darshan institute of engineering & technology rajkot · 2019-11-19 · department of civil...

DARSHAN INSTITUTE

OF

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

RAJKOT

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

(2150601)

LAB MANUAL

DEGREE CIVIL ENGINEERING

SEMESTER –V

Name of student

Roll No

Enrollment No

Class

A.Y. 2018-2019

Department of Civil Engineering Semester-V Highway Engineering Lab Manual

Darshan Institute of Engineering and Technology-Rajkot Page 1

INDEX Sr.

No. Name of Experiment Date Page Marks Sign.

SECTION-A –TEST ON AGGREGATES

1 Shape Test (Flakiness Index + Elongation Index) (IS:2386 part-1)

2 Aggregate Impact Test (IS:2386 part-4)

3 Aggregate Crushing Test (IS:2386 part-4)

4 Aggregate Los Angeles Abrasion Test (IS:2386 part-5)

5 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Test (IS:2386 part-3) 6 Gradation and Blending of Aggregate (IS:383-2016)

SECTION-B –TEST ON SOIL (Subgrade)

7 California Bearing Ratio Test-CBR (IS:2720 PART-16)

8 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Test-DCP (IRC:SP:72-2015) SECTION-C –TEST ON BITUMEN AND BITUMINOUS MIX DESIGN

CONSISTENCY TESTS OF BITUMEN

9 Penetration test (IS:1203-1978) 10 Softening point test (IS:1205-1978) 11 Introduction of tar viscometer (IS:1206-1978) 12 Viscosity test- Absolute Viscosity (IS:1206 part 2 -1978)

13 Viscosity test – Kinematic Viscosity (IS:1206 part 3 -1978)

AGING TESTS ON BITUMEN

14 Introduction on Thin film oven test(ASTM-D-1754/IS:9283)

SAFETY TESTS ON BITUMEN

15 Flash and Fire point test (IS: 1209-1978)

OTHER TESTS

16 Specific Gravity test on bitumen (IS: 1202-1978)

17 Ductility test (IS: 1208-1978)

SECTION-D –TEST ON BITUMINOUS MIX

18 % Bitumen content in Paving mixture (ASTM-D-2172)

19 Stripping value test (IS:6241)

20 Marshal Stability Test-Determination of O.B.C. (MS-2)

SECTION-E DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIX FOR PAVEMENT 21 Design of concrete Mix for PQC(IRC:44-)1976

SECTION-F- A STUDY ON TRAFFIC PARAMETERS

22 Spot speed study (IRC:SP:19-2001)

23 Traffic Volume Study (IRC:SP:19-2001)

24 Accident Study (IRC:SP:19-2001)

SECTION-G- HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN- STUDY MATERIAL 25 Highway Geometric Design(Study) (IRC:73,86-2015)

SECTION-H- FIELD VISIT AND FIELD TESTS ON PAVEMENT LAYERS

26 Hot Mix Plant Visit (Prepare report) (IRC:90-1985)

27 Ready Mix Concrete Plant visit (Report) (IRC:90-1985)

28 Determination of Field Density of Pavement Layer2720-29,28

29 Introduction of Plate Bearing Test (IS:1888-1982)

30 Introduction of Benkelman Beam Deflection (IRC:81-1997)

31 Introduction Unevenness Measurement by Bump Integrator and MERLIN (IRC:SP:82-2015)



Laboratory Instructions

1. Study the experiment and read in detail aim, apparatus, and

procedure of each experiment before coming to the lab. The lab

teachers are instructed to take a brief written test on last experiment about

5-10 minutes before the commencement of the experiment.

2. After the test, the lab teacher will give instruction to start the experiment.

Do the experiment, and note the readings as a group.

3. After you complete the experiment, you have to do the calculations and

discussion of results by yourself before leaving the lab.

4. Ensure that lab teacher have checked your results and get the lab mark

entered in the report and get their signature.

5. Follow all the safety instructions given by the Lab staff. Kindly wear shoes

inside the laboratory

6. Absenting from the lab will be taken very seriously including fail grade as

per rules. No compensatory experiments will be allowed.

7. Tests shall be done in groups. However, observation table, calculation,

Discussion of the result, etc. should be individual and should be completed

on the same day.

8. Return the equipment after the test to the lab teacher and ensure that the

lab teacher gives the mark along with his signature.

9. Lab teacher shall supervise the experiment and marks will be

awarded based on the participation in the experiments, and the report.

Signature of the Student



HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

SCOPE OF STUDY

THICKNESS

DESIGN

MIXTURE DESIGN THICKNESS

DESIGN

MIXTURE

DESIGN

Data Required:

Traffic census

Subgrade CBR

Axle load spectrum

Vehicle damage factor

DETERMINATION OF

OPTIMUM BITUMEN

CONTENT

Data Required:

Traffic census

Modulus of Sub grade/

CBR

Axle load spectrum

(CONCRETE MIX

DESIGN)- Pavement

Quality Concrete

(PQC)

As per IRC:37-2012 As per ASHTO Manual

(MS-2)

As per IRC:58-2011

As per IRC: 44-

2008

( PQC)

SOFTWARE: IIT

PAVE

SOFTWARE:IITRIGID

SOIL TEST –

Atterber’s limit,

CBR

Soil Classification

UCS

[BITUMEN&AGG.TEST

REQUIRED]

[AGG.&CEMENT

TEST

REQUIRED]

Rigid Pavement Flexible Pavement

Load distribution concept

FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT

DESIGN

RIGID

PAVEMENT

DESIGN



HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

TESTING OF MATERIAL (Pavement making material)

SOIL

(SUBGRADE/GSB)

(Geotech Lab/ Soil

Egg. Lab)

AGGREGATE BITUMEN CEMENT

• Atterberg’s limit

(LL, PL, PI)

• Soil

Classification

• CBR (California

Bearing Ratio)

• UCS(Unconfined

Compressive

Strength)

• Sieve Analysis

• OMC & MDD

(Optimum Moisture

Content and

Maximum Dry

Density)

• Specific Gravity

• Water Absorption

• Impact Value

• Abrasion Value

• Crushing Value

• 10% Fines Value

• Shape Test –

Flakiness Index &

Elongation Index

• Specific Gravity

• Penetration

• Viscosity

• Ductility

• Flash & Fire Point

• Softening Point

• Consistency

• Initial Setting Time

• Final Setting Time

• Soundness

• Compressive Strength

• Fineness

FOR BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT

BITUMINIOUS MIX DESIGN- Marshal

Method- As per AASHTO-Manual MS-2.

Test on Mix

• Stability

• Flow

• Density

• Bitumen content

• Stripping value

• Resilient Modulus

FOR RIGID PAVEMENT

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN (PQC-Pavement

Quality Concrete) (As per IRC-44-2008)

Test on Mix:

• Flexural Strength.

• Compressive strength



Typ

ical

C/S

of

Fle

xib

le P

avem

ent

Typ

ical

Cro

ss s

ecti

on

of

Rig

id p

avem

ent

Road

com

pon

ent



AGGREGATE TEST VALUE ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

AGGREGATE SPECIFICATION FOR VARIOUS TYPE OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES ( As per IS/ IRC/ MORT&H 5th Rev.)

Sr. No

Property Name of Test IS Code

Granular Sub-Bases, Base courses requirement as per MORT&H 5th Rev. Bituminous Base & Wearing Courses requirement as per MORT&H 5th Rev.

Cement Concrete Pavement

(Wearing surfaces)

Cement Concrete (Other than Wearing

surfaces) Sub Base, GSB

Base Course, WBM Base Course,

Crushed WMM

Base Course, Crusher Run

Macadam

BASE COURSE/ BINDER COURSE

SURFACE COURSE/ WEARING CORSE

BM DBM SDBC BC

1

Deleterious Materials and Organic Impurities

Organic Matter IS-2386 (Part-2)

1.00% Max 1.00% Max 1.00% Max 1.00% Max Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil

Sodium Sulphate IS-2386 (Part-2)

0.20% Max 0.20% Max 0.20% Max 0.20% Max NIl Nil NIl NIl NIl NIl

2 Cleanliness Grain size Analysis IS-2386 Part – 1

- - - -

Max 5% Passing

75 µ sieve

Max 5% Passing

75 µ sieve

Max 5% Passing

75 µ sieve

Max 5% Passing

75 µ sieve - -

3 Strength

Los Angeles Abrasion

IS-2386 Part – 4

Not Specified in MORT&H

Max 40 % Max 40 % Max 40 % Max 40 % Max 35 % Max 35 % Max 30 % 30 % Max 16 % Max

Crushing value IS-2386 Part – 4

Max 45% Max 45% Max 45% Max 45% Max 45% Max 45% Max 30 % Max 30 % 30 % Max 45 % Max

Agg. Impact value IS-2386- 4) or

IS-5640 Max 40 % Max 30 % Max 30 % 30 % Max Max. 30% Max. 27 % Max. 27% Max. 24 % 30 % Max 45 % Max

10 % Fines Value IS-2386 Part -IV or BS 812-

111 50 Kn. -Min. - - - - - - - - -

4 Days Soaked CBR IS-2720 (Part-16)

Min 30% - - - - - - - - -

4 Durability

Aggregate Soundness test* *(If W.A. greater than 2%)

IS-2386 Part –V

- - - - Max 12%

( Na₂SO₄) Max 12%

( Na₂SO₄) Max 12% ( Na₂SO₄)

Max 12% ( Na₂SO₄)

- -

- - - - Max 18% ( MgSO₄)

Max 18% ( MgSO₄)

Max 18% ( MgSO₄)

Max 18% ( MgSO₄)

- -

5 Shape

Flakiness Index IS-2386 Part –I Not

Mentioned in MORT&H

35 % Max. (Combined FI + EI)

35 % Max. (Combined

FI + EI)

35 % Max. (Combined

FI + EI)

35 % Max. (Combined FI + EI)

35 % Max. (Combined

FI + EI)

30 % Max. (Combined

FI + EI)

30 % Max. (Combined

FI + EI)

15% 15%

Elongation Index IS-2386 Part –I

15% 15%

Angularity Index IS-2386 Part – 1

0 to 11 0 to 11 0 to 11 0 to 11 0 to 11 0 to 11 0 to 11 0 to 11 0 to 11

6 Liquid Limit Determination of Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index

IS-2720 (Part-5)

25% Max NA NA 25% Max

- - - - -

7 Plasticity Index 6% Max 6% Max 6% Max 6% Max Non Plastic Non Plastic Non Plastic Non

Plastic - -

8 Water Absorption Water Absorption IS-2386 Part – 3

2 % Max. 2 % Max. 2 % Max. 2 % Max. 2 % Max. 2 % Max. 2 % Max. 2 % Max. 2 % Max. 2 % Max.

9 Specific Gravity Specific Gravity IS-2386 Part - 3

N.A. 2.6 to 2.9 2.6 to 2.9 2.6 to 2.9 2.6 to 2.9 2.6 to 2.9 2.6 to 2.9 2.6 to 2.9 2.6 to 2.9 2.6 to 2.9

10 Bitumen Adhesion

Strippting Value IS-6241 NA NA NA NA Min. retaind coating 95%

Min. retaind coating 95%

Min. retaind coating 95%

Min. retaind coating

95%

- -

11 Water Sensitivity Retained Tensile Strength

AASHTO 283

- - - - Min. 80% Min. 80% Min. 80% Min 80% - -

12 Aggregate Softness

Stone Polishing Value

BS : 812-114

- - - - - - Min 55 Min 55 - -



SECTION-A

TEST ON AGGREGATES

Sr. No. Name of Test Relevant IS code

1 Shape test (Flakiness Index+Elongation Index) IS:2386 PART-1

2 Aggregate Impact Test IS:2386 PART-4

3 Aggregate Crushing Test IS:2386 PART-4

4 Aggregate Los Angeles Abrasion Test IS:2386 PART-5

5 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Test IS: 2386 PART-3

6 Gradation and Blending of Aggregate IS 383-2016



EXPERIMENT NO: 1 DATE:

SHAPE TEST (IS: 2386 PART -1)

OBJECTIVE: To determine the value of Flakiness and Elongation Index of

Coarse aggregates. Combined Index = FI+EI

INTRODUCTION:

The shape of aggregate particles is determined by the percentage of flaky and elongated

particles contained in it. In the case of gravel, it may be expressed in terms of the

angularity number. Presence of flaky and elongated particles in the coarse aggregates

used for the construction of base and surface courses of road pavements is considered

undesirable, as these may cause inherent weakness with possibilities of breaking down

during compaction as well as under heavy traffic loads. Rounded aggregates are

preferred in cement concrete road construction as the workability of concrete improves.

Angular shapes of particles are desirable for granular base course due to increased

stability derived from the better interlocking. Thus, evaluation of shape of the particles,

particularly with reference to flakiness index and elongation index is necessary.

FLAKINESS INDEX:

The flakiness index of aggregates is the percentage by weight of particles whose

least dimension (thickness) is less than three fifths (0.6) of their mean dimension. The

test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.

APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a standard thickness gauge shown in fig. 1. IS sieves of sizes

63, 50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm and a balance to weigh the samples.

PROCEDURE:

In order to calculate the flakiness index of the entire sample of aggregates, first the weight

of each fraction of aggregate passing and retained on the specified set of sieves is noted.

As an example, note down the weight of 200 pieces of aggregates passing 50 mm sieve

and retained on 40 mm sieve. Each of the particle for this fraction of aggregate is tried to

be passed through the slot of the specified thickness, in this example, the 27 mm

thickness slot. Similarly, let the weight of 200 pieces of aggregates retained on the

specified sieves be W, W2, W3 etc. and the total weight W1+W2+W3 is found. Then the

flakiness index is the total weight of the material passing the various thickness gauges,

expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample gauged.



Fig 1. Thickness gauge

IRC RECOMMENDATIONS:

Sr.

No.

Type of Construction

Maximum limit

of Flakiness

Index in%

1 Water bound macadam 1 5 %

2 Bituminous surface dressing penetration macadam 2 5 %

3 Bituminous bound macadam bituminous concrete 1 5 %



Fig 2. Length Gauge

(B) ELONGATION INDEX:

The elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles

whose greatest dimension (length) is greater than one and fifth times (1.8 times) their

mean dimension. The elongation test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm

APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of the length gauge shown in fig 2., IS sieves of sizes 50,

40, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm and a balance.

PROCEDURE:

The sample is sieved through the IS sieves as mentioned above. A minimum of 200

pieces of each fraction is taken and weighted. As an example, note down the weight of

200 pieces of aggregates passing 50 mm sieve and retained on 40 mm sieve. Each of the

particle for this fraction of aggregate is tried to be passed through the slot of the specified

length in this example, the 81 mm length slot. Similarly, let the weight of 200 pieces of

aggregates retained on the specified sieves be W, W2, W3 etc. and the total weight

W1+W2+W3 is found, then the elongation index is the total weight of the material retain

on the various length gauges, expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample

gauged.



APPLICATION O F SHAPE TEST:

In pavement construction flaky and elongated particles are to be avoided,

particularly in surface course. If flaky and elongated aggregates are present in appreciable

proportions, the strength of pavement layer would be adversely affected with possibility

of breaking down under loads. In cement concrete the workability is also reduced.

However, the reduction is strength in cement concrete depends on the cement content.

Indian Roads Congress has been recommended the maximum allowable limits of

flakiness index values for various types of construction, as given below:

PERMISSIBLE LIMITS - Requirement as per MORT&H

Property Granular Sub-Bases (GSB),

Base courses Bituminous Base &Wearing Courses

Cem

ent

concr

ete

Pav

emen

t (W

eari

ng

surf

aces

)

C

emen

t C

oncr

ete

(Oth

er

than

Wea

ring s

urf

aces

)

SHAPE

TEST

CI =

FI+EI

Sub B

ase

GS

B

Bas

e C

ours

e

WB

M

Bas

e C

ours

e,

Cru

shed

WM

M

Bas

e C

ours

e, C

rush

er

Run M

acad

am BASE COURSE/

BINDER

COURSE

SURFACE

COURSE/

WEARING

COURSE

BM DBM SDBC BC

- 35%

Max.

35%

Max.

35%

Max.

35%

Max.

35%

Max.

30%

Max.

30%

Max.

15%

40%

Max



OBSERVATION TABLE:

Weight of the Aggregate taken for the test (W) = _______________gms

Sr.

No.

FLAKINESS INDEX ELONGATION INDEX

Passing

through IS

sieve

(mm)

Retained on

IS sieve

(mm)

Weight of

Aggregate

taken in each

fraction (gms)

Weight of

aggregate in

each fraction

passing the

thickness

Gauge (gms)

Weight of

Non- Flaky

Aggregate

taken each

fraction (gms)

Weight of

the

aggregate in

each fraction

not passing

the length

Gauge (gms)

1 63 50 - -

1 50 40

2 40 25

3 31.5 25 - -

4 25 20

5 20 16

6 16 12.5

7 12.5 10

8 10 6.3

W = w = W1 = w1 =

(w/W)x100 = (w1/ W1)x100 =

Flakiness Index:

Elongation Index:

Combined Index:

RESULT

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



EXPERIMENT NO: 2 Date :

DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

(IS: 2386 PART-4)

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the impact value of given sample using Aggregate Impact Testing Machine.

INTRODUCTION:

Toughness is the property of a material to resist impact. Due to traffic loads the

road stone are subjected to the pounding action of impact and there is possibility of

breaking into smaller pieces. The road stone should therefore be tough enough to resists

fracture under impact. A test designed to evaluate the toughness of stones i.e. the

resistance of the stones to fracture under repeated impacts may be called an impact test

for road stones.

The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of the resistance of an

aggregate to a sudden shock or an impact, which differs from its resistance to a slow

gradually increasing compressive load. The method of test covers the procedure for

determining the aggregate impact value of course aggregate.

APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of an impact testing machine, a cylindrical measure,

tamping rods, IS sieves, balance and oven.

• Impact Testing Machine :

The machine consists of a metal base with a plain lower surface, supported well

on firm floor, without rocking. A detachable test cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter

10.2 cm and depth 5 cm is rigidly fastened centrally to the base plate A metal hammer

cylindrical m shape, 10 cm in diameter and 5 cm long, with 2 mm chamfer at the lower

edge is capable of sliding freely between vertical guides and fall concentric over the cup.

There is an arrangement for raising the hammer and allowing it to fall freely between

vertical guides from a height of 38+ cm on the test sample in the cup, A key is provided

for supporting the hammer while fastening or removing the cup. Refer Figure.

• Measure:

A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 7.5 cm and depth 5 cm for

measuring aggregate.

• Tamping Rod :

A straight metal tamping rod of circular cross section 1 cm diameter and 25 cm

long, rounded at one end.



• Sieve:

IS sieve of sizes 12.5 mm, 10 mm, and 2.36 mm for sieving the aggregates

• Oven:

A thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining constant

temperature between 100° C and 110° C.

• Balance:

A balance of capacity not less than 500 gm to weight accurate to 0.1 gm

Fig 1. Aggregate Impact Testing Machine

SAMPLE QUANTITY:

The test sample shall consist of aggregate passing through 12.5 mm IS

sieve and retained on a 10 mm IS sieve.

The metal measure shall be filled about one third full with the aggregate

and tamped with 25 strokes of the rounded and of the tamping rod. A further

similar quantity of aggregate shall be added and procedure is repeated. The

measure shall finally be filled to overflowing capacity and after tamping surface

material is struck off using tamping rod weight of aggregate in the measure is

determined and same weight is taken for duplicate test.



PROCEDURE:

The test sample consists of aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10

mm sieve and dried in an oven for four hours at a temperature 100° C to 110° C, and

cooled.

The Impact machine is placed with its bottom plate flat on the floor so that the

hammer guides columns are vertical. The cup is fixed firmly in position of the base of

the machine and the whole of the test sample from the cylindrical measure is transferred

to the cup and compacted by tamping rod with 25 strokes.

The hammer is raised until its lower face is 38 cm above the upper surface of

the aggregates in the cup, and allowed to fall freely on the aggregates. The test

sample is subjected to a total of 15 such blows, each being delivered at an interval of

not less than one second. The crushed aggregates are than removed from the cup

and the whole of its sieved on the 2.36 mm sieve until on further significant

amount passes. The fraction passing the sieve is weighted accurate to 0.1 g. The

weight of the fractions passing and retained on the sieve is added and it should not be

less than the original weight of the specimen by more than one gram, if the total

weight is less than original by over one gram the result should be discarded and a

fresh test is to be performed again, else the aggregate impact value is total weight of

the material passing 2.36 mm sieve, expressed as a percentage of the total weight of

the sample taken. The mean of the two or more results is reported as the aggregate

impact value of the specimen to the nearest whole number.

OBSERVATIONS:

TABLE NO: 1 Aggregate observation Table

Sr.

No.

Description Sample - I Sample–II

1. Original weight of the aggregate passing through

12.5 mm IS sieve and retained on 10 mm IS sieve

i.e. weight ->W1

2. Weight of the aggregate passing through 2.36

mm IS sieve after the test

i.e. weight -> W2

3. Weight of the aggregate retained on 2.36 mm IS

sieve after the test

i.e. weight ->W3 = W1 - W2

4. W2 + W3

5. Impact Value = 𝑊2

𝑊1 100 %

Aggregate Impact Value = _______ % =



SPECIFICATIONS:

Table no: 2 Aggregate Impact Values

Sr.

No.

Aggregate Impact Value Type of aggregate

1. Up to 10 % Exceptionally strong (Too strong) 2. 10% to 20% Strong

3. 20% to 30% Satisfactory for road surface

4 > 35 % Weak for road surface

Table No: 3 Max. Permissible Aggregates Values for the different types of

pavements

For deciding the suitability of soft aggregates in base course construction, this test

has been commonly used. A modified impact test is also often carried out in the case of

soft aggregates to find the wet impact value after soaking the rest samples Based on work

reported by different agencies, the following recommendations have been made assess the

suitability soft aggregates for road construction.

IRC RECOMMENDATIONS:

Sr.

No.

Types of Pavements Max. Aggregate Impact

Value

(IRC Recommendations)

1. Granular sub base 4 0 %

2. Base course (WBM) 3 0 %

3. Base course (WMM) 30%

4.

Bituminous binder

course

Bituminous Macadam (B.M.) 30%

Dense bituminous Macadam

(D.B.M.)

27%

6. Bituminous wearing course - SDBC 27%

7. Bituminous concrete - BC 24%



DISCUSSION:

Chief advantages of aggregate impact test are that it determines the

resistance of stones to impact, simulating field condition. The test can be

performed in a short time even at construction site or at stone quarry, as the

apparatus is simple and portable.

Well shaped cubical stones provided higher resistance to impact when

compared with flaky and elongated stones.

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

(IS: 2386 PART- 4)

OBJ ECTIVE: To determine the crushing value of the given sample of aggregate with the

help of compression testing machine.

INTRODUCTION:

The principal mechanical properties required in road stones are:

• Satisfactory resistance to crushing under the roller during construction and

• Adequate resistance to surface abrasion under traffic. Also surface under rigid type of

heavily loaded drawn vehicles are high enough to consider the crushing

strength of road aggregates as an essential requirement in India

Crushing strength of road stone may be determine either on aggregates or on

cylindrical specimen cut out of rocks. The two tests are quite different not only in the

approach but also in the expression of the results. Aggregate used in road construction,

should be strong enough to resist crushing under traffic wheel loads. If the aggregates are

weak the stability of the pavement structure is likely to be adversely affected. The

strength of coarse aggregates is assessed by aggregate crushing test. The aggregate

crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under a

gradually applied compressive load. To achieve a high quality of pavement,

aggregates possessing low aggregate crushing value should be preferred.

