanced than the UK.” [Policy Advisor]
“It can be cost effective and should be more cost competitive. It does involve some initial costs in obtaining
Passivhaus certification.” [Technical Architectural Director]
Appendix A
100
“If designed right and skilled workers are used it would be possible. Small companies could possibly be more
cost effective and keep quality high. I am starting to find it’s not always the cheapest price for some
products it’s the ‘whole’ service a local supplier can give a customer.” [Passivhaus Consultant]
“Importing normally ends up costing more. Products can be made more cost effective if enough companies
produce them in the UK and having an increased ‘product-pool’ will drive down costs. This ‘product-pool’ of
Passivhaus products is increasing year on year.” [Project Manager & Client’s Agent]
“Until the market grows in the UK, projects will be procured on lower costing products.” [Environmental
Design Consultant]
Question 3: Does the UK stand to miss out on a potential growth market in high specification timber
frames and Passivhaus certified products if the industry is not educated early?
Comments on timber frames:
“The timber frame manufacturers in this country are beginning to catch up with other European countries.
Systems are much better now than they were a couple of years ago.” [Specialist in Passivhaus Project
Management]
“The standards that will be required potentially in the 2013 Part L in the UK and the inherent performance
required from the fabric will I think minimise this risk.” [Policy Advisor]
[This refers to the 2013 proposed changes to the Welsh Building Regulations, where proposals do not
depend on MVHR but are based on an air leakage rate that will provide satisfactory air quality through
natural ventilation (Welsh Government 2012)]
“It is obviously nonsensical to import lightweight timber frames (although most of the timber in UK frames is
imported anyway and just assembled here). Passivhaus airtight timber frame is relatively easy with some
basic design criteria. For solid timber frames there may be different criteria in terms of the complexity of
manufacture and the overall environmental impact. In regard to lightweight frames, the main issues are
actually the windows, and doors, the MVHR, and the design and construction process itself. In regard to
frames, I don’t think that the UK will miss out if the industry is not educated early. If there is one thing we
can produce cheaply in the UK its timber frames, and undercutting foreign frames will be easy, when the
market is there. It is very different for windows, doors etc. However, and the main thing is the education of
the people who design and build.” [Environmental Design Consultant]
Appendix A
101
Comments on Passivhaus products:
“If education throughout the supply chain is not available then the UK will miss out on this growth market”
[Passivhaus Consultant]
“The UK is losing out to some extent, but the biggest obstacle is education. Many manufacturers make
claims for their products that cannot be substantiated” [Technical Architectural Director]
“Definitely yes to this. But it’s about getting investment.” [Passivhaus Consultant & distributer of Passivhaus
products]
“This is definitely the case, whether they are PH standards or not. There is a need for further research and
development (R&D) in high specification doors and windows and to promote the take up of alternative
systems to the SIPS and other closed panels that rely on fossil fuel manufactured insulation products.”
[Technical Architectural Director]
“Not many products have gone through the rigmarole of getting products officially certified. Designers tend
to think that you have to use certified products, which tend to be imported from Germany. It depends on
how much Passivhaus will be adopted.” [Architect & Policy Advisor]
“Yes, but the UK can’t do it all in a global market. Maybe look to have – for example – German
manufacturers set up in the UK. It’s likely though that most of this most market capability has been lost. The
UK seems very bad at transferring R&D into the market place to take advantage of it.” [Construction Skills
Director]
Question 4: Will building to the Passivhaus standard on a larger scale potentially shift business away
from small scale builders and SME’s and benefit larger companies, potentially changing the way the
construction industry operates in the UK?
“There are opportunities for both SMEs and larger contractors. Because of the need for care, attention to
detail required when designing to Passivhaus it’s probably a bigger opportunity for smaller builders if they
are properly educated. If the education establishment in further and higher education start teaching about
these standards such as Passivhaus, which doesn’t necessarily have to be about being ‘green’, it’s more
about achieving better quality. The biggest problems come from the very large management led
contractors, which have no in house workforce and therefore have a large chain of subcontractors. These
types of systems will fail and are failing […] The main clients we have are the self-builders and social
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landlords – who are interested in the fuel poverty question. The private house builders will always be last on
the uptake.” [Passivhaus Consultant & distributer of Passivhaus products]
“No, I don’t think so. I don’t see any of the mass house builders adopting Passivhaus. It will more be the
small scale developments and social housing, so it might be an advantage to the small scale builders.”
