December 2011

Saturday Programme Roscrea

Produced by ELISTA Education©

Introduction to Nutrition

Nutrition is the provision of nutrients, which are materials necessary to support life of cells and organisms.

In Nutritional science, Scientists investigate and study the metabolic and physiologiocal responses of the body to the diet (food eaten). All food taken into an animals body is broken down to allow for the absorbtion of its chemical components.

Chemical components, or compounds include elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcuim, iron, zinc, pottassium and many more. Different combinations of these elements make up what are often classed as the “7 nutrient groups”, this being protein, carbohydrates, fibre, fats, vitamins, minerals and water, but also make up the components of and allow for the function of the human, animal and plant body.

Elements such as sodium are required for funtional nervous responses, iron and zinc for circulartory function, carbon and oxygen for respiration, hydrogen for energy and so on. In fact a fully „balanced‟ nutritional diet is required to provide all compound for functional metabolism.

When food enters the body it is broken down through many mechanisms to release the essential compounds which can then be utilised within the parts of the

body as required.

The process of „food‟ becoming useful element compounds in an animals‟ body typically goes through 3-4 stages.

Ingestion (taking food in)

Digestion (breaking food down)

Absorption (moving elements useful to body)

Excretion (removal of waste material)

Ingestion for most animals occurs at the mouth, this is also the first stage of digestion where food gets mixed with enzymes in the saliva and mechanically broken down by the teeth. A bolus of food moves through the tubes leading to the stomach, where acids and enzymes further act on the food to break the bonds between elements. The broken down food (or chime) further travels to the intestine where absorption takes place. Some animals produce more acids and enzymes from organs such as the pancreas or cecum to specifically break down the diet they ingest. Some animals even re-digest their food to ensure full breakdown and that all nutritional compounds are absorbed. Element compounds are absorbed from the intestine to the blood stream and then transported around the body to where they are required or where they will be stored until later. Waste material that is no use to the body now or later is excreted as faeces through the rectum and anus, fluids are transported to the kidneys for filtering and waste is excreted as urine.

Task 1: Complete the flow diagram of the passage of food using the labels to the left (simple

stomach animal e.g human)

Mouth

Oesophagus Stomach

Gale Bladder

Ileum

Duodenum Jejunum

Pancreas

Rectum

Anus Colon

Cecum

FOOD ENTERS

Protein- Essential Amino Acids As described in class Proteins are made up of Amino Acids, amino acids are made up of the compounds Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and sometimes Sulphur. The arrangement of the element compounds form the unique structure of the amino acid.

Different Animals have different requirements for different amino acids. All essential amino acids for humans are not the same essential amino acids for rabbits, cats, horses and so on. Literature also varies with regard to the total number of essential amino acids, for humans and other animals. 22 is mostly considered the number of amino acids in humans, but some sources cite 21 or even 20, approximately half of these must be provided in the diet and are essential for protein synthesis including the production of DNA. Essential Amino Acids- CAT (adapted www.drsfostersmith.com) Cats are “obligatory carnivores”, this means they MUST have meat in their diet. Cats require 22 to maintain health and growth. 11 of these they can produce themselves (non-essential) and 11 they can no (essential), these 11 essential amino acids must be provided in the diet. Taurine, one of the 11 essential amino acids for cats is only found in meat, so a vegetarian

For example. This is

the structure of the

amino acid

phenylalanine. It

contains 11 hydrogen

atoms, 9 carbon

atoms, 2 oxygen and a

single Nitrogen.

Arginine though has several

Nitrogen and pre-bonded

compounds such as CH2 (a

reactive methane) and NH.

diet will cause cats to lack Taurine. Ultimately the cat will become very ill, as Taurine is needed to produce bile salts. Bile allows for the digestion of food in the stomach, without bile other nutrients will not be gained. Another of the 11 essential amino acids for cats is Arginine, this essential amino acid is required to help make a non essential amino acid, Ornithine. Ornithine is required to help eliminate ammonia which is a by-product of the breakdown of protein. A lack or Arginine means a lack or Ornithine which means a build up of ammonia in the blood. (N.B www.vetmed.vet cites 23 amino acids for cats!) Essential Amino Acids in Horses (adapted from Veritas. B, www.vitaflex.com)

Like cats, humans and most mammals horses also require 22 amino acids, but just 8 (although 10 is sometimes suggested) are essential for the horse. This list does include arginine which for the horse can be provided through wheat and oatmeal, but does not include taurine, found mostly only in fish and meat! Veritas, B (www.vitaflex.com) explains the importance of the amino acid Lysine. This is used to help the horse breakdown protein in the diet and fully utilise the components for growth, muscle development and hoof repair. Veritas suggests that up to 50% of protein in the diet can be wasted if there is a Lysine deficiency. This is important information for the economic maintenance of performance horses and should also help avoid use of steroids for muscle enhancement.

Methionine is an essential amino acid which contains sulphur. Sulphur is an essential element in the formation of keratin required for health hooves in horses.

Task 2: Glycine is also an amino acid. It is a non-essential amino acid for humans, horses and cats, but is essential for the young of a specific “class” of species. Glycine helps to produce other amino acids and also uric acid, which holds waste Nitrogen and is excreted as waste. In older animals of this class the Liver can synthesis glycine if there is a deficiency, but the underdeveloped Liver of young is though to not be able to do this effectively. Glycine is therefore an „semi-essential amino acid‟ for………………………………… (write in what you think the young animal class is. A little further research might help) NB remember „class‟ is a scientific term used in taxonomy as a rank or order of animals. It comes after Kingdom and Phylum, but before Order and Family!

Carbohydrates- adaptations for gaining energy.

Carbohydrates are the main source of energy for most animals. Although we

know protein and fat ca be utilised for energy, it is by no means the most

efficient way.

Energy is essential for living, glucose the most simple saccaride or „sugar‟ is

required by living cells.

Animals have adapted over long periods of time to ensure that they can

absorb the maximum amount of carbohydrate compounds, and therefore

energy from the diet that they eat.

The first adaptations are seen in the mouth.

As described in class, cellulose is a carbohydrate. Cellulose is the structural

material of plants, and is very strong in its structure. It is very hard to

breakdown and utilise the energy within it. You may have seen your dog

ingest grass, and should it not cause him to vomit, you might have notice

when picking up their poos that the grass has passed through completely

undigested!