APPARATUS:

• Steel Cylinder with open ends, and internal diameter 15.2 cm, circular base plate,

plunger having a piston of diameter 15 cm with a hole provided across the stem of

the plunger so that a rod could be inserted for lifting or placing the plunger in the

cylinder.

• Cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 11.5 cm and height 18 cm

• Steel tamping rod with one rounded end, having a diameter of 1.6 cm and length 45 to

60cm

• Balance of capacity 3 kg with accuracy up to 1 g.

• Compression testing machine capable of applying load of 40 tones, at a uniform

rate of loading of 4 tones per minute.



150 mm dia Mould 75 mm dia Mould

Fig. Aggregate Crushing Value Test apparatus

Fig . Aggregate Crushing Test Machine (Compression testing machine- 2000 KN Cap)



SAMPLE QUANTITY:

The aggregate comprising the test sample shall be dried in an oven at a

temperature 100°C - 110°C for four hours and cooled. The aggregates should pass the

12.5 mm IS sieve and retained on the 10 mm IS test sieve. The measure shall be filled

about one third full of aggregate and temped with 25 strokes of the tamping rod. A further

similar quantity of aggregate shall be taken and a further tamping of 25 strokes is given,

the measure shall finally be filled to overflowing, temped 25 times and the surplus

aggregate stuck off. The net weight of the aggregate in the measure shall be determined

and this weight of sample shall be used for duplicate on the same material.

PROCEDURE:

The aggregate passing 12.5 mm IS sieve and retained on 10 mm IS sieve is

selected for standard test. The aggregate should be in surface dry condition before testing.

The aggregate may be dried by heating at a temperature 100° С to 110° С for a

period of 4 hours and is tested after being cooled to room temperature.

The cylindrical measure is filled by the test sample of aggregate in three layers of

approximately equal depth, each layer being tamped 25 times by the rounded end of the

tamping rod. After the third layer is tamped, the aggregates at the top of the cylindrical

measure are leveled off by using the tamping rod as a straight edge. About 6.5 kg of

aggregate is required for preparing two test samples. The test sample thus taken is then

weighted. The same weight of the sample is taken in the repeat test.

The cylinder of the test apparatus is placed in position on the base, one third of the

test sample is placed in this cylinder and tamped 25 times by the tamping rod similarly,

two parts of the test specimen is added, each layer being subjected to 25 blows. The total

depth of the material in the cylinder after tamping shall however be 10 cm. The surface of

the aggregates is leveled and the plunger inserted so that it rests on this surface in level

position. The cylinder with the test sample and plunger in position is placed on

compression machine. Load is then applied though the plunger at a uniform rate of 4

tons per minute until the total load is 40 tons. Aggregates including the crushed

portion are removed from the cylinder and sieved on a 2.36 mm IS sieve. The

material which passes through the sieve is collected.

The above crushing test is repeated on second sample of the same weight in

accordance with above test procedure. Thus two tests are made for the same specimen for

taking an average value

Table No: 1 Recommended Aggregate crushing value.

Sr. No. Description Maximum crushing value

1. Sub grade course 45%

2. Sub base + base course 45%

3. Bituminous base course + Wearing course 30%



OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr. No. Description Test -1 Test-2

1. Weight of oven drying aggregate passing 12.5

mm IS sieve and retain on 10 mm IS sieve.

W1

2. Weight of sample passes 2.36 mm IS sieve

after test W2

3. Weight sample retain 2.36 mm IS sieve after

test W3

4. Aggregate crushing value

= 𝑊2

𝑊1 x 100%

5. W1=W2+ W3

6. Avg. aggregate crushing value in %

RESULTS:

The mean of the crushing value obtained in the two tests is reported as the aggregate

crushing value.

DISCUSSION:

In general, larger size of aggregates used in the test, results in higher aggregate crushing

value. The relationship between the aggregate sizes and the crushing values will however

vary with the type of specimens tested.

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




ABRASION VALUE OF ROAD AGGREGATE (IS: 2386 PART - 5)

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the hardness of the sample aggregate by testing for abrasion value

using Los Angles Testing Machine.

INTRODUCTION:

Due to the movement of traffic, the road stones and used in the surfacing course

are subjected to wearing action at the top Resistance to wear or hardness is hence an

essential property of road aggregate, especially when used in wearing course. Thus road

stones should be hard enough to resist the abrasion due the traffic. When fast moving

traffic fitted with pneumatic tyres move on the road, the sod particles present between the

wheel and road surface causes abrasion on the road stone. Steel tyres of the animal drawn

vehicles which rub against the stones can cause considerable abrasion of the stones on the

road surface Hence in order to tests are carried out in the laboratory.

LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST:

The principle of Los Angeles Abrasion Test is to find the percentage wear

due to the relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as

abrasive charge, pounding action of these balls also exist while conducting the test.

Some investigators believe this test to be more dependable as rubbing and pounding

action simulate the field conditions where both abrasion and impact occur. Los Angeles

Abrasion Test has been standardized by the ASTM, AASHTO and also by the ISI

Standard specifications of Los Angeles Abrasion Values are also available for various

types of pavement constructions.

APPARATUS:

(i). Los Angeles Machine should have essential characteristics as under: The

machine has hollow steel cylinder 700 mm in dia, and 500 mm in side length. A

steel self-88 x 25 x 500 mm is projecting radially. It can be mounted on inside of

the cover plate.

(ii). Sieve 1.70 mm and as given in Table 1. for different grades of aggregates

(iii). Abrasive charge: It consists of cast iron spheres or steel sphere app 48 mm in dia

and weighing 390 to 446 gm No of spheres are chosen from Table - 2 as per the

grade of aggregates.

(iv). Oven and accurate balance.



Fig. Loss Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine

SAMPLE QUANTITY:

Sieve the sample of aggregate and refer to the "Grades of Test sample" to decide

the grade and the weight of the aggregate to be taken. Take little пюге than the required

quantity in the oven at 105 °C to 110 °C for 24 hours for drying. Allow it to cool to room

temperature. From this sample, weigh the required quantity for the test.

PROCEDURE:

Clean aggregate dried in oven at 105° С to 110 °C to constant weight, confirming

to any one of the grading A, to G, as per Table 1 is used for the test. The grading or

grading used in the test should be nearest to the grading to be used in construction

Aggregates weighing 5 kg for grading А, В, С or D and 10 kg for grading E, F or G may

be taken as test specimen and placed in the cylinder. The abrasive charge is also chosen in

accordance with Table 1 depending on the grading of the aggregate and is placed m the

cylinder of the machine. The cover is then fixed dust sight. The machine is rotated at a

speed of 30 to 33 revolutions per minute. The machine is rotated for 500 revolutions for

grading А, В, С and D. For grading E, F and G, it shall be rotated for 1000

revolutions. The machine should be balanced and driven in such a way as to maintain

uniform peripheral speed.

After the desired number of revolutions, the machine is stopped and the material is

discharged from the machine taking care to take out entire stone dust. Using a sieve

coarser than 1.70 mm IS sieve, the material is first separate into two parts and the finer

portion is taken out and sieved further on a 1.7 mm IS sieve. The portion of material

coarser than 1.70 mm size is washed and dried in an oven at 105 °C to 110 °C to constant

weight and correct to one gram



OBSERVATION

TABLE: 1 Specification for Los Angeles Test

Grad

-ing

Weight in grams of each lest sample in the size range mm

(passing and retained on square holes)

No. of

spheres

Weight of

charge

gms.

80-63 63-50 50-40,

40-25

25-20 20-

12.5

12.5-

10

10-

6.3

6.3-

4.75

4.75-

2.36

A - - - 1250 1250 1250 1250 - - - 12 5000±25

В - - - - - 2500 2500 - - - 11 4584±25

С - - - - - - - 2500 2500 - 8 3330±20

D - - - - - - - - - 5000 6 2500+15

E 2500' 2500

»

5000 - - - - - - - 12 5000+25

F - - 5000

"

5000

*

- - - - - 12 5000±25

G - - - 5000

*

5000 - 1 - - - 12 5000+25

• Tolerance of ±2 percent is permitted

• Let the original weight of aggregate = W1gm

• Weight of aggregate retained on 1.70 mm IS sieve after the test = W2 gm

• Loss in weight due to wear = (Wl- W2) gm

• Percentage wear = 𝑊1−𝑊2

𝑊1 x 100

TABLE: 2

Sr. No. Description Sample -1 Sample - II

1. Original weight of aggregate W1gms.

2. Weight of material retain on 1.70 mm IS-sieve after

test W2

3. Weight of passing (W1 - W2) gms.

4. Abrasion Value in % = 𝑊1−𝑊2

𝑊1 x 100

5 Avg. Abrasion value in %

APPLICATIONS OF LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST:

Los Angeles Abrasion test is very widely accepted as suitable test to assess the

hardness of aggregate used in pavement construction. Many agencies have specified the

desirable limits of the test, for different methods of pavement construction. The maximum



allowable Los Angeles Abrasion values of aggregates as specified by Indian Roads

Congress for different methods of construction are given below:

Sr.

No.

Type of surface Max. Los Angeles

Abrasion Value %

1. Water Bound Macadam and surface treated

WBM (Wear at 500 revolutions)

40

2. Bituminous surface dressing - BM 40

3. Bituminous dam macadam 35

4. DBM,SDBC 35

5. Bituminous concrete 30

6. Cement Concrete 16

The difference between the original and final weights of the sample expressed as a

percentage of the original weight of the sample is reported as the percentage wears.

DISCUSSION:

It may seldom happen that the aggregates desired for a certain construction project

has the same grading as any one of the specified grading In all cases the standard grading

or grading nearest to the gradation of the selected aggregates may be chosen

Different specification limits may be required for grading E, F and G when

compared with А, В and D. Further investigations are necessary before any such

specifications could be made.

Los Angeles Abrasion Test is very commonly used to evaluate the quality of road

aggregates, especially to decide the hardness of stones. However, this test may be

considered as one in which resistance to both abrasion and impact of aggregate may be

obtained simultaneously, due to the presence of abrasive charge. Also the test condition is

considered more representatives of field conditions. The result obtained on stone

aggregates is highly reproducible.

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION TEST

(IS: 2386 PART-3-1963)

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates by perforated

basket.

INTRODUCTION:

The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of strength or

quality of the material. The specific gravity test helps in the identification of stone. Water

absorption gives an idea of strength of aggregate. Aggregates having more water

absorption are more porous in nature and are generally considered unsuitable unless they

are found to be acceptable based on strength, impact and hardness tests.

1) Specific gravity = (dry weight of the aggregate / Weight of equal volume of water)

2) Apparent specific gravity = (dry weight of the aggregate / Weight of equal volume

of water excluding air voids in aggregate)

Pycnometer Bottle Perforated Basket Apparatus



APPARATUS:

• A wire basket of not more than 6.3mm mesh or a perforated container of

convenient size with thin wire hangers for suspending it from the balance.

• A thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature of 100° to 110°C.

• A container for filling water and suspending the basket.

• An airtight container of capacity similar to that of the basket.

• A balance of capacity about 5 kg. to weigh accurate to 0.5 g. and of such a type

and shape as to permit weighing of the sample container when suspended in

water.

• A shallow tray and two dry absorbent clothes, each not less than 750 X 450 mm.

PROCEDURE:

(i) About 2 kg of aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines, drained and

placed in wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature between 22- 32º C

and a cover of at least 5cm of water above the top of basket.

(ii) Immediately after immersion the entrapped air is removed from the sample by lifting

the basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop at the

rate of about one drop per second. The basket and aggregate should remain completely

immersed in water for a period of 24 hour afterwards.

(iii) The basket and the sample are weighed while suspended in water at a temperature of

22° – 32°C. The weight while suspended in water is noted =W1g.

(iv) The basket and aggregates are removed from water and allowed to drain for a few

minutes, after which the aggregates are transferred to the dry absorbent clothes. The

empty basket is then returned to the tank of water jolted 25 times and weighed in water=

W2 g.

(v) The aggregates placed on the absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further

moisture could be removed by this cloth. Then the aggregates are transferred to the

second dry cloth spread in single layer and allowed to dry for at least 10 minutes until the

aggregates are completely surface dry. The surface dried aggregate is then weighed =W3

g.

(vi) The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven maintained at a

temperature of 110° C for 24 hrs. It is then removed from the oven, cooled in an air tight

container and weighted=W4 g.



OBSERVATIONS:

By using pycnometer bottle:

The specific gravity of the aggregate sample is calculated as given belowIS:2386 (Part 3-

1963):

Specific gravity = 𝑅

𝑄1−(𝑄2−𝑆)

Apparent specific gravity = 𝑅

𝑅−(𝑄2−𝑆)

Water absorption by per cent weight of aggregates = (𝑄1− 𝑅)

𝑅 x 100

Where,

Q1= weight of saturated surface-dry aggregate

Q2= total weight of pycnometer filled with saturated aggregates and water

S = weight of surface-dry pycnometer filled with water

R =weight of oven dried aggregates

By using perforated wire basket:

1) Empty weight of wire bucket = W1 gm

2) W1 + Weight dry aggregate = W2 gm

3) W2 in water = W3 gm

4) W1 in water = W4 gm

CALCULATION:

1) Specific gravity = 𝑊2−𝑊1

(𝑊2−𝑊1)−(𝑊3−𝑊4)

FOR WATER ABSORPTION:



1) Dry weight of aggregate = W1 =

2) Weight of aggregate immersed in water = W2 =

3) Water absorption = 𝑊2−𝑊1

𝑊1 X 100 =

RECOMMENDED VALUE:

The size of the aggregate and whether it has been artificially heated should be indicated.

ISI specifies three methods of testing for the determination of the specific gravity of

aggregates, according to the size of the aggregates. The three size ranges used are

aggregates larger than 10 mm, 40 mm and smaller than 10 mm. The specific gravity of

aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5 to 3.0 with an

average of about 2.68. Though high specific gravity is considered as an indication of high

strength, it is not possible to judge the suitability of a sample road aggregate without

finding the mechanical properties such as aggregate crushing, impact and abrasion values.

Water absorption shall not be more than 2% per unit by weight.

DISCUSSION

In case in Water absorption is higher than 2% than soundness test is required.

RESULT:

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




GRADATION AND BLENDING OF AGGREGATE:

Proportioning of Mineral Aggregate:

Methods of proportioning

Graphical methods Using formula Iterative methods

1. Triangular chart method P = Aa+Bb+Cc+Dd+… 1.Trial and error method

2. Rothfutch’s method 2.Simple iterative or

genetic algorithm based

Using Formula and trial and error method

❖ Aggregate blending:

P = Aa + Bb + Cc + Dd + …………

Where, P = Total percentage of aggregates A,B,C,D,…

passing from a given sieve

A,B,C,D,….=% of aggregate A,B,C,D,…..

passing from a given sieve

a,b,c,d,…=Proportion of aggregate A,B,C,D,…..

(1) Two Aggregate blending:

P = Aa + Bb and a + b = 1

Hence, a = 1 – b

∴ P = A (1 – b) + Bb

∴ P = A – Ab + Bb

∴ P = A + b (B – A)

∴ P – A = b (B – A)

∴ b = P−A

B−A

∴ a = 1 – b

= 1 - P−A

B−A

= B−A−P

B−A

= B−P

B−A a =

P−B

A−B



❖ Calculate the blending proportion for two aggregate by using the following data to meet

the given specifications:

Sieve size 12.5 mm 10.0

mm

4.75

mm

2.36

mm 600 µ 300 µ 150 µ 75 µ

Specification 80-100 70-90 50-70 30-50 18-29 13-23 8-16 4-10

% passing

Aggregate A 100 60 30 10 2 0 0 0

% passing

Aggregate B 100 100 100 85 52.5 42.5 30 15

Mid value, P 90 80 60 40 23.5 18 12 7

For 2.36 mm sieve

P=40, A=10, B=8

∴ b = 𝑃−𝐴

𝐵−𝐴 =

40−10

85−10 =

30

75 = 0.4

∴ a = 1 – b = 0.6

First Iteration:


mm

4.75

mm

2.36

mm

600

µ

300

µ 150 µ

75

µ

Specification 80-100 70-90 50-70 30-50 18-29 13-23 8-16 4-10

% passing

Aggregate A 60 36 18 6 1.2 0 0 0

% passing

Aggregate B 40 40 40 34 21 17 12 6

Total 100 76 58 40 22.2 17 12 6

Now, Reduce proportion of aggregate by 2% = a = 0.58

Increase proportion of aggregate by 2% = b = 0.42



Second iteration:


mm

4.75

mm

2.36

mm

600

µ

300

µ 150 µ

75

µ

Specification 80-100 70-90 50-70 30-50 18-29 13-23 8-16 4-10

% passing

Aggregate A 58 34.8 17.4 5.8 1.16 0 0 0

% passing

Aggregate B 42 42 42 35.7 22.05 17.8 12.6 6.3

Total 100 76.8 59.4 41.5 23.2 17.8 12.6 6.3

Hence proportion of aggregate A = 58%

Proportion of aggregate B = 42%

Graphical Method for 2 Aggregates ( Refer attach chart)

Steps

1) Take suitable scale on graph mark 0 to 100% of Aggregate A on X axis at bottom of

graph and on top of graph % of aggregate B aggregates as opposite direction of A

aggregate

2) On Y axis Left hand side (LHS)of graph mark 0 to 100 % for % passing of aggregate B

and on Right hand side (RHS)of graph mark 0 to 100% for % passing of aggregate A.

3) Now see the % passing of aggregate A and aggregate B in respective size of sieve

(i) For 12.5 mm sieve size aggregate A is passing 100% and B is also passing

100% so mark on X axis on top of graph on the side of % passing of aggregate A

and B

(ii) For 10 mm sieve size aggregate A is passing 60% and B is passing 100% so

mark point on 60% -Y axis of graph (% passing of aggregate A) –RHS and mark

point on 100% -Y axis of graph –LHS(% passing of aggregate B) ,…now join the

line between 60% of A and 100% of B

(iii) For 4.75 mm sieve size aggregate A is passing 30% and B is passing 100% so

mark point on 30% -Y axis of graph(% passing of aggregate A) –RHS and mark

point on 100% -Y axis of graph –LHS (% passing of aggregate B) ,…now join the


(iv) For 2.36 mm sieve size aggregate A is passing 10% and B is passing 85% so

mark point on 10% -Y axis of graph(% passing of aggregate A) –RHS and mark

point on 85% -Y axis of graph –LHS (% passing of aggregate B) ,…now join the


In similar style make a line for % passing of Aggregate A and B

4) Now see the specification e.g. 10.0 mm sieve has % passing 70 to 90 %. Mark the

point on line which we have join as per step 3(ii) on 70% passing of aggregate A –RHS

and 90% passing of aggregate B-LHS.



In similar style make a point on each line which we have prepared from step 3

5) Now Find the mid of both the line inner and out and make a line ending ox bottom X

and axis and top of X axis

6) See the end of line on bottom of X axis % of aggregate A and top of X axis % of

aggregate B…that suggest the desirable proportion of aggregate A and B

Graphical solution for proportioning of two aggregate

( 2 ) Three Aggregate blending: -

Using Formula and trial and error method

P = Aa + Bb + Cc ; a + b + c = 1

❖ Calculate the blending proportion for three aggregate by using following data to meet

the given specifications.




mm

4.75

mm

2.36

mm

1.18

mm

600

µ

300

µ

150

µ

75

µ

Specification 100 70-90 45-65 30-60 25-50 19-36 8-25 4-12 3-6

% passing

Aggregate A 100 62 8 2 0 0 0 0 0

% passing

Aggregate B 100 100 100 91 73 51 24 4 0

% passing

Aggregate C 100 100 78 52 36 29 24 20 18

Mid value 100 80 55 45 37.5 27.5 16.5 8 4.5

For 75µ sieve

P = Aa + Bb + Cc

4.5=0(a)+0(b)+18(C)

∴ C=0.25

a + b + c = 1

a + b + 0.25 = 1

a + b = 0.75

a = 0.75 – b

For 2.36mm sieve

P=Aa + Bb + Cc

P=A (b + 0.75) + Bb + C(0.25)

P=0.75A – Ab + Bb + 0.25C

b = 𝑃−0.75𝐴−0.252𝐶

𝐵−𝐴

= 45−0.75(2)−0.25𝐶

𝐵−𝐴

= 0.45−0.75(2)−0.25(52)

91−2

b = 0.34

∴ a + b + c = 1

a + 0.34 + 0.25 = 1

∴ a = 0.41



First Iteration:

Sieve size 12.5

mm

10.0

mm

4.75

mm

2.36

mm

1.18

mm

600

µ

300

µ

150

µ

75

µ

Specification 100 70-90 45-65 30-60 25-50 19-

36 8-25 4-12 3-6

Aggregate A 41 25.42 3.28 0.82 0 0 0 0 0

Aggregate B 34 34 34 30.94 24.82 17.34 8.16 1.36 0

Aggregate C 25 25 19.5 13 9 7.25 6 5 4.5

Total 100 83.42 56.78 44.76 33.82 24.59 14.16 6.36 4.5

Now, Reduce proportion of aggregate A by 2% = a = 0.39

Increase proportion of aggregate B by 1% = b = 0.35

Increase proportion of aggregate C by 1% = b = 0.26

Second Iteration:

Sieve size 12.5

mm

10.0

mm

4.75

mm

2.36

mm

1.18

mm

600

µ

300

µ 150 µ

75

µ

Specification 100 70-90 45-65 30-60 25-50 19-36 8-25 4-12 3-6

Aggregate A 39 24.18 3.12 0.78 0 0 0 0 0

Aggregate B 35 35 35 31.85 25.55 17.85 8.4 1.4 0

Aggregate C 26 26 20.28 13.52 9.36 7.54 6.24 5.2 4.68

Total 100 85.18 58.4 46.15 34.91 25.39 14.64 6.6 4.6

Ideal gradations for maximum packing of aggregate particles have been suggested

by many researchers. However, the so-called Fuller´s curve is quite well known. The

following is the equation for Fuller´s maximum density curve:

P=100(d/D)n

Where,

d= diameter of the sieve size in question

P=total percent passing or finer than the sieve

D=maximum size of the aggregate

n=exponent

Graphical Method for 3 Aggregates ( Refer attach chart)



Chart for three aggregate blends



PROPORTIONING OF AGGREGATES

Size A B C D LL UL MID GRADATION SE

20 mm 12.5 mm 6 mm Stone dust

26.5 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0.00

19 75.08 100 100 100 79 100 90 92 5.18

13.2 1.48 100 100 100 59 79 69 67 2.28

9.2 0.00 90.00 100 100 52 72 62 65 7.84

4.75 0.00 5.00 100 100 35 55 45 46 1.21

2.36 0.00 0.00 70.50 100 28 44 36 32 13.58

1.18 0.00 0.00 50.55 100 20 34 27 24 10.65

0.6 0.00 0.00 40.50 100 15 27 21 19 2.51

0.3 0.00 0.00 30.00 100 10 20 15 15 0.01

0.15 0.00 0.00 16.54 100 5 13 9 9 0.01

0.075 0.00 0.00 6.00 97.00 2 8 5 5 0.23

Solution Bar 43.51

Proportion 0.3300 0.2200 0.4300 0.0200 0.0000 Total Proportion 1.00

Percent 33.00 22.00 43.00 2.00 0.00 Total Percent 100

Experiment :

Size A B C D LL UL MID GRADATION SE

Solution Bar

Proportion Total Proportion 1.00

Percent Total Percent 100



Calculation:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



Comparison table of aggregate test

Specificati

on

Name of test

Impact Abrasion Crushing

value Shape Specific gravity and

water absorption Elongation Flakiness

Measure Toughness Hardness Strength Shape Shape Quality

Instrument

Impact

testing

machine

Loss angles

abrasion

machine Mould Length gauge Thickness gauge Pycnometer bottle or

Wire bucket

Brief

specification

Hammer-

13.5-14 kg

25 stock

Free fall

380mm

height

Steel

sphere

48mm dia.