[Architect & Policy Advisor]
“It might be a challenge for small scale builders at first. However, the industry learns and catches up quickly
[…] When the CFSH was introduced, the first 6 months required a lot on consultation, but after a few
mistakes everyone begins to understand what they need to do.” [Specialist in Passivhaus Project Management]
“If the Passivhaus standard was implemented the small scale builders may not be able to handle the rigour
of the standard and not be able to tool up to the added costs. Small scale builders are already struggling in
parts of the UK and additional costs may mean they are lost to the system. This might mean builders walk
away if they can’t reach the standard and then the UK would have a supply and demand issue.”
[Construction Skills Director]
“Size is not an issue. In some instances smaller companies are more open to innovation and can exercise
greater quality control. The worst offenders in terms of build quality tend to be the volume builders,
particularly in housing.” [Technical Architectural Director]
“Hopefully not, the smaller contractors often have smaller gangs of subcontractors which can aid in
promoting the transfer of skills and knowledge.” [Project Manager & Client’s Agent]
“I don’t think the size will make any difference” [Environmental Design Consultant]
Question 5: Passivhaus is often said to cost more. With regard to costs, how much of this is due to
inexperience in the workforce and supply chain in delivering the standard?
Prompt – Do contractors overprice projects due to the ‘risk’ element of having to deliver an unknown
product?
“Contractors overprice due to the risk factor. The prelims (overheads/risk factor/abnormals) on a Passivhaus
project are much higher. A big part of this is the management and education of the sub-contractors on site
due to the need to educate them […] There is a greater design risk, and a greater risk on site due to
potentially longer construction periods.” [Project Manager & Client’s Agent]
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“Yes, a lot. Simple training and simple design details are required. The designer needs to draw easy to follow
details […] The key to keeping costs down is to have experienced foremen and workers who take pride in
their work […] Academies and college courses will ensure the work force is there when needed.” [Passivhaus
Consultant]
“On one of our Passivhaus projects we tried to reduce the risk by opting for SIPs construction for the
envelope. This reduced the number of interfaces to be air sealed and ensured a level of quality by utilising
offsite manufacture […] Contractors – particularly large ones – tend to have a very traditional approach in
terms of construction methods […] Passivhaus doesn’t always have to cost more, for example, Architype’s
School in Wolverhampton.” [Technical Architectural Director]
“Much of the increased cost is down to risk factors and the extent that on-site quality is required, resulting
in more time checking and verifying performance. The costs increase can be partly attributed to imported
equipment, for example; triple glazing , and the use of offsite processed construction systems that the UK is
not currently geared up to deliver” [Policy advisor]
“Inexperience usually costs more than just money; time lost, incorrectly installed equipment can be costly.
But premiums are charged for using ‘unfamiliar’ technology and systems.” [Supply Chain Manager]
“People aren’t sure how to price Passivhaus. It needs a learning curve on how to price it.” [Construction Skills
Director]
“Costs more because of elements like triple glazing, MVHR, more insulation, skilled labour and products not
as readily available […] The volume house builders can build so cheap because they understand exactly what
is required, the supply chain knows exactly what they’re doing and they work with standard house types.
This brings efficiency […] New technology involves more thinking, design and construction time […] The site
plays a big part in Passivhaus. If the site is not orientated favourably this can increase costs dramatically.
We call these additional costs ‘Passivhaus abnormals’.” [Specialist in Passivhaus Project Management]
Question 6: What is being done to encourage local supply chains to deliver low energy projects?
“Nothing at all. The Passivhaus Trust is a good source of marketing for local manufacturers.” [Passivhaus
Window Manufacturer]
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“We struggle for our windows to get any investment for our manufacturing base in the UK from lenders.
Window manufacture seems to have gone abroad, unless it’s plastic.” [Passivhaus Consultant & distributer
of Passivhaus products]
“The Cut the Carbon website offers some help, but the process is still not joined up. Passivhaus isn’t
embedded in mainstream and is therefore a specialist bit of building.” [Construction Skills Director]
“The Government has many bodies aimed encouraging low energy projects but the delivery along the supply
chains remains patchy. This is because the traditionally conservative construction industry is slow to respond
and there are many new technologies to undertake and master […] What is required are dedicated
integrated supply chains in each building sector.” [Supply Chain Manager]
“Very little and certainly not by Government. There are large contractors in the UK who do not trust supply
chains and will hawk contracts around just to get the cheapest price.” [Technical Architectural Director]
“With the CFSH, using local suppliers gets additional credits. Even when Passivhaus products are available
they are not often regionally local to the site.” [Project Manager & Client’s Agent]
“Current economic system and economic policies discourage local supply chains as they are seen as barriers
to competition.” [Environmental Design Consultant]
Question 7: Would Government investment be required to establish local supply chains to reduce the
reliance on imported products and systems?