Unlike cats and dogs though, many animals thrive on grass. They are able to

break it down and utilise its energy. There are three major adaptations that

allow for this:

1. Teeth, 2. Hind Gut 3. Re-ingestion.

Animals that eat a lot of plant material (herbivores) have teeth especially

adapted to grind plant material and break the bonds of the compounds at

the first stage of digestion which is mechanical digestion within the mouth.

Horses, Cows, Sheep and Goats have dentures that consist purely of molars

with a few incisors at the front. They have no canine teeth (except

occasionally in stallions) like cats, dogs and humans, as they do not capture,

tear or rip their food like carnivores do to meat.

Example of carnivore dentition and dental formula (dog):

Incisors

Incisors

Incisors

Pre-molars Molars Canines

Adult Dog

Puppy

Example of omnivore dentition and dental formula (human):

Example of herbivore dentition and dental formulas (cow):

The general functions or purposes of the teeth are to bite (incisors), tear

(canines) and grind (molars and premolars).

The prominent tooth type of herbivores, the molar , has a large and rough

surface area which impacts food between them like grinding food in a pestle

and mortar. What is often considered „true herbivores‟ have further

adaptations to breakdown cellulose in

the mouth. Cows and sheep move

their jaw from side to side to reinforce

the grinding action, and don‟t even

have teeth on the front of the top jaw,

instead they have a hard pallet,

X 2

just like one giant molar tooth!

More chewing and grinding time in the mouth also means more action of the

salivary enzymes, amylase which chemically start the breakdown of cellulose.

Chewing food to increase it‟s surface are in the mouth allow increase the

amount of action of enzymes, as there is more food to be able to „get at‟, this

applies to all animals, humans included!

The chemical digestion of the „bolus‟ of food continues as it enters the

stomach of herbivores, It is further acted on by acids and enzymes. The

stomach and parts of the small intestine are often referred to as the fore-gut,

and beyond that the „hind-gut‟,. Although horses, cows and sheep are all

herbivores, the horse is a hind-gut fermenter with a significantly enlarged

cecum, whilst the cow is a fore-gut fermenter, known as a ruminant with four

chambers to its stomach.

The Horse

As the horse is a “flight” animal it evolved to have a large cecum to

breakdown cellulose rather than a stomach which might is heavy and bulky

and may hinder escape.

The cecum in the horse has a capacity of 30 litres and is approximately 1

metre in length it has a large bacteria population, and it is these bacteria that

are most effective at breaking down cellulose. Food stuff rests in the cecum

in anaerobic conditions (without oxygen) for some time for the bacteria to be

effective, and basically „ferment‟ the cellulose componnets.

Final cellulose digestion and absorption occurs in the transverse section of the

colon, which likewise holds a lot of bacteria.

The Cow

The four chambers of the cows stomach (fore-gut) are the rumen, reticulum, omasum

and abomasums. The first three chambers have a capacity of up to 200 litres, and are

stuffed with bacteria, protozoa and fungi. This has a pH of neutral and cellulose,

similar t the horse is broken down and fermented in the anaerobic conditions. These

three chambers make up over 50% of the cows digestive system.

Gases produced during fermentation can make the rumen environment much more

acidic, but mostly these acids are absorbed into the lining of the gut. Most cows also

rid excess gas through eructation (belching), but should they build up too much gas

bloat will occur.

Bacteria housed in the rumen and cecum (of the horse) is healthy „normal‟ gut

bacteria and essential to the animal. In effective use of antibiotics will disrubt the

normal activity of the gut due to it killing gut bacteria. Rumeninants also used the gut

bacteria as a source of protein, as they are able to absorb bacteria that comes to its

natural death.

http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=SA0501041.pdf…a useful source to

read more about rumen digestion.

Physiological and Behavioural adaptation…’chewing the cud’. Finally, to further aid

digestion of essential energy compounds from their tough and fiberous food,

ruminants (those with a rumen), ruminate. This means to bring back food that is partly

digested in the rumen to the mouth and re-chew it. Ruminants such as sheep and

cows are recorded to spend nearly as much time ruminanting as they do feeding,

but that is dependant on food quality and availability.

Hind gut fermenters do no ruminate, but some, such as the rabbit will re-ingest their

faeces for a second digestion to ensure maximum nutrient absorbtion. The rabbit

(and guinea pig sometimes) produces a first soft pellet called cecotrophs (or cecal

pellets) which are re-ingested immediately from the anus prior to the production of

harder round fecal pellets. Technically this is referred to as refection.

FATS

Fats are used by animals, with similar functions and ingested in a similar way to

humans. Unlike for humans though, fat is not typically highly naturally occurring, so

most wild and farm animals are rarely effected by excess fat deposits in the body.

Unfortunately the same can not be said for our domestic animals who are often given

high fat, and high calorie processed and convenience food prepared for humans, or

excess animal ‘treats’.

Obesity in rodents

Obesity in pet rodents is not uncommon. Choccy drops and seeds coated in sweet

substances are easily available in pet shops. These contain saturated fatty acids, but

nuts and oily seeds containing unsaturated fatty acids can be equally detrimental,

Oily seeds such as peanuts, sunflower seeds and millet seed can promote obesity in

rodents. Obesity can cause bone abnormalities, skin problems and potentially cancers

also. As some rodents (and other small animals) are fed a ‘mix’ diet this can cause a

‘picky’ eater to ingest an unbalanced diet, pellets were all ingredients are combined are

often a better option.

Obesity in Cats

There are a lot of problems associated with

obesity in cats. Sarah Hartwell

(www.messybeast.com) describes them main

problems, yet often detrimental to be:

Cardiovascular disease

Diabetes mellitus (sugar diabetes),

specifically late onset diabetes.

Hepatic lipidosis (a type of liver disease)

Lameness due to arthritis (joints wear

out due to carrying too much weight)

Cystitis (lower urinary tract disease).

Owners of obese cats should seek veterinary

advice to reduce their cats weight and bring

them back to a healthier lifestyle.

Obesity in Dogs

Severe problems associated with obesity in dogs. Taken from

http://www.peteducation.com/article.cfm?c=2+1660&aid=694

Diabetes mellitus (sugar diabetes) One of the most common complications of

obesity in dogs is the development of diabetes mellitus (sugar diabetes).