Wt. 390 to

446 gm

Mould

15.2

cm

15 cm

Piston

Dimension<9

5

200 Pieces

Dimension<5

8

200 Pieces

Specific gravity range

2.2 to 3.2

Water absorption max.

allowable 2.0 %

Sample size

12.5 mm

passing,

10 mm

retain*

Grading

A,B,C,D=5 Kg

E F and G =10

Kg

12.5 mm

passing,

10 mm

retain

Test on minimum 200

pieces passing and retain

on respective sieve size

Test on minimum 200 pieces

passing and retain on

respective sieve size -

Sieve size

used

Limiting

criteria

2.36 mm 1.7 mm 2.36 mm

Particle size smaller than

6.3 mm elongation test is

not applicable

Particle size smaller than 6.3

mm elongation test is not

applicable

-

*For smaller size of aggregate impact test can be done refer IS 2386 part IV



Type of WorkMax. Lab Dry Unit Weight

when tested as per IS:2720 (Part 8)

Embankments up to 3m height, not

subjected to extensive floodingNot less than 15.2 kN/cu. m.

Grading

No.Size Range

IS Sieve

Size

% by Weight

Passing

Grading

Class

Size of

Screenings

IS Sieve

Size

% by Weight

Passing

Embankments exceeding 3m height

or embankments of any height

subject to long periods of inundation

Not less than 16 kN/cu. m. I II III IV V VI 75 mm 100 13.2 mm 10 53 mm 100

Subgrade and earthen

shoulders/verges,backfillNot less than 17.5 kN/cu. m. 75.0 mm 100 - - - 100 - 63 mm 90-100 11.2 mm 95-100 45 mm 95-100

53.0 mm 80-100 100 100 100 80-100 100 53 mm 25-75 5.6 mm 15-35 26.5 mm -

26.5 mm 55-90 70-100 55-75 50-80 55-90 75-100 45 mm 0-15 22.4 mm 60-80

Type of work/material

Relative Compaction as % of Max.

Lab Dry Density

as per IS:2720 (Part 8)9.50 mm 35-65 50-80 - - 35-65 55-75 22.4 mm 0-5 11.20 mm 40-60

Subgrade and earthen shoulders Not less than 97% 4.75 mm 25-55 40-65 10-30 15-35 25-50 30-55 63 mm 100 11.2 mm 100 4.75 mm 25-40

Embankment Not less than 95% 2.36 mm 20-40 30-50 - - 10-20 10-25 53 mm 95-100 9.5 mm 80-100 2.36 mm 15-30

0.85 mm - - - - 2-10 - 45 mm 65-90 5.6 mm 50-70600

micron8-22

a) Subgrade and 500 mm portion

just below the subgradeNot allowed 0.425 mm 10-15 10-15 - - 0-5 0-8 22.4 mm 0-10

b) Remaining portion of

embankment90-95% 0.075 mm <5 <5 <5 <5 - 0-3 11.2 mm 0-5

Specifications for Road - Earth Work, Sub-grade, Sub-Base and Base Course As per MORTH (Fifth Revision)

Granular Sub-Base Materials (GSB)Wet Mix

Macadam (WMM)

IS Sieve

Size

1 A

63 mm

to

45 mm

B

75 micron 0-5

Expansive Clays (Free swell index ≥ 50 %)

Grading Class

53 mm

to

22.4 mm

5-25

0-10

2

180

micron

13.2 mm

11.2 mm

180

micron

Compaction Requirements

IS Sieve

Size

% by Weight

Passing

Percent by Weight Passing the IS Sieve

Earth work, Embankment and Subgrade

Construction RequirementSub-Bases, Base Course and Shoulders (Non-Bituminous)

Grading Requirements

Water Bound Macadam (WBM)

Coarse Aggregates Screening Aggregates

Density Requirement

Department of Civil Engineering, Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot



I.S. SOIL CLASSIFICATION ( IS 1498-1970) G= Gravel, S=Sand, C= Clay, M=Silt, W=Well graded, P= Poorly graded,L= Low compressibility, I= Intermediate compressibility, H=High compressibility,

O=Organic.

Major Division Group

symbol

Typical names Classification criteria Dual classification

Coarse grained

soil

More than 50% retained on 75μ

sieve

Gravel -More than 50%

retained on 4.75

mm sieve

Less than 5% passing through

75 μ sieve

GW Well graded gravels, Gravel sand mixtures with little

or no fines Cu>4 , Cc -1 to 3

% Passing between 5%

to 12% GW-GM

GW-GC

GP-GM GP-GC

GP Poorly graded gravel, Gravel sand mixtures with little

or no fines Not meeting above criteria

More than 12 % passing through

75 μ sieve

GM Silty gravels, Gravel, sand and silt mixtures, poorly

graded PI<4 PI between

4 and 7

GM-GC GC Clayey gravels, Gravel, sand and silt mixtures, poorly

graded PI>7

Sand -More

than 50% passing from

4.75 mm and

retained on 75 μ sieve

Less than 5% passing through

75 μ sieve

SW Well graded sand, Gravelly sands little or no fines Cu>6 , Cc -1 to 3 % Passing between 5%

to 12% SW-SM

SW-SC

SP-SM SP-SC

SP Poorly graded sand, Gravelly sand, little or no fines Not meeting above criteria

More than 12 %

passing through 75 μ sieve

SM Silty sand, poorly graded sand-silt mixtures PI<4 PI between

4 and 7 SM-SC SC Clayey sand, poorly graded sand-clay mixtures PI>7

Fine grained

soil More than 50%

passing from

75μ sieve

With low compressibility

WL < 35

ML In organic silt, silty or clayey fine sand, with low

plasticity,

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PLASTICITY CHART

CL In organic clay, sand ,silty and clay mixtures with low

plasticity,

OL In organic silt

of low plasticity

With Intermediate compressibility

WL > 35 and WL < 50

MI In organic silt, silty or clayey fine sand of medium

plasticity

CI In organic clay, sandy clay, silty clayey of medium

plasticity

OI Organic silts and organic silty clay

of medium plasticity

With high compressibility

WL > 50

MH In organic silts, silty soil

of high compressibility

CH In organic clay


OH Organic clay


Highly organic soil Pt

Highly organic soil of high compressibility



SECTION-B

TEST ON SOIL


7 California bearing ratio test (CBR test) IS:2720 part-16

8 Dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) test IRC:SP:72-2015

CBR TEST CLASSIFICATION

Lab Test Field CBR Test

(Disturbed sample /Undisturbed sample)

Light Compaction Heavy Compaction

(Standard Procter) (Modified Procter)

Static compaction /Dynamic Compaction Static compaction/Dynamic Compaction

Socked Unsocked Socked Unsocked CBR CBR CBR CBR

Light compaction Heavy compaction

Mould Vol 2210 cc 2210 cc

Hammer 2.6 kg 4.9 kg

Height of fall 31 cm 45 cm

No. of blow 55 55

No. of layer 3 5




CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST (CBR TEST)

(IS: 2720 PART-16)

OBJECTIVE:

➢ To determine the California bearing ratio by conducting a load penetration test in the

laboratory.

NEED AND SCOPE:

➢ The California bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of

subgrade strength of roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used

with the empirical curves to determine the thickness of pavement and its component

layers. This is the most widely used method for the design of flexible pavement.

➢ This instruction sheet covers the laboratory method for the determination of C.B.R. of

undisturbed and remoulded /compacted soil specimens, both in soaked as well as

unsoaked state.

EQUIPMENTS AND TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Cylindrical mould with inside dia 150 mm and height 175 mm, provided with a

detachable extension collar 50 mm height and a detachable perforated base plate 10 mm

thick.

2. Spacer disc 148 mm in dia and 47.7 mm in height along with handle.

3. Metal rammers:- Weight 2.6 kg with a drop of 310 mm (or) weight 4.89 kg a drop 450

mm.

4. Weights:- One annular metal weight and several slotted weights weighing 2.5 kg each,

147 mm in dia, with a central hole 53 mm in diameter.

5. Loading machine:- With a capacity of at least 5000 kg and equipped with a movable

head or base that travels at an uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min. Complete with load

indicating device.

6. Metal penetration piston 50 mm dia and minimum of 100 mm in length.

7. Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm.

8. Sieves. 4.75 mm and 20 mm I.S. Sieves.

9. Miscellaneous apparatus, such as a mixing bowl, straight edge, scales soaking tank or

pan, drying oven, filter paper and containers.

DEFINITION OF CBR:

➢ It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard

circular piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding

penetration of a standard material.

➢ C.B.R. = Test load

Standard load x 100

➢ The following table gives the standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the

standard material with a C.B.R. value of 100%



Penetration of plunger

(mm) Standard load (kg)

2.5

5.0

7.5

10.0

12.5

1370

2055

2630

3180

3600

The test may be performed on undisturbed specimens and on remoulded specimens

which may be compacted either statically or dynamically.

PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMEN:

1. Undisturbed specimen

➢ Attach the cutting edge to the mould and push it gently into the ground. Remove the

soil from the outside of the mould which is pushed in . When the mould is full of soil,

remove it from weighing the soil with the mould or by any field method near the spot.

DETERMINE THE DENSITY:

2. Remoulded Specimen

➢ Prepare the remoulded specimen at Proctors maximum dry density or any other

density at which C.B.R. is required. Maintain the specimen at optimum moisture

content or the field moisture as required. The material used should pass 20 mm I.S.

sieve but it should be retained on 4.75 mm I.S. sieve. Prepare the specimen either by

dynamic compaction or by static compaction.

(a) Dynamic Compaction

Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of soil and mix thoroughly with the required water.

Fix the extension collar and the base plate to the mould. Insert the spacer disc over the

base (See Fig.38). Place the filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.

• Compact the mix soil in the mould using either light compaction or heavy

compaction. For light compaction, compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer

being given 55 blows by the 2.6 kg rammer. For heavy compaction compact the

soil in 5 layers, 56 blows to each layer by the 4.89 kg rammer.

• Remove the collar and trim off soil.

• Turn the mould upside down and remove the base plate and the displacer disc.

• Weigh the mould with compacted soil and determine the bulk density and dry

density.

• Put filter paper on the top of the compacted soil (collar side) and clamp the

perforated base plate on to it.

(b) Static Compaction (IRC prefer static compaction)

Calculate the weight of the wet soil at the required water content to give the desired

density when occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould from the expression.



W = desired dry density * (1+w) V

Where W = Weight of the wet soil

w = desired water content

V = volume of the specimen in the mould = 2250 cm3 (as per the mould available

in laboratory)

• Take the weight W (calculated as above) of the mix soil and place it in the mould.

• Place a filter paper and the displacer disc on the top of soil.

• Keep the mould assembly in static loading frame and compact by pressing the

displacer disc till the level of disc reaches the top of the mould.

• Keep the load for some time and then release the load. Remove the displacer disc.

• The test may be conducted for both soaked as well as unsoaked conditions.

• If the sample is to be soaked, in both cases of compaction, put a filter paper on the top

of the soil and place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the top of filter paper.

• Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to weight of base material and

pavement expected in actual construction. Each 2.5 kg weight is equivalent to 7 cm

construction. A minimum of two weights should be put.

• Immerse the mould assembly and weights in a tank of water and soak it for 96 hours.

Remove the mould from tank. Note the consolidation of the specimen.

Procedure for Penetration Test

• Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weights on the penetration test

machine. Fig. 1.

• Seat the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with the smallest possible

load, but in no case in excess of 4 kg so that full contact of the piston on the

sample is established.

• Set the stress and strain dial gauge to read zero. Apply the load on the piston so

that the penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min.

• Record the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5,

10 and 12.5 mm. Note the maximum load and corresponding penetration if it

occurs for a penetration less than 12.5 mm.

• Detach the mould from the loading equipment. Take about 20 to 50 g of soil from

the top 3 cm layer and determine the moisture content.



Fig 1 CBR test setup

Figure -2 Correlation load penetration curves



Observation and Recording

For Dynamic Compaction

• Optimum water content (%) :____________________________

• Weight of mould + compacted specimen g :____________________________

• Weight of empty mould g :____________________________

• Weight of compacted specimen g :____________________________

• Volume of specimen cm3 :____________________________

• Bulk density g/cc :____________________________

• Dry density g/cc :____________________________

For Static Compaction

Dry density g/cc : ___________________________

Moulding water content % : ___________________________

Wet weight of the compacted soil, (W)g : ___________________________

Period of soaking 96 hrs. (4days) : ___________________________

For Penetration Test

Calibration factor of the proving ring :

Surcharge weight used (kg) : 2.0 kg per 6 cm construction

Water content after penetration test % :

Least count of penetration dial : 1 Div. = 0.01 mm

If the initial portion of the curve is concave upwards, apply correction by drawing a

tangent to the curve at the point of greatest slope and shift the origin (Fig. 2). Find and

record the correct load reading corresponding to each penetration.

C.B.R. = PT/PS *100

Where, PT = Corrected test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from the load

penetration curve.

PS = Standard load for the same penetration taken from the table .



Proving ring capacity: ________ KN

Proving ring calibration factor: ________ KN/division

Observation Table:

Penetration in-

mm

Readings on

proving ring*

( Ring division)

Load in KN Load (Kg) Corrected load

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

4.0

5.0

7.5

10.0

12.5

Interpretation and recording

C.B.R. of specimen at 2.5 mm penetration =

C.B.R. of specimen at 5.0 mm penetration =

Important Notes

The C.B.R. values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 mm.

Generally the C.B.R. value at 2.5 mm will be greater that at 5 mm and in such a

case/the former shall be taken as C.B.R. for design purpose. If C.B.R. for 5 mm

exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test should be repeated. If identical results follow, the

C.B.R. corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be taken for design.

Calculation:

Conclusion:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




DYNAMIC CONE PENETROMETER (DCP) TEST

INTRODUCTION

➢ The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer is a simple device developed in UK for rapid in situ

strength evaluation of subgrade and other unbound pavement layers. Essentially, a

DCP measures the penetration of a standard cone when driven by a standard force,

the reported DCP value being in terms of the penetration of a standard cone, in mm

per blow of the standard hammer.

➢ Basically, the penetration (in mm) per blow is inversely proportional to the strength

the material. Thus, higher the CBR value of a material being tested, lower will be the

DCP value in mm/blow.

OBJECTIVE

➢ To evaluate strength of subgrade and other unbound pavement layers on site.

APPARATUS

➢ DCP test apparatus consists of steel cone with an angle of 60o having diameter of 20

mm, standard 8 kg drop hammer slides over a 16 mm diameter steel rod with a fall

height of 575 mm.

NEED AND SCOPE

➢ This test is needed to measure the subgrade strength, also to determine the boundaries

between pavement layers with different strengths and their thicknesses. The

measurements can be taken up to 1.2m depth with an extension rod.

PROCEDURE

➢ One person holds the DCP instrument in a vertical position; another person carefully

drops the weight and third takes the readings of penetration.

➢ The penetration of the cone can be measured on a graduated scale. The readings are

taken with each blow of the weight.

➢ The field data is reduced in terms of penetration versus corresponding number of

blows. The number of blows and depth readings are recorded on the DCP test form.

➢ The cone is case-hardened but requires replacing. When used on subgrade materials

the cone can be expected to last 30 to 40 tests before replacement.



The DCP test is especially useful for bituminous pavement rehabilitation design and is

being used extensively in several countries.

The following charts show the relationship between DCP (mm/blow) and CBR.



OBSERVATION TABLE:

No. of blow penetration Cumulative

penetration CBR value

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

For all soils except for CL and CH soils having CBR value less than 10 %,

CBR = 292

(𝐷𝐶𝑃)1.12 where, DCP is the penetration per blow.

For CL soils with CBR< 10, CBR = 292

(0.017019∗𝐷𝐶𝑃)

For CH soils, CBR = 292

(0.002871∗𝐷𝐶𝑃)

CALCULATIONS:



RESULTS:

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



Working with

Bituminous Mix

Temp.

°C

Tests on

Bitumen/Mix

- 200 -Nominal

Agg. Size

37.5

mm

26.5

mm

Nominal

Agg. Size19 mm 13.2 mm

- 175Minimum Flash

Point

Bitumen

Viscosity

Grade

Bitumen

Temperature

Aggregate

Temperature

Mixed

Material

Temperature

Laying

Temperature

*Rolling

Temperature

Layer

Thickness

75-100

mm

50-75

mm

Layer

Thickness50 mm

30-40

mm

VG 10 VG 20 VG 30 VG 40Mixing Temperature

Range (150 to 177)163 TFO & RTFO tests VG 40 160-170 160-175 160-170 150 Min. 100 Min. IS Sieve IS Sieve

Hot

Climate

Cold

Climate

Absolute Viscosity at

60° C, Poises, Min. 800-1200 1600-2400 2400-3600 3200-4800Compaction

Temperature135

Kinematic Viscosity

testVG 30 150-165 150-170 150-165 140 Min. 90 Min. 45 mm 100 - 45 mm - - Compaction level

Kinemaic viscosity at

135°C,cSt,Min. 250 300 350 400Minimum Rolling

Temperature100 - VG 20 145-165 145-170 145-165 135 Min. 85 Min. 37.5 mm 95-100 100 37.5 mm - -

Minimum stability

(kN at 60 °C)9.0 12.0 10.0

AASHTO

T245

Flash point,°C, Min. 220 220 220 220 60

Static Viscosity,

Marshall Stability &

Float testsVG 10 140-160 140-165 140-160 130 Min. 80 Min. 26.5 mm 63-93 90-100 26.5 mm 100 -

Marshall flow

(mm)2-4 2.5-4 3.5-5

AASHTO

T245

Solubility in

trichloroethylene,

Min. %99 99 99 99 27

Ductility & Specific

Gravity test19 mm - 71-95 19 mm 90-100 100

Marshall Quotient

(Stability/Flow)2-5

MS-2 and

ASTM D2041

Penetration at 25°C,

100g, 5s, 0.1 mm 80 60 45 35 25Needle

Penetration test13.2 mm 55-75 56-80 13.2 mm 59-79 90-100 % Air voids

Softening Point,

°C, Min. 40 45 47 50 4Needle

Penetration test

Bitumen

Emulsion

Type of

Surface

Rate of

Spray (kg/sq. m.)

9.5 mm - - 9.5 mm 52-72 70-88% Voids Filled

with Bitumen

(VFB)

0Rate of

Spray (kg/sq. m.)

Type of

Cutback

Rate of

Spray (kg/sq. m.)

Bituminous

surfaces0.20-0.30 4.75 mm 38-54 38-54 4.75 mm 35-55 53-71

Coating of

Aggregate

Particle

IS:6241

Viscosity ratio at

60°C, Max.4 4 4 4 -10 WMM/WBM 0.7-1.0 MC 30 0.6-0.9

Granular

surfaces treated

with primer

0.25-0.30 2.36 mm 28-42 28-42 2.36 mm 28-44 42-58Tensile Strength

Ratio

AASHTO

T283

Ductility at

25°C, cm, Min75 50 40 25 - -36

Stabilized soil

bases/Crusher

Run Macadam

0.9-1.2 MC 70 0.9-1.2

Cement

Concrete

Pavement

0.30-0.35 1.18 mm - - 1.18 mm 20-34 34-48

0.6 mm - - 0.6 mm 15-27 26-38

0.3 mm 7-21 7-21 0.3 mm 10-20 18-28

VG 10 80/100 ≤ 30 °C ≤ 1500 CVPDBM, DBM and

BC

VG 20 60/80 ≤ 30 °C ≤ 1500 CVPDBM, DBM and

BC

3.0 4.0

26.5 11.0 12.0

37.5 10.0 11.0

Spraying applications, paving applications in

cold regions.

Paving applications in cold climatic conditions of

North India and in high altitude region.

Use in high stressed area like intersections, toll

plazas, truck terminals.

Paving applicaions for most part of India.

VG 40

VG 30

Minimum VMA Percent Related to

Design Percentage Air Voids

Bitumen

Content %

by mass of

total mix

Min. 4.0 Min. 4.5

Bitumen

Content %

by mass of

total mix

Min. 5.2 Min. 5.4

0.075 mm 2-8

BM, DBM,

SDBC and BC

DBM,SDBC

and BC

Maximum

average air

temperature °C

≤ 40 °C

≥ 40 °C

Traffic (CVPD)

For all types of

traffic

Heavy loads,

Expressways,

MSA > 30

-0.15 mm

Base/Binder Course

± 7%Aggregate passing 13.2 mm, 9.5 mm sieve

2-8 0.075 mm 2-8 4-10

12-205-130.15 mm-

± 6%

± 5%

± 4%

± 2%

± 0.3% & ± 10°C

Aggregate passing 4.75 mm sieve

Aggregate passing 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 0.6 mm

Aggregate passing 0.3 mm, 0.15 mm sieve

Aggregate passing 0.075 mm sieve

Binder content & Mixing temperature

± 8%

Permissible Variations in the Actual Mix from the

Job Mix Formula (JMF)

Description

Aggregate passing 19 mm sieve or larger

Selection of Binder for Bituminous Mixes & its Applications in India

Viscosity Grade General ApplicationsBituminous

Course

Specifications for Road - Bases and Surface Courses (Bituminous) As per IRC/MORTH - Fifth Revision

Requirements for Paving BitumenMixing, Laying and Rolling

Temperatures for

Bituminous Mixes °C

3-5

Cumulative % by

weight of total

aggregate passing

Working Range of

Bituminous

Pavements in

India (60 to -10)

Direct tensile and

Frass break point

tests, Min. Frass

breaking point for

Indian conditions

= - 4 to -10

Working and Testing

Temperature of Bitumen/Mix

*Rolling must be completed before the mat cools to these

minimum temperatures

Bitumen

Properties

Bitumen Grade

13.0

12.0

Nominal

Maximum

Particle Size

(mm)

5.0

*Minimum Percent Voids in

Mineral Aggregate (VMA)

Rate of Application of Prime Coat

Type of

Surface

Bitumen Cutback

Rate of Application

of Tack Coat

Test on Residue from Thin Film Oven Tests (TFOT) / RTFOT

60/70

30/40

Equivalent

Penetration

Grade

Gradation Requirement

Bituminous Concrete

(BC)

Dense Graded

Bituminous Macadam

(DBM)

Requirements of Mixture for

Dense Graded Bituminous

Macadam (DBM) &

Bituminous Concrete (BC)

% Voids in

Mineral

Aggregate

Minimum percent voids in mineral aggregate

(VMA) are set out in table below*

80% Minimum

Viscosit

y Grade

Paving

Bitumen

Modified

Bitumen Test

Method

95% Minimum

65-75

2.5-5

75 blows on each face of the specimen

PropertiesCumulative % by

weight of total

aggregate passing

Department of Civil Engineering, Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot



SECTION-C

TEST ON BITUMEN AND BITUMINOUS MIX DESIGN


CONSISTENCY TESTS OF BITUMEN

9 Penetration test IS: 1203-1978

10 Softening point test IS: 1205-1978

11 Introduction of tar viscometer IS: 1206-1978

12 Viscosity test- Absolute Viscosity IS: 1206-1978

13 Viscosity test – Kinematic Viscosity IS: 1206-1978

AGING TESTS ON BITUMEN

14 Introduction on Thin film oven test ASTM-D-1754/IS: 9382

SAFETY TESTS ON BITUMEN

15 Flash and Fire point test IS: 1209-1978

OTHER TESTS

16 Specific Gravity test on bitumen IS: 1202-1978

17 Ductility test IS: 1208-1978



About bitumen

Bitumen is a thermoplastic material and its stiffness is dependent on temperature. The

temperature-vs-stiffness relationship of bitumen is dependent on the source of crude oil

and the method of refining.