“Standard practice by Government is not to invest in the supply chain but to increase standards using the
Building Regulations, and CFSH for housing associations. This forces the supply chains to catch up. It’s not
pushed at the supplier end. The supply chains must supply the demand that is created in the market […] If
Government invested in the supply chain and set it up to deliver the Passivhaus standard, would people use
it without the legislation in place? They only would if the products and services were provided at the same
price.” [Specialist in Passivhaus Project Management]
“Government investment will always be positive to encourage local supply chains. Local supply chains could
form part of the tender process in the future, by using a points scoring system whereby if local supply chains
are used you get a higher score.” [Project Manager & Client’s Agent]
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“I think so, as long as investment is distributed to the smaller firms I think it would be beneficial. I could see
it helping with rural economies and expanding the ‘circular economy’, which is the way forward for
sustainable businesses. This would help regions be more self-sufficient.” [Passivhaus Consultant]
“Central Government – and particularly this one – are not going to invest in this. They tend to be reactive
and wait until it’s too late. Local authorities are the ones who could help and should go and see how it’s
done in Europe – for example; Tirol, Frankfurt, Hannover, Brussels etc. Universities could help by offering
their service to small manufacturers to help obtain evidence of performance and certification.” [Technical
Architectural Director]
“Government help would be beneficial, but it always runs the risk of being classified as state aid. Under EU
procurement rules any such assistance has to be carefully instigated.” [Policy Advisor]
“Initially additional funding would be required. However, due to EU procurement laws it opens up the whole
market for anyone in Europe to tender […] There are some proposals to change these laws to protect
indigenous companies” [Construction Skills Director]
“Local supply chains are in conflict with global economics and the policies which dominate the UK. Until this
changes it will be difficult to even think about really local and regional supply chains.” [Environmental Design
Consultant]
“Dedicated integrated supply chains are required to transform the market.” [Supply Chain Manager]
Question 8: Does it come down to supply and demand? I.e. When the market demand for Passivhaus is
strong in the UK, will the supply chains be created?
“Yes, until people can see that the market is going towards Passivhaus people won’t set up. The UK
definitely lacks a clear market signal. Currently split between the requirements of BRE/CFSH and the
Passivhaus standard.” [Passivhaus Window Manufacturer]
“Education – or lack of – Is the biggest obstacle.” [Technical Architectural Director]
“Demand will stimulate supply but these need to be integrated chains.” [Supply Chain Manager]
“Yes, but it needs a good partnership between Government. The industry can innovate but it needs the
confidence and an accurate route or direction.” [Project Manager & Client’s Agent]
“In the current financial situation few companies are investing in R&D, which is required in many cases to
deliver the equipment required under Passivhaus. Companies that are prepared to make an early
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investment would no doubt benefit should Passivhaus become a more popular standard in the UK.” [Policy
Advisor]
“Yes, but I don’t believe that the Passivhaus standard will become the norm in the UK and most of the
major house builders are very anti the standard, as it is too complicated and requires too much on site
control to deliver the standard.” [Policy Advisor]
“If there’s a market people will want to make money and therefore the supply chains will be set up.”
[Specialist in Passivhaus Project Management]
Question 9: What would it take to get the industry geared up to deliver the Passivhaus standard on a
large scale for housing?
Prompts – What are the key factors – Government legislation/change in culture/innovations in the supply
chain?
