data communications- notes

8/13/2019 Data Communications- Notes

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Dr. Y. Narasimha Murthy Ph.D

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UNIT-I DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Introduction: Data communications deals with the transmission (sending and receiving) of

information between two locations by means of electrical signals. The two types of electricalsignals may be either analog or digital. Digital Data communication is the name given to the

communication where exchange of information takes place in the form of 0s and 1s over some

transmission medium like a wire or wireless .

The effectness of a data communication system depends on three fundamental characteristics

.They are Delivery , Accuracy and Timeliness.

(i) Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by

the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

(ii).Accuracy :The system must deliver the data accurately .Data that have been altered in

transmission and left uncorrected must not be used.

(iii).Timeliness:The system must deliver the data in time.The data delivered late are useless .For

example in the case of audio and video ,timely delivery means ,delivering the data as they are

produced in the same order of production and without significant delay.This type of delivery is

called real-time transmission.

Components : A data communication system is made up of five basic components .They are

(i).Messages (ii).Sender (iii).Receiver (iv).Medium and (v).Protocol

(i) Message: The message is the data information to be communicated. It can be either text,

numbers or audio or video or any combination of these types.

(ii).Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer

,workstation ,telephone handset ,video camera etc..


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(iii) Receiver : The receiver is the device that receives the messages. It can be a computer,

workstation , telephone handset ,video camera or television etc.

(iv).Medium:The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from

sender to receiver.It should be a twisted pair wire ,co-axial cable,fiber optic cable or Radio

waves etc.

(v).Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern the data communications.It represents an

arrangement between the communicating devices.Without a protocol ,two devices may be

connected but can not communicate.

Basic terms and concepts: In data communication mainly the data is being transmitted

between two devices namely transmitter and receiver. To understand this entire phenomena we

need to know about five basic concepts .They are

Line configuration

Topology

Transmission mode

Categories of Networks.

Internetworks.

LINE CONFIGURATION:

It refers to the way by which two or more communication devices are connected to a link.A link

is a physical communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another.

Based on the requirements, there are two possible line configurations.Point to point and multi-

point

Point- to-point communication: A point to point connection provides a dedicated link

between two devices.The total capacity of the link is used for the communication between these

two devices. In most point-to point actual length of wire or cable is used to connect the two

devices. For example the use of an infrared remote to change the channel in a Televisionestablishes a point-to-point contact between remote and T.V


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Similarly , in the case of voice communication using telephones, there is one calling party and

one called party. Hence the communication is point-to-point.

Multipoint : A multipoint or multi drop connection is one in which more than two specific

devices share a single link. In a multi-point configuration the capacity of the channel is shared

either spatially or temporally .If several devices are using the link simultaneously, they share it

spatially on the other hand many users are using the same link by turn it is a time share

connection.(means ,they share it temporally).

Broadcasting: In a broadcasting system, there is a central location from which information is

sent to many recipients, as in the case of audio or video broadcasting. In a broadcasting system,

the listeners are passive, and there is no reverse communication path.

TOPOLOGY :

The topology defines how the devices (computers, printers..etc) are connected and how the data

flows from one device to another. There are two conventions while representing the topologies.

The physical topology defines how the devices are physically wired. The logical topology

defines how the data flows from one device to another.

Topologies are broadly categorized into i) Bus ii ) Ring iii) Star iv) Mesh


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Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every

other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices

it connects. To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n

nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be

connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to n 1 nodes, and finally node n must be

connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links. However, if each physical link allows

communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by 2. In

other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links.

A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies. First, the use of dedicated

links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic

problems that can occur when links are shared by multiple devices.

Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the

entire system.

Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a

dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from

gaining access to messages.

Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be

routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager to

discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.


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The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the number of I/O

ports required. First, because every device must be connected to every other device, installation

and reconnection are difficult. Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the

available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.

Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively

expensive. For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for

example, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid net work that can include

several other topologies.

One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of telephone regional offices in

which each regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.

Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a

central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike

a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller

acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the

controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device .A star topology is less

expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to

connect it to any number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure. Far

less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one

connection: between that device and the hub. Other advantages include robustness. If one link

fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy

fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor

link problems and bypass defective links.

The main disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one

single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. Although a star requires

far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more

cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).The star topology

is used in local-area networks (LANs),


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Bus topology:

In a bus topology all devices are connected to the transmission medium as backbone. There must

be a terminator at each end of the bus to avoid signal reflections, which may distort the original

signal. Signal is sent in both directions, but some buses are unidirectional. Good for small

networks. Can be used for 10BASE5 (thick net), 10BASE2 (thin net) or 10BROAD36 (broad

band) co-axial bus standards.