Obesity causes an increase in the secretion of insulin in response to the

increased blood glucose level in the overweight dog. Insulin is also more in

demand simply because there is a greater amount of tissue in an overweight dog.

When requirements for insulin exceed the ability of the body to produce insulin,

diabetes mellitus develops. If the need for insulin increases over a long period

of time, the cells in the pancreas which produce insulin can actually 'burn out,'

again resulting in diabetes.

Since obesity and being over

weight promotes health

problems and potentially inflicts

pain, injury and disease, allowing

an animal to become obese

severely compromises their

welfare.

Damage to joints, bones, and ligaments Studies have suggested that

approximately one-quarter of overweight dogs develop serious joint

complications. The bones, joints, muscles, and associated tendons and ligaments

all work together to give the dog smooth and efficient movement. If they are

required to carry excess weight, they can start to become damaged. Arthritis

can develop and the pain and joint changes associated with hip dysplasia can

become markedly more severe.

Extra tension on joints caused by an increased weight load can also lead to

damage of certain ligaments. Ligaments are tough, fibrous strands of tissue that

hold one bone in proximity to another bone in joints. One of the ligaments in the

knee, the anterior cruciate ligament, is very prone to strains or tears. If this

ligament is torn, the knee becomes very unstable and the dog is reluctant to use

it. Surgery must be done to repair this torn ligament.

Certain breeds of dogs, such as Dachshunds are prone to develop intervertebral

disc disease ('slipped disc'). Carrying extra weight increases the probability

that they will develop this painful and sometimes debilitating condition.

Heart disease and increased blood pressure As in people, overweight dogs

tend to have increased blood pressure (hypertension). The heart has an

increased work load since it must pump additional blood to excess tissues. This

can lead to congestive heart failure

Difficulty breathing In overweight animals, the lungs can not function properly.

The additional fat in the chest restricts the expansion of the lungs. The extra

fat in the abdomen pushes against the diaphragm, which separates the

abdominal cavity from the chest. This also results in less space in the chest for

the lungs to expand on inspiration. To make matters worse, the increased

quantity of tissue puts an increased demand on the lungs to supply oxygen.

These changes are especially serious in dogs who may already have a respiratory

disease.

Decreased stamina Dogs who are overweight have less endurance and stamina.

Carrying all that extra weight around takes a lot more work. The heart, muscles, and respiratory system are all asked to do more than they were designed for.

Heat intolerance Fat is an excellent insulator, which is fine if you are a polar

bear. But if you are an overweight dog in the heat of summer, the excess fat can

make you miserable, and much less capable of regulating your body temperature.

Decreased liver function The liver stores fat so when a dog is overweight, an

increased amount of fat builds up in the liver. This is called hepatic lipidosis.

This condition can result in decreased liver function.

Increased surgical and anesthetic risk The effects of obesity on the heart

and lungs have serious ramifications during anesthesia. Cardiac arrest (heart

stops) and poor circulation of oxygenated blood to the tissues can occur.

Many of the anesthetics are taken up by fat, so an overweight animal will take

longer to come out of anesthesia because the anesthetic must be removed from

the fat by the body. In addition, many anesthetics are broken down by the liver.

A fatty liver may not be as efficient at breaking down anesthetics and other

drugs, so again, recovery may be delayed.

The increased fat in the tissues makes surgery more difficult. Basically it is

harder to find or get at what you are looking for. The fat obscures the surgical

area. For example, in abdominal surgery in an obese dog, there may be literally

inches of fat between where the skin incision is made and the organ you need to

work on, such as the urinary bladder. This makes the surgery technically more difficult and the procedure will also take longer, which again increases the

anesthetic risk.

Reproductive problems Overweight dogs tend to have more problems giving

birth than dogs at their optimum weight. This difficult birthing is called

dystocia. Dogs experiencing dystocia often need veterinary assistance to deliver

their pups, and may require a cesarean section (C-section).

Digestive disorders An overweight dog has an increased risk of developing

constipation and may also have more problems with intestinal gas and flatulence,

which is not pleasant for the dog or the owner.

Decreased immune function Obesity in the dog is associated with decreased

resistance to viral and bacterial infections. Canine distemper and Salmonella

infections, especially, seem to be more severe in dogs who are overweight. The

exact cause(s) of this lowered resistance to disease in obese dogs is unknown.

Skin and hair coat problems The risk of skin and hair coat diseases are

increased in dogs who are overweight. The skin forms more and different types

of oils, the skin may fold in on itself creating pockets, which are ideal for the

accumulation of oils and the development of infections.

Increased risk of cancer The exact link between obesity and developing

certain cancers is unknown. However, there have been studies which suggest

that obese dogs tend to have an increased risk of developing certain types of

cancers, including a particular type of cancer of the urinary bladder. A recent

study also found that dogs who were obese at one year of age were at greater

risk of developing mammary tumors.

Decreased quality and length of life It is evident from the above discussion

that the health, ability to play, even to breathe, are diminished in overweight

dogs

Overweight dogs may become more irritable due to being hot, in pain, or simply

uncomfortable. Overweight dogs die at a younger age than those maintained at

an optimum weight.

It is clear that we are not contributing positively to our dog's health when we

allow them to become overweight. The next time those big brown eyes say, 'Can

I please have a treat,' think very carefully first. In most cases, your answer

should be 'No, and I'm doing this for your own good,' and it will be absolutely

true.

References and Further Reading

Alenza, DP; Rutterman, GR; Pena, L; et al. Relation between habitual diet and

canine mammary tumors in a case-control study. Journal of Veterinary Internal

Medicine. 1998;12:132-139.

Hill's Pet Nutrition, Inc. Nutrition and the Management of Weight Control. In

Healthcare Connection: Clinical Module Level II: 117-154.

Markwell, PJ. Canine Calorie Control. In: Applied Clinical Nutrition of the Dog

and Cat. Waltham USA:1-15.

Wolfsheimer, KJ. Obesity in dogs. The Compendium on Continuing Education for

the Practicing Veterinarian. 1994:981-998.

Wolfsheimer, KJ. Obesity. In Ettinger, SJ; Feldman, EC (eds): Textbook of

Veterinary Internal Medicine. W.B. Saunders Co. Philadelphia, PA; 2000;70-72.