“The UK has the skills in manufacturing and construction to deliver the standard. The market will be flooded
when a clear market signal is given.” [Academic & Passivhaus Consultant]
“A key issue is that larger scale house builders are out to make money. Therefore, they will only build houses
to Passivhaus if they have to, or, if people are willing to pay more money for them. I don’t think house
buyers are interested or willing to pay more money at the moment […] People might become more
interested when energy becomes even more expensive. People will then demand more energy efficient
homes but I’m not sure when this tipping point will be. At the moment there is no driver by the consumers
[…] If builders do it, it will be from legislation through the building regulations […] The faster things move
the more expensive the construction process becomes. Therefore things must go forward at a reasonable
pace to allow the supply chain to keep up. Possibly Government investment in the supply chain may improve
things […] The supply chain, the market culture, and legislation, must all be stimulated at the same time ... I
don’t think the Passivhaus standard will the standard in the UK, at least not for a while […] Test projects will
be key to show benefits […] Funding has been reduced for social housing schemes and If the Government
doesn’t have the mechanism of advanced standards in social housing to prep the supply chain, this could
have a detrimental effect on how the supply chain develops and the industry moves forward. [Refers to
when affordable/social housing is funded by the HCA (Homes and Community Agency), homes must
achieve CFSH Level 3 (Sustainable Homes 2011)].” [Specialist in Passivhaus Project Management]
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“Legislation is obviously the key driver and will create an instant demand but this will not happen in the UK.
There is a fad of Passivhaus being fashionable at the moment but the standards embedded in the Welsh
consultation document for the changes proposed for the 2013 Building Regulations mean that even if you
built a Passivhaus you still wouldn’t achieve Building Regulation compliance in Wales […]They will never
allow a Passivhaus certified using PHPP to become instantly compliant with building regulations […] Market
forces are also important. The housing associations and house builders will have to respond to the pubic
wanting a Passivhaus and people being able to differentiate between a Passivhaus and a non Passivhaus by
paying more for a Passivhaus or less for a non-Passivhaus. There would have to be demonstrable benefits
that you could prove and these would need to be spelled out to the general public. The big thing it comes
down to is whether the UK population will accept MVHR. And also how people respond to having to change
filters in MVHR, so there’s the whole behavioural science factor.” [Architect & Policy Advisor]
“Demand must be created through legislation and value, through:
- De-mystifying Passivhaus – Change perception that windows can be opened, not everything has to
be imported and that costs don’t necessarily have to be too much higher.
- Link the benefits of Passivhaus to the property values. The benefits of living in a Passivhaus should
be reflected in the price/value of the properties. Maybe show an estimate of the bills you might be getting
on the lifetime of the property. This will require a change in mentality of consumers who must then want or
demand low energy housing.
- Demonstrable results through POE, showing concrete evidence and positive occupant feedback.
- Education of the supply chain, which will only happen through experience. However, this is a looped
cycle because education will only take place when the demand is there.” [Project Manager & Client’s Agent]
“Regulation will be the only driver that will make industry gear up to deliver the standard, history has shown
that the Construction Industry is reactive and not proactive, when it comes to meeting new standards The
industry as a whole would need a step change in the way it does business, from colleges and universities to
the building profession would need to learn and promote the standard, and demonstrate that it can be
achieved on a repeat basis and at an affordable price.” [Policy Advisor]
“There must be a clear path on where the industry is going. This would allow people to plan and build
businesses to respond to the future. Currently ‘Allowable Solutions’ confuse everything. Without clear
leadership the market cannot respond. It would too risky as aspirations towards zero carbon are always
changing. Therefore no innovation in products in the UK until clear legislation is there […] The problem is
that house builders make excellent profits and increasing the standards threatens to take away this
profitability […] Try a move towards a culture of self-build. Sell land to individuals rather than mass
developers. People would then demand higher end buildings. This creates a demand and also forces the up-
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skilling of the supply chain to match what is being demanded by the market.” [Environmental Design
Consultant]
“The biggest driver would be building regulations or legislation that forces people to build to a certain code
level […] Without MVHR you can only get to around 30-40 kWh/m2. This is what the ZCH are aiming for.
They don’t feel the industry is capable of getting the airtightness down to 0.6 or 1ach. It’s more an issue of
not wanting to get to this level of airtightness rather than not wanting to use MVHR […] MVHR must be
designed properly. In the past it has been done badly. In order for MVHR to be efficient you need high levels
of insulation and an airtight fabric […] Once the customer realises that the buildings are more comfortable
to inhabit, the value will go up and the value of uncomfortable housing will go down […] It could be a case
that one documentary produced at the right time by someone famous will drive it.” [Passivhaus Consultant &
distributer of Passivhaus products]
“People need to keep producing and recording data. Facts, figures and trends must be shown. These will
speak for themselves […] Incentives for local supply chains and investment in obtaining data from
Passivhaus houses.” [Passivhaus Window Manufacturer]
“It would require Government buy in and restructuring of PHPP – which would be difficult as its not UK
owned […] A near Passivhaus solution may be the halfway solution.” [Supply Chain Manager]
“Perhaps a gigantic leap in energy costs […] Most of all education. There are a growing number of
exemplars in the UK but these tend to relatively small scale.” [Technical Architectural Director]
“Probably legislation saying every new building has to be done to Passivhaus standard. However, I am
entirely against this as I do not see Passivhaus as the best standard for new build, though it certainly could
be one of the compliance standards.” [Environmental Design Consultant]
“The problem is that there are no ‘enablers’ or guidance in achieving Passivhaus in the UK […] Policy gets
written by people with invested interest. The ZCH has massive influence from NHBC […] The Government
need an independent committee or task force to consult on an accurate route to the targets.” [Academic and
Passivhaus Consultant]
Question 10: Do you think the UK should take precedent from other countries and look at how they set up
their supply chains to deliver the Passivhaus standard?