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running

between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main

cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal

travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes

weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the number

of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the

most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a

bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies. In a star, for example, four network devices in

the same room require four lengths of cable reaching all the way to the hub. In a bus, this

redundancyis eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches through the entire facility. Each drop

line has to reach only as far as the nearest point on the backbone.

Disadvantages of bus topology are difficulties in reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually


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designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices.

Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be controlled by

limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length of cable. Adding new devices

may therefore require modification or replacement of the backbone.

The other disadvantage is , a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between

devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of

origin, creating noise in both directions.

Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area networks.

Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular.

Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with

only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from

device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.

When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and

passes them along. A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to

only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires

changing only two connections. The only constraints are media and traffic considerations

(maximum ring length and number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is simplified.

Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal

within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the

problem and its location. However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring,

a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can

be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.

Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network Token Ring. With the

advent of higher-speed LANs this topology has become less useful.


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TRANSMISSION MODE :The term transmission mode is used to define the direction of signl

flow between two linked devices.There are three types of transmission modes.They are Simplex ,

Half Duplex and Full-Duplex.

Simplex: In simplex mode communication is unidirectional .i.e only one of the two devices on a

link can transmit data and the other will only receive the data.As shown below a computer

always sends the data and the monitor only receives the data.

Similarly a key board always receives the data from the computer and computers send the data

to the keyboard.

Half Duplex: In half duplex both the devices can transmit and receive the data in the data

communication. But not at the same time. When one device is sending the data the other will be

receiving and vice versa. The use of a walkie-talkie by police and army personal is an example

for this half-duplex transmission .

The Half duplex method is like a one lane road with two directional traffic. While cars are

travelling one direction , cars going the other direction must wait. In a half Duplex transmission

the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by which ever of the two devices is transmitting at

the time.

Full Duplex : In full duplex mode (also called Duplex) both stations can transmit and receive

data simultaneously.One common example is mobile phone or telephone line.


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The full duplex mode is like a two way street with traffic following in both directions at the same

time .In full duplex ,the signals going in either direction share the capacity of the link. This

sharing can occur in two ways. Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission

paths .One for sending and the other for receiving .or the capacity of the channel is divided

between signals travelling in both directions.

MODEMS:

The term modem stands for Modulator & De-Modulator .The most familiar type of DataCommunication Equipment (DTE) is a Modem. The term modemis a composite word that refers

to the two functional entities that make up the device: a signal modulator and a signal

demodulator. A modulator converts a digital signal into an analog signal using ASK, FSK, PSK,

or QAM. A demodulator converts an analog signal into a digital signal. While a demodulator

resembles an analog-to-digital converter, it is not in fact a converter of any kind. It does not

sample a signal to create a digital facsimile; it merely reverses the process of modulation-that is,

it performs demodulation.

The modem consists of

Interface circuitry for linking with the host PC

Circuits to prepare data for transmission by adding the proper start, stop, and parity bits.

The modulator that converts PCs digital signals into analogsignals.

The user interface that gives you commands ofthe modem's operation.


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In the above diagram the two PCs are the DTEs i.e data Terminal Equipments. The Modems are

DCEs. The demodulator takes theASK,FSK, PSK or QAM signal and decodes into a suitable

form for a computer.It then relays the resulting digital signal to the receiving computer via the

internet .Each DCE must be compatible with both its own DTE and other DTEs.

Modem Standards

The two modem standards are Bell modems and ITU modems. Bell Modems The first

commercial modems were produced by the Bell Telephone Company in early 1970s. As the first

and, for a long time, lone manufacturer in the marketplace, Be defined the development of the

technology and provided a de facto standard upon which subsequent manufacturers have built.

Today there are dozens of companies producing hundreds of different types of modems

worldwide. As complex and powerful as many models have become, they all evolved from the

original and. relatively simple first models from Bell.The Bell 212 series modems have two speeds. The option of a second speed allows for

compatibility with a wider number of systems. Both speeds operate in full-duplex mode over

switched telephone lines. The slower speed, 300 bps, uses FSK

The 201 series modems operate in either half-duplex mode over two-we switched lines or full-

duplex mode over four-wire leased lines. The entire bandwidth over two-wire line is dedicated to

a single direction of transmission. Four-wire lines allow for two completely separate channels,

one in each direction, to be processed through single modem on each end.

