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Cybernetics of Tao

Article  in  Kybernetes · May 2010

DOI: 10.1108/03684921011036772 · Source: DBLP

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Cybernetics of TaoZude Ye and Maurice Yolles

Centre for the Creation of Coherent Change and Knowledge,Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK

Abstract

Purpose – Taoist thought is not easily penetrable for Westerners, though it has growing importancewith the globalisation of Chinese commerce. The purpose of this paper is to explore some aspects ofChinese and Taoist thought, and how they can be expressed in cybernetic terms, using a knowledgecybernetics (KC) schema.

Design/methodology/approach – KC operates through metaphor the role of which is consideredwith respect to its application to the specific area of urban landscaping.

Findings – A new methodological approach is indicated that is capable of linking Western landscapetheory with Taoist feng shui. The traditional approach to critical planning has been in principleenhanced through the idea of landscape canonical harmony that comes from Taoist feng shui. It is alsoshown that the activity phases in urban landscape design are ontologically different, and use distincttypes of energy measures.

Research limitations/implications – The research uses KC as a vehicle for the development ofa landscaping methodology that draws on both traditional Western and Chinese Taoist approaches.It requires application to real situations to draw out its practical capacities.

Practical implications – This is apparently the first time that a synergy between Western andChinese approaches to landscape design and development has been attempted that results in theproposal of a complete methodology.

Originality/value – The successful use of this methodology could demonstrate that Western andChinese approaches to landscape design are relatable.

Keywords Cybernetics, Taoism, Urban areas, Landscaping, China, Metaphors

Paper type Research paper

1. IntroductionWestern urban planning is distinct from traditional Taoist Chinese approaches thatarise through the Taoist paradigm of feng shui. While the former encompasses conceptslike aesthetic harmony and critical planning, in contrast traditional Chinese approachesare concerned with design related canonical[1] harmony, and the two are ontologicallydifferent from each other. A convergence that couples their use could benefit bothWestern and Taoist approaches, but because of their ontological differences, to createthis there is a need for formalised structuring. Structured approaches to inquiry arereferred to as methodologies (Yolles, 1999, 2000a, b, 2005), and they have the capacity toguide and validate processes of convergence.

Historically, there has been a lack of the use of structured methodological approachesin urban landscape development, and in the 1960s this sadly and notoriously resultin high social and human costs[2] as projects that were well intended ended up as long-term disasters because planning did not address human and social attributes. Whiletoday there are clear interests in methodological considerations (Lo et al., 2003;Kurbatova and Bashkin, 2006) that involve collections of conjointly assembled methodsand techniques, there is still a clear need for formalised methodologies, like the systemicapproaches of Churchman (1971) or Checkland (1981).

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0368-492X.htm

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KybernetesVol. 39 No. 4, 2010

pp. 527-552q Emerald Group Publishing Limited

0368-492XDOI 10.1108/03684921011036772

In this paper, we use a cybernetic framework called knowledge cybernetics (KC)(Yolles, 2006) to formulate the basis of a new methodology that is able to make inquiryfor the creation of durable urban landscape developments. To satisfy the need forconvergence between Taoist and Western paradigms, the methodology will be madesensitive to both. However, creating such a synergy in a new paradigm is not simply amatter of linear theory addition, and the problem of paradigm incommensurabilitymust be addressed. Since paradigms often develop from core metaphors, a relativelyrich appreciation of traditional Chinese thought is necessary, as well as the metaphorsthat they use to develop their theoretical constructions. This can lead to thedevelopment of theoretical convergence, which is usually a knowledge creationprocess. Finally, Western and Chinese metaphors are related, and it is explained howboth Western and traditional Chinese theory can both profit from the synergy.

