DE PAEPE Paul

Reprin ted from

SALTTHE STUDY OF AN ANCIENT INDUSTRY

63883

REPORT ON THE SALT WEEKEND

HELD AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ESSEX

20, 21, 22 SEPTEM B ER 1974

Published by the Colchester Archaeological G roup 1975

Two externalFinger-Tipping Internal Rim Grooves Number

on Body on Rim Rim Grooves at Neck of Rims1. Boucaud 1 3 1 — 92. Anse du Sud — 2 — — 53. Epinette — 2 1 —4. Fougerais(F ) 3 3 3 — 185. Paupelinière — 2 1 1 96. Frenelle — — — — 17. Calais — — 2 — 38. Fougerais(B ) — — 21 2 339. T ara — — 3 1 8

10. Birochere — — — — 2

D r. G o u le tq u e r t o ld th e m e e t in g th a t D r . T e s s ie r h a d f o u n d h is f i r s t s a l t m a k in g s i t e te n y e a r s a g o a n d w a s th e f i r s t m a n to r e c o n s tr u c t th e s h a p e o f th e s o -c a l le d ‘a u g e t ’ a t L a F r e n e lle in B r i t ta n y . T h is l e d to a n e x p la n a t io n o f s im i la r s i te s a lo n g th e A t la n t i c c o a s t f r o m th e R i v e r L o ir e to t h e p o i n t o f L a G ir o n d e . T h e ‘a u g e t ’ w a s m a d e o f w h i t e c la y w ith t h in w a lls . I t w a s s u n - d r i e d a n d p r o b a b ly o n ly u s e d to d r y w e t s a l t c r y s ta ls . D e p o s i ts h a d b e e n f o u n d o f s e v e r a l a u g e t s p a c k e d in p i le s w i th in e a c h o th e r . C r y s ta l l in e s a l t w o u ld h a v e b e e n o b ta in e d b y n a tu r a l e v a p o r a t io n

b u t n o ta n k s o r v e s s e ls w h ic h c o u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r th i s p u r p o s e h a d b e e n f o u n d .

G e n e r a l d is c u s s io n o n s h a p e s a n d s iz e s o f c o n ta in e r s fo l l o w e d a n d w h e th e r o r n o t b o i l in g to o k p la c e . W i th r e g a r d to th e la rg e b r iq u e ta g e c o n ta in e r s , M r . R o d w e l l s a id th a t , in h is o p in io n , th e s e w e re u s e d in E s s e x f o r t h e b o i l in g o f s e a w a te r a n d th a t th is p r o d u c e d th e g r e e n g la s s y s la g w h ic h f o r m e d o n th e o u t s id e o f th e c o n ta in e r s . E n o r m o u s l y h o t f i r e s w e r e u s e d w h ic h c a u s e d t h e c la y to r u n , f o r m i n g s la g .

< -X îX S >

IRON AGE & ROMAN SALT-MAKING SITES ON THE BELGIAN COAST

H. Thoen

D uring the system atic exam ination of the G allo-R om an settlem ent of the Belgian coastal plain, new inform ation was obtained on salt-m aking in th is area and earlier finds and publications were reconsidered.

The da ta acquired are mainly the result of intensive research into three fields:- the technical processes, the relation with the soil, and the chronology.

I. IRON AGE (Fig 34)The settlem ent of the coastal plain has always been strongly affected by the recurren t periods of transgression and

regression which have resulted in a very complex soil structure . (T a vem ier & A m e ry c k x 336)

Seen from a geological point of view, the ou tstand ing event during the Iron Age has been the ‘D unkirk I ’ transgression, during which the Subboreal peat area was flooded via an extensive network of creeks, from about 500 B.C. till the beginning of our era.

Little is known about hab ita tion sites in this period. At the tim e of the Rom an invasion the area was p a rt of the territory of the-M enapii. (de L aet 86) In the Belgian coastal area only two settlem ents are known at present:- De Panne in the south-west and Bruges in the north-east. Both sites yielded traces of a salt-m aking industry.

A. De Panne (West Flanders, Belgium)T he settlem ent of De P anne has long been known. Archaeological rem ains, both from the Iron Age and Rom an periods,

were found in the dunes along the French-Belgian border and in the ad jacent territory of Bray-Dunes (D épartem ent du Nord, France). Excavations before W orld W ar I (de L o ë 88. 90. 91) (C um on t 71) and in 1920-30 (R ah ir 266, 267. 268) brought to light num erous briquetage objects such as clay ‘nails’, evaporation pans, fragm ents of perforated clay plaques, flattened clay balls etc. T he excavators, however, thought these objects to be p a rt of a p rehistoric pottery m aking site (de L o ë 91, 92) (R ah ir 266, 267, 268) . R ahir identified the raw m aterial used as being local clay from the coastal p lain . He undertook to prove this by m ineralogical and chem ical analysis of the clay and of fragm ents of Iron Age pottery (R ah ir 92).

Subsequently, however, it turned out th a t the analysed clay sam ples belonged to a D unkirk II deposit, c. 300-700 A .D .. so th a t R ahir in fact thought the pre-R om an pottery of De Panne to be m ade of post-R om an clay! (L oppens 205) The thesis of a pottery workshop was nevertheless not rejected, and it was not until 1952 th a t the possibility of a salt-m aking industry- em erged by referring to sim ilar finds from the Seille valley (M arien 212). A definitive conclusion was finally reached by Nenquin who lists De Panne as the only Belgian salt m aking site (N enquin 243).

The next problem which arises is one of dating . N enquin (243) and m any au thors after him (Bogaers 23) accept th a t briquetage was found in an Iron Age context as well as R om an. Two inscriptions discovered a t R im ini have been repeatedly cited. They are dedicated by the Salinatores Civitatis M enapiorum and the Salinatores Civitatis M orm orum CIL X I 390/1 to L. Lepidius Proculus, a centurion of the Legio VI V ictrix in Novaesium (Neuss) during the reign of V espasian (69-79 A .D .) for services rendered to sa lt com m erce (Favorei H 3 ) (wui 367) (Bogaers 23 ). Excavation reports (de Loë and R ahir) reveal, however, th a t all the elem ents of b riquetage were either discovered in an Iron Age context o r where R om an occupation had disturbed the rem ains of the Iron Age stra ta ; on no occasion were they exclusively Rom an.

56

D istribu tion m ap of sa lt m aking sites in N orthern F rance, Belgium, & th e W estern N etherlands

Iron Age

R om an

O □ uncertain

landw ard lim it of the D unkirk Deposits

* *

' + + .

50 km.

IRON A G E 1 Bruges. 2 D e P anne. 3 Bray-D unes. 4 Zuydcoote. 5 A ssendelft. 6 K oudekerke. 7 Leiden. 8 R ockanje. 9 S antpoort.10 Seroosker ke. 11 V laardingen. 12 D om burg.ROMAN 13 Raversijde. 14 Z eebrugge. 15 Leffinge. 16 A ardenburg . 17 ’s Heer A btskerke. 18 R itthem .

VL12 (vzw)VLAAMS INSTITUUT VOOR DE ZEE

57 FLANDERS MARINE IN STITU TEO o s te n d e - Belgium

From this we conclude th a t there is no proof of salt-m aking during Rom an tim es in De Panne and th a t this activity was confined to the local Iron Age com m unity.