ITU-T Modem Standards

Now a days most popular modems available are based on standards published by the ITU-T.

These modems can be divided into two groups: those that are essentially equivalent to Bell series

modems-for example, V.21 is similar to Bell modem 103-and those that are not.

Those ITU- T modems that are Bell series compatible are given below table with their Bell

equivalents.

ITU-T Bell Baud Rate Bit Rate Modulation

V.21 103 300 300 FSK

V.22 212 600 1200 4-PSK

V.23 202 1200 1200 FSK

V.26 201 1200 2400 4-PSK

V.27 208 1600 4800 8-PSK

V.29 209 2400 9600 16-QAM


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Intelligent Modems

Intelligent modems contain software to support a number of additional functions, such as

automatic answering and dialing. Intelligent modems were first introduced by Hayes

Microcomputer Products, Inc. More recently, other manufacturers have come out with Hayes

compatible modems. Instructions in the Hayes and Hayes-compatible modems are called AT

commands (AT is short for attention).

56K MODEMS :

Traditional modems have a limitation on the data rate (maximum of 33.6 Kbps), However, new

modems, with a bit rate of 56,000 bps, called 56K modems, are now on the market. These

modems may be used only if one party is using digital signaling (such as through an Internet

provider). They area symmetrical in that the downloading (flow of data from the Internet

provider to the PC) is a maximum of 56 Kbps, while the uploading (flow of data from the PC to

the Internet provider) can be a maximum of 33.6 Kbps. If one side is an Internet provider and

the signal does not have to pass through a PCM converter, quantization is eliminated in one

direction and the data rate can be increased to 56 Kbps .

Encoding and Modulating :

In the process of data communication the data must be transformed into signals to send themfrom one place to another. Data stored in a computer is in the form of 0s and 1s.To transform

this data from one place to another place , it must be converted into digital signals.This is called

Encoding digital data into digital signal or digital to digital conversion. The process of

converting analog signal into digital signal is called analog to digital conversion or digitizing an

analog signal.

The process of converting the digital signal into analog signal is called digital to analog

conversion or modulating a digital signal.

The process of sending an analog signal over long distances using a high frequency carrier signal

is called analog to analog conversion or modulating an analog signal.


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Digital to Digital Encoding: It is the representation of a digital information by a digital signal

.In this process of encoding the binary 1s and 0s generated by a computer are translated into a

sequence of voltage pulses that can be transmitted over a cable or wire. This process is shown in

the diagram below.

There are three types of digital encodings. Unipolar ,Polar and Bi-polar.

Uni-polar : Unipolar encoding uses only one level of value. i.e in a uni-polar scheme, all the

signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above or below.


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The uni-polar encoding has two problems .One is DC component and the other is

synchronization. Due to these limitations ,this encoding is not widely used.

The DC component problem arises because the average amplitude of a uni-polar encoded signal

is non- zero. This causes what is called a direct current component. When a signal contains a DC

component ,it cannot travel through the media that cannot handle DC components.

The Synchronization problem in uni-polar encoding occur when ever the data stream includes a

long uninterrupted series of 1s or 0s. Compared to polar encoding this scheme is very costly.

Polar Schemes:

In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. For example, the voltage

level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for I can be negative.The popular Polar encoding

techniques are Non-return zero(NRZ),Return to Zero(RZ) and bi-phase. The bi-phase refers to

two methods.One is Manchester used in Ethernet LAN and the second is Differential

Manchester used by token rings LANs.

Types of polar encodings is shown below.

Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) :

In polar NRZ encoding, two levels of voltage amplitude are used. There are two versions of

polar NRZ: NRZ-Land NRZ-I, as shown in Figure below. The figure also shows the value of r,

the average baud rate, and the bandwidth. In the first variation, NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), the level of

the voltage determines the value of the bit. In the second variation, NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the


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change or lack of change in the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. If there is no

change, the bit is 0; if there is a change, the bit is 1.NRZ-L and NRZ-J both have a DC

component problem.

The synchronization problem (sender and receiver clocks are not synchronized) also exists in

both the schemes. This problem is more serious in NRZ-L than in NRZ-I. While a long sequence

of datas can cause a problem in both schemes, a long sequence of 1s affects only NRZ-L.

Another problem with NRZ-L occurs when there is a sudden change of polarity in the system.

For example, if twisted-pair cable is the medium, a change in the polarity of the wire results in

all 0s interpreted as I s and all I s interpreted 0s . NRZ-I does not have this problem. Both

schemes have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd.