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) introduced paving grade bitumen

specifications (IS: 73-1950) for the first time in the year 1950 and classified it on

penetration. The specifications were revised in the years 1962 and 1992. To improve the

quality of Bitumen, BIS revised IS-73-1992specifications based on Viscosity (Viscosity

at 60oC) in July 2006. As per these specifications, there are four grades VG-10, VG-20,

VG-30 & VG-40. A few qualification tests like specific gravity, water content, ductility,

loss on heating & Farass breaking point were removed from IS:73-1992 specifications as

these tests do not have any relationship either with the quality or performance of the

product.

Indian Oil commenced marketing of Bitumen as per Viscosity Grade specifications

conforming to IS: 73-1992 from all its refineries from Aug 2009. Therefore, the

Penetration grades have been replaced by Viscosity grade Bitumen. According to

viscosity (degree of fluidity) grading, higher the grade, stiffer the Bitumen. Tests are

conducted at 600 C and 135o C, which represent the temperature of road surface during

summer (hot climate, similar to northern parts of India) and mixing temperature

respectively. The penetration at 25o C, which is annual average pavement temperature, is

also retained.

Different Grades of Bitumen marketed by Indian Oil : VG-10 BITUMEN: VG-10 is widely used in spraying applications such as surface-dressing and paving in very cold climate in lieu of old 80/100 Penetration grade. It is also used to manufacture Bitumen Emulsion and Modified Bitumen products. VG-20 BITUMEN: VG-20 is used for paving in cold climate & high altitude regions VG-30 BITUMEN: VG-30 is primarily used to construct extra heavy duty Bitumen pavements that need to endure substantial traffic loads. It can be used in lieu of 60/70 Penetration grade. VG-40 BITUMEN: VG-40 is used in highly stressed areas such as intersections, near toll booth sand truck parking lots in lieu of old 30/40 Penetration grade. Due to its higher viscosity, stiffer Bitumen mixes can be produced to improve resistance to shoving and other problems associated with higher temperature and heavy traffic loads.



VISCOSITY GRADE (VG) BITUMEN SPECIFICATION AS PER IS 73:2006 Characteristics VG-10 VG-20 VG-30 VG-40

Sr.

no. Characteristics

Paving Grades Method

of Test,

Ref to VG 10 VG 20 VG 30 VG 40

i) Penetration at 25°C, 100 g, 5

s, 0.1 mm, Min 80 60 45 35 IS 1203

ii) Absolute viscosity at 60°C,

Poises 800-1200 1600-2400 2400-3600 3200-4800

IS 1206

(Part-2)

iii) Kinematic viscosity at

135°C, cSt, Min 250 300 350 400

IS 1206

(Part-3)

iv) Flash point (Cleveland open

cup), °C, Min 220 220 220 220

IS 1448

[P : 69]

v)

Solubility in

trichloroethylene, percent,

Min

99.0 99.0 99.0 99.0 IS 1216

vi) Softening point (R&B), °C,

Min 40 45 47 50 IS 1205

vii) Tests on residue from rolling

thin film oven test:

a) Viscosity ratio at 60°C,

Max 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

IS 1206

(Part 2)

b) Ductility at 25°C, cm, Min 75 50 40 25 IS 1208

VISCOSITY GRADED (VG) BITUMENS AND THEIR GENERAL APPLICATIONS

Viscosity Grade (VG)

General Applications

VG – 40 Use in highly stressed areas such as those in intersection, near toll booths, and truck parking lots in lieu of old 30/40 penetration grade

VG – 30 Use for paving in most of India in lieu of old 60/70 penetration grade

VG – 20 Use for paving in cold climatic, high altitude regions of North India

VG - 10 Use in spraying applications such as surface dressing and for paving in very cold climate in lieu of old 80/100 penetration grade



SELECTION CRITERIA BFOR VISCOSITY- GRADED(VG) PAVING BITUMENS

BASED ON CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

Highest daily mean air temperature, C

Lowest daily mean air

temperature, C

Less than 20 C 20 to 30 C More than 30 C

More than -10 C VG-10 VG-20 VG-30

-10 C or lower VG-10 VG-10 VG-20

GRADES

Bitumen shall be classified into four grades based on the viscosity, and suitability

recommended for maximum air temperature as given below:

Grade Suitable for 7 day Average

Maximum Air Temperature

°C

VG10 < 30

VG20 30-38

VG30 38-45

VG40 > 45

NOTE — this is the 7 day average maximum air temperature for a period not less than 5

years from the start of the design period.



Working Temperature (⁰C) with bitumen

and Bituminous pavement



CONSISTENCY TESTS


PENETRATION TEST (IS: 1203-1978)

OBJECTIVE: To determine the penetration value of given bitumen sample.

INTRODUCTION:

Bituminous materials are available in variety of types and grades. The

penetration test determines the hardness of these materials by measuring the depth in

tenth of a millimeter to which a standard needle will penetrate vertically under specified

conditions of standard load, time and temperature. The sample is maintained at the

standard temperature of 25 °C. The total load on needle is l00 gm. The penetration test

set-up is illustrated in fig. The softer the bitumen, the greater will be its number of

penetration unit. Indian Standards Institution has standardized the equipment and test

procedure vide IS 1203-1958 Penetration test is widely used world ever for classifying

the bituminous materials into different grades Even though it is recognized recently that

the empirical tests like penetration, softening point etc are incompetent to qualify the

paving binder for its temperature susceptibility characteristics, its quickness and

simplicity of operations cannot be ignored. Correlations are also established between

penetration test and absolute viscosity test values.

APPARATUS:

It consists of items like container, needle, water bath, penetrometer, stopwatch etc.

Following are standard specifications as per 1SI for the above apparatus

a) Container: A flat bottomed cylindrical metallic container 55 mm in diameter and

35 mm or 57 mm in height

b) Needle: A straight, highly polished cylindrical hard steel needle with conical end,

having the shape and dimensions as shown in fig. Needle is provided with a shank

appropriately 3 mm in diameter into which it is immovably fixed.

c) Water Bath: A water bath is maintained at 25 + 1 °C containing not less than 10

liters of water, the sample is immersed to depth not less than 100 mm from the top

and supported on a perforated shelf not less than 50 mm from the bottom of the

bath.

d) Penetrometer: It is an apparatus which allows the needle to penetrate without

appreciable friction. It is accurately calibrated to yield results in hundreds of

centimeters "These days automatic Penetrometers (electrically operated) are also

available. Typical sketch of Penetrometer is shown in figure.



e) Transfer Tray: A small tray which can keep the container fully immersed in

water during the test

Fig 1.Bitumen Penetrometer

Penetration Measurements



PROCEDURE:

The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency between 75 °C and 100 °C

above the approximated temperature at which bitumen softens The sample material is

thoroughly stirred to make it homogenous and free from air bubbles and water The

sample material is then poured into the container to a depth at least 15 mm more than the

expected penetration The sample containers are cooled in atmosphere of temperature

not lower than 18°C for one hour. Then they are placed in temperature controlled water

bath at a temperature of 25 °C for a period of one hour.

The sample container is placed in the transfer tray with water from the water bath

and is placed under the needle of the penetrometer. The weight of needle, shaft and

additional weight are checked. The total weight of this assembly should be 100 gm.

The needle is now arranged to make contact with the sample surface. This is done by

placing a lamp to the rear of the apparatus in such a way that the image of the needle can

be checked to make surface contact. Zero reading of the penetrometer dial is taken

before-releasing the needle. The needle is released-for- 5 seconds and-the final reading

is taken on the dial. At least three measurements are made on this sample by testing at

distance not less than 10 mm apart. After each test, the needle is disengaged and wiped

with benzene and carefully dried. The sample container is also transferred in the water

bath before next testing is done so as to maintain a constant temperature of 25 °C. The

test is repeated with sample in the other containers.

I.R.C. RECOMMANDETIONS:

The depth of penetration is reported in hundreds of a centimeter. The mean value

of three consistent measurements is reported as the penetration value. It is further

specified by I SI that results of each measurements should not vary from the mean value

reported above by more than the following:

Penetration Grade Repeatability Penetration at 25°C,

100 g, 5 s, 0.1 mm,

Min value

Grade of

bitumen

0-80 4% 80 VG 10

80- 225 5% 60 VG 20

Above 225 7% 45 VG 30

35 VG 40

DISCUSSION:

It may be noted that the penetration value is largely influenced by an inaccuracy

as regards factors,

i. Pouring Temperature

ii. Size of needles

iii. Weight placed on the needle

iv. Test Temperature



It is obvious to obtain high values of penetration if the test temperature and/or

weight (placed over the needle) are/is increased. Higher pouring temperatures than the

specified may result into hardening of bitumen and may give lower penetration values.

Higher test temperatures have given considerably higher penetration values. It is also

necessary to keep the needle clean before testing in order to get consistent results. The

penetration needle should not be placed more than 10 mm from the side of the dish

OBSERVATIONS:

I Pouring Temp °C =

II Bath material =

III. Period of air cooling at 30 °C temp. =

IV Period of water bath at constant temp, of 25 °C =

V Room Temp. =

VI Depth of Sample =

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr.

No. Sample

Penetration Value Mean Penetration

Value Initial Final Difference

1

2

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




SOFTENING POINT TEST (IS: 1205-1978)

OBJECTIVE: To determine the softening point of a given sample of bituminous

material with the help of Ring and Bali apparatus.

INTRODUCTION:

Bitumen does not suddenly change from solid to liquid state, but as the

temperature increases, it gradually becomes softer until it flows readily. All semi-solid

state bitumen grades need sufficient fluidity before they are used for application with the

aggregate mix. For this purpose, bitumen is sometimes cut back with solvent like

kerosene. The common procedure however is to liquefy the bitumen by heating.

The softening point is the temperature at which the substance attains

particular degree of softening under specified condition of test. For bitumen, it is

usually determined by Ring and Ball Test. A brass ring containing the test sample of

bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerin at a given temperature. A steel ball

is placed upon the bitumen and liquid medium is then heated at a specified rate. The

temperature at which the soften bitumen touches the metal plate placed at a

specified distance below the ring is recorded as the softening point of a particular

bitumen. The apparatus and test procedure are standardized by ISI. It is obvious that

harder grade bitumen possess higher softening point than softer grade bitumen.

APPARATUS:

It consists of Ring and Ball apparatus.

a) Steel Balls: They are two in number. Each has a diameter 9.5 mm and weighs

2.5+0.5 gm

b) Brass Rings: There are two rings of the following dimension:

Depth : 6.4 mm

Inside diameter at bottom : 15.9mm

Inside diameter at top : 17.5 mm

Outside diameter : 20.6mm

Brass rings are also placed with ball guides as shown m fig. 8.2.

c) Support: The metallic support is used for placing pair of ring.

The upper surface of the rings is adjusted to be 50mm below the surface of water

or liquid contained in the bath. A distance of 25 mm between the bottom of the

rings and top surface of the bottom plate of support is provided It has a housing

for suitable thermometer.

d) Bath and Stirrer: A heat resistant glass container of 85 mm diameter and 120

mm depth is used. Bath liquid is water for materials having softening point above

80 °C, and glycerin for materials having softening point above 80 °C. Mechanical

stirrer is used for ensuring uniform heat distribution at all times throughout the

bath.



Fig 1. Ring and Ball Apparatus

PROCEDURE:

Sample material is heated to a temperature between 75 °C TO 100 °C above the

approximate softening point until it is completely fluid and is poured in heated rings

placed on metal plate. To avoid sticking of the bitumen to metal plate, coating is done to

this with a solution of glycerin and dextrin. After cooling the rings in air for 30 minutes,

the excess bitumen is trimmed and rings are placed in the support as discussed in item (c)

above. At this time, the temperature of distilled water is kept at 5 °C. This temperature

is maintained for 15 minutes after which the balls are placed in position. The

temperature of water is raised at a uniform rate of 5 °C per minute with a controlled

bottom plate by sinking of balls. At least two observations are made. For material

whose softening point is above 80 °C. Glycerin is used in heating medium and the starting

temperature is 35 °C instead of5°C.

I.R.C. RECOMMENDATIONS:

The temperature at the instant when each of the ball and sample touches the

bottom plate of support is recorded as softening point value. The mean of duplicate

determinations is noted. It is essential that the mean value of the softening point

(temperature) does not differ from individual observation by more than the following

limits:



Softening Point Repeatability

Reproducibility

Grade of Bitumen Softening

point (min.)

Below 30 °C 2 °C 4 °C

VG 10 40

30 °C to 80 °C 1 °C 2 °C VG 20 45

Above 80 °C 2 °С 4 °C VG 30 47

VG 40 50

DISCUSSION:

As in the other physical tests on bitumen, it is essential that the specifications

discussed above are strictly observed. Particularly, any variation in the following points

would affect the result considerably:

Factors affect the test results:

i. Quality and type of liquid

ii. Weight of Balls

iii. Distance between bottom of Ring and bottom base plate

iv. Rate of heating

Impurity in water or glycerin lies been observed to affect the result considerably.

It is logical, lower will be the softening point, if the weight of balls is excessive. On the

other hand, increased distance between bottom of ring and bottom plate, increases the

softening point.

APPLICATION OF SOFTENNING POINT TEST:

Softening point is essentially the temperature at which the bituminous binders

have an equal viscosity. The softening point of a tar is therefore related to the equiviscous

temperature (e.v.t.). The softening point found by the ring and ball apparatus is

approximately 20°C lower than the e.v.t.

Softening point, thus gives an idea if the temperature at which the

bituminous material attains a certain viscosity. Bitumen with higher softening point

may be preferred in warmer places. Softening point is also sometimes used to specify

bitumen and pitches.

OBSERVATIONS:

I. Grade of Bitumen : _________________________

II. Approx. Softening point of Bitumen : _________________________

III. Bath Liquid : _________________________

IV. Period of Air Cooling : _________________________

V. Period of cooling in water bath at 5°C : _________________________

VI. Rate of heating : _________________________

VII. Room Temp. : _________________________



OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr.

No.

Test Property Test I Test II Mean Value

1 Temp, at which Sample

touches bottom base

plate

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




INTRODUCTION OF TAR VISCOMETER (for penetration grade of

bitumen using tar viscometer) (IS: 1206-1978)

OBJECTIVE: To determine the Viscosity of given bitumen sample for penetration grade

of bitumen.

INTRODUCTION:

Viscosity is defined as inverse of fluidity. Viscosity thus defines the fluid

property of bituminous material. The degree of fluidity at the application temperature

greatly influences the strength characteristics of the resulting paving mixes. High or low

fluidity at mixing and compaction has been observed to result in lower stability values

There is an optimum value of fluidity or viscosity for mixing and compacting for each

aggregate gradation of the mix and bitumen grade. At high fluidity or low viscosity, the

bituminous binder simply "lubricates" the aggregate particles instead of providing a

uniform film thickness for binding action. Similarly low fluidity or high viscosity also

resists the compactive effort and the resulting mix is heterogeneous in character

exhibiting stability values. ISI specifies a test procedure for liquid binders like outback

bitumen, emulsion and liquid tar. One of the method by which viscosity is measured is by

determining the time taken by 50 CC of the material to flow from a cup through specified

orifice at a given temperature. This is illustrated in fig 1 Specification vide IS : 1206 -

1958 describe the details of equipment and procedure. In the range of consistency of

bituminous materials when neither orifice viscometer test nor penetration test could be

conducted, float test may be carried out. Equipment like sliding plate micro viscometer

and Brook field viscometer are however in use for defining the viscous characteristics of

the bitumen of all grades irrespective of testing temperature.

APPARATUS:

Ten millimeter orifice viscometer is specified for road tar and is called tar

viscometer. Fig. shows the details of this apparatus. The apparatus consists of main parts

like cup, valve, water bath, sleeves, stirrer and thermometers etc.



VISCOMETER FOR PENETRATION

GRADE OF BITUMEN

Fig 1. Viscometer for TAR viscosity

Difference between Tar and Bitumen

Tar Bitumen

A dark, thick flammable liquid distilled

from wood or coal, consisting of a mixture

of hydrocarbons, resins, alcohols, and other

compounds. It is used in road-making and

for coating and preserving timber.

A black viscous mixture of hydrocarbons

obtained naturally or as a residue from

petroleum distillation.

Available by destructive distillation Available by fractional distillation

It is used in road-making and for coating

and preserving timber.

It is used for road surfacing and roofing.

More temperature susceptible Less temperature susceptible

PROCEDURE:

The tar cup is properly leveled and water in the bath is heated to the temperature

specified for the test and is maintained throughout the test. Stirring is also continued The

sample material! is heated at the temperature 20°C above the specified test temperature

and the material is allowed to cool. During this, the material is continuously stirred, when

material reaches slightly above test temperature, the same is poured in the tar cup, until

the leveling peg on the valve rod is just immersed. In the graduated receiver (cylinder),

20ml of mineral oil or one percent by weight solution of soft soap is poured This receiver

is placed under the orifice. When the sample material reaches the specified testing



temperature within + 0.1°C and is maintained for 5 minutes, the valve is opened. The

stopwatch is started, when the cylinder records 25ml. The time is recorded for flow up to

a mark of 75ml. (i.e. 50ml of test sample to flow through the orifice).

I.R.C RECOMMANDETIONS:

The time in seconds for 50ml of the sample material to flow through the orifice is

defined as the viscosity at a given test temperature The standard test temperatures have

been specified for the various grades of cutback and tar. The viscosity values of repeat

test on the same sample should not vary by more than 4 percent from the mean value.

DISCUSSION:

The working range of tar viscometer for 10 mm orifice is 10 to 140 seconds. For

cutback bitumen, the orifice size specified is 4mm for lower grades and 10mm for higher

grades with higher viscosity. Viscosity is the resistance to flow and the absolute unit of

viscosity is dyne sec./cm' or poise.

APPLICATIONS OF VISCOSITY TEST:

Orifice viscosity test gives an indirect measure of viscosity of tars and cutbacks in

second. Higher the time, more viscous is the binder material. Float test also measures the

viscosity in tune units (seconds)

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Grade of Bitumen

2. Specified test temp

3. Test temp

4. Room Temp.

5. Size of Orifice

6. Repeatability

OBSERAVATION TABLE:

Test Property Tests

Mean Value Sample 1 Sample 2

Viscosity in terms of time (seconds)

taken by 50 ml of bitumen to flow

through 10 mm orifice at 70°C

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




VISCOSITY TEST - ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY (IS: 1206-1978)

❖ INTRODUCTION:

Viscosity of a liquid is a measure of resistance to flow of the liquid. Higher the viscosity

slower the movement of rate of flow. Lower the viscosity Higher the movement of rate of

flow.

As the bitumen binders are mixed with aggregates for road work at different temperature

, It is necessary to determine viscosity at different temperature before its' use.

Viscosity of bitumen can be measured by capillary tube viscometer.

❖ DETERMINATON OF ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY:

➢ A vacuum capillary tube viscometer is generally used to measure the absolute

viscosity of bitumen at 60˚C.

➢ The viscometer is mounted in a digitally controlled constant temperature bath at

uniform test temperature of 60˚C.

➢ At this temp. the paving grade bitumen is highly viscous and cannot flow freely

through the capillary tube and therefore vacuum is applied to measure the flow.

➢ The time taken in second for the liquid bitumen to flow through a known distance

through the capillary tube is measured and expressed as the absolute viscosity.

➢ Depending on the type of fluid, different diameter tubes are taken and hence

calibration factors are required to calculate viscosity.

➢ Generally canon manning vacuum viscometer is used to find out absolute

viscosity of bitumen.

❖ APPARATUS:

Following items are used to carry out the test:

1. Cannon manning Viscometer size no.13 with calibration factor.

2. Thermometer to measure the test temperature of 60˚C ± 0.1˚C.

3. Constant temperature bath digitally controlled..., having viewing glass panel and

illuminating light to maintain test temperature of 60 deg. C with an accuracy of

0.1˚C.

4. Hot Air Oven to operate at 135˚C.

5. Vacuum pump unit with regulator to maintain vacuum of 300 mm Hg ± 0.5 mm

Hg.

6. A stop Watch to measure timing accurate to 0.1 second.



Fig. Absolute viscosity tube

❖ PROCEDURE:

➢ The bitumen sample is heated to a pouring temperature not exceeding 90˚C.

➢ About 20 ml. of sample is transferred to a glass beaker 50 ml. and is placed in the

oven maintained at 135 ± 5 ˚C. to allow entrapped air to escape.

➢ The prepared sample is poured in to the filling tube of the viscometer until the sample

touches the fill line.

TIM

ING

MA

RK

S

TO VACUUM

PUMP

FIL

LIN

G L

INE



➢ The charged viscometer is placed in the oven at 135˚C for 10 minutes to allow large

air bubbles to escape.

➢ The viscometer is now transferred to digitally controlled constant temperature bath

maintained at 60 ± 0.1˚C.

➢ The temperature is maintained for 30 to 35 minutes.

➢ Now the vacuum of 300 ± 0.5 mm hg is applied and liquid bitumen is allowed to

flow through bulb B and Bulb C and time taken from start timing mark to end timing

mark is noted in both the bulbs separately.

❖ RESULT:

The measured time in second is multiplied with calibration factor to obtain the value of

viscosity in poise for each bulb.

That is, Viscosity P = Calibration factor K x Measured time t

FOR EXAMPLE:

Calibration factor for bulb B=59.3615 and flow time T =49 seconds then

Viscosity for bulb B = 59.3615 x 49

= 2908.71 poise

Now Calibration factor for bulb C=19.7521 and flow time T =147 seconds then

Viscosity for bulb C = 19.7521 x 147

= 2903.55 poise

The final absolute viscosity of sample = Consider the fine of bitumen flow for bulb B and

C, which is higher than 60 sec that time will be multiply by its constant that is absolute

viscosity on sample.

OBSERVATION AND RESULT

Sr. No

Flow Time B Flow Time C Remarks

Time in Sec

Calibration Factor 59.3615 19.7521

Viscosity in Poise

(B+C)/2 =

Consider viscosity which time > 60 sec.



❖ NOTE:

➢ While reporting the viscosity test temperature 60˚C and vacuum 300mm hg

should be mentioned.

➢ After completion of test remove the viscometer from the bath and place it in an

inverted position in an oven maintained at 135 ± 5˚C, until asphalt is drained off

thoroughly.

➢ Clean the viscometer by rinsing with appropriate solution like acetone or benzene.