D ating the Iron Age m ateria l from De Panne has been a topic for extensive discussion. According to M arien, settlem ent has been dated to the La Tène II and III periods, continuing into the Rom an occupation (M arien 213), b u t De Laet has pointed ou t th a t some of the m ateria l can be com pared to finds from the early La Tène period (LT I & II) (De L aet 87 ). Final publication of the finds should settle this problem . In the m eantim e we em phasise th a t the choice of the Iron Age site was governed by physical-geographical factors (a beach flat protected from the sea by older dunes); its developm ent is paralle led by the D unkirk I transgression, so th a t settlem ent in the Early La Tène is acceptable. O n the o ther hand , hab ita tion cam e to an end during the final phase of the D unkirk I, therefore probably during the La Tène III period. Continuity with the la ter Rom an occupation, which began in the Flavian period, is im probable.

B. Bruges (West Flanders, Belgium)We cam e across the briquetage finds of Bruges whilst ‘digging’ in the reserves of the G ruuthuse M useum . This m aterial

consists mainly of clay cylinders; it belongs to a site known as Fort Lapin, which is situated slightly to the north of the town. T he finds were m ade around 1900 during harbou r developm ent alongside the canal from Bruges to Zeebrugge and belong to three different periods:- Iron Age, Rom an and the M iddle Ages.The excavations were undertaken by a geologist (R u to t 308) who cared little about the archaeological rem ains, bu t who fortunately paid atten tion to the geological context.

C ontrary to De Panne, Bruges is not situated on the present coast-line, b u t some 12km in land, on the lim it of the coastal plain and the sand region. However, the Iron Age settlem ent of Bruges, as well as th a t of De Panne, has a direct relation with the D unkirk I transgression since the salt-m aking is situated along an active D unkirk I creek. T his is im portan t in dating the site, as its developm ent can only have been possible in the la ter stages of the transgression or, even m ore likely, a t the beginning of the subsequent regression, thus probably during the La Tène III period. Again there has been no continuity with the later R om an settlem ent which dates back to the th ird century.

CONCLUSIONS1. Both Iron Age settlem ents are directly related to the D unkirk I transgression:-

— De Panne developed on a protected beach flat when the transgression had flooded the greater part of the coastal area;— the salt-m aking site of Bruges cam e into being on a D unkirk I creek ridge.

2. T he technical process used is the one associated with briquetage. In Belgium it is typical for the Iron Age and has never been found in a Rom an context. This has also been observed in N orthern F rance (Zuydcote, Bray-Dunes) (F a m re l // .? ; (W in 367) and the western p a rt of the N etherlands (Assendelft, K oudekerke, © Leiden, Rockanje, V laardingen and D om burg) (H elderm an 153) (M odderm an 232) (N enquin 243) (W in d 371) (D u m o n ta k <6 van den B erg 98) (van den B erg 347) which all can bedated to the Iron Age. (See Fig. 34)

3. Dating:- the relationship of the two settlem ents with the D unkirk I transgression provides us with a relative chronology since De Panne cam e into being during the prim ary phase and Bruges during the interm ediate or even final phase of the D unkirk I transgression.

II. ROMAN PERIOD (Figs. 34 & 35)Salt-m aking during R om an tim es is confirm ed by ancient texts. We have already m entioned the inscriptions dating from

the V espasian reign, dedicated by the Salinatores Civitatis M enapiorum and the Salinatores Civitatis M orm orum . For Belgium these inscriptions have erroneously been related to salt-m aking a t De Panne, since the briquetage finds m ust now be dated exclusively to the Iron Age.

T he im portance of salt-trading in our regions is also ap p aren t from the a ltars which were dredged up from the E ast Scheldt, off C olijnsplaat (Zeeland, The N etherlands) a few years ago. A m ongst the dedicators of these votive a ltars, erected c. A .D . 200 and dedicated to the local goddess N ehalennia, there were tou r negotiatores solarii (salt m erchants, three of whom were from Cologne, the capital of G erm ania Inferior) as well as three negotiatores allecari (dealers in fish sauce, one of whom was from the Treveri territory) (Bogaers 23 ). These inscriptions are considered to be proof of the com m ercial relations with B ritannia, b u t do not, of course, preclude the existence of a local industry.

In Belgium, we can m ention two R om an salt-m aking sites:- Zeebrugge and Raversijde.

A. Zeebrugge (West Flanders, Belgium)In 1904, during harbou r developm ent works, a wooden construction was discovered in the peat. It consisted of a rectangular

fram e, extending over m ore than 700 sq.m which was divided into com partm ents by parallel rows of beam s; these beam s were linked two by two. The length of the beam s was between 12 and 12.5m and the distance between the rows varied from 2.6 to 3m. T he construction was held firmly in place by vertical driven piles. The total w idth was 22m, the overall excavated length abou t 31.5m a t the western edge and about 39.5m at the eastern edge. The horizontal beam s were of pine wood (Pinus silvestris), the piles of b irch wood (betula). The whole installation was orientated north-w est and south-east and sloped slightly downwards tow ards the east (de L oë 89, 93) (G illes de Pélichy 94).

The in terpre tation of this wooden fram e has aroused m uch discussion. The excavator thought it to be the sub-structure of pile-dwellings in a m arshy area, sim ilar to the so-called ‘crannogs’ of the British Isles (de L o ë 89). The absence of any kind of floor and the deliberate slope m ake this theory difficult to accept. O thers m entioned oyster-farm ing (V an D en Abeeh-n 3461 and a M enapian ha rb o u r Or landing-Stage (L am brech ts 188) (V erhu ist 355).

The first to th ink of salt-m aking was Breuer. He in terpreted the construction as a saltern and linked the system with briquetage, the technical process of salt-m aking. (Beuer 29. 30) This view was not generally accepted because no briquetage was thought to have been discovered at Zeebrugge. We can, however, back-up the salt-m aking theory by some im portan t argum ents.

F irst of all there is no doubt about dating the fram e. Its position on the Subboreal peat and below a D unkirk II clay sedim ent indicates a construction in the R om an period. A rgum ents in support of salt-m aking are twofold:-1. The presence of a num ber of small rectangular pans, used as m oulds for salt-cakes. They appear frequently in Iron Age

salt-m aking contexts; e.g. De Panne.

© T rim p e B urger (pers. com m ).

58

Rom an se ttlem ent a t Raversijde,

Fig. 35a. Vertically driven-in piles of a wooden sa ltern construction on the beach.

near O stend

Fig. 35b. Section of a pile show ing stratification .1. M odern clay w ith eroded peat2. Silt layer of Rom an salt m aking3. Subboreal peat4. C alais clay deposits

Fig. 35.Fig. 35c. Salt eake m oulds

2. T he soil m ap shows tha t there is a direct connexion between the site and the old network of creeks m entioned above when we discussed the finds from Bruges. This, probably together with artificial ditches, allowed access of sea-water a t high tide into the wooden fram ew ork and its different basins which could be locked by its partitions. ©

B. Raversijde (near Ostend, West Flanders, Belgium) (Fig. 35)T he archaeological site of Raversijde has long been known for its finds of the Rom an period and especially of the M iddle

Ages. (C hocqueet 54, 55, 56) It is situated partly on the present beach between the towns of M iddelkerke and O stend. The m ediaeval peat-cuttings are norm ally visible a t low tide. The Rom an s tra ta have been greatly d isturbed by the D unkirk tra n s­gressions and later by the m ediaeval settlem ent.

In April 1973, whilst discussing the Belgian coastal plain during the Rom an period for my doctoral thesis, M r. and M rs. E . Cools, both am ateur archaeologists from O stend, drew my attention to a num ber of piles driven-in vertically on the Raversijde beach. This in itia ted the beginning of new’ and m ore system atic research which had to be carried out under extremely unfavourable and difficult conditions. © The results of our work on the Rom an Age are given for the first tim e in this paper. We were able to ascertain tha t the character of this large Rom an settlem ent was mainly determ ined by salt-m aking.

