definiçoes de gramatica

7/30/2019 Definioes De Gramatica

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Gramtica e fala comum

It is necessary to know grammar, andit is better to write grammaticallythan not, but it is well to rememberthat grammar is common speechformulated. Usage is the only test.(William Somerset Maugham, The Summing Up, 1938)


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Usage: consenso social baseado em prticas

verbais (da classe mdia educada!?)

"English usage is sometimes more than mere taste, judgment, and education--sometimes it'ssheer luck, like getting across a street."

(E. B. White)

"The present-day scholarly concept ofusage as a social consensus based on the practices ofthe educated middle class has emerged only within the last century. For many people, however,the views and aims of the 17th-18c fixers of the language continue to hold true: they consider

that there ought to be a single authority capable of providing authoritative guidance about 'good'and 'bad' usage. For them, the model remains that of the Greek and Latin, and they havewelcomed arbiters of usage such as Henry Fowler who have based their prescriptions on thismodel. In spite of this . . ., no nation in which English is a main language has yet set up an officialinstitution to monitor and make rules about usage. New words, and new senses and uses ofwords, are not sanctioned or rejected by the authority of any single body: they arise throughregular use and, once established, are recorded in dictionaries and grammars. This means that,with the classical model of grammar in rapid decline, the users of English collectively set thestandards and priorities that underlie all usage."

(Robert Allen, "Usage." The Oxford Companion to the English Language, ed. T. McArthur.Oxford Univ. Press, 1992)


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Etiqueta (usage) vs. Rationale (gramtica)

"Usage is trendy, arbitrary, and above all, constantly changing, like

all other fashions--in clothing, music, or automobiles. Grammar is

the rationale of a language; usage is the etiquette."

(I. S. Fraser and L. M. Hodson, "Twenty-One Kicks at the Grammar

Horse." The English Journal, Dec. 1978)


4/18

Gramtica: base para a expresso feliz

de ns prprios

Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability toexpress ourselves. The more we are aware of how itworks, the more we can monitor the meaning andeffectiveness of the way we and others use language. It

can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploitthe richness of expression available in English. And itcan help everyone--not only teachers of English, butteachers of anything, for all teaching is ultimately amatter of getting to grips with meaning.

(David Crystal, "In Word and Deed," TES Teacher, April30, 2004)


5/18

Gramtica: a definio mais simples

O estudo sistemtico e a descrio de uma

lngua


6/18

Gramtica descritiva vs. Gramtica prescritiva

Descr ipt ive gramm arsare essentially scientific theories that attempt to

explain how language works. The goal of the descriptivist is to simply statehow language actually works. People spoke long before there werelinguists around to uncover the rules of speaking. The intent of descriptivegrammar is to posit explanations for the facts of language use, and there isno assumption of correctness or appropriateness.

Prescriptive grammars, on the other hand, are the stuff of high schoolEnglish teachers. They 'prescribe,' like medicine for what ails you, how you

'ought' to speak."

(Donald G. Ellis, From Language to Communication. Lawrence Erlbaum,1999)

The term 'descriptive' is misleading, because it can be taken to imply ataxonomic, merely labeling non-explanatory approach(). Howeverdescriptive grammar is not merely descriptive, it provides analyses,theories, and explanations."

(Christopher Beedham, Language and Meaning: The Structural Creation ofReality. John Benjamins, 2005)


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Gramtica tradicional

The collection of prescriptive rules and concepts aboutthe structure of the language. "We say that traditionalgrammar is prescriptive because it focuses on thedistinction between what some people do with

language and what they ought to do with it, accordingto a pre-established standard. . . . The chief goal oftraditional grammar, therefore, is perpetuating ahistorical model of what supposedly constitutes properlanguage."

(J. D. Williams, The Teacher's Grammar Book.Routledge, 2005)


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Prescritivismo, normativismo, tenses

"There has always been a tension between the descriptive andprescriptive functions of grammar. Currently, descriptive grammaris dominant among theorists, but prescriptive grammar is taught inthe schools and exercises a range of social effects."

(Ann Bodine, "Androcentrism in Prescriptive Grammar." TheFeminist Critique of Language, ed. D. Cameron. Routledge, 1998)

"The prescriptive grammarians went out of their way to invent asmany rules as possible which might distinguish polite from impolitespeech. They didn't find very many--just a few dozen, a tiny numbercompared with all the thousands of rules of grammar that operate inEnglish. But these rules were propounded with maximum authority

and severity, and given plausibility by the claim that they were goingto help people to be clear and precise. As a result, generations ofschoolchildren would be taught them, and confused by them."