Vitamins and Minerals

The following table outlines the functions of the major vitamins and minerals

and the symptoms of deficiency or excess in dogs. Below are images that link

to five of the vitamin or mineral deficiencies. Remember that diagnosis of any

condition or ailment should ONLY ever be performed by a registered

Veterinary professional.

Task 3: During session, link images to vitamin/mineral deficiency.

DOG

Function Deficiency or Excess

VITAMIN A Vision; growth; immune function;

fetal development; transmembrane

protein transfer

Anorexia; body weight loss;

conjunctivitis; corneal disorders; skin

lesions; respiratory ailments;

increased susceptibility to infection

Imbalance in bone remodelling

processes; artery and vein

degeneration; dehydration; central

nervous system depression; joint pain

VITAMIN D Maintenance of mineral status;

skeletal structure; muscle

contraction; blood clotting; nerve

conduction; cell signalling;

phosphorous balance

Rickets; lethargy; loss of muscle

tone; bone swelling and bending

Anorexia; weakness; diarrhoea;

vomiting; calcification of soft tissue;

excessive mineralization of long

bones; dehydration; dry and brittle

hair

VITAMIN E Defence against oxidative damage

via free radical scavenging Degeneration of skeletal muscle;

reproductive failure; retinal

degeneration

VITAMIN K Activation of clotting factors, bone

proteins and other proteins No reports of naturally occurring

deficiencies in normal dogs

VITAMIN B1 Energy and carbohydrate

metabolism; activation of ion

Failure to grow, weight loss, and

neurological abnormalities in puppies;

channels in neural tissue damage to the nervous system and

the heart in adult dogs

VITAMIN B2

(RIBOFLAVIN)

Enzyme functions Anorexia; weight loss; muscular

weakness; flaking dermatitis; eye

lesions

VITAMIN 3

(NIACIN)

Enzyme functions Anorexia; weight loss; irritation and

inflammation of the lips, cheeks, and

throat; profuse salivation; bloody

diarrhoea

Bloody faeces; convulsions

VITAMIN B5

(PANTOTHENIC

ACID)

Energy metabolism Erratic food intake; sudden

prostration or coma; rapid

respiratory and heart rates;

convulsions; gastrointestinal

symptoms; reduced antibody

production

VITAMIN B6 Glucose generation; red blood cell

function; niacin synthesis; nervous

system function; immune response;

hormone regulation; gene activation

Anorexia and weight loss in puppies;

convulsions, muscle twitching, and

anaemia in adult dogs

Impairment of motor control and

balance; muscle weakness

VITAMIN B9

(FOLIC ACID)

Amino acid and nucleotide

metabolism; mitochondrial protein

synthesis

Weight loss; decline in haemoglobin

concentration

VITAMIN B12 Enzyme functions Appetite loss; lack of white blood

cells; anaemia; bone marrow changes

CALCUIM Formation of bones and teeth;

blood coagulation; nerve impulse

transmission; muscle contraction;

cell signalling

Nutritional secondary

hyperparathyroidism; significant

decreases in bone mineral content,

which can result in major skeletal

abnormalities

Different types of skeletal

aberrations, especially in growing

puppies of large breeds

PHOSPHORUS Skeletal structure; DNA and RNA

structure; energy metabolism;

locomotion; acid-base balance

Reduced weight gain; poor appetite;

bowing and swelling of forelimbs in

puppies

SODIUM Acid-base balance; regulation of

osmotic pressure; nerve impulse

generation and transmission

Restlessness; increased heart rate,

water intake, and haemoglobin

concentration; dry and tacky mucous

membranes

MAGNESIUM Enzyme functions; muscle and

nerve-cell membrane stability;

hormone secretion and function;

mineral structure of bones and

teeth

Reduction in weight gain, irritability,

and convulsions in puppies;

hyperextension of carpal joints and

hind-leg paralysis later in life

POTASSIUM Acid-base balance; nerve-impulse

transmission; enzymatic reactions;

transport functions

Poor growth and restlessness at first

in puppies; paralysis of neck muscles

and rear legs and general weakness

later in life

COPPER Connective tissue formation; iron

metabolism; blood cell formation;

Loss of hair pigmentation in puppies;

anaemia

melanin pigment formation; myelin

formation; defence against

oxidative damage

ZINC Enzyme reactions; cell replication;

protein and carbohydrate

metabolism; skin function; wound

healing

Poor weight gain; vomiting; skin

lesions

SELENIUM Defence against oxidative damage;

immune response Anorexia; depression; coma; muscular

degeneration

CHLORIDE Acid-base balance; osmolarity of

extracellular fluids Reduced weight gain and weakness in

puppies

IONDINE Thyroid hormone synthesis; cell

differentiation; growth and

development of puppies; regulation

of metabolic rate

Enlargement of thyroid glands; dry,

sparse hair coat; weight gain

Excessive tearing, salivation, and

nasal discharge; dandruff

Task 4: In the session, identify the ingredient and link it to the

major nutritional constituent that ingredient provides and the

function. One example below.

Guinea Pig Mix

Bearded Dragon

Write ingredients in here

Stick an example if you wish

Major constituent provided though this ingredient

Major Function

Write indentified food type in here

In collaboration with specialists and institutes around the world, the Waltham

team has pioneered many important advances in pet science, for example,

using a technique called Fluorescence In Situ Hybridisation (F.I.S.H.) to

identify and quantify particular bacterial populations, it was possible to

investigate the effect of a probiotic supplement on the gastrointestinal bacteria

of dogs.

Some recent research summaries from Waltham

www.waltham.com http://www.optimumpet.com.au/5-Waltham-Research.aspx#digestiveresearch

Major constituent provided though this ingredient

Write indentified food type in here

Major constituent provided though this ingredient

Figure 1 – Fluorescence In Situ Hybridisation image of Lactobacillus spp. (red) in a mixed bacterial population (blue)

F.I.S.H. uses a small DNA ‘probe’ that is specifically designed for any bacterial population that is to be studied. When applied to a sample (in this case faeces), the probe binds to the target bacterial species and the fluorescent tag on the probe causes the bacteria to fluoresce or glow (Figure 1). F.I.S.H. probes can be designed to target many different bacterial species.