O ur findings were as follow's:-1. C onstruction and process (Fig. 35a) — although we only discovered some rows of piles and some stretches of ditches,

there is a rem arkable sim ilarity with the Zeebrugge construction. At Raversijde, however, there m ust have been several of these; rem ains have been recognised scattered over a distance of nearly tw’o kilom etres. Here, as well as in Zeebrugge. sea-w ater was caught in a system of basins. The la tte r were connected to a network of ditches, which in tu rn received the w ater from a creek. T his had direct com m unication with the sea through a gap in the dunes.

2. S tratigraphical position (Fig. 35b) — the wooden construction was m ade on the peat. The piles pierce the Subboreal peat-layer and their bases pro trude into the Calais deposits of probably A tlantic date. D uring Rom an times a finely sedim ented clay layer was deposited on the peat surface. From this clay layer a num ber of Rom an objects have been recovered.

3. Technical im plem ents (Fig. 35c) — as in Zeebrugge a num ber of sm all salt-cake m oulds were found which show a rem arkable and very specific ornam entation .

© The system described above was proposed in ou r docto ral thesis on " T h e Belgian coastal plain du rin g the R om an p e rio d " p resen ted a t the S ta te U niversity of G hen t on A pril 3 rd 1973. A fo rtn igh t la te r we cam e across a s im ila r construc tion on the beach a t R aversijde. nea r O stend .© T h e site is accessib le only a t low tide. C on tinual sh ifting of the san d , the construc tion of b reak w ate rs , rep a ir work on th e dyke, to u ristic ac tiv ities and uncon tro lled d igging tu rn any serious a ttem p t a t research in to a n ig h tm are . W ork on the R om an settlem ent is ca rried out by myself w ith th e assistance of M r. & M rs. E . Cools, who w ork closely toge ther with my colleague F . V erhaeghe (R U G ) on the M ediaeval s ite a t Raversijde.

59

4. Chronology — the chronological elem ents consist mainly of local pottery from the coastal area; they belong to the end of the second and th ird centuries. Carbon dating of wood sam ples taken from the piles give the following results:-

1602± 83 B .P. = 348 ± A .D . 83 1 8 7 1 ± 8 3 B .P . = 79± A .D . 83 ®

By the technique described aoove, concentration of salt sea-water or brine was obtained by na tu ra l evaporation. The next operation was extracting the salt by boiling the brine, thus by artificial heating. There are some clues which indicate tha t it was done by peat fires in sm all ovens. T he peat fuel supplied the briny ashe'S, from which also salt was extracted after purification , mixing with sea-water and evaporation. I t is possible th a t the ovens which have been found a t ’s Heer A btskerke (Zeeland, The N etherlands) m ust be ascribed to a sim ilar process. In the sam e context a lot of scoriae were found, the so-called “zel-as”, a waste p roduct of pea t fires. © Sim ilar ash-layers were also discovered in Zeeland (The N etherlands) a t A ardenburg and R itthem , and recently in Leffinge (W est F landers, Belgium).

G ENERA L CO NCLUSIO NS1. W ithin the coastal regions of northern France, Belgium and the western N etherlands salt-m aking sites from both the Iron Age and the Rom an period have never been found in the sam e place. The location of these sites has indeed been influenced prim arily by the coastline which shifted repeatedly as a result of the different phases of transgression and regression. T his movem ent of the coastline resulted for instance in an Iron Age salt-m aking site a t Bruges, on a contem porary D unkirk I shore, whilst a R om an salt-m aking site was discovered several kilom etres to the west, a t Zeebrugge, after the coast­line had retreated during the subsequent so-called Rom an regression (Fig. 34).2. As regards the technical aspect, briquetage was in general use during the Iron Age. D uring R om an tim es a more industrialised form of salt-m aking appears, namely by m eans of e laborate wooden constructions fixed into the pea t layer, along ditches and creeks which were directly connected with the sea. Salt was probably also produced by artificial heating in sm all ovens (peat-fires). T he only briquetage elem ents which rem ain are the so-called salt-cake m oulds which are notable for their rem arkable o rnam entation (Fig. 35c).

@ In s titu t roya l du P a trim o ine artistique, Brussels, (unpub lished) © T rim p e B urger (pers . com m ).

A C K N O W L ED G E M E N T SThe willing co-operation o f Ir. J .A . Trim pe Burger (State Service fo r Archaeological Investigations in the Netherlands)

has m ade it possib le to include som e parallel fin d s fro m the D utch coastal area. W e are indebted to M r. E. Cools fo r his help in the fie ld and fo r translating this contribution fro m the F lem ish. We wish to thank here Prof. Dr. J. N enquin (G hent) and Prof. Dr. S.J. De Laet, Director o f the Sem inar fo r Archaeology at the University o f Ghent, the fo rm er fo r encouraging this study, the latter fo r his welcome suggestions. For clarification o f som e geological prob lem s we have been greatly helped by Prof. Dr. J. A m eryckx and Prof. Dr. W. D e Breuck fro m the Geological In s titu te o f G hent University. We also wish to express here our sincere thanks to the D epartm ent o f Public W orks especially the Coastal Service a t O stend directed by Ir. R . Sim oen, a n d the building contractors Van H uele Bros., O stend, fo r their help in the fie ld . W e are greatly indeb ted also to M r. L. Louw yck, O stend A irport fo r his help in aerial reconnaissance flig h ts and the Belgian A ir Force, (sections V S 1 /IR PC.O. L t. Coi. Candries and CEEP, C.O. Cdt. Coertjens) fo r their m agnificen t contribution in aerial photography. Finally the curators and s ta f f o f the Royal M useum fo r A r t & History o f Brussels, the G ruuthuse M useum o f Bruges and the C om m unal M useum o f O stend, assisted us in our work by granting access to their collections.

60

The principle of getting raw m aterial as well as of m anufacturing and evaporating th e salt did no t change a t th a t tim e. As in previous periods the b rine was brough t to the saltern through tim bered ditches 0.35m wide and 0 .20—0.30m deep. In the m iddle p a rt of one of the ditches there was a rectangular storage tank 2.40 x 1.40m and 0.50m deep where the brine got rid of im purities (clay etc.) and flowed to the reservoir as a pure raw m aterial. T hen it was poured ou t to clay vessels, p u t on hearths and evaporated. The whole installation — apart from hearths — was covered w ith a roof propped on poles which left num erous traces all over the area. T heir lay-out, however, does not indicate the form , the size or the num ber of the buildings.

The hearths for salt evaporating from the Late La Tène Period were of 0 .80— 1.20m diam eter. One big hearth from the Early Rom an Period was of 7m diam eter m ade of big stones lined with clay and placed on the surface of the ground and is worthy of notice. In the Late La Tène Period brine was boiled in sm all graphite pots, and a t the beginning of the Rom an Period big clay vessels of the shoulder d iam eter of 0.80m and about 1.00m high (Fig. 50e) were used for th is purpose. The second stage of salt m anufacturing process: evaporating and portioning is the m ost poorly represented of the archaeological m aterial found. N um erous tum bler-shaped cups occuring in Kraków-Kurdwanów an d single specim ens in W ieliczka (site XI) prove it was analogous to H alsta tt Period.