Return to Zero (RZ)

The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver clocks are not

synchronized. The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next bit is starting.

Hence the Return-to-zero (RZ) scheme is used. This scheme uses three values: positive,

negative, and zero. In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit. In Figure

below we see that the signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit.


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It remains there until the beginning of the next bit. The main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that

it requires two signal changes to encode a bit and therefore occupies greater bandwidth. This

scheme has no DC component problem. But the problem is the complexity : RZ uses three

levels of voltage, which is more complex to create . As a result of all these deficiencies, the

scheme is not used today. Instead, the better-performing schemes like Manchester and

differential Manchester schemes are used.

Biphase:

The best solution for the problem of synchronization is the Bi-phase encoding.This bi-phase

encoding consists of two important encodings namely Manchester and Differential Manchester

encodings . Manchester scheme is the resultant of the idea of RZ (transition at the middle of the

bit) and the idea of NRZ-L . In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two

halves. The voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level in the

second half. The transition at the middle of the bit provides synchronization. On the other hand

Differential Manchester, combines the ideas of RZ and NRZ-I. There is always a transition at the

middle of the bit, but the bit values are determined at the beginning of the bit. If the next bit is 0,

there is a transition; if the next bit is 1, there is none. Figure below shows both Manchester and

differential Manchester encodings.

In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is

used for synchronization. The Manchester scheme overcomes several problems associated with

NRZ-L, and differential Manchester overcomes several problems associated with NRZ-I.


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First, there is no baseline wandering. There is no DC component because each bit has a positive

and negative voltage contribution. The only drawback is the signal rate. The signal rate for

Manchester and differential Manchester is double that for NRZ. The reason is that there is

always one transition at the middle of the bit and maybe one transition at the end of each bit.

Manchester and differential Manchester schemes are also called bi-phase schemes.

Channel capacity

The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a communication channel under given

conditions is referred as the channel capacity. Four important parameters are related in the

evaluation of channel capacity.

Data rate: The rate at which data can be transmitted. Measured in bits per second

Bandwidth: The bandwidth of the transmitted signal. Measured in cycles per second (Hz).

Noise: The average level of unwanted signals over communication path. Expressed as the ratio

between signal and noise.

Error rate: The rate at which error can occur.

The Channel capacity (in cycles per second) is given by Shannons theorem. According to

Shannons theorem

C = B log2 (1+SNR)

Where C is channel capacity in Cycles per second and this is error free capacity ; B is the

bandwidth in Hertz and SNR= 10 log10 (Signal power/Noise power) known as signal to noise

ratio.

Here the SNR ratio assumes only white noise (thermal noise) where as other noise like impulse

noise, attenuation noise and delay noise are not taken into account. Hence the actual value of

channel capacity differs from the estimated value

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT:

When signals travel through imperfect transmission media, the imperfection causes signal

impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the

signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. The impairment of signals

is mainly caused due to attenuation, distortion, and noise in the medium.


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Attenuation

Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a

medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a

wire carrying electric signals gets warm . Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted

to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.

Distortion : Distortionmeans that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in a

composite signal made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own propagation

speed (see the next section) through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the

final destination. Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly

the same as the period duration. In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases

different from what they had at the sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the

same. Figure below shows the effect of distortion on a composite signal.


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Noise

Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced

noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal. Thermal noise is the random motion

of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter. Induced

noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as a sending

antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna. Crosstalk is the effect of

one wire on the other. One wire acts as ascending antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.

Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time) that comes from power

lines, lightning, and so on.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as SNR = average signal power / average noise power.SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise). A high SNR

means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means the signal is more corrupted by

noise. Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in decibel units

SNR dB, defined as

SNRdB = 10 log10SNR.

Broadband System

A "broadband" system has the capability for transmitting a broad range of analog frequencies

over a single cable, Broadband LANs work in a similar way that cable television works.

Broadband LANs transmit multiple radio frequency signals on the same cable, usually coaxial or

sometimes fiber. This ability to send many types of communication simultaneously over the


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same cable, including voice, video, and data, distinguishes broadband LANs from the other

common baseband LANs.

For this operation, broadband LANs use the technique called frequency division multiplexing.

Each channel in a broadband system is separated from the adjacent channel by a guard band, a

frequency range over which no data will be transmitted. The simplest broadband LAN will be

split into two channels, one for inbound data, one for outbound. Each of these gross channels

may be split into two or many more channels.