“In Austria for example the Government provides mortgage reductions if you build to Passivhaus. Therefore,
there is an incentive there for people. There is no such incentivisation in the UK. This sort of incentivisation
stimulates a clear market signal […] The barriers to Passivhaus must be changed to enablers.” [Academic and
Passivhaus Consultant]
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“We believe that in places like Germany there are more opportunities for partnership for money lenders and
banks with industry therefore long term investment is more possible there. In this country unless you make
big profits or have large capital behind you, you can’t borrow money to set things up.” [Passivhaus Consultant
& distributer of Passivhaus products]
“The UK has a lot of ‘red tape’, especially for social housing. An issue with Passivhaus for social housing is
the smaller the dwelling the harder it is to achieve the standard.” [Project Manager & Client’s Agent]
“It really needs adapting to our own climate, market and our own district building techniques. We could
look to adopting new techniques but this might cause smaller builders problems. The most appropriate
route is to build on what we’ve got, but this takes time.” [Specialist in Passivhaus Project Management]
“I think we probably should […] Germany has had higher performance requirements for quite some time.
The risk for the UK is that we are coming from a low base and we are trying to run to a very high level.
Germany have done all this over a planned timeframe which have allowed their supply chains to develop,
this allows companies to plan and develop the supply chains and undertake R&D because they have
certainty in each step […] In the UK since 2002, which was the first major changes in Part L, there have been
remarkable advances in energy performance which has meant the supply chain can’t really keep up with it.
A couple of years ago, 2016 was going to be when zero carbon buildings would be legislated, which has now
fallen by the wayside. Hence, the industry and the supply chains don’t trust what the Government says so
they don’t want to put money into R&D. There is a real reticence in the supply chain to commit to R&D until
the Government comes up with a clear time frame. There is a lot of over complexity in the system which
ought to be very straight forward.” [Architect & Policy Advisor]
“We have a free market economy in this country where the market economy is everything. Until we have a
change in society where Government becomes involved in the industry nothing will change. Maybe put more
power in the hands of local authorities. However, the industry is run by big organisations that would
override any regional policies.” [Passivhaus Consultant & distributer of Passivhaus products]
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110
Appendix B: Partial verbatim transcripts EU
Question 1: How has popularity in the Passivhaus standard progressed in your country?
“Began to spread knowledge in Austria [Vorarlberg province] after studying various case studies across
Europe for 2 years, decided the Passivhaus standard was the most applicable and best standard to adopt in
Austria. Invited experts from Germany to Austria and organised 2 week seminars during the summer. Then
the CEPHEUS projects spread the knowledge to all the provinces in Austria […] Existing MVHR was made
better […] Lobbying groups were set up in Vorarlberg province and these groups then spread across Austria
[…]Incentive schemes were set up. The higher the energy standard of the house/flat the more support you
receive. The maximum amount of money – step 5 – was the Passivhaus standard or equivalent […] Tried to
get more interest in self-owned housing and flats. This gained public support and developers found people
then wanted to go beyond the normal standards […] Vorarlberg then decided in 2007 that social housing
must be designed to the Passivhaus standard.” [Architect & Director of Energy Institute, Voralberg, Austria]
“In 2007 the Government launched incentives […] Grant of up to 100 €/m2 if you achieve the Passivhaus
standard was made available for everyone. They wanted to know if incentivising in this way would create a
reaction in the industry. People didn’t care about Passivhaus or CO2, they only wanted the grant to save
money. This made the cost price of Passivhaus drop dramatically especially in larger housing […] The
designers and contractors now do their own construction details. They adapt existing styles to the
Passivhaus standard instead of simply copying what was being done in Germany and Austria. In Belgium it’s
mostly massive construction so don’t use timber frame and therefore don’t need to import airtightness
tapes […] The market costs reduce because they can use their existing methods of construction but these
have been adapted to the Passivhaus standard.” [Architect, Director Plate-forme Maison Passive (PMP), Brussels,
Belgium]
Question 2: What is being done to encourage local supply chains to deliver low energy projects?