2. Paradigms and paradigm incommensurabilityThe traditional paradigms[3] that have arisen in China have been unfathomable to theaverage Western scientist. However, there is recognition that Chinese and Westernframes of reference each have their own valuable place in the process of inquiry forimprovement of human and social situations. Since the onset of the Western industrialrevolution there have been about three hundred years of illustration that practicalscience can offer some utility here, but it has only been recently that some researchersin science have been able to recognise that traditional Chinese approaches are also ofvalue. Thus, for instance, acupuncture has developed as a paradigm within Taoismthat has provided evidenced treatments for both anaesthesia (Streitberger, 2002) andpain release (Lundeberg, 2002).

We have referred to a paradigm, which is also a schema, but not all schemas areparadigms. The schema provides an underlying organizational pattern, structure, orconceptual framework of knowledge, and the patterns are an ordered experiential stockof knowledge that provides cognitive relevance for narrative. There are threeinteractive classes of relevance (Schutz and Luckmann, 1974, p. 228): thematicrelevance occurs when a narrative (with its own subject characteristics) can beexpressed, and determines the constituents of an experience; interpretative relevanceoccurs when the narrative can create direction by the selection of relevant aspects of astock of knowledge; and motivational relevance occurs when consideration of thenarrative causes a local conclusion through action. Schemas may begin throughthematic relevance as simple conceptual classifications that can arise from qualitativeor quantitative observation, but by engaging with interpretive and motivationalrelevance can develop to into theories with predictive capability and even (with theformation of adequate normative modes of practice) paradigms.

Paradigms are schemas that are created through cognitive models that involvebeliefs, values, attitudes, norms, ideology, meanings and define mission. They useconcepts that weave into a theoretical base able to be formulated as practicalapproaches to inquiry and intervention, and which are usually in terms of methodology.

The relating of two distinct paradigms can only occur if they are commensurable(Kuhn, 1970; Burrell and Morgan, 1979; Yolles, 1999). Incommensurability between twoframes of reference occurs when they have theory that is either non-coextensive and/orqualitatively dissimilar (Yolles, 1999). Coextensivity occurs when two theories occupythe same spaces of conceptual extension and have empirical referents that can be

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measured on a common platform. Qualitative similarity refers to the capacity to createmeasurements of empirical referents for concepts that are qualitatively similar, whenthey can be measured on the same scale of values.

When two paradigms are commensurable, they are coextensive in that:

(1) the conceptual base that underpins the theory of each enables them to beconnected while expressing distinct areas of interest; and

(2) they are qualitatively similar.

However, even if two paradigms are coextensive, they may still be incommensurable iftheir concepts cannot be measured on the same scale of values, and where they aretherefore qualitatively dissimilar.

Paradigms are knowledge-based contextually defined frames of reference thatderive from the propositions that make them up. The knowledge is often expressedlocally in terms of embedded metaphors, and so cannot be understood by those whosupport paradigms using different metaphors. This knowledge is used to createnarratives, and where there are two paradigms with distinct patterns of ambientknowledge, the narratives will be distinct.

Kuhn (1970, p. 149) notes that “new paradigms are born from old ones”, whichoccurs through a process of transition from competing incommensurable propositions,standards, norms, tools and techniques. This means that these elements can either:

. be in conflict; or

. differences in language force misunderstanding.

Given that there are two frames of reference and a wish to relate them as a source andtarget, then complex theory from one may be migrated to the other. In this situation, itis possible to create a schema in the target that is reflective of the source as long thecreative process is able to adequately represent the conceptual extensions of the source– a notion that we call migration. Migrating complex theory from the source to thetarget frame of reference normally involves the development of a new narrative,usually using new or adapted metaphors that can be developed into proprietary theory.Equivalently, we can say that migration involves mapping complex narratives from asource to a target frame of reference, and this involves new conceptual extensionsbeing formulated locally (in the target) during this process. Migration therefore has thesymbolic capacity to manifest a source schema in a target.