➢ Dry the tube by passing a flow of filtered air through the capillary for 2 minutes.

➢ Periodically tube can be cleaned by chromic acid to remove organic deposits.

✓ The basic unit of viscosity is the Pascal seconds (Pa s).

✓ The absolute or dynamic viscosity of bitumen measured in Pascal seconds

✓ It is the shear stress applied to a sample of bitumen in Pascal divided by the

shear rate per second;

✓ 1Pa s = 10 p (Poise).

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




VISCOSITY TEST - KINEMATIC VISCOSITY (IS: 1206-1978)

Kinematic viscosity is the measure of resistance to flow of bitumen under gravity.

In CGS unit kinematic viscosity is expressed as Cm²/second and is called a STOKE. In

SI unit Kinematic Viscosity is expressed as mm²/second and is called a centi-stoke,

i.e..cSt.

If kinematic viscosity (In stoke) is multiplied by the specific gravity of bitumen, the

absolute viscosity (in poise) can be obtained.

Kinematic viscosity of bitumen can be carried out in reverse flow viscometer at test

temperature of 135˚C.

❖ APPARATUS:

Following items are used to carry out the test:

1. Viscometer No. 6 with calibration factor.

2. Calibrated thermometer to measure the temperature of 135˚C with least count of

0.1˚C.

3. Constant temperature bath, digitally controlled, having viewing glass panel and

illuminating light to maintain test temperature of 135˚C with an accuracy of 0.1˚C.

4. High temperature Silicon oil.

5. A stop Watch to measure timing accurate to 0.1 second.

❖ PROCEDURE:

➢ The bitumen sample is heated to a pouring temperature not exceeding 90˚C. The

sample is stirred thoroughly and about 20 ml sample is transferred in glass beaker.

➢ The viscometer is placed in the oil bath and held in vertical position with the help

of viscometer holder.

➢ Pour the sample through filling tube to a point just about filling mark.

➢ Now arrest the flow of the sample by inserting the cork in tube.

➢ Add more sample if necessary to bring the upper meniscus slightly above filling

mark.

➢ Remove excess sample above filling mark G by inserting the special pipette.

➢ Maintain the bath temperature of 135 deg. C ± 0.1 deg. C for 30 minutes.

➢ Remove the cork from tube H and allow the sample to flow by gravity.

➢ Observe the flow and start stop watch at start timing mark A and stop at Stop

timing mark B. Record the seconds nearest to 0.1 S. value



Viscosity Bath

Kinematic Viscosity Apparatus and Tube

❖ CALCULATIONS:

Viscosity cSt = Calibration factor K (Centi-stoke per second) x flow time in seconds t

Always report test temperature along with the temperature.

As per BIS, The repeatability of Kinematic viscosity test result should not differ by

1.8%of their mean value.

The reproducibility of Kinematic viscosity test result should not differ by more than 8.8%

of their mean value.

TIM

ING

MA

RK

S

FIL

LIN

G L

INE



OBSERVATION AND RESULT

Data Flow Time From A to B Remarks

Time in Sec

Calibration Factor 18.40277

Viscosity in cSt

(Centi-stoke per second )

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



AGING TESTS


INTRODUCTION TO THIN FILM TEST (ASTM D 1754 or IS: 9382)

Figure: Thin film test

❖ PROCEDURE:

The thin film oven (TFO) test is conducted by placing a 50g sample of bitumen

in a cylindrical flat-bottom pan (5.5 inches inside diameter and 3/8 inch

deep).The bitumen layer in the pan is about 1/8 inch deep. The pan containing the

bitumen sample is transferred to a shelf in a ventilated oven maintained at 160°C

(325°F) the shelf rotates at 5 to 6 revolutions per minute (RPM).The sample is

kept in the oven for 5 h, and then transferred to a suitable container for measuring

penetration or viscosity of the aged bitumen. The test method is described in

ASTM D 1754 or IS:9382.The aged bitumen is usually required to meet specified

maximum viscosity ratio at 60°C which is four in case of IS:73-2013.A loss or

gain in weight of the test sample is also measured and reported.

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



SAFETY TESTS


FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST (IS: 1209-19780)

OBJECTIVE: To determine the Flash and Fire point of a given sample of bituminous

material with the help of Pensky-Martins apparatus.

INTRODUCTION: This test is done to determine the flash point and the fire point of

asphaltic bitumen and fluxed native asphalt, cutback bitumen and blown type bitumen as

per IS: 1209 – 1978. The principle behind this test is given below:

Flash Point – The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the

application of test flame causes the vapours from the material to momentarily catch fire in

the form of a flash under specified conditions of the test.

Fire Point – The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the application of test

flame causes the material to ignite and burn at least for 5 seconds under specified

conditions of the test.

APPARATUS:

The apparatus required for this test

i) Pensky-Martens apparatus

ii) Thermometer-

Low Range: -7 to 110oC, Graduation 0.5ᵒC

High Range: 90 to 370ᵒC, Graduation 2ᵒ

Fig 1.Pensky-Martens apparatus

PROCEDURE:

• FLASH POINT

i) Soften the bitumen between 75 and 100oC. Stir it thoroughly to remove air bubbles and

water.



ii) Fill the cup with the material to be tested up to the filling mark. Place it on the bath.

Fix the open clip. Insert the thermometer of high or low range as per requirement and also

the stirrer, to stir it.

iii) Light the test flame, adjust it. Supply heat at such a rate that the temperature increase,

recorded by the thermometer is neither less than 5oC nor more than 6oC per minute.

iv) Open flash point is taken as that temperature when a flash first appears at any point on

the surface of the material in the cup. Take care that the bluish halo that sometimes

surrounds the test flame is not confused with the true flash. Discontinue the stirring

during the application of the test flame.

v) Flash point should be taken as the temperature read on the thermometer at the time the

flash occurs.

• FIRE POINT

i) After flash point, heating should be continued at such a rate that the increase in

temperature recorded by the thermometer is neither less than 5oC nor more than 6oC per

minute.

ii) The test flame should be lighted and adjusted so that it is of the size of a bead 4mm in

dia.

OBSERVATIONS

Sr.

No. Test Property Test I Test II Mean Value

1 Flash point

2 Fire point

REPORTING OF RESULTS

i) The flash point should be taken as the temperature read on the thermometer at the time

of the flame application that causes a distinct flash in the interior of the cup.

ii) The fire point should be taken as the temperature read on the thermometer at which the

application of test flame causes the material to ignite and burn for at least 5 seconds

DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



OTHER TESTS


SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST OF BITUMEN (IS: 1202-1978)

OBJECTIVE: To determine the specific gravity of given bitumen sample.

INTRODUCTION:

The specific gravity of bitumen binder is a fundamental property frequently used as an aid

to classify the binders for use in paving jobs.in most applications, the bitumen is weighed,

but finally in use with aggregate system, the bitumen content is converted on volume

basis. Thus an accurate determination of specific gravity value is required for conversion

of weight to volume. The specific gravity is influenced by the chemical compaction of

binder. Increased quantity of aromatic type compounds increases the specific gravity. The

test procedure has been standard by the BIS.

The specific gravity is defined by BIS as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the

bituminous material to the mass of an equal volume of water, the temperature of both

being specified as 27°±0.1°.

Figure: Specific gravity bottle

APPARATUS:

There are two methods (1) Pycnometer method (2) Balance method. For Pycnometer

method, the apparatus are specific gravity bottle of 50 ml capacity, ordinary capillary type

with 6 mm diameter neck or wide mouthed capillary type bottle with 25 mm diameter

neck can used. For balance method an analytical balance equipped with a pan straddle is

used.



PROCEDURE:

Method-1, Pycnometer method

The specific gravity bottle cleaned, dried and weight along with the stopper. It is filled

with fresh distilled water, stopper placed and the same is kept in water container for at

least half an hour at temperature 27°±0.1°. The bottle is then removed and cleaned from

outside. The specific gravity bottle containing distilled water is now weight.

The bituminous material is heated to a pouring temperature and is pouring in the above

empty bottle taking all the precautions that it is clean and dry before filling sample

materials. The material is filled up to the half taking care to prevent entry of air

temperature cooled to 27° and then weighed. The remaining space in the specific gravity

bottle is filled with distilled water at 27°, stopper placed and is placed in water container

at 27°. The bottle containing bituminous material and containing water is removed,

cleaned from outside and is again weighed.

Method-2, Balance method

In the balance method, the bitumen test specimen is cube shaped, about 12 mm on each

edge. It is prepared by pouring the liquefied bitumen sample in a brass to provide the

sample of required dimensions and later cooled. The sample is weighted in air and then in

distilled water maintained at 27°±0.1° to the nearest 0.1 mg.

CALCULATION:

The specific gravity of the material is calculated as follows:

(1)Pycnometer method

Specific gravity = (weight of bituminous material)/(weight of equal volume of water)

= (𝑐−𝑎)

(𝑏−𝑎)−(𝑑−𝑐)

Where,

a=weight of the specific gravity bottle, g

b= weight of the specific gravity bottle filled with distilled water, g

c= weight of the specific gravity bottle about half filled with bituminous material, g

d= weight of the specific gravity bottle about half with the material and the rest with

distilled water, g

(2)Balance method

Specific gravity = 𝑒

(𝑒−𝑓)

Where,

E=weight of the dry specimen, g

F=weight of the specimen when immersed in distilled water, g



OBSERVATIONS:

Results of specification gravity test on bitumen by Pycnometer method

(1) Grade of bitumen=………. (2) Test temperature=……….

Sample No.

Weight of

bottle, g

Weight of

bottle +

distilled

water, g

Weight of

bottle + half-

filled material,

g

Weight of bottle +

half-filled

material +

distilled water, g

Specific

gravity

a b C D

1

2

3

Average value

Specific gravity value=……….

Results of specification gravity test on bitumen by balance method

(1) Grade of bitumen=………. (2) Test temperature=……….

Sample No.

Weight dry sample Weight of sample in

distilled water, g Specific gravity

E F

1

2

3

Average value

Specific gravity value=……….

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




DUCTILITY TEST (IS: 1208-1978)

OBJECTIVE: To determine Ductility of given bitumen sample.

INTRODUCTION:

In the flexible pavement construction where bitumen binders are used, it is of

significant importance that the binders form ductile thin films around the aggregates. This

serves as a satisfactory' binder in improving the physical interlocking of the

aggregates. The binder material which does not possess sufficient ductility would crack

and thus provides pervious pavement surface. This in turn results in damaging effect to

the pavement structure. It has been stated by some agencies that the penetration and

ductility properties go together; but depending upon the chemical composition and the

type of crude source of the bitumen, sometimes it has been observed that the above

statement is incorrect. It may hence be mentioned that the bitumen may satisfy the

penetration valve, but may fail to satisfy the ductility requirements. Bitumen paving

engineer would however want that both test requirements are satisfied in the field jobs.

Ductility is expressed as the distance centimeters to which a standard briquette of bitumen

can be stretched before the thread breaks. See fig. 1. The test is conducted at 27 + 0.5° С

and at a rate of pull of 50 + 2.5 mm per minute. The test has been standardized by the

IS1.

APPARATUS:

It consists of items Use sample (briquette) moulds, water bath, square-end trowel

or putty knife sharpened on end and ductility machine Following are standard

specifications as per ISI for the above items:

a) Briquette Mould:

Mould is made of brass metal with shape and dimensions as indicated in fig. 10 2.

Both ends called lips possess circular holes to grip the fixed and movable ends of the

testing machine, sidepieces when placed together form the briquette of the following

dimensions:

Length 75 mm

Distance between clips 30 mm

Width at mouth of clip 20 mm

Cross section at minimum width 10 mm x 10 mm

b) Ductility Machine:

It is an equipment which functions as constant temperature water bath and a pulling

device at a pre calibrated rate. The central rod of the machine is threaded and through



gear system provides a movement to one end where the clip is fixed during initial

pavement. The other clip end is hooked at the fixed end of the machine. Two clips are

thus pulled apart horizontally at a uniform speed of 50 + 2.5 mm per minute.

Fig . Ductility Testing Apparatus

PROCEDURE

The bitumen sample is melted to a temperature of 75 to 100°C above the

approximate softening point until it is fluid It is strained through IS sieve 30, poured in

the mould assembly and placed on a brass plate, after a solution of glycerin and dextrin is

applied at all surfaces of the mould exposed to bitumen

Thirty to forty minutes after the sample is poured into the moulds, the plate

assembly along with the sample is placed m water bath maintained at 27°C for 30

minutes. The sample and mould assembly are removed from water bath and excess

bitumen material is cut off by leveling the surface using hot knife. After trimming the

specimen, the mould assembly containing sample is replaced in water bath maintained at

27°C for 85 to 95 minutes. The sides of the mould are now removed and the clips are

carefully hooked on the machine without causing any initial strain. The pointer is set to

read zero. The machine is started and the two clips are thus pulled apart horizontally

while the test is in operation, it is checked whether the sample is immersed in water at

depth of at least 10 mm. The distance at which the bitumen thread breaks is recorded

in cm to report as ductility value.

Fig. Prepared Briquette with bitumen



Fig. Bitumen Filled brequettes

Fig. Briquette assembly started pulling.

Fig Bitumen thread breaks



Fig: Ductility Measurements

I.R.C. RECOMMANDETIONS:

The distance traveled up to the point of breaking of thread measured in

centimeters is recorded as ductility value. It is recommended by ISI that results should not

differ from mean value by more than the following:

Repeatability Reproducibility Grade of bitumen Ductility value in cm-

Minimum

5 percent- 10 percent

VG 10 15

VG 20 50

VG 30 40

VG 40 25

DISCUSSION:

The ductility value gets seriously affected if any of the following factors are

varied

i) Pouring temperature.

ii) Dimensions of briquette.

iii) Improper level of briquette placement.

iv) Rate of pulling.

v) Test temperature

Increase m minimum cross section of 10mm would record increased ductility.

APPLICATIONS OF DUCTILITY TEST:

A certain minimum ductility is necessary for a bitumen binder. This is because of

the temperature changes in the bituminous mixes and the deformations that occur in

flexible pavement. If the bitumen has low ductility, cracking may occur especially in

cold weather. The ductility values of bitumen vary from 5 to over 100. Several



agencies have specified the minimum ductility values for various types of bituminous

pavement. Often a minimum ductility value of 50cm is specified for bituminous

construction.

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Grade of Bitumen =

2. Pouring temp =

3. Test temp. =

4. Period of air cooling =

5. Rate of cooling =

OBSERAVATION TABLE:

Test Property Briquette final length in cm Mean ductility

Value

In cm.

Ductility Value in cm to which standard

briquette mould having 10x10 cm2 cross-

section in center can stretch where thread just

break

1 2 3

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



SECTION-D

TEST OF BITUMINOUS MIX


18 % Bitumen content in paving mixture ASTM-D-2172

19 Stripping value of road aggregate IS: 6241-1971

20 Marshal stability test-determination of

optimum bitumen content MS-2




% BITUMEN CONTENT IN PAVING MIXTURE(ASTM-D-2172)

OBJECTIVE: To determine the percentage of bitumen in paving mixture.

INTRODUCTION:

This method of test is intended for the determination, by cold solvent extraction,

of the percentage of bitumen (Not, in a paving mixture, the aggregate in which all passing

through 25 mm sieve. It is not intended for use in recovering the bitumen for further

testing). The mineral matter recovered from this test can be used for sieve analysis.

Note: Although "Bitumen" by definition is material soluble I carbon disulfide, benzene is

recommended for use in this method for safety reasons, and it normally produces the

same results within the precision of the method. Other solvents, such as carbon

tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, etc. may be substitute for benzene or carbon disulfide in

this method and similar results may be obtained, but the relationship of such results to

these obtained with benzene or carbon disulfide cannot be predicted or assumed.

If volatile distillates are desired, they may be obtained by the method of test for

Moisture or volatile distillates m Bituminous Paving Mixtures.

APPARATUS:

It consists of following:

a) Extraction Apparatus: consisting of a bowl approximating that shown m fig.1

and an apparatus in which the bowl may be revolved at controlled variable speeds

up to 3600 rpm The apparatus shall be provided with a shell for catching the

solvent thrown from the bowl and a drain for removing the solvent. The

apparatus preferably shall be provided with explosion proof features and installed

under a hood to provide ventilation

b) Filter Rings: to fit the nm of the bowl.

c) Oven: capable of being maintained at 240 °F.

d) Steam Bath

e) Balance: of 5000 g capacity, sensitivity to 0.1 g

f) Analytical Balance

g) Graduate: 2000 ml capacity

h) Ignition Dish: 125 ml capacity

l) Maker Burner, Stands; Large Flat Pan, Beakers etc.



Fig . Centrifugal Extractor

REAGENTS:

i. Benzene, confirming to the Standard specifications for Industrial Grade Benzene.

ii. Ammonium Carbonate Solution- Prepare a saturated solution of (NH4)2СОз.

iii. Cresol, crystal-free, confirming to the standard specifications for Cresol for

priming coat with coal-tar pitch in damp proofing and water proofing

PREPARATION OF SAMPLE:

a. If the mixture is not sufficiently soft to separate with a spatula or towel, place

2000 to 5000 g in a large, fiat pan and warm in oven at 240°F, only until it can be

so handled Separate the particles of the sample as uniformly as possible, using

care not to fracture the mineral particles, and weigh a representative 1000 g

portion in to the bowl, distributing it uniformly around the bowl. For routine

testing, smaller samples may be used when the maximum size aggregate therein is

less than 6.3 mm. The precision of the method becomes less as the aggregate size

increases, due to variations in samples. It may, however be used on mixtures

containing aggregate larger than 25 mm by using samples weighing at least 3000

g. They may be tested by extracting 1000 g at a tune

b. Cover the sample in the bowl with benzene and allow sufficient time for the solvent

to disintegrate the sample before testing (not over 1 hr.)

с. At the time, weigh 500 g of the sample to a metal still confirming to section 3 (b)

of the test for water in Petroleum Products and other Bituminous Materials



PROCEDURE:

i. Place the bowl containing the sample and solvent in the machine. Dry and weight

the filter ring and fit it around the edge of the bowl. Clamp the cover over the

bowl tightly in place and place the beaker under the drain to collect the extract.

ii. Start the machine revolving slowly, gradually increasing speed to a maximum of

3600 rpm or until solvent ceases to flow from the drain. Allow the machine to

stop, add 200 ml of benzene, and repeat the above procedure. Use sufficient 200

ml solvent and repeat the above procedure. Use sufficient 200 ml solvent

additions (not less than three) so that the extract is clear and not darker than and

light straw color when a portion is viewed in a separate container.

iii. Remove the filter ring from the bowl, dry in air and then to constant weight in

oven at 240°F and weigh. The increase in weight of this ring during the extraction

procedure is mineral matter. Evaporate the contents of the bowl to dryness on the

steam bath and then heat in an oven at 240°F to constant weight after cooling.

iv. Collect all extract in a 2000ml graduate and measure the total volume. Agitate the

contract thoroughly and measure 100 ml in to a previously weighed ignition dish.

Evaporate the extract in the dish to dryness on a steam bath and ash the residue at

a dull red heat. Ash the bituminous material at a dull red heat (500 to 600°C) cool,

and add 5 ml or saturate ammonium carbonate (NH4CO3) solution per gram of

ash. Digest at room temp, for 1 nr. and then dry in an oven at 110°C to constant

weight, cool in a desiccators, and weigh. Calculate the weight of ash in the entire

volume of extract.

v. Determine the water content of the sample in the metal still (section 4(c) in

accordance with method D95).

CALCULATIONS:

Calculate the percentage bitumen in the sample as follows:

Bitumen content of dry sample percent = (W1- W2)( W3+ W4 + W5) x 100 /(W1- W2)

Where

W1 weight of sample, in gm.

W2 weight of water in sample

W3 weight of extracted mineral matter

W4 weight of ash in extract, and

W5 Increase in the weight of the filter ring



OBSERVATIONS:

I. Solvent used:

II. Initial wt. Of sample in gms.= W1

III. Weight of aggregate after being centrifuged =

OBSERVATION:

Bitumen content =

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




STRIPPING VALUE TEST ON ROAD AGGREGATE (IS: 6241-1971)

OBJECTIVE: To determine the stripping value of road aggregate.

APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of:

• Thermostatically controlled water bath

• Beaker

• Mixer, etc.

PROCEDURE:

This method covers the procedure for determining the stripping the stripping value

of coarse aggregates by static immersion method, when bitumen and tar binders are used.

200g of dry and clean aggregate passing 20 mm IS sieve and retained on 12.5 mm are

heated up to 150°C when these are to be mixed with bitumen and the aggregates are

heated 100°C when these are to be mixed with tar. Five percent by weight of bitumen

binder is heated to 160°C (110°C in the case of tar binder). The aggregate and binder are

mixed thoroughly till they are completely coated and mixture is transferred to a 500ml

beaker and allowed to cool at room temperature for about two hours. Distilled water is

then added to immerse the coated aggregate to cool at room temperature for about two

hours. Distilled water is then added to immerse the coated aggregates. The beaker is

covered and kept in a water-bath maintained at 40°C taking care that the level of water in

the water-bath is at least half the height of the beaker. After 24 hours the beaker is taken

out, cooled at room temperature and the extent of stripping is estimated visually while the

specimen is still under water.

OBSERVATION:

Results of stripping test on road aggregates

(1) Type of aggregate

(2) Type of binder

(3) percentage binder used

(4) Total weight of aggregate

(5) total weight of binder

(6) Temperature of water-bath



Observation Number Uncovered area/Stripping, percentage

1

2

3

Stripping value = 𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 x 100

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




MARSHAL STABILITY TEST DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM

BITUMEN CONTENT (MS-2)

OBJECTIVE: To determine the Optimum Bitumen content of given sample using

Marshall Stability Test.

INTRODUCTION:

The Marshall Stability and flow test provides the performance prediction measure

for the Marshall Mix design method. The stability portion of the test measures the

maximum load supported by the test specimen at a loading rate of 50.8 mm/minute. Load

is applied to the specimen till failure, and the maximum load is designated as stability.

During the loading, an attached dial gauge measures the specimen's plastic flow

(deformation) due to the loading. The flow value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01 inch)

increments at the same time when the maximum load is recorded.