T he oven for salt m anufacturing from Late La Tène Period discovered a t O tloczyn (Kujawy) (Fig. 50f) is of a completely d ifferent character. It is situated where the V istula terrace bends about 150m away from the brine springs, which is situated below w ithin the river valley. It is c ircular, of 2.90m d iam eter and its vertical section consists of two parts , lower and upper. Its lower p a rt is m ade up of an oven with two cham bers with a hearth of stone sunk 0.70m into the ground, while a large circular clay basin with side walls 0 .08—0.10m thick was used to boil the brine b rought from the neighbouring spring form ing its upper p a rt. No briquetage connected w ith evaporating and portioning the salt was found there. So it may be assum ed that in the Late La Tène Period the salt m anufacturing process was no t carried on in the sam e way, a t least not in the sam e vessels, everywhere in Poland. Some differences existed between Little Poland and Kujawy. F u rther excavation which should be carried on, especially in G reat Poland and Kujawy, m ay elucidate the problem .

Summary of the Proceedings by the ChairmanI th ink we are all left with the im pression of the high quality of the contributions m ade. These have been one of the finest

features of the Conference which has been one of the more successful of any we have attended. Conferences are m ade up of various parts; this one 1 see as a com bination of good quality papers, an exhibition of m aterial, a visit this afternoon on which I hope the sun will shine, and then eventually, the publication of the Proceedings them selves. T ha t should achieve a com plete and wholely successful conference and let us hope th a t th a t is how it will work out.

The papers themselves have m ade their appeal to all those who attended. To the professional who is interested in salt production they have shed a great deal of light, I am sure, on areas o ther than those w ith which they are dealing; while for those who are more generally interested in archaeology and the position of the sa lt industry w ithin m an’s general activities, they have yielded a considerable body of inform ation. One of the nice things is the way in which both professional and am ateur have been represented here this weekend. I am not a great believer in professionalism in archaeology and I am delighted tha t we have had contributions from those engaged full tim e in other work and yet can offer so m uch. (Hear, hear) We have heard of these interesting sim ilarities over such a wide area, in this basic hum an need and the processes and m eans of satisfying it and its problem s. Professor K ondo’s contribution was the m ost striking. We saw briquetage which had such rem arkable affinities w ith w hat we are looking a t from Europe itself. T hen, one’s thoughts im m ediately spring to ideas of diffusion or parallel developm ent; I do not think there is any necessity to argue one way or another, though the point could be seized upon by protagonists of e ither po in t of view.

A general im pression of my own is of a basic process of salt p reparation , bu t w ithin th a t, the u tm ost diversity depending on the initial quality of the raw m aterial. Clearly, as with F rau K leinm ann’s description of Saale, one has a high quality brine which gives the economic edge and so evaporation and crystallization processes are correspondingly speeded up. Elsewhere we have seen the difficulties of achieving a concentrated brine from sea w ater or from the ashes of roots or plants or from salt im pregnated soil and so there is a great deal of diversity in the original sources of the brine. Then the evaporation and crystallization process and finally the conversion of the ‘slush’ — I suppose the best term one can th ink of — into the dried eake which could then be transported . There is a g reat deal for us to discuss, the briquetage still rem ains a problem , the m ounds still rem ain a problem to some extent, although D r. G ouletquer has clçarly shown the grow th of debris into a m in iature M onte Testaccio in his W est A frican sites. But w hether this was the sam e in Essex perhaps we have still to learn.

BIBLIOGRAPHYAbbreviations

AB A nnales de B retagneACACS A nnales du Cerc le archéo log ique du C an ton de SoigniesA C am b A rchaeo log ia C am brensisA C ant A rchaeo log ia C an tian aAJ A n tiq u a ries Jou rnalA n A ntiquityA NL A rchaeo log ica l News L etterA P A rcheo log ia PolskiA rch A rchaeologiaA rchJ A rchaeologica l JournalA n tiq T h e A ntiquaryA SA B A nnales de la Société d ’A rchéologie de B ruxellesA SEB A nnales de la Société d 'E m u la tio n de BrugesB M A H B ulletin des M usées Royaux d 'A r t et d 'H isto iresBM SA B B ulletins e t M em oires de la Société d 'A n th ropo log ie de

Bruxelles B rit B ritann iaBROB B erichten van de R ijksd ienst voor h e t O udheidkund ig

Bodem onderzoek BS AN B ulletin de la Société des A n tiq u a ires de N orm andieBSPF B ulletin de la Société p réh isto riq u e F rançaiseBSPM B ulletin de la Société po lym ath ique du M orb ihanBSSLAP B ulletin de la Société dés Sciences, L ettres e t A rts de P auCA C orn ish A rchaeologyCA G A B C olchester A rchaeological G roup A nnual BulletinCBA R R 10 C ouncil fo r B ritish A rchaeology. R esearch R eport 10C H C hesh ire H isto rianC L C oun try LifeCN SS C ongrès N ational des Société SavantesC P F C ongrès P réh is to riq u e de F ranceD A G D isse rta tiones A rchaeologicae G andensesEA T he E ast A nglianE D R Ely D iocesan RecordsEJ Essex Jou rnalEN Essex N atu ra lis tER Essex ReviewG erm G erm an iaInst A rch In s titu te of A rchaeology, LondonJA H Jo u rn a l o f A frican H istoryJE Jo u rn a l o f EcologyJE P N S Jo u rn a l E ng lish P lace N am e SocietyJIA Jo u rn a l o f In d u s tria l A rchaeologyJM V Jah ressch rif t fü r M itte ldeu tsche V orgeschichteLA A SR P L inco lnsh ire A rch itec tu ra l & A rchaeological Society

R epo rts & P apers LA O Lincoln A rchives O fficeLD A S L inco lnsh ire D iocesan A rch itec tu ra l Society

L M A R G Low er M edw ay A rchaeologica l R esearch G roupLNQ L inco lnsh ire N otes & Q ueriesLRS L incoln R ecord SocietyNA N orfolk A rchaeologyN AH N ationale A rqueo log ía H ispán icoPA N SA P olska A kadem ia N au k S nraw ozdan ia A rcheologicznePC N FC Proceed ings o f th e Cottesw old N ature F ield ClubP D N H A S Proceed ings o f th e D orse t N a tu ra l H istory & A rchaeological

SocietyPG A Proceed ings o f th e G eologists A ssociationP H F C Proceed ings of th e H am p sh ire F ield ClubPPS Proceed ings o f th e P reh is to ric SocietyP PSE A Proceed ings o f the P reh is to ric Society o f E ast A ngliaP R A I Proceed ings o f th e Royal A rchaeological In s titu teP R S P ipe R oll SocietyPSA L Proceedings o f the Society of A n tiquaries o f LondonPSA N H S Proceed ings of th e S om erset A rchaeologica l & N atu ra l

H istory SocietyP SIA N H P roceedings of the Suffolk In stitu te of A rchaeology &

N atu ra l H istory P T R S Philo log ica l T ransac tions of th e Royal SocietyPU B SS Proceed ings of th e U niversity of B risto l Speleological SocietyR A (H an ts) R escue A rchaeology (H an ts)R B -P Revue d u B as-Poitou e t des Provinces de l'O uestR C H M (E ) Royal C om m ission on H isto rical M onum ents (E ng land )R G R 5 Royal G eog raph ica l Society R esearch Series No. 5SA S taffo rd sh ire A rchaeologySAJS S ou th A frican Jo u rn a l of ScienceSAN Société des A n tiqua ires de N orm andieSNQ Sussex N otes & Q ueriesTB A S T ra n sac tio n s of th e B irm ingham A rchaeologica l SocietyTC W A A S T ra n sac tio n s of th e C u m b erlan d & W estm orland

A n tiq u a rian & A rchaeologica l Society T E A S T ra n sac tio n s of th e Essex A rchaeologica l SocietyTG A S T ra n sac tio n s of th e G lasgow A rchaeologica l SocietyTLC A S T ra n sac tio n s o f the L ancash ire & C hesh ire A n tiq u a rian

SocietyT L C H S T ra n sac tio n s of th e L ancash ire & C heshire H isto ric SocietyT W N F C T ra n sac tio n s of th e W oolhope N atu ra lis ts F ie ld ClubVCH V icto ria C o u n t, H istoryW A W orld A rchaeologyW A M W iltsh ire A rchaeologica l M agazineW H S W orcestersh ire H is to rica l SocietyW P Z W iener P räh is to rische Z eitschriftW Z U H (G -S ) W issenschaftliche Z eitschrift d U niv. H alle (ges.