When we say that the migratory process should create adequate representation, weare referring to the constructivist notion that it is not possible for complex conceptualextensions to be seen in exactly the same way in both frames of reference, because theambient patterns of knowledge that make each distinct are different and so resultingmeanings cannot be exactly the same. However, when the migrated theory is appliedwithin the target frame of reference, the migratory process is seen to have beenadequate when we perceive that the outcome is satisfactory, at least as far it conformsto a set of expectations that enable the consequence of an explanation to be satisfying.As part of the process of creating a satisfactory outcome, the migration process is alsolikely to result in the need to examine qualitative similarity (Wong et al., 2008).

In the migration process, a target virtual paradigm[4] is constructed in the targetframe of reference, and it has already been said that the intention of this paper is tocreate such a paradigm using the general framework of KC. As part of this, specific

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theory of urban landscape design will be formulated using KC, which treats the urbanlandscape as a viable autonomous system. Western urban landscape design involvesthe concept of architectural harmony that is normally part of aesthetics[5], distinctfrom the Toist feng shui concept of canonical harmony that is part of the landscapedesign process and related to critical planning. It is this latter meaning that will bemigrated to the virtual paradigm. Metaphors that will assist this process must be, andare explored. The result can be referred to as the cybernetics of Taoism.

3. The metaphysics of Chinese thought and TaoismOver the last three millennia, China has developed ways of engaging in inquiry thatenables them to understand and intervene in observable situations. These approacheshave a proprietary philosophical orientation that originates from three distinctphilosophies: Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. All share the same source(Needham, 1962) as understood through the term San Jiao Tong Yuan. While they existas autonomous platforms, they are also synergistic and defined within a commoncontext that relates to the social and human condition. Historically[6], it was theintroduction into China of Buddhism that eventually resulted in a harmonisation withthe earlier Chinese traditions of Taoism and Confucianism. It resulted in a blend of thethree teachings, in which Confucianism was applied to education and ethics, Taoism topersonal enlightenment or for illness or bad fortune, and Buddhism to death and theafterlife. This complementarily can also be illustrated through the synergisticrelationship between the Taoism and Confucianism, where the former emphasises thefree and easy original nature of the individual unconstrained by social convention,while the latter points to social forms and ethical norms. The two traditions coexist in abalance and complement each other. Hence, a Confucian statesman could retire to thecountry and find joy in the natural aesthetics fostered by Taoism.

Tao is regarded as the natural order of the universe. It is unexplainable since itexceeds senses, thoughts, and imagination. From this the myriad of creatures originate,and referred to as wan wu or Ten Thousand Things, it is a metaphor for all livingthings or the whole of creation. Tao is process orientated, and its creative idea is that Qienergy is a starting point for any process, after wuji (nothing) and taiji (something).More correctly, wuji (nothingness) is the starting point of a process. As a generator ofprocess, Tao gives birth to one, one generates two, two goes to three, and ultimately byassociation three goes to 10,000 (wan wu) through transformation. Recursion occursover time, and forms an infinite hierarchy with multi-levels that go from themacroscopic to microscopic: thus processes that occur at a microscopic level of detailcan be responsible for macroscopic systems. We shall refer to this as Chinesemetaphysics.

3.1 Chinese metaphysicsChinese metaphysics is based on a systemic or embedded hierarchical framework thatis used to explain all aspects of Taoism. It operates as an ontology that defines what isoften called the “cosmology” of Taoism. The purpose of this framework is todistinguish epistemological contexts in which different situations are susceptible todifferent forms of description and analysis. This framework is of the form shown inFigure 1, in which the embedded ontology expresses sequentially increasing degrees ofarchetypal complexity from the singular to the extended plurality. It begins with the

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Wu Ji, the undivided Tai Qi (or Tai Chi ), then the Qi (or Chi ), and then separates intogreater levels of complexity. The origin (Wu Ji ) concerns the one beginning thatprecedes the identifiable being that has been called “the edge of emptiness” or the “nolimit”. The Tai Qi is the “song” of the Wu Ji that provides reference for space and time,while the Wu Qi is “the infinite” by Lao Tzu in 500BC), or the primordial state.