Desirable properties of mix:

1. Stability

2. Durability

3. Surface flask

APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of:

• Marshall Stability testing machine

• Cylindrical mould – 10 cm. diameter and 7.5 cm. height

• Rammer – 4.5 kg. weight with free fall of 45.7 cm

• Compacting Machine

• IS Sieves

MATERIALS:

The materials consist of:

• Coarse Aggregate

• Fine Aggregate

• Filler

• Bitumen



SPECIFICATION AS PER MORTH FOR DBM & BC

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR COARSE AGGREGATE FOR BITUMINOUS

CONCRETE PAVEMENT LAYERS (BC)& DENSE GRADED BITUMINOUS MACADAM

PAVEMENT LAYERS (DBM)

Property Test Specification

(BC)

Specification

(DBM)

Cleanliness (dust) Grain size analysis1 Max. 5% passing

0.075mm sieve

Max. 5% passing

0.075mm sieve

Particle shape Flakiness and Elongation Index Max. 30% (combined)2 Max. 30% (combined)2

Strength* Los Angeles Abrasion value3 Max. 30% Max. 35%

Aggregate Impact value4 Max. 24% Max. 27%

Polishing Polished stone value5 Min. 55 -

Durability Soundness:6

Sodium sulphate Max. 12% Max. 12%

Magnesium sulphate Max. 18% Max. 18%

Water absorption Water absorption7 Max. 2% Max. 2%

Stripping Coating and stripping of

Bitumen aggregate mixtures9 Minimum retained

Coating 95%

Minimum retained

Coating 95%

Water sensitivity** Retained tensile strength8 Min. 80% Min. 80%

COMPOSITION OF DENSE GRADED BITUMINOUS MACADAM PAVEMENT LAYERS

(DBM) & BITUMENOUS CONCRETE PAVEMENT LAYER (BC)

Grading DBM BC

1 2 1 2

Nominal aggregate size 40mm 25mm 40mm 25mm

Layer Thickness 80-100mm 50-75mm 80-100mm 50-75mm

IS sieve1 (mm) Cumulative % by weight of total aggregate passing

45 100

37.5 95-100 100

26.5 63-93 90-100 100

19 - 71-95 79-100 100

13.2 55-75 56-80 59-79 79-100

9.5 - - 52-72 70-88

4.75 38-54 38-54 35-55 53-71

2.36 28-42 28-42 28-44 42-58

1.18 - - 20-34 34-48

0.6 - - 15-27 26-38

0.3 7-21 7-21 10-20 18-28

0.15 - - 5-13 12-20

0.075 2-8 2-8 2-8 4-10

Bitumen content % by mass of total mix2 Min 4.0 Min 4.5 5.0-6.0 5.0-7.0

Bitumen grade (pen) 65 or 90 65 or 90 65 65



REQUIREMENT FOR BITUMENOUS PAVEMENT LAYERS (BC) & DENSE

GRADED BITUMINOUS MACADAM (DBM)

BC DBM

Minimum stability(kn at 600 C) 9.0 9.0

Minimum flow (mm) 2 2

Maximum flow (mm) 4 4

Compaction level

(Number of blows)

75 blows on each of the

two faces of the specimen

75 blows on each of the

two faces of the specimen

Percent air voids 3-6 3-6

Percent voids in mineral

aggregate (VMA) See Table Below See Table Below

Percent voids filled with

bitumen (VFB) 65-75 65-75

Loss of stability on immersion

in water at 600C (ASTMD

1075)

Min. 75 percent retained

strength -

MINIMUM PERCENT VOIDS IN MINERAL AGGREGATE (VMA)

Nominal Maximum

particle size1 (mm)

Minimum VMA, per cent related to design air voids, per cent2

3.0 4.0 5.0

9.5 14 15 16

12.5 13 14 15

19.0 12 13 14

25.0 11 12 13

37.5 10 11 12

Fig . Phase diagram of a bituminous mix



Density and voids analysis

Basic properties of compacted bituminous mix

The compacted specimen of bitu + minous mix consists of mineral aggregate (coarse and

fine aggregate and mineral filler), bituminous binder and some air voids. The volumetric

composition of compacted bituminous mix is shown diagrammatically in Fig. The

volumes are represented as given below:

PROPERTIES OF THE MIX:

The properties that are of interest include the theoretical specific gravity Gt, the

bulk specific gravity of the mix Gm, percent air voids Vv, percent volume of bitumen Vb,

percent void in mixed aggregate VMA and percent voids filled with bitumen VFB. These

calculations are discussed next.

Fig 1. Marshall Test Setup



Theoretical specific gravity of the mix Gt

Theoretical specific gravity Gt is the specific gravity without considering air voids, and is

given by:

(1)

where, W1is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2is the weight of fine

aggregate in the total mix, W3is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wbis the weight of

bitumen in the total mix, G1is the apparent specific gravity of coarse aggregate, G2is the

apparent specific gravity of fine aggregate, G3is the apparent specific gravity of filler and

Gbis the apparent specific gravity of bitumen,

Bulk specific gravity of mix Gm

The bulk specific gravity or the actual specific gravity of the mix Gmis the specific

gravity considering air voids and is found out by:

(2)

where, Wmis the weight of mix in air, Wwis the weight of mix in water, Note that Wm-Ww

gives the volume of the mix. Sometimes to get accurate bulk specific gravity, the

specimen is coated with thin film of paraffin wax, when weight is taken in the water.

This, however requires to consider the weight and volume of wax in the calculations.

Air voids percent Vv

Air voids Vv is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given by:

in % (3)

Where Gt is the theoretical specific gravity of the mix, given by equation 26.1. and Gmis

the bulk or actual specific gravity of the mix given by equation 26.2.

Percent volume of bitumen Vb

The volume of bitumen Vbis the percent of volume of bitumen to the total volume and

given by:

OR

Vb = Gm * (Wb/Gb)

(4)



where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix,W2 is the weight of fine

aggregate in the total mix,W3is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is the weight of

bitumen in the total mix, Gb is the apparent specific gravity of bitumen, and Gmis the bulk

specific gravity of mix given by equation 26.2.

Voids in mineral aggregate VMA

Voids in mineral aggregate VMA is the volume of voids in the aggregates, and is the sum

of air voids and volume of bitumen, and is calculated from

in % (5)

where, Vv is the percent air voids in the mix, given by equation 26.3. and Vb is percent

bitumen content in the mix, given by equation 26.4. (4).

Voids filled with bitumen VFB

Voids filled with bitumen VFB is the voids in the mineral aggregate frame work filled

with the bitumen, and is calculated as:

(6)

where, Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix, given by equation 26.4. and VMA is the

percent voids in the mineral aggregate, given by equation 26.5.

PROCEDURE:

• Specimen preparation

Approximately 1200gm of aggregates and filler is heated to a temperature of 175-

190oC. Bitumen is heated to a temperature of 121-125oC with the first trial percentage of

bitumen (say 3.5 or 4% by weight of the mineral aggregates). The heated aggregates and

bitumen are thoroughly mixed at a temperature of 154-160oC. The mix is placed in a

preheated mould and compacted by a rammer with 50 blows on either side at temperature

of 138oC to 149oC. The weight of mixed aggregates taken for the preparation of the

specimen may be suitably altered to obtain a compacted thickness of 63.5+/-3 mm. Vary

the bitumen content in the next trial by +0:5% and repeat the above procedure. Numbers

of trials are predetermined. The prepared mould is loaded in the Marshall Test setup as

shown in the figure 1.

• Determine Marshall stability and flow

Marshall Stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required to produce

failure when the specimen is preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a special test

head and the load is applied at a constant strain (5 cm per minute). While the stability test

is in progress dial gauge is used to measure the vertical deformation of the specimen. The

http://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/~vmtom/1100_LnTse/407_lntse/plain/plain.html#qeVb



deformation at the failure point expressed in units of 0.25 mm is called the Marshall flow

value of the specimen.

• Apply stability correction

It is possible while making the specimen the thickness slightly vary from the

standard specification of 63.5 mm. Therefore, measured stability values need to be

corrected to those which would have been obtained if the specimens had been exactly

63.5 mm. This is done by multiplying each measured stability value by an appropriated

correlation factors as given in Table below:

Table 1. Correction factors for Marshall Stability values

Volume of specimen –cm3 Thickness of specimen(mm) Correction factor

457 -470 57.1 1.19

471 -482 68.7 1.14

483 -495 60.3 1.09

496 -508 61.9 1.04

509 -522 63.5 1.00

523 -535 65.1 0.96

536 -546 66.7 0.93

547 -559 68.3 0.89

560 -573 69.9 0.86

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION:

BLENDING OF AGGREGATES for DBM OR BC

Seive size % Passing of aggregates – for different size Required

% of Agg.

45

37.5

26.5

19

13.2

9.5

4.75

2.36

1.18

0.6

0.3

0.15

0.075



Mix Proportion

Size of aggregate % of Aggregate Remarks

TRIAL 1

Bitumen % :________

Sr.

No. Parameter Specimen-1 Specimen-2 Specimen-3 Specimen-4

1. Stability value

(kg.)

2. Flow value, 0.25

mm unit

PREPARE GRAPHICAL PLOTS:

The average value of the above properties is determined for each mix with

different bitumen content and the following graphical plots are prepared:

1. Binder content versus corrected Marshall Stability.

2. Binder content versus Marshall Flow.

3. Binder content versus percentage of void (Vv) in the total mix

4. Binder content versus voids filled with bitumen (VFB)

5. Binder content versus unit weight or bulk specific gravity (Gm).

Fig 3. Marshall Graphical Plots



DETERMINE OPTIMUM BITUMEN CONTENT:

Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking average value

of the following three bitumen contents found form the graphs obtained in the previous

step.

1. Binder content corresponding to maximum stability

2. Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity (Gm)

3. Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of percent air voids (Vv)

in the total mix (i.e. 4%)

The stability value, flow value, and VFB are checked with Marshall mix design

specification chart given in Table below.

CALCULATIONS:

CONCLUSION:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



Comparison table of bitumen test

Specification Name of test

Penetration Ductility Viscosity

Softening point Flash & fire

point Specific

gravity Absolute Kinematic

Measure Hardness

1/10 tn on

penetration

Affecting on

bitumen with Resistant to

flow Resistant to

flow

Temperature at

which bitumen

soften

Hazardous

temp. Quality

Test temp. 25 C° 27 C° 60 C° 135 C° - - 27 C°

Instrument Penetrometer Ductility

machine

Viscosity bath +

Canon manning

tube

Viscosity bath +

Canon manning

tube

Ring & ball

apparatus Pensky

martens Specific gravity

bottle

Brief

specification

Needle 1

sq.m mm.

100 gm wt.

Penetration

for 5 sec

Briquette area-1

cm2

Rate -50

mm/min rate

Canon manning tube

9.5 mm dia.

2.5g ± 0.05gm

wt. of ball

Start heating

from 5°C

- -



SECTION-E

DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIX FOR PAVEMENT


DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIX FOR PQC (IRC:44-1976)

EXAMPLE – 1 IILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE ON CONCRETE MIX

PROPORTIONING

C-0 An example illustrating the mix proportioning for a concrete of M40 grade is given

below.

C-l STIPULATIONS FOR PROPORTIONING

(a) Grade designation M40

(b) Type of cement OPC 43 grade conforming to 18:8112

(c) Maximum nominal size of aggregate 20mm

(d) Minimum cement content 325 kg/m3

(e) Maximum water-cement ratio 0.50

(f) Workability 20 ± 5 mm (slump)

(g) Degree of supervision Good

(h) Type of aggregate Crushed angular aggregate

(i) Maximum cement content 425 kg/m3

g) Chemical admixture type Super plasticizer

C-2 TEST DATA FOR MATERIALS

(a) Cement used OPC 43 grade conforming to IS:8112

(c) Specific gravity

Cement

Coarse aggregate

Fine aggregate

3.15

2.74

2.62

(d) Water absorption

(1) Coarse aggregate

(2) Fine aggregate

0.5 per cent

1.0 per cent

(d) Free (surface) moisture

(I) Coarse aggregate

(2) Fine aggregate

Nil (absorbed moisture also nil)

Nil



(e) Sieve

analysis

(1)Coarse

aggregate

(2)Fine

aggregate

IS Sieve

sizes

mm

Analysis of Coarse

Aggregate

Fraction, %

Passing

Percentage Passing of Different

Fractions

Percentage

passing for

graded 1"

aggregate

as per

Table I

I

20 to 10

II

10mm

down

I

60

Percent

II

40

Percent

Combined

100

Percent

95-100 20 100.00 100.00 60.00 40.00 100.00

10 2.80 78.30 1.68 31.30 32.98 25-55

4.75 Nil 8.70 - 3.48 3.48 0-10

Conforming to grading Zone II of Table 2

C-3 DESIGN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FOR MIX PROPORTIONING

f'ck= fck+ 1.65 x s

Where, f'ck = target average compressive strength, N/mm2 at 28 days.

fck = characteristic compressive strength, N/mm2 at 28 days.

s = standard deviation, N/mm2

Table 3. Assumed Standard Deviation (IRC:44-2008)

Sr. No. Grade of Concrete Assumed Standard Deviation (N/mm2)

1 M25 4.0

2 M30

5.0

3 M35

4 M40

5 M45

6 M50

7 M55

8 M60

From Table 3, Standard Deviation = 5.0 N/mm2

Therefore, design compressive strength = 40 + 1.65 x 5.0 = 48.25 N/mm2

Design flexural strength using IS: 456 relationships = 4.86 N/mm2

C-4 SELECTION OFWATER-CEMENT RATIO

Table No.4 Preliminary Selection of Water-Cement Ratio for the Given Grade (IRC:44-2008)

Sr. No. Grade of Concrete Approximate Water/cement ratio

1 M25 0.50

2 M30 0.45

3 M35 0.42

4 M40 0.38

5 M50 0.34

6 M60 0.28



From Table 4, preliminary water-cement ratio = 0.38

0.38 < 0.50, hence OK.

C-5 SELECTION OFWATER CONTENT

Table 5. Approximate Water Content per Cubic Meter of Concrete for Nominal Maximum

Size of Aggregate (without Plasticizer/Super plasticizer) (IRC:44-2008)

Nominal Maximum Size of Aggregate (mm) Suggestive water content (kg)

20 208

10 186

40 165

From Table 5, water content for 20 mm aggregate = 186 kg/m3 at W/C = 0.5

As super plasticizer is proposed to be used, the water content can be reduced maximum

up to 30%. For the purpose of present trial exercise, a reduction of water content of 15%

has been assumed by adjusting suitably the doses of the super plasticizer. The designer

can use this reduction as per his requirement of the availability of the grade of cement and

quality of super plasticizer. With 15% reduction in water content at water-cement ratio

of0.38, the reduced water content equals to186 x 0.85=158.1 kg, say 158 kg.

C-6 CALCULATION OF CEMENT CONTENT

Water-cement ratio = 0.38

Water content = 158 kg/m3

Cement content = 158/0.38 = 415.80 kg/rn3, say 416.0 kg/rn3

Check for minimum and maximum cement content as per IRC: 15

Minimum cement content as per IRC: 15,325 kg/m3<416 kg/m3 Hence, OK

Maximum cement content as per IRC: 15,425 kg/m3>416 kg/m3 Hence, OK

C-7 PROPORTIONOFVOLUMEOFCOARSEAGGREGATEAND

FINEAGGREGATE

Table No.6 Volume of Coarse Aggregate Per Unit Volume of Total Aggregate for

Different Zones of Fine Aggregate as per IS:383 (IRC:44-2008)

Nominal Maximum

Size of Aggregate

(mm)

Volume of Coarse Aggregate Per Unit Volume of Total Aggregate

for Different Zones of Fine Aggregate

Zone IV Zone III Zone II Zone I

10 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44

20 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60

40 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69

From Table 6, volume of coarse aggregate corresponding to 20 mm size aggregate and

fine aggregate grading Zone II == 0.62 per unit volume of total aggregate. This is valid

for water-cement ratio of0.50. As water-cement ratio is actually 0.38, the ratio is taken as

0.64 to reduce sand content (as per Note 3 of Table 6).

Volume of fine aggregate content = 1 - 0.64 = 0.36perunit volume of total aggregate



C-8 MIX CALCULATIONS

(a) Volume of concrete = 1 m3

(b)Volume of cement = (Mass of cement/Specific gravity of

cement) x (1/1000)

= (416/3.15) x (1/1000)

= 0.132 m3

(c)Volume of water = (Mass of water/Specific gravity of water) x

(l/100)

= (158/1) x (1/1000)

= 0.158 m3

(d)Volume of chemical

admixture (super plasticizer)

[@ 0.6% by mass of cementations material]

=(Mass admixture/Specific gravity of

admixture) x (1/1000)

= (2.50/1.2) x (111000)

=0.002 m3

(e)Volume of all in aggregate = {a - (b+c+d)}

= {1-(0.132+0.158+0.002)}

= 0.708 m3

(f) Mass of coarse aggregate = (e) x 0.64 x Specific gravity of coarse

aggregate x 1000

= 0.708 x 0.64 x 2.74 x 1000

= 1241.5 Say 1242 kg/m3

(g) Mass of fine aggregate =(e) x 0.36 x Specific gravity of fine

aggregate x 1000

= 0.708 x 0.36 x 2.62 x 1000

= 667.8 Say 668 kg/m3

C-9.1 MIX PROPORTIONS FOR TRIAL NUMBER 1 BASED ON AGGREGATE

IN SSD CONDITION

Cement = 416 kg/m3

Water = 158 kg/rrr3

Fine Aggregate = 668 kg/m3

Coarse Aggregate = 1242 kg/m3

Chemical Admixture = 2.50 kg/rm3



IN DRY CONDITION

Cement = 416 kg/m3

Water =158+6.68+6.21 =170.9 kg/ m3

Chemical Admixture = 2.50 kg/ m3

Fine Aggregate = 661.3 kg (668-1 % of 668)

Coarse Aggregate = 1235.8 kg (1242-0.5% of 1242)



C-10 The slump shall be measured and the water content and dosage of admixture shall

be adjusted for achieving the required slump based on trial, if required. The mix

proportions shall be reworked for the actual water content and checked for

durability requirements.

C-11 Two more trials having variation of ±10percentofwater-cementratio in C-10 shall

be carried out and a graph between three water-cement ratios and their

corresponding strengths shall be plotted to work out the mix proportions for the

given target strength for field trials. However, minimum arid maximum cement

content requirements should be met.

C-12 Adjustment due to higher slump requirements for use of RMC can be made as

follows:

Based on initial trials, it has been established that for expected 1 hour transit time

initial slump requirement is 100 mm for 20 mm slump at the time of placement.

Based on trials dosage of admixture may be increased from 0.6 per cent to 1.0 per cent by

mass of cement to achieve required workability (accordingly all other calculations can be

modified).

C-13 IN CASE IT IS PROPOSED TO USE FLY ASH IN THE CONCRETE

C-13.1 CALCULATION OF CEMENT AND FLYASH CONTENTS


Cement content 158/0.38 = 416 kg/m3

Now, to proportion a mix containing fly ash the following steps are suggested:

(i) Decide percentage of fly ash to be used based on project requirement and quality of

materials

(ii) *Increase the cementitious material content by 10% of total cementitious material

content of control mix calculated as above, to account for fly ash reactivity.

Cementitious material content = 416 x 1.10 = 457.6 kg/m3, say 458 kg/m3

* In certain situations increase in cementitious material content may be warranted. The

decision on increase in cementitious material and its percentage may be based on

experience and trial. This illustrative example is with increase of 10 per cent cementitious

material content.

Water Content = 158 kg/m3

So, water-cementitious material ratio = 158/458 = 0.345

Fly ash @ 20 per cent of total cementitious content = 458 x 20%

= 91.6 kg/m3

Say = 92 kg/m3

Cement (OPC) = 458 - 92 = 366 kg/m3

Check for maximum cement content Maximum cement (OPC) content as per IRC: 15,425

kg/m3> 366 kg/m3 Hence, OK



Check for minimum cementitious content, 325kg/m3<458kg/m

3

(366kg/m3

OPC+ 92

kg/m3 fly ash) Hence, OK

C-13.2 PROPORTION OF VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE AND FINE

AGGREGATE CONTENT


fine aggregate Zone II= 0.62 per unit volume of 'total aggregate. This is valid for water-

cement ratio of 0.50. As water-cement ratio is actually 0.345, the ratio is taken as 0.65 to

reduce sand content.

Volume of fine aggregate content =1-0.65=0.35per unit volume of total aggregate

C-13.3 MIX CALCULATIONS

(a) Volume of concrete = 1m3

(b) Volume of cement = (Mass of cement/Specific gravity of

cement) x (1/1000)

=(366/3.15)x 1/1000

=0.1l6m3

(c) Volume of fly ash = (Mass of fly ash/Specific gravity of fly

ash) x1/1000

= (92/2.2) x 1/1000

= 0.042 m3

(d) Volume of water = (Mass of water/Specific gravity of water)

x 1/1000

= (158/1) x 1/1000

= 0.158 m3

(e) Volume of chemical

[@ 0.8% by Mass of

cementitious material]

= (Mass of chemical admixture/Specific

gravity of admixture(super plasticizer)

admixture) x (l/1000)

= (3.66/1.2) x 1/1000

= 0.003 m3

(f) Volume of all-in aggregate = {a-(b+c+d+e)}

= {1-(0.116+0.042+0.158+0.003)

= 0.681 m3

(g) Mass of coarse aggregate = (f) x volume of coarse aggregate x

Specific gravity of coarse aggregate x 1000

= 0.681 x 0.65 x 2.74 x 1000

= 1212.9 Say 1213 kg/m3

(h) Mass of fine aggregate = (f) x volume of fine aggregate x Specific

gravity of fine aggregate x 1000

= 0.681 x 0.35 x 2.62 x 1000

= 624.5 Say 625 kg/rn3



C-13.4.1 MIX PROPORTIONS FOR TRIAL NUMBER 1 ON AGGREGATE IN

(SATURATED SURFACE DRY) SSD CONDITION

Cement = 366 kg/m3

Fly Ash = 92 kg/ m3

Water = 158 kg/ m3

Fine Aggregate =625 kg/ m3

Coarse Aggregate = 1213 kg/ m3

Chemical Admixture = 3.66 kg/ m3

Water-cementitious material ratio = 0.345


DRY CONDITION

Cement = 366 kg/m3

Fly Ash = 92 kg/ m3

Water = 158+6.3+6.1 = 170.4 kg

Fine Aggregate =618.7 kg/m3 (625-1% of 625)

Coarse Aggregate =1206.9 kg/m3 (1213-0.5% of 1213)

Chemical Admixture = 3.66 kg/rn3

Water-cementitious material ratio = 0.345

All other steps will remain same as C-10 to C-12.

EXAMPLE -2 IILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE ON CONCRETE MIX

PROPORTIONING

C-0 An example illustrating the mix proportioning for a concrete of M30 grade is given

below.

C-l STIPULATIONS FOR PROPORTIONING

(a) Grade designation M30

(b) Type of cement

(c) Maximum nominal size of aggregate

(d) .Minimum cement content

(e) Maximum water-cement ratio

(f) Workability

(g) Degree of supervision

(h) Type of aggregate

(i) Maximum cement content

g) Chemical admixture type



C-2 TEST DATA FOR MATERIALS

(a) Cement use OPC 43 grade conforming to IS:8112

(e) Specific gravity

Cement

Coarse aggregate

Fine aggregate

(f) Water absorption

(1) Coarse aggregate

(2) Fine aggregate

(d) Free (surface) moisture

(I) Coarse aggregate

(2) Fine aggregate

(e) Sieve

analysis

(1)Coarse

aggregate

(2)Fine

aggregate

IS

Sieve

sizes

mm

Analysis of

Coarse Aggregate

Fraction, %

Passing

Percentage Passing of Different

Fractions

Percentage

passing for

graded 1"

aggregate as

per Table I

I

20 to 10

II

10mm

down

I

60

Percent

II

40

Percent

Combined

100

Percent

20

10

4.75

Conforming to grading Zone II of Table 2

C-3 DESIGN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FOR MIX PROPORTIONING

f'ck= fck+ 1.65 x s

Where, f'ck = target average compressive strength, N/mm2 at 28 days.

fck = characteristic compressive strength, N/mm2 at 28 days.

s = standard deviation, N/mm2

From Table 3, Standard Deviation = 5.0 N/mm2

Therefore, design compressive strength = ……. + 1.65 x 5.0 = ……N/mm2

Design flexural strength using IS: 456 relationships = ……… N/mm2

C-4 SELECTION OFWATER-CEMENT RATIO

From Table 4, preliminary water-cement ratio = ……..