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C hadw ell S t. M ary .’ T E A S n .s . xiii (1914) 218-23281. R e in h a rd t, W . ‘S tud ien zu r E ntw icklang des länd lichen S ied lungs­

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282. R ich ard so n , K . ‘T he excavation of Iron Age villages on Boscom beD own w es t.’ W A M liv (1951) 123

283. R ichm ond , I .A . & C raw ford , O .G .S. ‘T h e B ritish section of theR avenna C osm ography .’ A rch xciii (1949) 18, 44

284. R iehm , K. ‘V orgeschichtliche S alzgew innung an Saale u n d S eille.’ J M V xxxviii (1954) 112-56

285. R iehm , K . ‘D ie R ed Hills d e r englishen K üste u n d ih re P ro b le m a tik .’J M V xliii (1959) 235-8

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(1968) 103

91

INDEXIn o rder to keep the Index within due com pass, references to particu lar sites and all nam es of persons, have been om itted.

I t is suggested th a t the Index be used in conjunction w ith the T ables of C ontents and Illustrations (pp. 2 and 3).

abbeys, 71 ,72 ,73 ,74 A dd le tho rpe , Lincs. 8 ,31 ,42 A d u r, rive r, 21 ae ria l ph o tog raphy , 10,60 a lta rs , 58am p h o rae , 25 ,54 ,67 ,68 , do lia 67,68 am urca (b rin e w aste) 68 A ngerton , C u m b ria , 72an im als, asses 82; bovates 37; bu tchery of 22,23; cam els 48 ,82; ca ravans 48;

cow dun g 49; d raw -horse 43; ewe cheeses 7; farm ing 15 ,22,23,47; g raz in g 22; ja ck -h o rse 39; m ule 80; pack -ho rse 39 ,80 ,82 ; p as tu re for 47; s a lt fo r 47; sheep 7,37,44

A nm er, N orfo lk , 42 A slackby, L incs. 35 au g e r, use of 6 A un je titz C u ltu re , 46

B abingley , N orfo lk , 44 babou l, ( to o th -b ru sh tree) 51 b ad g e r, 73 ,75 ,76 b a r te r , 25 ,45 ,61 ,63 ,82 ,85 B arycz, P o lan d , 85 Bawsey, N orfo lk , 44 bay sa lt see salt B elg icsee periods B icker H aven, L incs. 35,36,39 B illingborough , L incs. 34 B ilm a, A frica , 48,49,81 B ishopstone, Sussex , 21,24 B itterfe ld , E ast G erm any, 46 b it te rn , 75 B lackw ater, river, 10 b led ssee equ ipm en t B ogotá, C o lom bia, 84bones, an im al 84; h u m a n 6 ,12; h u m a n teeth 6 ,12 ,13b o rings , 79B oston, L incs. 39B ourne, L incs. 33,35B raine, rive r, 82B raugh ing , H erts . 82b rine , c leaning by egg 35 ,73 ,75; density testing by egg 75; pits 51 ,76 ,77 ,

79,80; p onds 73; settling ta n k s 49,73; sp rings 46 .77 ,84 ,85 ,86 ,87 ; sto rage ta n k s 29 ,51 ,73 ,75 ,85 ,86 ,87

b riq u e tag e see also c o n ta in e rs /e q u ip m e n t chronology 7 ,53; o rgan ic ad m ix tu re to 23 ,28 ,31 ,40 ,46 ,66 ,69 ,70 ; tips 27; tip-lines 6

B rittany , F ran ce , 21,56 b ronze , 70B ronze Age see periods B ruges, B elg ium , 57 ,58 ,60 Brow nw ich, Sussex , 21,24bu ild ings , bo iling house 39 ,77 ,78; b rick 66; c ircu la r 19; hu ts 20 .29 .61 ,68;

stone 73; tim b er 37 ,58 ,59 ,66 ,67 ,73 ,77 ,78 ,85 ,86

Canvey Is lan d , 10 ca ravans see an im als ca rb o n see charcoal ca rb o n dating see charcoal ca rb o n ised wood see charcoal C a r D yke, 33,34,35 C astle R ising , N orfo lk , 42 c a rtu la r ie s , 42 ca tsca lp , 75 C eltic see periods C eltic F ields see fields cem ete ries, 26 ,28 ,29 ,86 C h ad , L ake, 49.50,51 cha lice see con ta iners C hapel S t. L eonards, L incs. 51 C hannel Is lands . 26cha rcoa l, finds of 6,31 ; as fuel 46; rad io -carbon d a tin g of 10,54 ,50 ,83 ,84 cheeses see an im als C helm er, river, 82 chem istry o f sa lt, 12 Chesil B ank , D orse t, 19 C hetney M arsh , K en t, 26,27 C h ichester, Sussex, 20,21 chove lssee eq u ip m en t chronology see also charcoal

b riq u e tag e 45 ; f irebars 7 ; industry 23; Japanese sa lt-m ak ing 61; L inco lnsh ire sa lte rn s 36; po ttery 10,60; sites 10,14,58

clay d au b in s, 71 C liffe, K en t, 26,28,29 cliffs, s ite s on see coast coal see fuelco ast, b an k s & walls 10 ,26 ,37 ,38 ,39 ,42 ,43 ,44 ; changes 37 ,42 ,61 ; cliff

sites 15 ,21 ,25 ,53 ; dikes, dykes 40 ,43 ,44 ,72 ; drow ned valleys 21; erosion of 6 ,21 ,27 ,28 ,29 ,30 ,31 ,36 ,40 ,72 ; gravel sp it sites 21; la n d levels 6 ,10 .37 , 42 ,60 ,61 ; m arsh 6 ,7 ,10 ,20 ,21 ,26 ,37 ,42 ,53 ; sea levels 6 ,10 .30 .35 ; tra d e 10,21,76

coins, 15 ,21 ,25 ,67 ,82 C olchester, Essex, 39,82 C olne, river, 82 C o lom bia , S ou th A m erica, 84com m unities, fish ing 15 ,22 ,23 ,39 ,61 ,63 ,81 ; in land se ttlem ent 10.82;

occupation sites 10,20; tr ib a l 10 ,15 .18 ,20 ,81 ,82 ,83 C onisho lm e, Lincs. 37

consuetudo 80con ta iners & evap o ra tin g vessels, auge ts 53 ,55 ,56 ; barrow s 39; bas in s 46 ,63;

bask e ts 39 ,75 ,78 ; b r in e fa t,b rin e v a t 38; chalices 45; cone-shaped bask e ts 38; costre ls 19; crucib les 31; cu p -shaped 45 ,51 ,85 ; cy lindrical 16, 18 ,19 ,46 ,58 ; d ish -shaped 31; f inge r-tipped 9 ,26 ,53 ,56 ,85 ; goble ts 45; hem ispherica l 27 ,46 ,53 ; hives 38; hollow eone 46 ,85; iron 61 ,75 ,78 ; ja rs 19,46 ,61; le ad 28 ,40 ,66 ,70 ,73 ,75 ,78 ; lids 9 ,19 ,27 ; m etal 31 ,39 ,46 ; oval pans 27; p a n s 17 ,27 ,31 ,38 ,39 ,56 ,61 ,63 ; pedesta l-based 45 ,62,63; p la tes 26 ,66 ; po in ted -b ased 46 ,51 ,63 ,85 ; po ttery 18; pygm y 31; rec tan g u la r 6 ,8 ,16 ,1 8 ,1 9 ,2 6 ,2 7 ,3 0 ,7 0 ; rim s o f 16; shallow pans 9,31; skeppes 38; sm a ll,Jap an 61; su g ar bow l 18; trough ,c lay 9 ,16 ,18 ,19 ,26 ; tro u g h ,lead 43; tum b ler-sh ap ed 61 ,85 ,86 ,87 ; vats 25 ,31 ,77 ,78 ,79 ,80