The monad Qi is the essence that enables the start of creation in space-time. Thedyad is a yin-yang[7] dichotomy that defines the “first substance” of the universeconsistent with the dualism of Kant and Hegel’s dialectic, and which is also representedthrough the tian-di that defines the relationship between spirit of heaven and earth(Kuide, 2008). The triad enables ontological distinctions between types of reality, sothat realities can be formulated in the human consciousness. Three triads are referredto: the TDR refers to the tian-di-ren that connects heaven, earth and man (Golding,2008); the jing-qi-shen ( JQS) identifies three types ( JQS) of energies that enables one todistinguish between human and material systems; there is also the modernwuli-shili-renli (WSR) that defines types of human knowledge. The tetrad given inFigure 1 is exemplified by the four seasons, but this has effectively been abandonedand often subsumed into the five elements. This latter is part of the pentad, a metaphorthat originates from the five obvious organs of the human being, and creates a frame ofreference that enables practical situations to be explained and analysed.

These distinct archetype levels of the ontology operate within different contexts tocreate greater modelling complexity. They are also embedded one within the other, in aform of archetypical recursion. Thus, a dyad can be formulated with a higher ordermodel within it. Thus, for instance, in acupuncture yin-yang has within it the “fiveelements” (earth, fire, metal, water and wood) that through their interaction explain thedegree of health or pathology of the organs of the human body and from whichdiagnosis can arise (Alpern, 2008). For the methodological purposes of this paper theintention is to initially discuss the triad.

Figure 1.The archetypical

embedded hierarchy ofChinese metaphysics

The dyad

(e.g., Yin-Yang,

Tain Di)

The primary: Tai Qi

Themonad orsource:

Qi

The triad(e.g. WSR,TDR, JQS)

The origin: Wu Ji

The pentad(e.g.,five elements)

The octad(e.g., Bagua)

The tetrad(e.g., the four

seasons)

Deeper levels ofcomplexity like the

embedded octadand beyond

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3.2 The triadic oriental systems approachThe triad archetype level in Figure 1 is the higher dyadic level which, incidentally,subsumes all the deeper ontological levels of increasing conceptual complexity that aredeemed to exist. Hence, discussion of the triad will imply that its very nature isconditioned by the dyad: for instance the dichotomous yin-yang. Two triads will beconsidered here, the first is what we shall call the san li or “three knowledges” (WSR),and the second is traditionally known as the san bao or “three treasures” ( JQS).

WSR began its development in the 1970s (Zhu, 2003), and first came to light in Gu(1988) when the WSR concepts where brought together, though it conceptuallydeveloped from a combination of traditional Confucian teaching and contemporarymanagement practice in China (Gu and Zhu, 1995, 1996). None of the WSR terms haveimmediate and inflexible definitions in English, so their meaning must be gleamedfrom normal contextual use.

Each of the elements of the WSR triad contain the word li, which Zhu (2003)recognises is central to all three main Chinese traditions of Confucianism, Taoism andBuddhism (San Jiao Tong Yuan), but it has diverse meanings. Used as a noun it refersto such notions as markings, textures, essences, orders, mechanisms, tendencies,patterns, principles, logics and reasons. These can have either virtual of actualmeanings. Used as a verb it takes on such meanings as: to investigate, to reason, tomanage, to engage, to put in order, to organise, to respond. The word also denotesknowledge, perspectives, mental constructs relating for instance to activities andpatterns, including those about human cognitions, value orientations and purposiveactions. Modern interpretations[8] of the word li also refer to reason, logic, science,inner principle or structure, with clear relation to knowledge.

Zhu further notes that wu refers to objects, contents, and “the world” as distinctfrom the subject. Thus, wu refers to the objective in the sense of it being “actual”,existing, possessing certain properties, helping or hurting individuals andorganisations, and this is irrespective of human intention to study them, and relatesto “facts”. Allowing for the nature of li, wuli refers to the knowledge underpinning tothe actual, material-regulative contexts.