“Once the CEPHEUS projects were completed and results came through the market demand was stimulated.
Architects who produced first Passivhaus project in Austria produced their own wooden Passivhaus window.
Also the same then happened in Tirol Province as well. The demand for Passivhaus spurred on this
innovation.” [Architect & Director of Energy Institute, Voralberg, Austria]
“Nothing but stimulating the market has created a growth in the local market of PHI certified products. In
beginning the products mostly came from Austria and some from Germany. Now more than 50% are made
in Belgium and triple glazing is not a special product anymore. Austrian and German frames have become
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cheaper to match market in Belgium. Belgium products have been created in response to market
stimulation […] Embodied energy has almost no effect on the market.” [Architect, PMP, Belgium]
Question 3: Why were the Government keen to stimulate demand in Passivhaus?
“70% of our energy consumption is driven by oil, gas and coal. Chosen to be the most suitable standard to
implement.” [Architect & Director of Energy Institute, Voralberg, Austria]
“In 2005 grants existed for PV, solar thermal. They changed the funding to promote Passivhaus because
they identified its benefits in reducing energy use/CO2.” [Architect, PMP, Brussels, Belgium]
Question 4: Is timber frame the main method of construction?
“Depends on the province and the developer […] A lot of timber but also all other types. Using cavity wall is
very difficult to achieve with Passivhaus. Joining the two skins of brick is therefore a problem […] Passivhaus
has been adapted to the typical types of construction.” [Architect & Director of Energy Institute, Austria]
“No. All types of construction are used. Mostly for housing using brickwork with plastering directly on bricks
which helps with airtightness. Pre-fab concrete walls are common which are airtight with silicon joint joining
panels. Building to the Passivhaus standard was integrated into local techniques.” [Architect, Director Plate-
forme Maison Passive, PMP, Belgium]
Question 5: What has enabled the uptake of advanced building standards? Has it been enabled through
innovations in the products, or through legislation and policy or through a shift in culture?
“In all countries it is difficult to get the higher standards because the building industry knows they will have
to work harder and earn less money at first whilst they are on the learning curve […] The best way would be
to have demonstration projects all over the country in different construction methods, developed by highly
skilled Architects, designers and craftsmen so that the buildings work very well. You will find the consumers
are happy with their properties. It will avoid cases where the buildings perform poorly and what happens
when a new standard is brought in the blame for any fault is within the standard, therefore it must be
ensured that the building performs exactly as intended. For every failed Passivhaus you have to prove with
about 20 good examples to wipe out the bad example […]Local Governments in Austria have much more
power [9 Federal Governments]. They can set their own targets which effectively stimulates competition.
Other Governments then follow and push each other.” [Architect & Director of Energy Institute, Austria]
Government invested the grant in 2007. Government helped fund the PHI in Belgium [PMP] to help people
build to the standard. This provides free advice, paid by the Government, for anybody wanting to build to
the Passivhaus […] For implemented the law in 2011 [Brussels legislation – all new builds and retro fits built
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using the Belgium Passivhaus standard as of 2015 (IPHA n.d)]. Initially the other political parties were
against it. They wanted to know if the market could handle the changes, they wanted to see impact studies,
is it possible? The party leader showed them the results of the grant and showed how the market reacted
and this was satisfactory. The most important thing is to show studies and successful precedents from your
own country, not just from other countries […] In Belgium, more famous Architects started building to
Passivhaus. Sexy designs, with strange forms still work. This inspires other architects […] Make building to
the Passivhaus standard as similar to traditional techniques as possible. Working with the contractors to
achieve this was the single biggest factor in stimulating. Once other contractors realised that this could be
done others wanted to do the same […]Training throughout the supply chain is now common in Belgium
[…]De-mystify that it’s not just a German standard which requires MMC and timber frame […]
Communication must happen between professions. Contactors talk to contractors, Architects to Architects
etc.” [Architect, Director PMP, Belgium]