…….. < 0.50, hence OK.

C-5 SELECTION OFWATER CONTENT

From Table 5, water content for 20 mm aggregate = …….. kg/m3 at W/C = ……..

As super plasticizer is proposed to be used, the water content can be reduced maximum

up to 30%. For the purpose of present trial exercise, a reduction of water content of 15%



has been assumed by adjusting suitably the doses of the super plasticizer. The designer

can use this reduction as per his requirement of the availability of the grade of cement and

quality of super plasticizer. With 15% reduction in water content at water-cement ratio of

……, the reduced water content equals to 186 x…..=…….. kg.

C-6 CALCULATION OF CEMENT CONTENT

Water-cement ratio =……

Water content = ……. kg/m3

Cement content =………. kg/rn3

Check for minimum and maximum cement content as per IRC: 15

Minimum cement content as per IRC: 15, 325 kg/m3<416 kg/m3 Hence, OK

Maximum cement content as per IRC: 15,425 kg/m3>416 kg/m3 Hence, OK

C-7 PROPORTIONOFVOLUMEOFCOARSEAGGREGATEAND

FINEAGGREGATE


fine aggregate grading Zone…….. per unit volume of total aggregate. This is valid for

water-cement ratio of …... As water-cement ratio is actually ……,the ratio is taken as

…….. to reduce sand content (as per Note 3 of Table 6).

Volume of fine aggregate content = 1-…… = ……. Per unit volume of total

aggregate

C-8 MIX CALCULATIONS

(a) Volume of concrete = 1 m3

(b)Volume of cement = (Mass of cement/Specific gravity of

cement) x (1/1000)

= (………/…….) x (1/1000)

= ……… m3

(c)Volume of water = (Mass of water/Specific gravity of water) x

(l/100)

= (……/……) x (1/1000)

= ……. m3

(d)Volume of chemical

admixture (super plasticizer)

[@ 0.6% by mass of cementations material]

=(Mass admixture/Specific gravity of

admixture) x (1/1000)

= (……/…..) x (1/1000)

=……… m3

(e)Volume of all in aggregate = {a - (b+c+d)}

= {1-(………+……..+……)}

= …….. m3

(f) Mass of coarse aggregate = (e) x ……. x Specific gravity of coarse

aggregate x 1000

= ……… x ……… x ……. x 1000

= ……. Say …….. kg/m3

(g) Mass of fine aggregate =(e) x ……. x Specific gravity of fine



aggregate x 1000

= ……. x ……. x ……. x 1000

= …….. Say…….. kg/m3


IN SSD CONDITION

Cement = …….. kg/m3

Water = ……… kg/m3

Fine Aggregate = …….. kg/m3

Coarse Aggregate = ……… kg/m3

Chemical Admixture = ………. kg/rm3

Water-cement ratio = ……….


IN DRY CONDITION

Cement = ……… kg/m3

Water =………. kg/ m3

Chemical Admixture = …….. kg/ m3

Fine Aggregate = ……. kg

Coarse Aggregate = ……. kg

C-10 The slump shall be measured and the water content and dosage of admixture shall

be adjusted for achieving the required slump based on trial, if required. The mix

proportions shall be reworked for the actual water content and checked for

durability requirements.

C-11 Two more trials having variation of ± 10 percent of water-cement ratio in C-10

shall be carried out and a graph between three water-cement ratios and their

corresponding strengths shall be plotted to work out the mix proportions for the

given target strength for field trials. However, minimum arid maximum cement

content requirements should be met.

C-12 Adjustment due to higher slump requirements for use of RMC can be made as

follows:

Based on initial trials, it has been established that for expected 1 hour transit time initial

slump requirement is 100 mm for 20 mm slump at the time of placement.

Based on trials dosage of admixture may be increased from 0.6 per cent to 1.0 per cent

by mass of cement to achieve required workability (accordingly all other calculations

can be modified).



C-13 IN CASE IT IS PROPOSED TO USE FLY ASH IN THE CONCRETE

C-13.1 CALCULATION OF CEMENT AND FLYASH CONTENTS

Water-cement ratio = …….

Cement content = ……… kg/m3

Now, to proportion a mix containing fly ash the following. steps are suggested:

(i) Decide percentage of fly ash to be used based on project requirement and quality of

materials.

(ii) *Increase the cementitious material content by 10% of total cementitious material

content of control mix calculated as above, to account for fly ash reactivity.

Cementitious material content = ………..kg/m3

* In certain situations increase in cementitious material content may be warranted. The

decision on increase in cementitious material and its percentage may be based on

experience and trial. This illustrative example is with increase of 10 per cent cementitious

material content.

Water Content == ……… kg/m3

So, water-cementitious material ratio = …………

Fly ash @ 20 per cent of total cementitious content = …….kg/m3

Cement (OPC) = ………..kg/m3

Check for maximum cement content Maximum cement (OPC) content as per IRC: 15,425

kg/m3> ……… kg/m' Hence, OK

Check for minimum cementitious content, ………kg/m3<458kg/m

3

(366kg/m3

OPC+ 92

kg/m3 fly ash) Hence, OK

C-13.2 PROPORTION OF VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE AND FINE

AGGREGATE CONTENT


fine aggregate Zone ………= …….per unit volume of 'total aggregate. This is valid for

water-cement ratio of …….. As water-cement ratio is actually ……., the ratio is taken as

…….. to reduce sand content.

Volume of fine aggregate content =1-……. = ……… per unit volume of total aggregate

C-13.3 MIX CALCULATIONS

(a) Volume of concrete = 1m3

(b) Volume of cement = (Mass of cement/Specific gravity of

cement) x (1/1000)

=(……../……)x 1/1000

= ……..m3

(c) Volume of fly ash = (Mass of fly ash/Specific gravity of fly

ash) x1/1000

= (……./……) x 1/1000

= ……. m3



(d) Volume of water = (Mass of water/Specific gravity of water)

x 1/1000

= (……./…..) x 1/1000

= …….. m3

(e) Volume of chemical

[@ 0.8% by Mass of

cementitious material]

= (Mass of chemical admixture/Specific

gravity of admixture(super plasticizer)

admixture) x (l/1000)

= (……../…….) x 1/1000

= ……… m3

(f) Volume of all-in aggregate = {a-(b+c+d+e)}

= {1- (……..+……..+………+………)

= …….. m3

(g) Mass of coarse aggregate = (f) x volume of coarse aggregate x

Specific gravity of coarse aggregate x 1000

= ……. x ……. x …… x 1000

= ……… Say ……. kg/m3

(h) Mass of fine aggregate = (f) x volume of fine aggregate x Specific

gravity of fine aggregate x 1000

= …….. x ……. x …….. x 1000

= ……. Say ……. kg/rn3


(SATURATED SURFACE DRY) SSD CONDITION

Cement = ……. kg/m3

Fly Ash = …….. kg/ m3

Water =…….kg/ m3

Fine Aggregate =……. kg/ m3

Coarse Aggregate = …….. kg/ m3

Chemical Admixture = ………kg/ m3

Water-cementitious material ratio = ……..


DRY CONDITION

Cement = ……. kg/m3

Fly Ash = ……. kg/ m3

Water = ………kg

Fine Aggregate =……… kg/ m3

Coarse Aggregate =………..kg/m3

Chemical Admixture = ………..kg/rn3

Water-cementitious material ratio = ……….

All other steps will remain same as C-10 to C-12.

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



SECTION-F

A STUDY ON TRAFFIC PARAMETERS

SECTION-F- A STUDY ON TRAFFIC PARAMETERS

22 Spot speed study (IRC:SP:19-2001)

23 Traffic Volume Study (IRC:SP:19-2001)

24 Accident Study (IRC:SP:19-2001)



TRAFFIC ENGINEERING -SCOPE OF STUDY

TRAFFIC CHARACTRISTICS TRAFFIC STUDIES

AND ANALYSYS

TR

AF

FIC

OP

ER

AT

ION

AN

D C

ON

TR

OL

DE

SIG

N

PL

AN

NIN

G A

ND

AN

AL

YS

YS

GE

OM

ET

RIC

DE

SIG

N*

AD

MIN

IST

RA

TIO

N A

ND

MA

NA

GE

ME

NT

VEHICULAR CHARACTRISTICS

ROAD USER CHARACTRISTICS

TR

AF

FIC

VO

LU

ME

OR

IGIN

AN

D D

ES

TIN

AT

ION

ST

UC

DY

T

RA

FF

IC F

LO

W C

HA

RA

CT

RIS

TIC

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TR

AF

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CA

PA

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Y S

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T

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IC

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ess




SPOT SPEED STUDY (IRC:SP:19-2001)

General:

Spot speed is referred to as the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a point or cross

section; however there are two distinctly different methods of determination of spot

speeds. In the first method, the time , t (sec) taken by the vehicle to travel a short distance,

d(m) is determined. There for the speed, v= (d/t) m/sec. In the case second method, the

instantaneous speed is measured by a pre-calibrated ‘radar’ equipment which displays or

records the speed in desired units, such as kmph.

In view of these two methods, there are two definitions for the average of a series of spot

speed measurement viz. ‘space-mean speed’ and ‘time-mean speed’.

Space-mean speed represents the average speed of vehicles in a certain road length at any

time. This is obtained from the observed travel time of the vehicles over a stretch of the

road. Space-mean speed is calculated from the relation:

Vs = 3.6𝑑 𝑛

∑ 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖=1

Where,

Vs = space-mean speed, kmph

d = length of road or the distance considered, m

n = number of individual vehicle observations

ti = observed travel time, (sec) for ith vehicle to travel the distance d, m

the average travel time of all vehicle is obtained from the reciprocal of space-mean speed.

Time-mean speed represent the speed distribution of vehicle at a point on the roadway

and it is the average of instantaneous of observed vehicles at the spot. Time-mean speed

is calculated from the relation:

Vt = ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑛

𝑖=𝑙

𝑛

Where,

Vt = time-mean speed

Vi = observed instantaneous speed of ith vehicle, kmph

n = number of vehicles observed

The space-mean speed is slightly lower than tome-mean speed under typical speed

condition on rural highways.



Frequency distribution and cumulative frequency diagram of spot speeds

Aim

Apparatus

Procedure



Observations and calculations

Result

Discussion of the result

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



SPOT SPEED STUDY

NAME OF ROAD : TYPE OF ROAD: DATE:

DIRECTION : REF. DISTANCE: m TIME:

Sr No.

TIME TAKEN TO COVER REF. DISTANCE

2W 3W 4W BUS LCV/HCV NMT BICYCLE

Time Speed Time Speed Time Speed Time Speed Time Speed Time Speed Time Speed

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

NAME OF ENUMERATOR: SIGNATURE:



Darshan Institute of Engineering and Technology-Rajkot

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Highway Engineering

SPOT SPEED STUDY

NAME OF ROAD : TYPE OF ROAD: DATE:

DIRECTION : REF. DISTANCE: m TIME:

Sr No.

TIME TAKEN TO COVER REF. DISTANCE

2W 3W 4W BUS LCV/HCV NMT BICYCLE

Time Speed Time Speed Time Speed Time Speed Time Speed Time Speed Time Speed

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

25

NAME OF ENUMERATOR: SIGNATURE:




TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY (IRC:SP:19-2001)

Definition: Traffic volume is a measure to quantify the traffic flow. Traffic volume or

traffic flow is expressed as the number of vehicles that pass across a given transverse

line of the road during unit time. As the carriageway width of the roads may vary, the

traffic volume is generally expressed as number of vehicles per hour or per day, per

traffic lane.

Measurement Unit: PCU, Vehicle/hr and Vehicle per day

Aim

Apparatus

Procedure




Result


(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




ACCIDENT STUDY (IRC:SP:19-2001)

Aim

Apparatus

Procedure



COLLISION DIAGRAM



CONDITION DIAGRAM


Result


(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



SECTION-G

HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN- STUDY MATERIAL

Highway Geometric Design (Study Material)

(IRC:73,86-2015)



HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN ELEMENTS

(FIVE ELEMENTS)

1 2 3 4 5

CROSS SECTION

ELEMENTS

SIGHT

DISTANCE

HORIZONTAL

ALIGNMENT

VERTICAL

ALIGNMENT

INTERSECTION

ELEMENTS

❖ Pavement

surface

characterist

ic

❖ Stopping

sight

distance

(SSD)

❖ Horizontal

curve • Gradien

t

❖ Intersection

at grade

→ Friction

(Skid and

Slip)

❖ PIEV

theory

❖ Super

elevation • Summit

curve

1. Unchannelize

→ Pavement

unevenness

❖ Overtaking

sight

distance

(OSD)

❖ Widening

of

pavement

• Valley

curve

2. Channelize

→ Light

reflecting

characteristi

c

❖ Sight

distance at

intersection

❖ Horizontal

transition

curve

3. Rotary

intersection

❖ Camber /

Cross slope

❖ Set-back

distance on

horizontal

curve

❖ Grade

separated

intersection

❖ Carriage

way

❖ Curve

resistance

❖ Median

❖ Kerb

❖ Road

margin

❖ ROW

❖ Formation

width



HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN - STUDY MATERIAL


HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN (STUDY MATERIAL) (IRC:73,86-2015)

Highway Geometric Design

❖ Elements Of HGD (GTU Dec. 2010)

1) Cross-section Elements

2) Sight Distance Consideration

3) Horizontal Alignment Details

4) Vertical Alignment Details

❖ Factor Affecting HGD

1) Design Speed

2) Topography

3) Traffic Factors

4) Design Hourly Volume & Capacity

5) Environmental Factors

❖ Topography Classification

➢ Based on the cross slope of the country, the terrains are classified as under:

Terrain Classification Cross slope of the country (%)

PLAIN 0-10%

ROLLING 10-25%

MONTAINOUS 25-60%

STEEP >60%

❖ Cross-section Elements Of Road

1) Carriage Way

2) Formation Width

3) Right Of Way

4) Road Shoulders

5) Side Slope

6) BERM

7) Boundary Stone

8) Side Drain

9) Building Line (B.L)

10) Control Line(C.L.)

11) Spoil Bank

12) Borrow Pits



13) Krebs (Low, semi-barrier, barrier)

14) Pavement Surface Characteristics

(i) Friction (ii) Unevenness of Pavement (iii) Light Reflecting Characteristics

❖ Cross-Section Of Roads As Per IRC: (JUNE 2011)

1) C/S Of NH Or SH In Rural Area In Embankment:

2) C/S Of MDR In Rural Area In Embankment:

3) C/S Of Divided Highway In Urban Area:

❖ Difference Of SKID & SLIP

SKID SLIP

It occurs when the wheels of the vehicle slide

without revolving

OR

When the wheels partially revolve

It occurs when a wheel revolves more than

the corresponding longitudinal distance along

the roads

Distance travelled is greater than the

circumferential moment of the wheel

Distance travelled is less than the

circumferential movement of the vehicle



❖ CAMBER

➢ CAMBER is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to

drain off the rain water from the road surface

➢ CAMBER can be provided in three ways:

(1) Parabolic Camber

(2) Straight Camber

(3) Combination Of Straight & Parabolic

Camber

❖ CAMBER For Different Road Surface

Sr. No. Types Of Road surface Range of CAMER in Area

of Rainfall Range

HIGH to LOW

1 Cement Concrete/High type

bituminous surface 1 in 50 (2%) 1 in 60 ( 1.7%)

2 Thin Bituminous surface 1 in 40

(2.5%) 1 in 50( 2 %)

3 Water Bound Macadam

(WBM)/ Gravel pavement 1 in 33 (3%) 1 in 40( 2.5%)

4 Earth 1 in 25 (4%) 1 in 33 ( 3.0%)



❖ Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

SSD = Lag Distance + Breaking Distance

❖ Factors Affecting SSD

1) Speed Of Vehicle

2) Efficiency Of Break

3) Total Reaction Time Of Driver

4) Frictional Resistance betn The Road & Tyres

5) Gradient of The Road

❖ PIEV Theory : (GTU Dec. 2010)

➢ According to PIEV theory the total reaction time of the driver is split into four

parts

I. Perception Time

II. Intellection Time

III. Emotion time

IV. Volition time



❖ Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

SSD = Lag Distance + Breaking Distance

SSD = 0.278vt +v2

254f( In kmph)

SSD = vt +v2

2gf( In m sec⁄ )

❖ Break Efficiency When Given:

SSD = vt +v2

2g(f × Break efficiency in fraction) (In m sec⁄ )

SSD = 0.278vt +v2

254(f × Break efficiency in fraction) (In kmph)

❖ SSD:

1) When road is with ascending gradient

SSD = vt +v2

2g (f +n

100)

(In m sec⁄ )

2) When road is with descending gradient

SSD = vt +v2

2g (f −n

100)

(In m sec⁄ )

1) For One Way Traffic:

SSD = SSD × 2

2) For A Two Way Traffic On A Single Lane Road:

SSD = 2 × SSD

3) For Two Way Traffic On A Two Lane Road:

SSD = 1 × SSD

❖ Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD):

➢ The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to

overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is

known as the OSD.



OSD = d1+d2+d3

➢ What is d1 , d2 & d3 we see ahead.

d1 = Vbt Where, b = VbT

b = distance travelled by slow moving vehicle B.

S = 0.7Vb + 6

d2 = b + 2S S = Spacing of vehicle

= VbT + 2S T = √4S

a

d3 = V. T (V > Vb)V = Speed Of Overtaking Vehicle

T = Overtaking time

t = Reaction time (sec)

a = Acceleration of overtaking vehicle

Vb= Speed of slow vehicle B (m/s)

OSD = d1 + d2 + d3

OSD = Vb. t + (Vb. T + 2S) + V. T

➢ As per IRC, minimum length of OSD = 3 × OSD

➢ As per IRC, desirable length of OSD = 5 × OSD

❖ Design Speed:

➢ The maximum safe speed of vehicles used for highway geometric design is known

as DESIGN SPEED.

➢ Factors affecting design speed are:

1) Class Of Road

2) Class Of Terrain

3) Curves On The Road



4) Type Of Road Surface

5) Intensity And Nature Of Traffic

6) Condition Of Road Surface

Types

of

Roads

Design Speed in kmph for various terrains

Sr.

No.

PLAIN ROLLING MOUNTAINOUS STEEP

Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.

1 NH OR SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30

2 MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20

3 ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20

4 VR 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20

❖ SUPERELEVATION:

➢ The amount by which the outer edge of the road surface is raised is known as

super elevation or cant or banking.



Rotating About Center Line

Rotating About The Inner Edge

❖ FORMULA FOR SUPERELEVATION:

e + f =v2

gR Where, e = tan θ

= Rate of super elevation

e + f =V2

127R f

= design lateral friction co − efficient

= 0.15

➢ If f = 0 then

e =v2

gR v = speed of vehicle m sec⁄

R = Radius of horizontal curve (m)

➢ When e=0

f =v2

gR V = speed of vehicle in kmph

v = √fgR g = 9.8 m s2⁄

➢ As per IRC, e should not exceed 0.067 ≅0.07 or 6.7%.

➢ The value of f should not exceed 0.15.

❖ ADVANTAGE OF SUPER ELEVATION:

➢ Transportation made safely on the road.

➢ Vehicle can traverse the horizontal curve with more speed.

➢ Traffic volume is increased.

➢ The maintenance of road on curved is decreased.

There is no need to construct drain at the outer edge of the road & water drain off the

road surface quickly.



❖ TRANSITION CURVE:

It is a curve which is provided betn straight and circular curve or between two

compound curves or between two reverse curves.

❖ OBJECTIVES OF TRANSITION CURVE:

TRANSITION CURVE

Objectives Of TRANSITION

CURVE: 1. To enable gradual introduction of

the designed Super elevation.

2. To enable gradual introduction of

the extra winding of pavement.

3. To introduce gradually the

centrifugal force between the

tangent point & the beginning of

the circular curve, avoiding a

sudden jerk on the vehicle.

4. To improve the aesthetic

appearance of road.

5. To prevent the possibility of

overturning of vehicles on

horizontal curves.

6. There is no need to decrease the

speed of the vehicle entering the

curve.

❖ Requirements Of TRANSITION CURVE:

1) The radius of transition curve should gradually decrease from infinite at the point

of tangency (T.P.) to the radius of curve (R) near the circular curve.

2) The rate of increase of curvature should be equal to the rate of increase of super

elevation.

3) The length of transition curve (Ls) should be such that full super elevation is

obtained where transition curve meet the circular curve.



4) The length of transition curve should be inversely proportion to the radius of the

curve

LS ∝1

RLS. R = Constant

❖ Length Of TRANSITION CURVE:

➢ The length of the transition curve is designed to fulfill three condition :

1) The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should be developed gradually:

Ls =0.0215v3

CRLs = LengthOfTransitionCurve(m)

v = SpeedOFvehicle(kmph)

R = RadiusOfCircularCurve(m)

➢ The min. & max. value of C are limited to 0.5 & 0.8 respectively.

C =80

75 + Vm sec3⁄

2) The Rate of change of super elevation should gradual:

e =V2

225R e should be less than o. 7 E

= e . B Where ,

E = Rise Of Outer Edge Of Road

Ls =EN

2[If Road Is Rotated From The Center

] B = 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑎𝑑[

Ls = EN [If Road Is Rotated From

The Inner Edge]

N = Rate of super elevation → If 1 in N = 1 in 150

N = 150

3) Minimum length as per IRC:

I. For Plain & Rolling terrain:Ls =2.7V2

R V in kmph

II. For Mountainous terrain:Ls =V2

R

4) SHIFT OF CURVE:S =LS

2

24R



❖ GRADIENT:

➢ The Rate Of Rise Or Fall Along The Length Of The Road With Respect To The

Horizontal Is Called GRADIENT.

❖ TYPES OF GRADIENT:

1) Average Gradient

2) Ruling Gradient

3) Limiting Gradient

4) Exception Gradient

5) Minimum Gradient

6) Floating Gradient

❖ FACTORS AFFECTING GRADIENT:

1) Nature Of Traffic

2) Drainage Of Water

3) Appearance

4) Access To Adjoining Property

5) Obligatory Points like Bridge, Canal, Railway Crossing etc.

❖ GRADE COMPENSATION :

➢ The Reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve is called GREDE

COMPENSATION.GRADE COMPENSATION (%) =30+R

R

➢ According to IRC the grade compensation is not necessary for gradient flatter than

4%.