Shi means: affairs or events; troubles, problems; work, business; involvement,engagement or service (Zhu, 2003). Its modern interpretation refers to patterns ofinteractions between mind and the material world. Shili concerns sense-making,meaning-giving, situation framing, reality-projecting, schema-taking, knowledgecreating, language evolving and modelling of models. It concerns the working ofstructured mentalities of individuals, groups, organisations and the society. It usuallyconcerns the virtual, psychocognitive contexts.

Ren normally refers to man, person or people, and Zhu (2003) explains that itdenotes human relations. The concept of renli can be taken as the basis for humanthought or resource, and may be associated with the knowledge that underpins humanrelationships which can occur through the paradigms that people develop, adhere toand maintain. It is concerned with the central normative question of how humansshould live together, including their ideals, norms and value orientations in relationsocial life. Zhu notes that the core focus of Confucian teaching is on how to behaveproperly in a more or less un-codified but prevailing web of obligations, expectationsand personal and social connections. Renli thus governs existential elements of life likelove and hate, cooperation and confrontation, trust and distrust, loyalty and equality.

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So the WSR triad can be thought of as representing three types of knowledge thatare analytically distinct, but intimately linked, and are simultaneously differentiableyet inseparable. Their inseparableness comes from the notion that the meaning of one licannot be apprehended without that of the other.

WSR as a modern knowledge schema is often represented as having Confucianantecedents, but it should rather be thought of as neo-Confucian. This is implicitlysupported by Begona Lloria (2008) who in referring to the rise of knowledgemanagement in the West, says that “[. . .] the Chinese were extremely shocked anddecided to ‘welcome knowledge management home’. They quickly embraced whateverappears useful into wuli-shili-renli WSR framework, which they claimed was inheritedfrom Confucius.”

Historically, the WSR knowledge schema was envisaged after the Chinese culturalrevolution in the late 1970s, after dissatisfaction with the mechanistic manner of socialproblem-solving (Zhu, 2003). This was because it was realized that there too muchpreoccupation occurred with wuli (material aspects), and so shili (“rationality”concerns) needed to be considered. In due course renli (the social-political sphere) wasadded in. It then developed as a systems approach, likely influenced by the work ofChurchman (1971) and Checkland (1981). This occurred with Gu and Zhu (1995), withfurther development in a variety of papers including Tang and Gu (2001) and Gu andTang (2004). However, our interest in WSR is as a knowledge schema (the san li ) not asystems methodology, and in future in this paper it will be regarded in this way.

As a san li WSR is not unique. For instance, Jane Roland (Martin) argued in 1961(cited in Pratte (1979, 1981)) that there are three distinctions in knowledge:propositional (knowing-that), performative (knowing-how-to) and dispositional(knowing-to). These are analytically and ontologically distinct and consist of thefollowing classifications:

. propositional knowledge relating to concepts;

. performative knowledge relating to relational use of concepts in connection withtheir pragmatic consequences; and

. dispositional relating to practical implementation.

There are other related knowledge schemas (Young and Garnett, 2007). Notably,Schutz and Luckmann’s (1974) were also interested in knowledge schemas, andidentified what they referred to as schema relevancies that are connected to narrative.

More recently Marshall (1995), in her exploration of the way in which militarypersonnel made decisions in the field, identified four empirical evidencedclassifications of knowledge which Yolles (2006) has shown, applying Schutz andLuckmann’s (1974) generic classifications of narrative, reduce to the three types:executor (with conceptual planning), elaborator (with critical planning) and executorknowledge. The Schutz and Luckmann, Marshall, and WSR knowledge schema arerelated in Table I illustrating their similarity, and allowing us within the context of thispaper to use the san li WSR in the stead of Marshall’s modified schema.