With this technique WALTHAM® demonstrated that the gastrointestinal and

immune health of cats and dogs were enhanced when the probiotic

Lactobacillus acidophilus DSM 13241 was added to their diet. This probiotic

showed benefits when fed to healthy pets, including the reduction of harmful

bacteria clostridia, and may be particularly useful in pets susceptible to

gastrointestinal infections, immuno-compromised pets or in anticipation of

stresses such as kennelling or illness.

In another major research breakthrough, WALTHAM® scientists validated a technique called the Comet assay for use in cats and dogs to evaluate the health of their DNA.

Figure 2 – The graph above shows the increase of the beneficial lactobacilli and reduction of harmful clostridia as a result of feeding our probiotic diet breakthrough

DNA damage caused to cells by day to day living was studied. The amount of damage can be seen in the extent of the ‘comet’ or tail in the picture (Figure 3).

Figure 3 – Cellular DNA damage as demonstrated using the Comet assay

Extensive trials carried out at WALTHAM® demonstrated that by adding antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E, and Taurine and carotenoids to pet food, DNA damage can be reduced, therefore enhancing the health of pets.

This discovery made international news when it was published.

Waltham digestive research

Feeding trials with the addition of fibres such as sugar beet pulp, chicory, copra cake, pea

fibres to the diet were carried out. Measures were taken on the following: effect on wet faeces

production (volume) and nutrient absorption by the dog. Nutrient absorption is measured by

analysing nutrients present in diet and those left in faeces, the difference between these

shows what has been absorbed. In vitro test, using pooled faecal samples were analysed for

the effect of fibres on gut bacteria. No single material was the „best fermenter in all

categories‟. Sugar beat pulp is recognised to present beneficial effects to the gut and

generate high faeces quality in levels from 3 to 5% 'as is' for dogs.

From DENGIE: http://www.dengie.com/pages/about-alfalfa/from-field-to-feed.php

A is for Alfalfa: The name alfalfa comes from Persian

and Kashmiri words meaning "horse fodder"

and "horse power".

Rich in protein and antioxidants alfalfa

contributes significantly to the horse's

nutritional requirements.

Dengie's research support has included

a PhD study by Dr Jo-Anne Murray at

the Royal Dick Veterinary School,

who found that by combining sugar beet

and alfalfa, digestibility was increased.

This led to the development of Dengie's quick soak Alfa-Beet.

Although alfalfa has an energy level equivalent to a low energy mix or cube, Dr

Murray established that the combination of alfalfa and sugar beet would meet the

requirements of a horse in hard work demonstrating that alfalfa could replace cereals

as a source of energy.

In a seperate study, undertaken in 2006, Dr Murray, investigated the buffering effects

of alfalfa and concluded that it could help reduce adidity in the gut that can lead to

laminitis - four of Dengie's products; Healthy Hooves, Alfa-Lite, Hi-Fi Lite and Alfa-

Beet, enjoy the endorsement of the Laminitis Trust.

"Research continually highlights risks

associated with feeding cereals and so Dengie has

focussed its effort on developing the best forage

production processes and spreading the "think fibre

first" message to horse owners," explains Katie

Williams, Senior Nutritionist at Dengie. She says: "We

are now seeing a shift to more horse owners using

alfalfa as the basis of their rations".

PURINA hold an interest research library on their website

http://www.purinavets.eu/home/research/pdf.htm?id=160 and although there appears

to be no very up to date ones, there are some interesting reports from their scientific

nutritional research. Here is the abstract (summary) from one.

Palatability Palatability in general terms is though to mostly mean how a food tastes, but to find something ‘palatable’ it also includes, smell, texture, temperature and possibly appearance as all these can influence the overall desire to consume a food. What makes food palatable for animals?

Most animals have four different types of taste buds on their tongue. Taste buds are specialised receptor cells that trigger nervous impulses when stimulated. The four types of taste buds detect sweet, sour, salt and bitter and are located as indicated on the diagram below.

Humans have approximately 9000 taste buds, dogs significantly more at 17,000, cows at 25,000 and chickens just 24! The amount of taste buds is not strictly a true reflection of the sensitivity of the taste buds though. Studies have shown that with regards to taste animals have the following preferences:

Sheep and cattle have a preference for sweeter tastes and moderate preference for sour

Dogs also have a preference for sweet, but cats have no sweet taste buds

Salt at low levels is preferred by herbivores, but not typically by carnivores In relation to odour:

Sweet and salt additives can enhance feed interest in dogs Aniseed supplement is effective in sheep

Monophosphate nucleiotides in ‘off’ meat trigger bitter taste and likely recognisable odour that tends to discourage feeding.

Preferences in texture include:

Pellets over mixed grain meal for ruminants

Rolled grain rather than cracked (many species) Dogs typically prefer wet feed over dry

Meat preferences in dogs (texture and taste) beef, pork, lamb, chicken, horse

Prefered fish choice from cats-Sardines Temperature effects:

Cats have a particular preference for food warmed up to 40°c. This is likely to reflect the warm body temperature of natural hunting feeding strategy and also will generate more odour as warming food releases volatile compounds generating a smell.

Appearance in palatability does by no doubt have an effect…but it pet animal feeding it is most likely that the appearance affects the feeder more than the one being fed. Feed manufacturing companies spend thousands if not millions each year to ensure we choose their brand over another. They try to appeal to our senses visually on TV adds and on packaging as well as our olfactory sense by adding additives preferred by humans.

One final factor that may have an effect on palatability is novelty; research suggests dogs feed intake will increase when a food is new, yet contrary to that cats will often not eat a new food. Cats have in fact ,been shown to show addiction traits towards specific food shapes!

Food sample A………………………………………………………….

Food sample B…………………………………………………………..

Food sample C…………………………………………………………..

Food sample D…………………………………………………………..

Comparing Feed All feed packaging should contain the following information. (The first two are legally

required). This information helps us to select the most suitable food for our pets and for us!

Ingredients/Composition This is a list of what makes up the food contained. Like food for human consumption,

pet food manufacturers list the ingredients in order from maximum to minimum, they are not required to detail exactly how much of what ingredient is within the food.

It is useful for pet owners to be aware of the type

of ingredients within food. In pet dog food labels will often list “animal derivatives” or

Task 4: In the session, see if you can identify and match the four samples to their labels. Use primarily your sense of smell first, then appearance…and even taste if you like!