C ooling , K en t, 26,29 C orfe C astle , D orse t, 14 costre l see con ta inersc rops, rye secale cereale L. 28; spelt tr iticum spelta 23; w in ter sown 23C rosscanonby, C hesh ire , 73,75crysta llization see m e thodscu lt ob jec ts , 45,67c u ltu ra l p its, 85‘c u r e sa le e ', 47D allo! F ogha, A frica, 49 D e P a n n e , B elgium , 56 ,57 ,58deposits, a sh 27 ,32 ,36 ,38 ,61 ; b riq u e tag e 26 ,27 ,66 ,84 ; ca rb o n ised w ood 31,

38 ,61 ,66 ,84 ; in d u s tr ia l 29 ,30; occupation 29 ,84; p e a t 41 ,58 ,59 ; red w aste 6 ; s e ttlem en t 10 ,21,29; shell 15,25; tips 27; tip-lines 6

d ik e /d y k e see coastd is tr ib u tio n m aps, B elgium 57; C u m b ria 71 ,72; D orse t 14; E ast

G erm any 45; Essex 5; F ran ce , north -w est 52; H am p sh ire 21 ,23; Jap a n 62; K en t 30; L inco lnsh ire , fens n o rth of B ourne 33; L incolnshire sa lte rn s in th e silt fens 34; L incolnshire sa ltern s 41; N ethe rlands & N orthern F ran ce 57 ; N iger 47;

d itches, d ra in ag e 6 ,20 ,26 ,38 ,85 ,86 ,87 ; sea w ate r 7 ,39; clay filled 6;pa lisad e 6

dock ing p o in ts, 35 D om esday, 10 ,37 ,38 ,42 ,43 ,44 ,76 ,77 D on ing ton , L incs. 39 D owsby, L incs. 35 d ra b s see eq u ip m en t d ra in ag e see ditches D roitw ich , W orcs. 76 ,77 ,78 ,79 ,80 dues see salt D um pton G ap , 26,30 D ürn b erg , A u stria , 82 duty see sa lt D ym church , 26

E astb o u rn e , Sussex, 21,24 ecclesiastica l ow nership , 3 7 ,38 ,40 ,42 ,43 ,71 ,72 ,73 ,74 E lbe , rive r, 44 Ely, C am bs. 43 ,44 Ely B ishopric , 43,44 eq u ip m en t see also con ta iners

b leds 44; boiling po ts 81; b ridg ing b ars 53; chovels 43; clay balls 51 ,53 ,56; c lay-lined evapora tion ta n k s 6 ,66 ; clay n a ils 56; d rab s 75; fire -bars 6 ,7 ,8 , 2 6 ,2 7 ,28 ,30 ,53 ,66 ,68 ,70 ; g a ts 44; g ra tes 53 ,54 ; h andb ricks 18 ,28 ,30 ,45 , 49 ,51 ,58 ,59 ,60 ,68 ; m oulds 18 ,24 ,28 ,30 ,45 ,49 ,51 .58 ,59 ,60 ,68 ; ped esta ls 6 ,7 ,8 ,2 3 ,2 6 ,4 9 ,5 0 ,5 1 ,5 2 ; p edesta l sockets 6; p illa rs 26 ,45 ,46 , 52 ,53 ; p rops 8 ,16 ,18 ; sa ltp an s 37 ,38 ,58 ,72 ,73 ,74 ; sheld , skell, sko le 38, 40; sh o rt rods 7 ,8 ,41 ; stools 31; skeppe, s trik e , m easures 38,79; su ppo rts 8 ,45 ,63 ,66 ,69 ; su p p o rts , ree l-shaped 86; tem ing shovels 38; troughs 9 ,16 ,18 ,19 ,26 ; way, w ayam 44; wedges 7 ,26 ,27 ,28 ,29 ,31 ,66 ,68 ; w icker bu rd en 77

E th io p ia , 51,81 evap o ra tio n see m ethods ewe cheeses, 7

fa rm in g , 15 ,22 ,23 ,28 ,35 ,47 ,61 ,62 .63 ,68 ,70 ,83 fen , pea t 23 ,34; silt 32 ,33 ,36 fields, C eltic 15,23, s tr ip 37; system 19; filte rs , basketry , 49,51fire -ba rs see equ ip m en t, d a tin g of see chronology fires, firing see also fuel

bon fire 18,22; flues 6 ,19 ,25 ,73 ; fu rn ace 51 ,68 ,78 ,80 ,84 ; h e a rth 6.9,19" 27 ,28 .29 ,31 ,36 ,61 ,67 ,85 ,86 ,87 ; k iln 2 0 ,22 ,26 ,27 ,29 ,31 ,32 .49 ,51 ,66 ,67 , 68 ,70; oven 18 ,19 ,20 ,53 ,60 .75 ,81 ,84 ,87 ; s tokeho le 31; w orking floors 6, 26,27,61

fish ing , in d u stry 15 ,22 ,23 ,39 ,61 ,63 ; shellfish 15,22,25 flues see firingF ran k en h au sen , E a st G erm any , 66fuel, b rushw ood 6 ,7 ,8 ,18 ; charcoal 46 ,70 ; coal 39 ,73 .74 .75 ,78 .80 ; oil

shale 14.18,25; pea t 60 ,71 ,73 ; turves 71 ,73; wood 18 ,75,78.81;F u n to n . K en t, 26,28 fu rn ace see firing F reeb ridge H u n d red , 42

g a tss e e equ ipm en t G ayw ood, N orfo lk , 42 G ieb ichenste in , E ast G erm any, 45.46glaze & vitrification , ash 36; green 9 .31 ,41 ,42 ; sa lt 9 ,66 ,67 ,68 ,70 ; slag 27,

28 ,36 ,56 ; v itrification 6 ,9 ,27 ,36 ,37 ,38 ,39 ,56 ,73 G o ld h an g e r, Essex, 6 g ra ffiti, 22,68G ra in th o rp e , L incs. 37 ,38 .39 g rap h ite po ts see po ttery gravel spit sites see coast G re a t C heste rfo rd , C am bs. 82

92

G re a t H ale , L incs. 35 G rea t O use , river, 42 G re a t P o lan d , 85 ,86 ,87 G rim sby , L incs. 39 goblets see con ta iners G uelé ié, N iger, 47 gullies see d itches

H acconby, L incs. 35H alle, E a st G erm any , 26 ,44 ,45 ,46 ,68 ,86H alle in , A u stria , 82H a lls ta tt , A u stria , 8 2 see also periodshalophy tes, 46,51h a p ,75haversacks, le a th e r, 25 ,47 ,82 H ayling Is lan d , Sussex , 23 h ea lth h az ard s , 40 h ea rth s see firingh ea th lan d , sites, 15,18; te rtia ry 14,19H eck ing ton , L incs. 35H e lp rin g h am , L incs. 35H eng is tbu ry H ead , H an ts . 20 ,21 ,25H eybridge, Essex, 6,39H igham , K en t, 28H igh H alstow , K en t, 26,28h ill forts, 24,25hocselver, 80H ogsthorpe, Lincs. 8 ,31 ,40 H ook, H an ts . 21h u m a n , bones 6 ,12; need fo r sa lt 13,82; tee th 6,12,13