While the WSR triad constitutes ontologically distinct types of knowledge, their veryexistence is dependent on the energy that facilities their existence, and there isa conceptual basis in Chinese philosophy for this. In the eleventh century Zhang Daitalks of the “three treasures” of Taoism – the JQS triad. Energy facilitation is an integralpart of Taoism, and three ontologically distinct forms of energy can be identified

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through the ancient idea of the three treasures. These treasures are the JQS energies[9]that theorise and explain the human physiological system and the fundamentals for allfacets of life and its many variations (Liang and Wu, 2001). Jing is the essence ofmaterial-life and is a coarse physical energy; qi is an energy that we may see aspsycho-cognitive in nature; and shen is the spiritual life force energy. The JQS triad, likeWSR, are inseparably linked with each another. The nature of this relationship is thatjing may be manifested as qi that is in turn may be manifested as shen. Shen may alsoultimately be manifested as Tao – a process of achieving ever-higher levels ofintegration. These energies can facilitate the creation and use of WSR knowledgeconnections. In Table II, we show the connection between san li (WSR) and San Bao( JQS). The latter is an essential energy ingredient in, for instance, the “internal arts” ofhealing and in feng shui, is conceptual in its traditional Taoist/Confucian form, and canlikely be made measurable in its neo-Taoist/neo-Confucian form (Sunshine and Wang,2003). In addition each of the san boa have distinct units that remind us of the distinctand un-mixable natures of the san li.

4. Knowledge cyberneticsThe Marshall schema has been used within the viable systems schema of Schwarz(1994, 1997) by Yolles (2006) as part of his KC.

Eric Schwarz (1994, 1997) developed his own representation of the viable system,one that engages with morphological dynamics. Within this he proposes a newontology that embraces existence and emergence, and the drive towards durability.

Type ofschemarelevance Occurrence of relevance

Relevancies in Marshall’sschema

Relevancies to the san liWSR schema

Thematic When a narrative (with itsown characteristics thatdistinguishes one theme fromanother) can be expressed,and that determines theconstituents of an experience

Identification (andconceptual planning)knowledge has thematicrelevance in that anarrative must berecognisable through theconcepts that it entails

Renli has thematicrelevance in that anarrative in the socialarena is connected withhuman norms andrelations that derive fromexperience

Interpretative When the narrative cancreate direction by theselection of relevant aspectsof a stock of knowledge

Elaboration knowledgehas interpretive relevancewith the creation ofdirection, when theselection of relevanciesthat relate to an event isessential in thatelaboration requiresinterpretation

Shili has interpretiverelevance in that anarrative is connectedwith seeing, ways ofdoing through cognitivestructuring (modelling),and the anticipation ofcanonical harmony

Motivational When consideration of thenarrative causes a localconclusion through action

Execution knowledge hasmotivational relevance inthat execution is a naturalconsequence of the activeconclusion of a narrative

Wuli has motivationalrelevance in that it isconnected with real worldobjects and impliedinteractions

Table I.Types of relevanciesrequired in a schema,applied to Marshall’s andthe WSR knowledgeschema

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The ontology describes the basic nature of self-organising systems that are far fromequilibrium. Schwarz explains that all systems become viable when they develop:

. patterns of self-organisation that lead to self-organisation throughmorphogenesis, and to complexity;

. patterns for long-term evolution towards autonomy; and

. patterns that lead to the functioning of viable systems.

Developing on these ideas (Yolles, 1999, 2003; Yolles and Dubois, 2001; Yolles and Guo,2003) developed the model to have a recursive nature that is context sensitive, andoffers an epistemological approach that was designed to specifically address socialcollectives. Called KC (Yolles, 2006), this paradigm is principally concerned with thedevelopment of social collectives as autonomous agents that survive throughknowledge and knowledge processes in relation to behaviour and thought. The theoryis constructed as metaphor, but this does not diminish its significance (Ho and Fox,1988; Brown, 2003).