“meat derivatives”. Derivatives of animals can often be the bones, claws, innards and bits of

animals that we as owners typically find less pleasing. Sometimes though derivatives can

help balance a diet without the need for so many additives.

As noted in the session, animal diets and feeding

can be a controversial subject, but in pet dog nutrition it is typically advised that meat should

be the first ingredient on the list and cereal ingredients are always after.

Analytical Constituents On human food manufacturers now detail Analytical Constituents as per item and usually per 100g.

As well as detailing the amount of calories, sugars, fat, protein, carbohydrates etc they also detail this

as a percentage of the RDA (recommended daily allowance). This level of detail is currently not required on pet food products, instead a simple calculation of percentage of

constituents such as protein, crude fibre, fat, ash and moisture is displayed.

The laboratory processes used to calculate the total amount of constituents within (for example) 100g is quite complex, in brief the methods used are:

CRUDE PROTEIN- Kjeldahl process.

FATS- Ether Extract

CRUDE FIBRE- Van Soet Method

ASH- burning up to 500°c

MOISTURE- what is removed after drying at 100°c

After moisture is removed in feed analysis processes (this is done first), the remainder of

the product is referred to as dry matter. Typically the average pet owner is advised to purchase food based on the % of protein. This is relatively good advice, but the protein %

is only useful if the protein quality (ingredients) and moisture % is taken into account.

Protein requirements will vary depending on life stages and level of activity.

The following pages (taken from http://maxshouse.com/feline_nutrition.htm) explain how feed labels can be analysed and allow us to compare pet food brands and types.

Adapted from Stephen W. Crane, Companion Animal Clinical Nutrition

Example: Adult - Dry Cat

Food Example: Adult Canned

Cat Food

Protein = 32% Protein = 10%

Moisture = 10% Moisture = 78%

Calculate the dry matter percentage of the food: Total minus moisture content

Example: Adult - Dry Cat Food Example: Adult - Canned Cat Food

100% - 10% = 90% Dry Matter 100% - 78% = 22% Dry Matter

Convert As Fed to Dry Matter

Example: Adult - Dry Cat Food Example: Adult - Canned Cat Food

32% protein/90% = .3555 10% protein/22% = .4545

Multiply the quotients by 100 to get a percentage of the nutrient on a DM basis.

Example: Adult - Dry Cat Food Example: Adult - Canned Cat Food

35.55 % Protein 45.55 % Protein

In this example, the canned food contain more protein than the dry food.

Task 5: Calculate the % Protein in the follow:

Additives Animal feed manufacturers are increasing also adding „additives‟ to their feed labels,

notably these are mostly „beneficial additives‟ which are disclosed.

Semi Moist Meaty Chunks Moisture 18% Protein 22%

Beef and Vegetable Adult Complete

Moisture 15%

Protein 26%

Some feed manufacturers have come under huge exposure recently for other non-beneficial, even toxic additives which are being added to their products.

Example:

Is the pet food you are serving up killing your four-legged

friend? (and making your vet rich)

By Alison Smith Squire (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1244595/Is-food-youre-feeding-

pet-killing--making-vet-rich.html)

Like millions of pet owners, Fiona MacMillan was anxious to do the very best for her cat.

'When I got my first kitten, Jaggers, I asked the vet for some advice on feeding, and when she

directed me to a well-known brand of dried food, I was happy to take her professional advice,'

she says.

'My vet said she gave it to her own cats and had never had any problems. I was delighted. It

never smelled, I could tip some in Jaggers' bowl before I went out to work in the morning and

leave it out all day without any fear that it would go off. And he loved it.'

Today, Fiona, 59, a former university librarian, bitterly regrets her decision to feed Jaggers on

the convenience food. For when he was just seven, Jaggers was diagnosed with kidney

disease. The same vet prescribed some more dried food, especially designed for cats with

urinary problems.

Warning: Few people are aware of the little-publicised concerns about processed pet foods

Yet, despite Fiona religiously following her vet's advice, Jaggers collapsed three months later.

And by the time Fiona got him to the animal hospital for treatment, it was too late. Her

beloved cat was so unwell he had to be put to sleep.

'I was devastated, but at the time I thought there was nothing I could have done to prevent

Jaggers' kidney disease,' she says. But then she decided to do some research.

'Was it genetics? Do a lot of cats suffer from it? I just wanted to know,' she recalls.

'And then I came across a website created by Lisa Pierson, a pet nutritionist, that completely

shocked me. It explained that processed dried food - the exact kind I'd been feeding Jaggers

for years - is linked to urinary and kidney problems.

'I was horrified. This had never even been raised as a possibility by my vet. But after I'd read

about this, I spoke to another vet, who agreed with Lisa Pierson.

He knew about the problems caused by processed foods, and said that if I'd fed Jaggers a

more natural diet - such as raw meat or cooked chicken - he might never have fallen ill.'

Her story is sure to concern anyone with a pet, particularly because few people are aware of

the little-publicised concerns about processed pet foods - and that includes 'wet' (i.e. tinned

and packet) foods as well.

And part of the problem, as a Mail investigation can reveal, is that much of the veterinary

industry is inextricably linked to the pet-food manufacturers.

Some processed foods are linked with poor behaviour in dogs, and even with cancer

Research into pet food is carried out by the pet-food companies but, more surprisingly, the

training of vets at some universities is also funded by pet-food manufacturers.

Crucially, lectures on nutrition at a number of vet schools, and for veterinary nurses at

individual practices, are also often paid for - and even taught - by these huge corporations,

giving them the ideal platform to promote their products.

One could argue that given this information, it's hardly in vets' interests to promote a more

natural diet for pets.

That suspicion has certainly occurred to Catherine O'Driscoll, 52, who like Fiona MacMillan

saw a pet die. In her case, it was all three of her golden retrievers, two from cancer and the

third from a disease that paralysed his hind legs - all at a relatively young age.

'I'm a dog trainer and have had pets for years. I know how to care for them,' says Catherine,

from Kinross, Perthshire. 'But none of my three dogs lived past the age of eight, and I began

to think I was the world's worse owner.

'I had two other dogs, and was determined to see them live longer. And it was after I read an

article in a magazine by an Australian vet, which explained that feeding animals processed

food could be bad for their health, that I switched away from commercial processed food.