Ickn ield W ay, 82Ingoldm ells, L incs. 27 ,28 ,29 ,31 ,32 ,42 ,67In lan d Sea, J a p a n , 61Ipsw ich , S uffo lk , 39Iron A ge see periodsiron p an s see con ta inersin sc rip tions , 56in te rm e n t, Jap an ese tom bs 51 ; R om an 27 inventory, s a lte r’s, 38 ,73; accoun ts 73 Isling ton , N orfo lk , 42 Ivuna, A frica, 81, 83

Jurassic see periods

K ent s ite s, 26 K an to , J a p a n , 61 kilns see firing K im m eridge , D orse t, 14 k in ch essee sleech pits K in g 's Lynn, N orfo lk , 42 K ojim a, J a p a n , 62 K ujaw y, P o lan d , 85 ,86 ,87 K rölw itz, E ast G erm any , 43 ,46

La G iro n d e , F ran ce , 56 la n d levels see coast langavel, 80 Langenhoe, Essex, 29 L angstone , Sussex, 21 L a T ène see periods L au ris ton , Essex , 5 ,6 ,7 ,8 lead p an s see con ta iners le a d /le a d w orking, 27 ,36 ,70 ledsm yth , 80 L everington , C am bs. 43 lids see con ta ine rs L ittle M assingham , N orfo lk , 42 L ittle O akley , Essex, 10 L ittle P o land , 85,86,87 llanos, p la in s , 84 L oire , river, 52,56 L ojia , A frica , 49 Lower H alstow , K en t, 26,30 L usitian C u ltu re , 85

M agdalena , river, 84 M an , Isle of, 72,75 M an g a , A frica , 49,50m an o ria l ow nership , 3 7 ,43 ,44 ,73 ,74 ,76 ,77 ,78 ,80 M an n in g tree , Essex , 39 m ark e ts see trad e m arsh see also coast,

inned 26 ,27 ,28; sa lt 6 ,7 ,26 ,37 M arsh ch ap e l, L incs. 37 M arypo rt, C u m b ria , 71,73 m aures see m ounds m e asu re r, m e te r, 79 m edieval see periods M edw ay E stua ry , K en t, 26,27m ethods & sources of ga in ing sa lt, b lood 81; boiling 14 ,19 ,20 ,27 ,39 ,44 ,45 ,

56 ,60 ,61 ,75 ,78 ,84 ; boring 79; b rine 5 ,9 .29 ,31 ,39 ,49 ,60 ,61 ,75 ,81 ; crys­ta lliza tio n o f b rin e 5 ,6 ,8 ,9 ,3 1 ,4 5 ,4 7 ,4 8 ,5 1 ,6 1 ,8 2 ; evapo ra tion o f sea w ater 6 ,2 6 ,27 ,28 ,29 ,30 ,31 ,32 ,47 ,48 ,61 ,63 ,75 ,81 ; filtering 81 ;freez in g 81; ha line 81 ,82; m ea t 81; m ilk 81; m in ing 39 ,82; n a tu ra l evapo ra tion 31 ,51 , 56 ,85; open pans 37 ,38 ,39 ,61 ,63 ; p e a t ash 60; p la n t ash 46,51 ; quarry ing 82; rock sa lt3 9 .5 1 ,7 7 ,8 1 ; sa lt lakes 81; sa lt p its 43 ,46 ,51 ,67 .68 ,76 ,78 ; salt sp rings 3 9 ,4 4 ,45 ,46 ,51 ,61 ,66 ,68 ,77 ,81 ,84 ,85 ,86 ,87 ; seaw eed 51 ,61; se ttling system 75,81; sleeching 75; sun w orks 39 ,47 ,61 ; u r in e 81,84; vegetation 81 ,84; w ashed ea rth 47 ,49 ,S I ,81; w ashed san d 61 ,75; w ashed silt 24

M id d le to n , N orfo lk , 42 M iddlew ich , C hesh ire , 66 ,68 ,70 m in ing of sa lt see m ethods m onasteries , 37,38,42

m o rta r ia , 67 m oulds see con ta inersm o u n d s, D o rse t 19,20; Essex 5 ,26 ; C am bridgesh ire 43; K en t 26 ,29 ,30 ;

L inco lnsh ire 34 ,35 ,36 ,37 ,38 ,40 ,41 ,42 ,43 ; m au res 37; Som erset Levels 20

N antw ich , C hesh ire , 66 N eo lith ic see periods N ew ton, C am bs. 43 N iger, A frica , 47,81 n om ads see tra n sp o rt N o rth C otes, L incs. 37 N orth S om ercotes, L incs. 37 N orthw ich , C hesh ire , 66 N o rth W oo tton , N orfo lk , 42,43

O lduvai G orge, 83 O stend , B elg ium , 59 occupation levels see deposits occupation sites see deposits oil shale see fuel O rby, L incs. 31o rgan ic ad m ix tu re to clay see also b rique tage

chaff 23 ,40 ,46 ; cu ltiva rs 23; rye (secale cereale) 28; spelt (triticum spelta ) 23; s traw 66 ,69 ,70 ; vegetable m a tte r 31

O rinoco , river, 84 o rn am en ts of shale , 15 O sea R o ad , H eybridge, 5 ,6 ,8 ,9 ,1 0 O use , rive r, Sussex, 21 ovens see firing

p alisad e , 6P aulsgrove, Sussex, 23 ,24 P ays de R etz , F ran ce , 52 peatw ay, 6 ,7 p edesta ls see equ ipm en t P eldon , E ssex , 5 ,6 ,7 ,9 ,1 0 P en tney , N orfo lk , 42p eriods, Belgic 28; B ronze Age 23 ,24 ,44 ,46 ,83 ,85 ; Celtic 46; H a ls ta tt 45,85,

86 ,87; Iro n Age 15 ,23 ,24 ,29 ,31 ,42 ,46 ,52 ,56 ,58 ; Ju rassic 14; La T ène 58, 86 ,87; m edieval 28 ,35 ,37 ,38 ,39 ,42 ,58 ; N eolith ic 23 ,44 ,85; P erm ian 46,66; Regression 56 ,58 ,60 ; R om an 15 ,26 ,27 ,28 ,31 ,42 ,56 ,58 ,86 ,87 ; R om ano- B ritish 20 ,26; S ubbo real 56 ,58 ,59 ; T e rtia ry 14 ,19,29; T ransg ress ion 56, 58 ,59 ,60; T riassic 66 ,67 ,77

P erm ian see periods Pevensey, Sussex, 20 p its , sa lt see m ethods p la tes , rec tan g u la r see con ta iners P o , river, Ita ly , 83 Poole, D orse t, 14 ,18 ,19 ,20 P o rtsm o u th , H an ts , 20,21po tte ry , analysis of 10; Belgic 9 ,10 ,30 ; B ronze Age 53; bu rn ish ed 23,24;

chronology of 61; g rap h ite 87; Iron A ge 9 ,10 ,14 ,19 ,24 ,29 ,31 ,32 ; La T ène 26; native 10; R om an 9 ,10 ,19 ,24 ,29 ; R om ano-B ritish 9 ,10 ,27 ,29 ; S am ian 15; sau cep a n po ts 24; shelly w are 25; u rn 23

p rio ries, 44,71 p rops see eq u ip m en t P u rb eck , D orse t, 14,15

Q u iberon , B rittany , 26,28

R avenglass, C u m b ria , 71,75 red hills see sa lt-m ak in g sites red w aste see deposits R egression see periods R hone, river, 83 R ippinga'le, L incs. 35ro ad s, R o m an 35; s a lt ro ad s 35 ,37 ,39 ,40 ,41 ; sa lt ways 37 ,39 .40 ,79 ,80 ;

tra d e rou tes 80 ,81 ,82 ,83 rock sa lt see sa lt R om an see also roads

in scrip tions 56 ,58 ; invasions 81; m ilitary se ttlem en ts 20 ,28; V espasian 20,56,58