Broadband LANs use a tree-and-branch topology. The root of the tree is the head end, or central

retransmission facility. The trunk cable is attached to this root.

Baseband System:

Baseband methodology allows several devices to share a cable by means of a time-sharing

technique. Each device is assigned a specific time slot some thousandths or millionths of a

second in length in which to transmit. Only one device can transmit in a given time interval.This

technique is called time division multiplexing. Baseband transmission is associated with specific

network and performance characteristics.

(a) Many types of media can be used, such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, and fiber optics.

(b).There must be a protocol included in the network to assign time slots and provide access to

the network.

(c) . Modems are not required to connect devices to the cable when communicating digital

information.

(d).Any number of devices can be used for transmission or reception of information, without the

addition of complex equipment, as long as there are enough slots available.

Comparison :

Broadband (analog) transmission is generally regarded as a higher throughput technique because

of the ability to simultaneously transmit multiple signals over a single cable.

Baseband is a highly efficient way of moving data from one piece of digital equipment to

another.Hundreds of millions of data bits per second can move along the cable, with no

slowdowns for analog conversion. These data bits, however, must move single file, and there is a

finite limit to the total number of bits that can be transmitted during any given time period.


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The transmission rate advantage of broadband transmission is rapidly disappearing, however,

with recent advances in digital technology, particularly in fiber optics, allowing digital baseband

transmissions to rival, and even exceed broadband analog transmission speed.

Baseband technology has benefitted substantially from continuing advances in integrated circuit

technology. Installation, device connection, and control of communication traffic are all less

expensive for digital networks than for analog networks.

Broadband cable per foot is less expensive than baseband. The additional hardware needed

(modems and directional couplers) to modulate the data signal for analog transmission from

point to point and the more complex design engineering required will however raise the cost of

installing broadband.

MULTIPLEXING : Multiplexing is the techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of

multiple signals across a single data link .As data and telecommunications use increases, so does

traffic. The figure below shows the basic format of a multiplexed system. The lines on the left

direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a single

stream (many-to one).At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a de-multiplexer (DEMUX),

which separates the stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs

them to their corresponding lines. In the figure, the word link refers to the physical path. The

word channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pair of

lines. One link can have many (n) channels.

There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-

division multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing. The first two techniques designed for

analog signals, the third one is , for digital signals


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Frequency-Division Multiplexing : Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog

technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the

combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted. In FOM, signals generated by each

sending device modulate different carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are then

combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link. Carrier frequencies

are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidth

ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel. Channels can be separated by

strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent signals from overlapping. In addition, carrier

frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.

A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting. Radio uses the air as the

transmission medium. A special band from 530 to 1700 kHz is assigned to AM radio. All radio

stations need to share this band. Each AM station needs 10kHz of bandwidth. Each station uses a

different carrier frequency, which means it is shifting its signal and multiplexing. The signal that

goes to the air is a combination of signals. A receiver receives all these signals, but filters (by

tuning) only the one which is desired. Without multiplexing, only one AM station could

broadcast to the common link, the air.

The same concept is also used in FM broadcasting. But the , FM has a wider band of 88 to 108

MHz , because each station needs a bandwidth of 200 kHz.

Another common use of FDM is in television broadcasting. Each TV channel has its own

bandwidth of 6 MHz. The first generation of cellular telephones (still in operation) also uses

FDM

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing: Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to

use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the


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Demultiplexing Process : The de-multiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the

multiplexed signal into its constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed

to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output lines.

Error Detection and Correction :

During the transmission of data from one point to other there is every possibility that the data

may be corrupted and errors may occur. The data transfer through a Network must be always

with acceptable accuracy. So, these data errors must be detected and corrected for a good data

communication. Some applications can tolerate a small level of error. For example, random

errorsin audio or video transmissions may be tolerable, but when we transfer text, we expect a

very high level of accuracy.

Types of Errors

The errors in data communication are divided into two types.(i)Single Bit Errors and (ii) Burst

errors.

Single Bit Errors:

Whenever bits flow from one point to another, they are subject to unpredictable changes due to

interference. This interference can change the shape of the signal. In a single-bit error, a 0 is

changed to a 1 or a 1 to a 0.

The term single-bit error means that only 1 bit of a given data unit (such as a byte, character, or

packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

The figure above shows the effect of a single-bit error on a data unit. To understand the impact

of the change, imagine that each group of 8 bits is an ASCII character with a 0 bit added to the

left. In the above figure 10.1,00000010 (ASCII STX) was sent, meaning start of text, but

00001010 (ASCII LF) was received, meaning line feed.