'Afterwards, I saw a huge difference in their vitality. They both lived to 17, and I now believe

that changing their diets saved their lives.

'A decade ago, I took the advice of my vet that feeding tinned and dried food was best for my

dogs. I had no reason to question the professionals and many dog owners don't now.'

Catherine and Fiona are not alone in thinking they were misled. In internet chatrooms

dedicated to pets, increasing numbers of people have been sharing concerns about

processed pet food.

They believe that, just as junk food is responsible for myriad health problems and obesity in

humans, our love of convenience pet food - be it processed meat in cans or pouches, or dried

biscuits - is doing the same to pets.

A generation ago, people mostly fed their pets on butchers' scraps such as heart, liver and

bones. Convenience pet foods were an expensive luxury. But now the pet food industry is

valued at £2 billion and growing.

Message: Royal Canin Foods' website suggests stocking its food in veterinary practices can

'increase practice turnover'

The pet-food manufacturers appear to be promoting their brands with the help of veterinary

practices, sponsoring food displays in surgeries which help to generate business for vets (via

commission and the fact that some specialist food can only be bought at veterinary

surgeries).

Hills Science Plan, a pet-food brand owned by Colgate-Palmolive, boasts that: 'More vets

feed Hills than any other pet food.' Last year, Hills sponsored the British Veterinary

Association's 2009 Congress (the biggest meeting on the veterinary calendar).

It also signed a partnership with the British Veterinary Dental Association to sponsor tooth

care in animals.

Royal Canin Foods (owned by Mars/Masterfoods) boasts on its website of 'its partnerships

with leading veterinary schools and universities'.

It runs Pet Health Counsellor Courses, training veterinary nurses in diet, and says stocking its

food in veterinary practices can 'increase practice turnover'.

The message from the company is clear: sell our pet food, and your business will profit.

Many pet websites are in fact affiliated in some way with pet-food corporations. The Pet

Health Council, an independent website advising on pet welfare, is sponsored by the Petfood

Manufacturers Association. The Pet Health website claims that processed food is best,

warning: 'It would not be possible to feed your pet an adequate home-prepared diet.'

Critics claim that with all this bombardment from pet-food companies, many vets and

consumers are brainwashed into believing processed food is the only diet their pet should be

on.

And, it must be said, there are also many vets who genuinely believe that an animal can be

perfectly healthy on a processed diet alone.

But a growing number of vets claim this advice is misleading at best, and deadly at worst. TV

vet Joe Inglis says: 'Over the past few years, many additives have been banned from human

food, but pet food is still pumped full of similar chemicals.

Unhealthy: Many additives used in pet food are thought to cause hyperactivity

'It's time manufacturers were more honest about what is really in their foods, and were forced

to outlaw some of these artificial chemicals.

Some of them are linked with poor behaviour in dogs, and even with cancer - for example, the

food colourings BTA/BHA (Butylated hydroxytoluene, Butylated hydroxyanisole) which are

known carconigenics.

'Many other additives used in pet food, such as tartrazine, carmoisine and sunset yellow, are

thought to cause hyperactivity in humans - and there is no reason to believe that this would

be any different for animals.'

Research has also linked dry cat food with urinary problems. Vet and Pet Nutritionist Lisa

Pierson says: 'Chronic kidney disease is one of the main causes of death in cats and is often

caused because they are chronically dehydrated by just eating dried food. Even if they drink

water, often it is not enough to ensure optimum urinary health.'

Not convinced? Then consider the fact that while cat and dog food sales have soared by 85

per cent over the past decade, research by the Pet Food Manufacturers Association shows

that one in three household pets is now overweight - and chronic conditions in our pets, such

as diabeties, kidney and liver disease, heart disease and dental problems (all related to diet)

are on the increase.

However healthy the petfood manufacters might claim their foods are, it's difficult not to see

those factors as linked, says Richard Allport, a vet of 36 years from Hertfordshire.

'I don't believe today's vets get enough independent information,' he says. 'Pet-food

companies have far too much influence, because much of the information on feeding cats and

dogs is paid for, promoted and supplied to vets by the pet-food industry.

'Since owners see bags of processed food on display every time they go to the vet's - which is

blatant advertising - they think it's ok. But many independent pet nutritionists - and sadly there

is little research that's not funded by the pet-food industry - beg to differ.

'I see so many pets with dental disease, allergies and digestive problems. Often their owners

have tried various medicines without success.

They have even tried different processed diets as recommended by their vet - after all, a

whole industry has been created with different foods for different dietary problems. My advice

to them is always this: switch your pet's diet to fresh food and often it's so successful that

altering the diet is all that's needed to "cure" a pet's health problem.'

This view is angrily refuted by vet Nicky Paull. The former president of the British Veterinary

Association for 2008/9, she doesn't believe pet-food companies are too involved with the

veterinary industry.

'Vets aren't only taught by representatives from pet-food companies. They go to a range of

lectures in nutrition and so gain a balanced view. There is no evidence at all that processed

food is bad for our pets.

'What I would be concerned about is if people start to feel guilty about what they are feeding

their pets when pet food is perfectly fine. I also don't believe that feeding cats and dogs

natural diets is as simple as some people make out.

'I would hate to be seeing cats and dogs suffering from a lack of nutrition because their owner

has chosen to give them a home-made diet that lacks essential ingredients.'

She says: 'Many vets feed their pets commercial foods. I have three dogs aged five months,

seven and 12 years, all of whom are fed solely on dried food, and am very happy with it.'

Yet Roger Meacock, who has a practice in Swindon, is concerned that many processed

foods, often described as 'premium' and ' scientifically balanced', also contain ingredients that

should not be part of any dog or cat's diet.

'Often, grain is added to canned and dried pet food to bulk it out,' he says. 'Basically, it is a

cheaper alternative to meat. Additives to ensure the food tastes good to cats and dogs are

also added.

'But what people need to understand is that while on the outside dogs and cats have been

domesticated into cuddly pets, inside a dog is 99 per cent related to the wolf, while a pet cat's

digestive system is no different from a wild lion's.

Surprising: Training of vets at some universities is also funded by pet-food manufacturers

'Therefore the bulk of a healthy diet for a cat or dog should not contain processed food that is

high in carbohydrate and other additives.