R om an p erio d see periods R om ano-B ritish period see periods Rom ney M arsh , K ent, 26 roofs, 31,75,87

S aale , E a st G erm any , 44 ,46 ,86 sacks, le a th e r, 25,47,82 S ah a ra , A frica, 47 salaria via 82 sa lsae see sa lt dues sa lt see also m e thods & sources

a sh ,fro m 46,51; bay 39 ,75 ,78 ,81 ; b locks 51 ,82 ; bon d 74 ,76; bu llion 82; cakes 2 4 ,2 5 ,45 ,46 ,48 ,49 ,51 ,58 ,59 ,60 ,82 ,84 ,85 ,86 ; com pounds of 12,83, 86; currency 40 ,51 ,82 ; dues 38 ,44 ,76 ,77 ,78 ,80 ; duty 39,80; ea rth 47,49, 51 ,81 ; ex p o rt of 39 ,73 ,74 ,75 ,82 ; h u m a n need fo r 13; lakes 81 ; laws 39,75; license 39; m ines 39 ,82; m onopoly 39 ,79 ,80 ; m oulds 18 ,24 ,28 ,30 ,45 , 49 ,51 ,58 ,59 ,60 ,68 ,82 ; office 73,76; officer 76; p its 43 ,46 ,51 ,67 ,68 ,76 ,78 ; p la n ts from 46 ,51 ,81; preservative, a s 22 ,25 ,70 ,78 ,82 ; ren t 38 ,44 ,73 ,76; roads 35 ,37 ,39 ,40 ,41 ; rock 39 ,51 ,77 ,81 ; sand 61,75; silt 24; sp rings 39, 4 4 ,4 5 ,46 ,51 ,61 ,66 ,68 ,77 ,81 ; tax 39 ,73 ,75 ,76 ,81 ; trib u tes 63 ,82 ; ways 37, 39 ,40 ,79 ,80 ; w hite 39; w orks 72 ,74; yield 43

Saltco tes, C u m b ria , 72sa lt-m ak in g sites, cliff 15 ,21 ,25 ,53; con tem porary 47-51; gravel sp it 21;

h ea th lan d 15,19; in land 25 ,42 ,58 ,81 ; m a rsh 6 ,7 ,10 ,20 ,21 ,26 ,37 ,42 ,53 ; red h ills 5 ,6 ,8 ,9 ,1 0 ,1 2 ,2 5 ,2 8 ,2 9 ,3 7 ; Salinae 43 ,78; sa linary 43; ‘sa lines ' 48 ,51 ; sa lte rn s 35 ,36 ,37 ,42 ,43 ,44 ,58 ,63 ,73 ,87 ; sa lt p an s 37,38, 39 ,63; sea sho re 25 ,61; su n w o rk s39,61

sa lte rn s see sa lt-m ak ing sites S alters’ G a te , Lincs. 41 S a lte rs ' L ane, L incs. 41 S alters’ W ay, L incs. 39 S alw arpe, river, 76,77 sea levels see coast

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seasonal cvcle, crop-sow ing 23; la n d usage 22; seasons 21 ,22 ,37 ,44 ,47 , 75 ,77 ,78 ,81 ,82

seaw ake, 72 sea w all see coast sc ra tch , 75 Sheppey, Isle of, 26se ttlem en t, Belgic 10; Iro n A ge 10 ,15 ,23 ,56 ,58 ; m edieval 38 ,43 ,59 ;

R o m an 10 ,15 ,27 ,28 ,34 ,56 ,59 ,66 ,70 ; R om ano-B ritish 10 ,15 ,27 ,29; triba l 10 ,63,81,84; village 15,21,29,62,81

shale , industry 19, oil as fuel 18, o rnam en ts 19 sheep see an im als shell deposits see deposits S horeham , Sussex , 23,24 S kegness, L incs. 31 slag see g laze & vitrification Slayhills M arsh , K en t, 26,30 S lea , river, 33,35 sleech , 75 sleech p it , 75 slu icew ays, 6,39,51 Solway F irth , 71,75 S om erset Levels, 20 sources of sa lt see m ethods S ou th T angany ika , A frica , 51 S outhw old , Suffolk, 39 S ou th W oo tton , N orfo lk , 44 sp rin g s , s a lt, see m ethods stokeho le see firing S tu d la n d , D orse t, 15,16 S ubbo real see periods sunw orks see m ethods S u tton on Sea, L incs. 40 S w ineshead, L incs. 35

ta lc , 77,79 T ao d en i, A frica, 81 T c h ad , L ake see C had , Lake te e th see bonesT eg idda-n -T esem t, M anga, A frica, 47,49T e rrin g to n , N orfo lk , 42,43T e rtia ry see periodsT etney , L incs. 38tex tile im pression , 42T h o rp e , L incs. 31tida l c reeks, 6 ,7 ,10 ,26 ,29 ,31 ,35 ,56 ,59 ,63 tractores, 77tra d e , tr a d e cen tres , m ark e ts , 10 ,15 ,24 ,25 ,30 ,35 ,40 ,44 ,47 ,48 ,51 ,58 ,61 ,63 ,

76 ,80 ,82 ,83

T ran sg ress io n see periodstra n sp o rt, bew elle 38; ca ravans 4 8 ,81 ,82 ,83 ; coastal 10 ,39 ,76 ,82 ; in lan d 10,

24 ,61 ,81 ,84 ; nom ads 47,51 ¡ river 82 ,83 ,84 ; road 35 ,37 ,38; tu m b re l 43; sa ltw a in 80; w ate r 22 ,30 ,34 ,81 ,83

tip -lines see b r iq u e ta g e /deposits T re b arv e th , C ornw all, 19,20 T ria ss ic see periods tu m u li, 63Tydd S t. G iles, C am b s. 43 tysem an , 77,78 T yneham , D orse t, 16

U lverston , C u m b ria , 75 U p ch u rch , K en t, 26 U vinza , A frica, 81,83

V istu la , river, 85,87 v itrification see glaze

W albersw ick , Suffo lk , 39 W alpole, N orfo lk , 43,44 W alsoken , N orfolk, 43,44 W alton , N orfo lk , 42 ,43 ,44 W ash , T h e , 35 ,42 ,43 ,44 w attling , 8w ayam see eq u ip m en t wedges see eq u ip m en t w eller o r w aller, 44 W est A cre, N orfo lk , 42 W est P o m era n ia , P o lan d , 85 W est W alto n , N orfo lk , 42 ,43 ,44 W est W inch , N orfo lk , 42 W hitehaven , C u m b ria , 73,74 w icker b u rd e n see eq u ip m en t W ieliczka, P o lan d , 85 ,86 ,87 W iggenhall, N orfo lk , 42 W insfo rd , C hesh ire , 31 W in th o rp e , L incs. 31 W isbech , C am bs. 42 W ith am , rive r, 33 W oodbridge, S uffo lk , 39 W orcester, W orcs. 80 w ork ing floors see firing W ork ing ton , C u m b ria , 74,75 W ragho lm e, L incs. 37,38 W yke R egis, D orse t, 14 ,18 ,19 ,20

Zeebrugge, B elgium , 57 ,58 ,60

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