KC maintains an ontological model shown in Figure 2. The three domains constitutedistinct modes of being: measurable energetic phenomenal behaviour, information richimages or systems of thought, and knowledge related existence that is expressedthrough patterns of meaning. The term existential is taken directly from Schwarz’susage; the term noumenal is taken from the positivist work of Kant (Weed, 2002), andthough the approach taken here is constructivist; and the term phenomenal has beenadopted because of intended consistency with the principles of phenomenology asfounded by Husserl (1950) and after him Heidegger (1927). Each domain can beassociated with a particular part of an autonomous organisation. The existentialdomain holds the metasystem, the noumenal domain the virtual system, and the

Renli Shili WuliSan li neo-ConfucianWSR

Existential humanrelationships throughparadigmatic knowledge

Knowledge aboutseeing, modelling andengaging withphenomena

Knowledge aboutphenomena

Shen Qi JingSan bao neo-Taoistand neo-Confucianenergy

A directed orderedexistential energy whichcan be manifested as aspiritual or dynamicdriver of life forcethrough meaning

Psycho-cognitive, linkedto Jing and Shen andthat drive the virtualimagination throughinformation

Known as the treasure ofphysical energy, andoften seen in terms ofmale or female sexualenergy

Renli/Shen Shili/Qi Wuli/JingRelating san bao tosan li

Shen energy is driven byrenli as it manifestsparadigmaticrelationships that arisethrough existentialattributes likeworldview

Qi energy drives psycho-physical processes intwo aspects: exhibitionsof the ability to engagewith phenomena, andintellectual ability

Jing energy drivesphenomenal behaviouras human creativeresources, and can alsobe considered as acondensed seed of (ormanifestation ofstructured) information

Table II.Posited relationship

between WSR and SanBao, through the

commensurability ofneo-Confucianism and

Taoism

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phenomenal domain the system and other phenomenal objects with which it mayinteract that are structured and have behaviour.

The three domains of the KC are analytically distinct classifications of being, andthey each have properties that are manifestations of knowledge. The phenomenaldomain has social interests adapted from Habermas (1971). The other domainproperties arise as an extension of this and draw on both systemic and cyberneticnotions in a way explained in Yolles and Guo (2003). There is a connection here toSchutz and Luckmann (1974) in that the epistemological content of each of the threedomains can be defined in terms of narrative relevancies. The existential domain hasthematic relevance that determines the constituents of an experience; the noumenaldomain has interpretative relevance that creates direction through the selection ofrelevant aspects of a stock of knowledge to formulate visions, images or system ofthought; and the phenomenal domain is associated with motivational relevance that

Figure 2.Dynamic nature of the KCmodel for autonomousagents

Referencial drift

Pattern creating knowledgefigurative intelligence

Phenomenal social/environmentalexchanges with self

Self-organisationmorphogenesis

Self-production(autopoiesis)

through a networkof processes

Phenomenal domain:Structured objects

Shen energy

Information drift

OutIn Self-regulation,homeostasis/morphostasis

Noumenal domain: RelationsQi energy

Self-creation(autogenesis)

through anetwork

principles

Image

Existential domain: BeingJing energy

Self-reference

Object

Aoutopietic dialogue creatingoperative intelligence

Source: Adapted from Schwarz (1997)

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causes a local conclusion through action. The notions of conscious, subconscious andunconscious derive from Freudian psychology, are connected to the ideas ofWollheim’s (1999), and also related to the ideas of organisational psychology aspromoted, for instance, by Kets de Vries (1991). The domains are knowledge relatedtoo, a notion that comes by linking to work of Marshall (1995) to that of Schutz andLuckmann (1974).