'It should revolve around raw meat, as it would do in the wild, which is good for their teeth and

gums as well as animals' general health.'

The United Kingdom Raw Meaty Bones Support and Action Group, a not-for-profit

organisation that promotes a natural diet for pets, compares Britain's growing problem with

junk food to our dependency on processed pet food.

Jackie Marriott, who helps run the group says: 'A few years ago, school dinners for children

consisted of processed food, but due to educating people about the dangers of junk food, that

has changed.

'People realise that however good processed food is, it cannot take the place of home-cooked

fresh meals. And that is the same for cats and dogs. Think about it - how can dried food that

sits in a bowl all day be good for your pet?

'Part of the problem rests with the fact that many of us as owners find these foods incredibly

convenient - this is why the pet-food manufacturers have been successful.

'Research has linked dry cat food with health problems'

'Unfortunately, the factory process of making processed pet food that will sit in a bowl without

going off, or can be stored in a can for years, means that many of the nutrients are destroyed.

This is why additives such as preservatives and vitamins need to be added to the food.

'Although our pets digest them, their digestive systems have to work flat out to derive the

most benefit. For example, it is hard for cats to digest the carbohydrate. Most importantly,

processed food also sits like a sludge on their teeth.'

Unsurprisingly, the pet-food manufacturers do not agree that there's any problem with feeding

animals a solely processed food diet. They point out that they spend millions researching the

correct foods with a good balance of nutrients.

The Pet Food Manufacturers Association says: 'There are concerns that feeding raw meat to

pets can present a human/animal risk, such as salmonella contamination. In the case where

only raw meat and bones are fed, there is an additional concern among vets and animal

nutritionists that this exclusive diet may not meet the pet's needs.'

And a spokesman for the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons adds: 'It would be ideal if

universities could be funded through purely independent sources. But in reality we cannot

condemn them for accepting money from commercial sources.

'Honesty and integrity are at the heart of professional vets. They would not be expected to

recommend products without due justification.'

Their words, however, ring hollow for owners like Fiona and Catherine, who feel that feeding

their pets a more natural diet might have prolonged their lives - not to mention the growing

body of vets convinced that expensive processed foods are a money-making and dangerous

mistake.

Read more: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1244595/Is-food-youre-feeding-pet-killing-

-making-vet-rich.html#ixzz1f1x3V5Kl

The following additives have been high-lighted in media recently:

Propylene glycol – Normally this is used as a de-icing fluid for airplanes. It is put into pet

foods to maintain moisture and texture. It is added to prevent bacterial growth but also

inhibits the growth of friendly bacteria within the intestines. Propylene glycol decreases the

amount of moisture in the digestive tract leading to constipation and cancer.

Ethoxyquin – This was originally designed as a rubber stabilizer and herbicide but before its

approval, it was considered a poison. At the outset, it was to be used as a grain

preservative in feed for animals not expected to live for more than two years before they are

slaughtered. It has been reported to cause liver cancer in dogs and malformations or even

death in newborn puppies.

BHT and BHA – These have been very poorly tested. They have been reported to cause

liver damage, metabolic stress, fetal abnormalities and serum cholesterol increases. Added

to preserve already rancid fats in the food. Fats in this form are very difficult to digest and

can lead to a host of health problems including diarrhea, gas, bad breath ,vomiting and

worse.

Artificial Coloring – These don’t have to be labeled with any more definition than that. They

are all coal tar derivatives which have been implicated in anything from cancer to birth

defects.

Sodium Nitrate – This converts in the body to nitrosamines, which are very carcinogenic.

They are added to retain the red colour to make the meat look fresh.

Thimerosal is a mercury containing preservative used in vaccines. Mercury is a known

neurotoxin. There is a vast amount of research and discussions going on globally at this

point in time relating to mercury in dental amalgams, vaccinations and the environment in

general.

Sine these additives, often used as preservatives have been exposed, manufacturers are increasing using vitamins and minerals as alternative

preservatives.

Feeding Guide Feed guidelines are based upon calorie content of feed (not disclosed) and size, age, weight, performance level of animal. Feed guidelines should be respected and utilised by

pet owner consumers, but they should not replace common sense.

Owners should remain vigilant, observing weight regularly. It is also worth owners observing their animals own digestibility. The amount of food digested is the amount of

food that is useful (now or later) to the animal. If the animal creates a lot of excrement then much of the food has not been digested. This is valuable to observe, not only for the animals health, but for the owners pocket.

Nutrient Intake-Nutrient in Faeces

Apparent Digestibility= Nutrient Intake

Example:

Cost The final factor to consider is both comparing and selecting commercial feed is price.

After considering all other factors it should be obvious which brands are more suitable and therefore cost can be the final deciding factor. A cheap diet may seem appealing, but

if the feed guidelines recommend three times more feeding (and the majority is not

EXAMPLE:

Cow eats 13Kg of Hay Apparent Digestability =

11Kg of Dry Matter (2Kg moisture) 11Kg-4Kg x100

Cow excretes 7Kg Faeces of excretion 11Kg

Faeces is 4Kg Dry Matter Of 13Kg 63% is apparently digested

A coefficient is used rather than automatically converted to a percentage

digested anyway), then it is not going to be cost affective compared to a more expensive brand.

Commercial vs Home vs Raw

Since the addition of harmful additives in commercial foods has been much more

publicised, many people are choosing not to purchase commercially prepared

food.

The alternatives are home cooked food, either especially prepared of left overs

from the family dinner and also what is referred to as ‘BARF’ (Biologically

Appropriate Raw Food or Bones and Raw Food), a raw food diet. The table below

suggest the pros and cons of these feed types, further can be added.

PRO’s CON’s

Commercial ‘balanced’

convenient

cheaper?

harmful

additives

expense?

Home Cooked easily available?

cheaper

balance

achievable?

BARF ‘natural’

benefits? (coat,

teeth, breath,

‘balance’

achievable?

stools)

cheaper?

No additives

Preference Testing (animal’s choice)

Task 6: Conduct your own preference test with an animal at

home. Detail in order their preference of three similar

foods.

1……………………………………….

2……………………………………….

3………………………………………..

SPECIFIC FEEDING: Fact sheet example (skin conditions)

Note any bias you feel might have occurred.

……………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………

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.