(David Crystal, The Fight for English. Oxford Univ. Press, 2006)


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Gramtica generativa

The rules determining the structure andinterpretation of sentences that speakersaccept as belonging to the language. "Simplyput, a generative grammar is a theory ofcompetence: a model of the psychologicalsystem of unconscious knowledge thatunderlies a speaker's ability to produce andinterpret utterances in a language.

(F. Parker and K. Riley, Linguistics for Non-Linguists. Allyn and Bacon, 1994)


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Gramtica mental

The generative grammar stored in the brainthat allows a speaker to produce language thatother speakers can understand. "All humansare born with the capacity for constructing a

Mental Grammar, given linguistic experience;this capacity for language is called theLanguage Faculty (Chomsky, 1965). Agrammar formulated by a linguist is anidealized description of this Mental Grammar."

(P. W. Culicover and A. Nowak, DynamicalGrammar: Foundations of Syntax II. OxfordUniv. Press, 2003)


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Gramtica transformacional

A theory of grammar that accounts for theconstructions of a language by linguistic transfor-mations and phrase structures. "In transformationalgrammar, the term 'rule' is used not for a precept set

down by an external authority but for a principle that isunconsciously yet regularly followed in the productionand interpretation of sentences. A rule is a direction forforming a sentence or a part of a sentence, which hasbeen internalized by the native speaker."

(D. Bornstein,An Introduction to TransformationalGrammar. Univ. Press of America, 1984)


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Gramtica cognitiva

"A Cognitive Grammaris based on the following assumptions . . .: The grammar of a language is part of human cognition and interacts

with other cognitive faculties, especially with perception, attention, andmemory. . . .

The grammar of a language reflects and presents generalizations aboutphenomena in the world as its speakers experience them. . . .

Forms of grammar are, like lexical items, meaningful and never 'empty'or meaningless, as often assumed in purely structural models ofgrammar.

The grammar of a language represents the whole of a native speaker'sknowledge of both the lexical categories and the grammatical structuresof her language.

The grammar of a language is usage-based in that it provides speakerswith a variety of structural options to present their view of a givenscene."

(G. Radden and R. Dirven, Cognitive English Grammar. JohnBenjamins, 2007)


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Gramtica pedaggica

Grammatical analysis and instruction designed forsecond-language students. "Pedaogical grammaris aslippery concept. The term is commonly used todenote (1) pedagogical process--the explicit treatment

of elements of the target language systems as (part of)language teaching methodology; (2) pedagogicalcontent--reference sources of one kind or another thatpresent information about the target language system;and (3) combinations of process and content." (D.

Little, "Words and Their Properties: Arguments for aLexical Approach to Pedagaogical Grammar."Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar, ed. by T.Odlin. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994)


14/18

Repensando a tradio gramatical no ocidente

Mas mesmo assim?

S assim?

No h mais nada para dizer?


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1. Tipos de gramtica:

- gramtica traditional (herdada da tradio greco-romnica)Est intimamente ligada ao estudo da retrica, constitui-se, em escolagramatical e usada como elemento prescritivo da lngua padro.

- lingustica formal (seguindo ou sendo fortemente influenciada pelo

trabalho de Noam Chomsky)A lngua representada como uma espcie de lgebra uma lista deregras, muitas destas usadas para descrever os limites da lngua, que soencarados como sendo limitaes de origem neurolgica.

- lingustica funcional (influenciada pelas propostas, sobretudo, deMichael Halliday)Tem uma orientao de pendor mais sociolgico, na medida em que

procura relacionar a lngua com a sociedade e compreender os modoscomo o uso da lngua incorporou a sua estrutura (dimenso retrica). uma abordagem lingustica extensivamente usada no ensino, nalingustica computacional e em semitica social.

Repensando a tradio gramatical no ocidente


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No esquema anterior, a expresso gramtica tradicionaldesigna a escola estabelecida, no a rica tradiogramatical ao servio da retrica que influenciou largos

sculos da cultura ocidental.

A gramtica funcional , em parte, a recuperao eelaborao da longa prtica gramatical e da tradioretrica.


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OBJECTIVOS FUNO SOCIAL

TRADICIONAL padronizar 'prescritiva'(Escola) a lngua

FORMAL limitaes 'descritiva'(Chomsky) neurolgicas

FUNCIONAL design 'retrica'(Halliday) ecolgico


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Gramticas, terminologias, e etc.

E ns professores,

autores de manuais, programas, etc.

Que escolher?Que escolhas foram j realizadas?

definiçoes de gramatica

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