Single-bit errors are the least likely type of error in serial data transmission. For example let us ,

imagine data sent at 1 Mbps. This means that each bit lasts only 1/1,000,000 s, or 1s. For a

single-bit error to occur, the noise must have a duration of only 1s, which is very rare because

noise normally lasts much longer than this.


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Burst Error

The term burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 or from0 to 1.Here a burst of data is being corrupted and not a single bit.

In the figure below the effect of a burst error on a data unit is shown. In this case,

100010001000011 was sent, but 0101110101100011 was received. Note that a burst error does

not necessarily mean that the errors occur in consecutive bits. The length of the burst is measured

from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit. Some bits in between may not have been

corrupted.

A burst error is more likely to occur than a single-bit error. The duration of noise is normally

longer than the duration of 1 bit, which means that when noise affects data, it affects a set of bits.

The number of bits affected depends on the data rate and duration of noise. For example, if we

are sending data at I kbps, a noise of 11100 s can affect 10 bits; if we are sending data at 1 Mbps,

the same noise can affect 10,000 bits.

Redundancy:

The important concept in detecting or correcting errors is redundancy. To be able to detect or

correct errors, we need to send some extra bits with our data. These redundant bits are added by

the sender and removed by the receiver. Their presence allows the receiver to detect or correct

corrupted bits.

The correction of errors is more difficult than the detection. In error detection, we are looking

only to see if any error has occurred. The answer is a simple yes or no. We are not even

interested in the number of errors. A single-bit error is the same for us as a burst error. In error

correction, we need to know the exact number of bits that are corrupted and more importantly,


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their location in the message. The number of the errors and the size of the message are important

factors. If we need to correct one single error in an 8-bit data unit, we need to consider eight

possible error locations; if we need to correct two errors in a data unit of the same size, we need

to consider 28 possibilities. The difficulty of the receiver in finding 10 errors in a data unit of

1000 bitscan be clearly understood from the above example.

There are two main methods of error correction. Forward error correction is the process in which

the receiver tries to guess the message by using redundant bits. This is possible, as we see later,

if the number of errors is small. Correction by retransmission is a technique in which the receiver

detects the occurrence of an error and asks the sender to resend the message. Resending is

repeated until a message arrives that the receiver believes is error-free.

Coding :

Redundancy is achieved through various coding schemes. The sender adds redundant bits

through a process that creates a relationship between the redundant bits and the actual data bits.

The receiver checks the relationships between the two sets of bits to detect or correct the errors.

The ratio of redundant bits to the data bits and the robustness of the process are important factors

in any coding scheme. Figure 10.3 shows the general idea of coding. We can divide coding

schemes into two broad categories: block coding and convolution coding.

Block Coding:

In block coding, the message is divided into blocks, each of k bits, called data words. And rredundant bits are added to each block to make the length n = k + r. The resulting n-bit blocks

are called code words. With k bits, a combination of 2kdata words are created ; with n bits, we

can create a combination of 2ncode words. Since n > k, the number of possible code words is

larger than the number of possible data words.The block coding process is one-to-one ; the same

data word is always encoded as the same code word. This means that 2n- 2

kcode words are not

used which are invalid or illegal.


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Error Detection :

In block coding the receiver can detect a change in the original code word and the error can be

detected if the following conditions are satisfied.

The receiver has (or can find) a list of valid code words.

The original codeword has changed to an invalid one.

The sender creates code words out of data words by using a generator that applies the rules and

procedures of encoding . Each codeword sent to the receiver may change during transmission. If

the received codeword is the same as one of the valid code words, the word is accepted; the

corresponding data word is extracted for use. If the received code word is not valid, it isdiscarded. However, if the codeword is corrupted during transmission but the received word still

matches a valid codeword, the error remains undetected. This type of coding can detect only

single errors. Two or more errors may remain undetected.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):

CRC is a category of error correction in data transmission using cyclic codes ,which is called the

cyclic redundancy check (CRC) .This CRC is used in networks such as LANs and WANs. One of

the advantages of a cyclic code is that the encoder and decoder can easily and inexpensively

implemented in hardware by using a handful of electronic devices. Also, a hardware

implementation increases the rate of check bit and syndrome bit calculation.

Reference: Data Communications and Networking, Second Edition ,by Behrouz A. Forouzan.

data communications- notes

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