❖ WIDENING OF CURVES:

Total widening

= Mechanical Widening(WM) + Psychological Widening(WPS)

=nl2

2R+

V

9.5√R Where,

n = No. of lane

=18n

R+

0.1V

√R l

= length of wheel base(m)

R = Mean radius of curve(m) V = Design speed in kmph



❖ EXTRA WIDENING AT HORIZONTAL CURVES (AS PER

IRC):

Radius of

curve (m)

Extra

widening(m)

Up to 20 21 to 40 41 to 60 61 to 100 101 to 300 Above

300

Two-lane 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 Nil

Single lane 0.9 0.6 0.6 Nil Nil Nil

VERTICAL CURVES

Summit Curves

➢ Length of summit curve for SSD:

1) When L > 𝑆𝑆𝐷

L =NS2

[√2H + √2h]2

Put H = 1.2 m & ℎ = 0.15𝑚

L =NS2

4.4 Where, S = SSD

2) When L < 𝑆𝑆𝐷

L = 2s −[√2H + √2h]

2

N

Put H = 1.2 m & ℎ = 0.15𝑚

L = 2s −4.4

N

Where, L = length of summit curve

S = stopping sight distance(SSD)

Valley Curve

➢ Length of Transition curve (Ls) for

comfort condition:

LS = 0.19(NV3)1

2⁄

L = 2LS = 0.38(NV3)1

2⁄

L = 2LS = 2 [Nv3

C]

12⁄

= 0.38(𝑁𝑉3)1

2⁄

➢ The minimum radius of the valley

curve for the cubic parabola

R =LS

N=

L

2N

Where, V = Speed in kmph

v = speed in msec⁄

C = allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

C = 0.6 m sec3

R = Radius of valley curve



N = deviation Angle

H = Height of eye level of driver above roadway

surface (m)

h = height of object above the pavement surface

➢ Length of summit curve for a safe

OSD:

I. When L > 𝑂𝑆𝐷

L =NS2

[√2H + √2h]2

Put H = h = 1.2 m

L =NS2

9.6 Where, S

= OSD

II. When L < 𝑂𝑆𝐷

L = 2s −9.6

N

LS = Length of transition

Curve

➢ Length of valley curve for head light

sight distance:

I. When L > 𝑆𝑆𝐷

L =NS2

[2h1 + 2S tan α]

Put h1 = 0.75 m & 𝛼 = 1°

L =NS2

[1.5 + 0.035 S]

Where, L = total length of valley

curve(m)

S = SSD(m)

N = deviation Angle

N = (n1 + n2)with slopes

−n1and + n2

II. When L < 𝑆𝑆𝐷

L = 2s −(2h1 + 2S tan α)

N

Put h = 0.75m & 𝛼 = 1°

L = 2S − (1.5 + 0.035S

N)

❖ STEPS FOR SUPER ELEVATION DESIGN :

1) The super elevation for 75% of design speed

e =(0.75 v)2

gR OR

(0.75v)2

127R

e =v2

225R

2) If e exceeds 0.07 than provide max. super elevation 0.07 & go through step (3) &

(4)

3) f =V2

gR− e =

V2

gR− 0.07 =

V2

127R− 0.07

➢ If the value of f is < 0.15, the super elevation of 0.07 is safe for the design speed .

➢ If not the go to step (4)

4) e + f = 0.07 + 0.15 = 0.22 =Vs

2

gR=

Vs2

127R

vs = √0.22gR = √2.156R m sec⁄ OR vs = √27.94R kmph



❖ SUMMIT CURVES:

❖ VALLEY CURVE:



SECTION-H

FIELD VISIT

AND

FIELD TESTS ON PAVEMENT LAYERS

26 Hot Mix Plant Visit (Prepare report) (IRC:90-1985)

27 Ready Mix Concrete Plant visit (Report) (IRC:90-1985)

28 Determination of Field Density of Pavement Layer (IS:2720-29,28-1975)

29 Introduction of Plate Bearing Test (IS:1888-1982)

30 Introduction of Benkelman Beam Deflection (IRC:81-1997)

31 Introduction Unevenness Measurement by Bump Integrator and

MERLIN

(IRC:SP:82-2015)

HOT MIX PLANT-and STONE CRUSHER VISIT REPORT




HOT MIX PLANT VISIT REPORT (IRC:90-1985)



Draw line diagram of STONE CRUSHER operation as seen on site

Draw line diagram of HOT MIX PLANT as seen on site

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



READY MIX CONCRETE PLANT (RMC PLANT) - VISIT

REPORT EXPERIMENT NO: 27 DATE:

READY MIX CONCRETE PLANT (STUDY) (IRC:90-1985)

Draw line diagram of READY MIX CONCRETE PLANT as seen on

site

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:



FIELD TESTS ON PAVEMENT LAYERS




INTRODUCTION OF DETERMINATION OF FIELD DENSITY OF

PAVEMENT LAYER (IS:2720-29,28-1975)

Introduction:

It is often necessary to determine the field dry density or in-place

Dry density of: (i) natural soil (ii) compacted soil layers of the embankment and subgrade

and (iii) pavements layers, in road construction projects. The dry density of natural soil is

useful to estimate the quantity of borrow soil required to complete a construction project

and is also useful in other application in civil engineering.

The dry density of compacted soil or pavement layer is a common measure of the amount

of the compaction achieved during the field compaction in road construction in road

construction works. The determination of dry density is done in three stages, (i)

determination of the field density or in-place density by a suitable method and (ii)

determination of filed density moisture content and field dry density are important field

control tests during the compaction of soil or dry other pavement layer.

Determination of field density by sand replacement method:

A simple and most common method of determination of in-place field density of soil and

other compacted pavement layer is the ‘sand pouring cylinder method’. The basic

principal of sand replacement method is to measure the in-place volume of a hole from

which the material was excavated, by filling-in the hole with dry sand of known density.

The sand poring cylinder apparatus is used for this purpose. The in-place density of

material is given by the weight of the excavated material collected from the hole, divided

by the in-place volume of the hole. In-place dry density is determined by finding the

moisture content in the soil collected from the field.

Fig. Sand pouring Cylinder



Equipment:

1. Sand pouring cylinder

2. Metal tray with hole

3. Tools for travelling and excavating

4. Container

5. Calibrating container

6. Plane surface

7. Balance

8. Sand

Procedure:

The determination of field density of the compacted soil or pavement layer by sand

replacement method is carried out in following stages:

• Calibration of the apparatus by determination the density of the sand used

• Finding the weight of the soil/pavement material excavated from the hole

• Finding the weight of test sand filling the hole

• Calculating the volume of the hole by making use of the weight of the sand filling

the hole and the density of the sand used

• Calculating the field density by dividing the weight of the excavated material from

the hole by the volume of the hole

• Determination of the field moisture content or the average moisture content in the

excavated soil/pavement material

• Calculation of dry density of the soil/pavement material, making use of the

density and moisture content values.

Determination of field density by core cutter method:

Equipment:

1. Cylindrical core cutter

2. Steel dolly

3. Steel rammer

4. Extractor

5. Other apparatus

Procedure:

The internal diameter and length of the core cutter are measured at two or more locations

in order to determine the internal volume, Vc if the core cutter. The weight of the core

cutter, Wc is determined.

300 mm square area is cleaned and leveled at the location where the field density is to be

determined. The core cutter is placed on the desired location with the cutting edge at the

bottom and the steel dolley or ring is placed on the top of the core cutter and is rammed

down vertically into the soil using the steel rammer. The soil around the core cutter is dug

and removed and the core cutter with the soil inside is taken out carefully, causing least

possible disturbance to the soil sample inside the core cutter. The ends of the soil core are

trimmed flat (flush with the top and bottom edges of the core cutter) using a straight edge.

The weight of the core cutter along with the wet soil taken the field is determined = Ws .

The soil core is removed from the core cutter and one or more reprensentive soil samples

are taken for determination of moisture content in the soil sample. The soil samples

collected from the sample are placed in moisture content dishes, wet weight determined,

dried in oven at 110˚C and the dry weight determined in order to find the mean moisture

content. Any other rapid test method for determination of field moisture content as

method as earlier may also be adopted earlier may also be adopted as per the requirement.



CORE CUTTER METHOD SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

Observations

Internal diameter of core cutter (cm) =

______________

Height of cutter (cm) =______________

Volume of cutter, V cm3) =___________

Volume of calibrating cylinder (cm3),

V1 = ______________

Mass of sand for filling the calibrating

cylinder and cone (g),

W1= ______________

Bulk density of sand (g/cm3),

= _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Mass of sand for filling only the cone (g),

W2=______________

Mass of sand in the calibrating cylinder (g)

W3 = W1 - W2 =______________

Field Test No. 1 Field Test No. 1

Mass of core cutter (g), W1

Mass of pouring cylinder +

sand before pouring in hole

(g), W4

Mass of cutter + soil (g), W2

Mass of pouring cylinder +

sand after pouring in hole

(g), W5

Mass of moist soil (g), (W2-

W1)

Mass of sand used in the

hole (g), W6 = W4 - W5 -

W2

Average water content, W

(%)

Volume of excavated hole

(cm3),

Field bulk density (g/cm3),

Mass of excavated soil (g),

W

Field dry density (g/cm3),

Average water content, w

(%)

Field bulk density (g/cm3),

Field dry density (g/cm3),

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




INTRODUCTION OF PLATE BEARING TEST (IS:1888-1982)

Introduction: The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be broadly

divided into three groups, namely. (1) shear tests (2) bearing tests and (3) penetration

tests. The shear strength parameters are determined in terms of cohesion, C and angle of

internal friction, Ø by conducting shear tests on soil specimens. Bearing test is carried out

on the soil in-place by applying loads on a relative large size plate and observing the

settlement values. Plate bearing test is an example of bearing test. Penetration tests are

carried out on soil by applying loads through a plunger of small diameter.

In plate bearing test, compressive loads are applied on the soil or pavement layer in-place

through rigid plates of relatively large size and the deflection values are measured for

increasing load values. The deflection level is generally limited to a low value, in the

order of 1.25 to 5 mm and so the deformation caused may be partly elastic and partly due

to compaction of the stressed mass with very less plastic deformation. The plate bearing

test has been devised to evaluate the supporting power of a prepared subgrade or any

other pavement layer in-place by using plates of large diameter.

The plate bearing test was originally devised to find the modulus of subgrade reaction

of prepared subgrade soil in the Westergaard’s analysis for wheel load stresses in

cement concrete pavements. The procedure for determining modulus of subgrade

reaction, K of a soil in-place to evaluate strength of subgrade for subgrade for design of

road and airfield pavement structure is presented in this test. Various organizations

including BIS have specified standard test procedure to conduct plate bearing test for the

determination of K-value. The subgrade modulus is defined as the intensity ‘p’ applied on

the standard plate per unit deflection i.e. K = p / d, where the value of deflection d=1.25

mm or 0.125 mm.



Fig. Plate bearing set-up

Equipment:

• Bearing plate consists of a mild steel plate of diameter 750 mm and thickness 25

mm. Smaller bearing plates of diameter 450 or 300 mm and thickness 25 mm may

also be used. Stiffening plates of diameter 600, 450, 300 and 225 mm and

thickness 25 mm are used to prevent bending of the large plate of diameter 750

mm during application of heavy loads.

• Loading equipment consists of a reaction frame or a dead load and a hydraulic or

screw jack of capacity 15000 kg. The reaction frame may suitably be loaded to

give the reaction load of about 15 tonnes on the plate. The load applied may be

measured either by a proving ring with dial gauge assembly or a load cell.

• Settlement measurements may be by means of three or four dial gauges with an

accuracy of 0.01 mm, fixed on the periphery of the bearing plate from an

independent datum frame/bar. The datum frame should the supported far from the

loaded area.

Procedure:

Preparation of test area and seating

The test site prepared and loose material is removed so that the 750 mm diameter plate

rests horizontally in full contact with the surface of soil subgrade. If the modulus of

subgrade reaction of natural ground is needed, the top soil is stripped off and removed up

a depth of about 250 mm or up to the elevation of the proposed subgrade, for an area

twice that of the plate. If the test is to be conducted on the compacted fill or subgrade,

care is taken that test is conducted at the dry density and moisture content of the soil that

are likely to exist subsequent to the construction. In order to ensure full contact of the

plate, oil is applied on the bottom of the plate and the plate is rotated to mark the

irregularities and high spots of the seating surface to be trimmed. In the case of granular

soil with gravel particles, after initial levelling of the surface by a straight edge, it may be

necessary to apply a thin layer of plaster of paris and allow the same to same to set before

applying the load. The level surface of the plate is checked using a bubble tube placed on

the plate in different positions.

Test set up



The bearing plate is seated on the prepared surface and the stiffening plates are placed

one above the other in the decreasing order of the diameter. The reaction load frame is

set up above the centre of the plate. The loading jack is places centrally above the top of

the set of plates and the proving ring with dial gauge or any other type of load cell is

inserted between the loading jack and reaction load frame in order to measure the load

applied. Additional spacer discs or cylinders may be required to be placed between the

jack/load measuring device and the reaction load frame. Three or four dial gauges are to

be uniformly spaced and set up near the rim of the bearing plate from an independent

datum frame or bar in order to measure the settlement readings due to load application.

The supports of this datum bar are placed away from the loading plate as well as the

supports of the loading frame such that they are not affected by the loading operations.

After seating the bearing plate and setting up the loading and settlement measuring

device, a seating load of 310 kg is applied on the 75 cm diameter plate, equivalent to a

pressure of 0.07 kg/cm2 in the case of pavements meant for light loads. For heavy duty

pavements, a seating load of 620 kg or a seating pressure of 0.14 kg / cm2 is applied. The

seating load may be held till there is no significant settlement and then it is released,

Cyclic loading under seating load may be applied if required, to obtain good seating.

Loading procedure Method-1

The seating load applied is released and the load reading is set to zero. All the settlement

dial gauge readings are either set to zero or the initial dial readings are noted

corresponding to zero load. The load is applied by means of the jack and it is increased to

sufficient magnitude to cause an average settlement of about 0.025 mm and the jack and

the load is retained, observing the settlement dial reading. When there is no perceptible

increase in settlement or when the rate of settlement is less than 0.025 mm per minute, the

load dial reading and the settlement dial reading of the individual dial gauges are noted.

The average of the taken as the average settlement of the palate corresponding to the

applied load.

The load is then increased till the average settlement increase till further amount of about

0.25 mm, and the load and the settlement dial readings are noted as before. The procedure

is repeated till the total average settlement of the plate is not less than 1.75 mm.

A graph is plotted with the mean settlement values of the plate on the X- axis versus load

per unit area or the bearing pressure, p on the Y-axis. The pressure p (kg/m2)

corresponding to a settlement, d=0.125 cm obtained from this graph. The modulus of

subgrade reaction, K is calculated from the relation:

K = 𝑝

𝑑 =

𝑝

0.125 kg/cm2/ cm, or kg/cm3

Loading procedure Method-2

After the application of seating load and holding it for sufficient time, without releasing

the seating load, the settlement dial gauges are set to zero and an additional load 3100 kg

is applied. If the plate bearing test is conducted on relatively weak cohesive soils (which

is indicated by average settlement exceeding 1.25 mm under 3100 kg load on the plate),

the applied load is held until the rate of settlement is less than 0.05 mm per minute and

after that the reading are noted.

If the plate bearing test is conducted on granular soils or on relatively strong cohesive

soils (which is indicated by average settlement reading much lower than 1.25 mm under

the applied load of 3100 kg on the plate), additional load of 1550 kg is applied on the

plate (without releasing the applied load already applied) and the settlement observations

are recorded when the rate of settlement is lower than the specified rate. This process of



applying the load increments are continued until the total load applied on the plate is 9300

kg .This load is held for 15 minutes or until the rate if settlement is less than 0.02 mm per

minute.

The average settlement, d under an unit load of 0.7 kg/cm2 (0.07Mpa) is noted from the

graph and the modulus of subgrade reaction, K is calculated from the relation:

K = 0.70

𝑑 kg/cm3 =

0.70

𝑑 Mpa/cm

Observation and calculation:

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




INTRODUCTION OF BENKELMAN BEAM DEFLECTION

STUDIES AND ANALYSIS (IRC:81-1997) Introduction:

The principle of this method of pavement evaluation is that the flexible pavement surface

deflects under an applied wheel load and the amount of deflection under a saturated wheel

load depends upon the stability of the pavement structure. The stability of pavement

structure depends upon (a) thickness and quality of various pavement layer (b0 subgrade

soil type and degree of compaction (c) drainage condition and field moisture content in

the subgrade soil at the time of load application and (d) pavement surface temperature (in

case the case of bituminous pavement layers of total thickness above 40 mm). A weak

pavement surface structure will deflection will deflect to a greater extent under a standard

wheel load whereas a strong pavement structure will deflect pavement to a lesser extent

under the same load. After a number of repeated applications of wheel loads will be

elastic and therefore on removal of the load (or when load moves forward) the deflected

pavement structure will bounce back to original shape or the deflected surface will

‘rebound’. The magnitude of ‘rebound deflection’ due to removal of a standard wheel

load is measured using this simple equipment, ‘Benkelman Beam’.

Fig. Benkelman Beam



Fig. Benkelman Beam

Equipment:

• Benkelman Beam

• Loaded Truck

• Accessories-30 m tape, chalk, glycerol, thermometer to measure temperature up to

100°C with 1°C accuracy, spanners, tools to dig the pavement layers, pressure

gauge.

Procedure:

On the selected road sub-grade with uniform surface condition, minimum of ten points

should be marked at equal intervals along the outer lane of the traffic for measurement of

the deflection values. It is desirable that the distance between the points should not be

than 50 m. If the carriageway has more than two lanes, the deflection observation points

marked on the adjacent lanes are staggered. The deflection observation points are marked

along of 3.5 m and 0.90 m if the lane width is more than 3.5 m. In case of divided four

lane highways, the deflection measurement points should be 1.5 m from the pavement

edge.

The loaded truck is made to stand parallel to the pavement edge such that the rear dual

wheel is centrally placed over the first deflection observation point. The probe of the

Benkelman beam is inserted in between the dual wheels from the rear side of the truck

such that the end of the probe rest exactly over the marked deflection observation point,

in between the dual wheels. The legs of the beam are adjusted and the beam is checked,

so that there is no possibility of the probe touching any part of the tyre, the dial gauge

spindle is checked foe appropriate contact and run of the spindle. The initial dial gauge

reading D0 is noted after the dial gauge reading shows no further change or when the rate

of deflection of the pavement is less than 0.025 mm per minute. The truck is moved

forward at a slow and uniform speed of 8 to 10 m/sec to a distance of 2.70 m and stopped

and the intermediate dial gauge reading Di is noted when the rate of change in reading is

less than 0.025 mm per minute.

The truck is further moved forward to the final location by a further distance of 9.0 m

from the intermediate location and the final dial gauge reading Df is noted when the rate

of change in deflection is less than 0.025 mm per minute.

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:




INTRODUCTION OF UNEVENNESS MEASUREMENT BY BUMP

INTEGRATOR AND MERLIN (IRC:SP:82-2015)

Introduction:

The undulations or unevenness of pavement surface may be classified in to three

categories:

• Rough surface profile with minor corrugation which cause some discomfort and

vibrations, especially in small automobiles or light vehicles.

• Uneven surface with large number of undulations such as small depressions and

humps or a wavy surface which result in considerable discomfort to the

passengers and drivers due to the oscillations and also increase in vehicle

operation cost for all categories of automobiles. The magnitude of discomfort in

riding quality depends on the vehicle type, its weight, tyre size, suspension details

and the operating speed.

• Surface with large size depressions on some stretches (which may be due to the

settlement of embankment or its foundation), without noticeable minor

undulations, in such case the undulations cannot be measures under a straight edge

of 3.0 m length, but such profile will be of very adversely affect high speed

movement of vehicles on expressways and movement if aircrafts on runways.

It is therefore desirable to provide an even or plane road surface with least undulations or

unevenness. The evaluation of undulations or unevenness in the pavements may be

divided in to three board classifications:

• Methods which are based on certain physical measurement of the surface

undulations

• Methods which are based on indirect measurement in terms of human response to

surface undulations during riding

Methods which are based on subjective assessment or rating of the surface characteristics

and no measurement is involved

There are large numbers of equipment developed by various organizations based on the

principal of moving straight edge or moving datum resting on two pairs of wheel which

rolls or traverse along the pavement surfaces and this vertical movement with respect to

the temporary datum is utilized to indicate or to measure unevenness

Bump integrator (BI) is a single-wheel trailer unit hauled by a tractor unit or a suitable

vehicle at the specified uniform speed. The vertical oscillations of the BI are integrated

with the help of an attached ‘integrator unit’. In India the undulations or unevenness

values of pavement surface are generally measured using the ‘Fifth Wheel Bump

Integrator’ and are expressed in terms of ‘Unevenness Index’ in mm per km road length

or m/km. The Bump Integrator is a response type road roughness measuring equipment.



Measurement of unevenness index by Bump Integrator

Fig. Bump Integrator

Equipment

The Bump Integrator (BI) is a trailer unit comprising of a single automobile wheel with

rubber type of specified size mounted on a heavy chassis through suitable bearings and a

suspension system which is hauled at a uniform speed of 30 kmph by a towing vehicle.

Procedure

The stretch of road to be tested is identified and the start end points are marked by bold

lines drawn across the pavement width. Usually unevenness measurements are made

along the normal paths, by making the test runs such that wheel of the bump integrator

runs along the desired wheel path. While conducting the tests on undivided roads, the first

test run is made along the wheel path on the onward trip from the starting point the end.

In the return trip, the test wheel is run along the other wheel path.

The digital units / counters, one indicating the cumulative value of

undulations and the indicating the number of revolutions of the test wheel may be set to

read zero when the test wheel crosses the starting line, or else the initial reading may be

noted down. When the test wheel of the BI unit crosses the ending line, the readings of

both the counters are noted and recorded. The hauling vehicle and the BI unit are final

readings. Similarly total three to four test runs are made along each wheel path so as to

determine the mean value of unevenness. In the case of divided highways with multiple

lanes, the study may be planned to cover each wheel path during each test run in each

direction and the required number of test runs may be made along each wheel path.

It is preferable that the hauling vehicle with the bump integrator starts from a location 30

to 50 m before actual starting line of the test stretch so that by the time the vehicle reaches

the starting line, a uniform speed of 30 kmph can be maintained; when the test wheel just

crosses the starting point, both the counters are set to zero. When the test wheel crosses

the ending line, the readings are noted and recorded, while maintaining the uniform speed

of the test run and the vehicle and the trailer unit may be slowed down and turned after a

further distance of about 30 to 50 m, at a convenient location.



Measurement of unevenness by merlin

Fig. Merlin

Equipment

MERLIN has two feet which are spaced at 1.8 m and a probe that rest on the wheel track.

The probe lies mid- way between the two feet. The equipment is fitted with a bicycle tyre

for ease of operation in the front leg. A rigid metal road is fitted in the rear leg. A

stabilizer leg is fitted at the rear to prevent the equipment from falling. The probe is

attached with a moving arm with a pointer at one end which moves over a prepared data

sheet. The arm has a mechanical amplification of ten, so that a movement of the probe of

one mm will produce a movement of the pointer of ten mm. The chart consists of

columns, each 5 mm wide and divided into boxes.

Procedure

The wheel path along which the readings are to be taken is marked. The MERLIN is

moved and kept at the starting point. The location of the pointer on the chart is recorded

with a cross at the appropriate column and to keep a record of the totl number of

observations, a cross mark is also made in a ‘tally box’ in the chart. The handle of the

MERLIN is raised, so that only the wheel is in contact with the road surface and moved

forward to the next measuring point and the process is repeated. The next point is located

after each revolution of the wheel of the MERLIN. A mark is painted on the rim of the

wheel and the measurement is taken every time, the wheel rotates and the mark comes to



the road surface. It is desirable to have at least 200 readings at regular intervals or 200

wheel revolutions.

When 200 observations are made, the chart is removed from MERLIN. The numbers of

cross marks are counted from either end. The position mid-way between the tenth and

eleventh cross marks from either end are marked on the chart. If needed, the position may

be interpolated between the tenth and eleventh readings. The spacing between the two

marks; D is measured in millimeters and taken as the roughness on the ‘MERLIN Scale’.

(Faculty Advisor)

Date:

darshan institute of engineering & technology rajkot · 2019-11-19 · department of civil...

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