The nature of autopoiesis and autogenesis is of particular interest in the KC model.The two together constitute a necessary and sufficient indicator of autonomy, theformer being introduced into the literature by Maturana and Varela (1987), and thelatter by Schwarz (1997). Here, autopoiesis is a term that can now be simply seen as anetwork of processes that enables noumenal activity to become manifestedphenomenally, and in autonomous systems this is conditioned by autogenesis – anetwork of principles that create a second order form of autopoiesis that guidesautopoietic processes. Autopoiesis may be thought as a process in which virtualimages are manifested phenomenally. Autogenesis provides a network of principlesthat ultimately drives autopoiesis. A partial illustration of the dynamic nature of viablesystems in KC is depicted in Figure 2 and explored in Table III, and is based on thework of Schwarz (1997). It has also been expressed in terms of Piaget’s notion ofoperative and figurative intelligence (Piaget, 1977; Yolles, 2009).

The three domains indicted have distinct referents that depend on context. Forinstance, given the context of a behavioural system that interacts empirically with itsenvironment, the phenomenal domain may be data related, the noumenal domaininformation related and the existential domain knowledge related. However, if thecontext is a personality that has cognitive processes that are information related, thenthe phenomenal domain may be connected with information structures that have beencreated through decision, the noumenal domain may be connected with informationbased models, and the existential domain with collections of information.

Autogenesis may be seen as a second order form of autopoiesis that concernsself-creation, and can be thought of as a network of principles that enables autopoiesis.Thus, for instance in personality studies it connects identity with self-processes, anotion indirectly supported by Markus and Nurius (1986) who proposed a theory of“possible selves” which explains how the individual develops a connection betweenpresent self, motivation, behaviour and possible or future self. Also, in identity processtheory (Breakwell, 1986, 1988; Sullivan, 2000; Twigger-Ross et al., 2003) theconceptualisation of identity is seen to involve four distinct principles of identity(self-esteem, self-efficacy, distinctiveness and continuity) that together enable themaintenance of a positive self-view.

The nature of tropic drift is explained by its entropic, information and referentialdimensions. With entropic drift there is a movement towards uniformity, with thedevelopment of a stabilising cycle through which arise vortices and a process ofphenomenal recycling. It contributes to the creative cycle of self-organisation andmorphogenesis. With information drift towards complexity, the formation of astabilising cycle of self-regulation leads to homeostasis. It contributes to a creative cycleof self-production through autopoiesis. Referential drift intensifies self-reference andintegrates differences. With the creation of identity and the emergence of consciousness,this results in existential drift towards being. It has a stabilising cycle of existentialself-reference, and a creative cycle of self-creation through autogenesis and connecting

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Domain activity/ontological relation

Conceptualoccurrence Interpretation

Phenomenal activityDriven by Jing energy, andexplored through wuli

Structure Agent self-organisation produced through relationalnetworks, social interconnections, objects and tokens,fluxes of energy phenomena

Morphogenesis Emergence, replication, regeneration, transformation,evolution of destruction of cognitive structures. This isindicated by the autopoietic loop and within theenergetic constraints. Positive feedback is especiallyimportant. Relationship between phenomenal impactand social/environmental responses highlighted. Itconnects to the flow of time, entropic drift, globaltrends toward the probable, and to internal andexternal dissipation

Phenomenalexchangerecycling

This represents the cognitive metabolism, energyfluxes, matter and signals ensuring physicalprocesses, and social perennity and stability

Ontological relation(autopoiesis) creatingoperative intelligence

Feed-forwardautopoiesis

Production of cognitive/psychic structures andbehaviour, from cognitive networks andnetworks of structured information andmisinformation

Feedbackautopoiesis

An autopoietic dialogue can create operativeintelligence, and is a reflection of the capacity to reflectdecision models images phenomenally. Regeneration ofthe relational networks through agent behaviour,influenced by: (1) motivational pressuressatisfying cognitive need (like rituals, power,honour and money); and (2) social/environmentalpressures

Noumenal activityDriven by qi energy, andexplored through shili

Networks Logical relations that ultimately define cognitivestructures and perceptions of social structures.These are constituted as virtual information-basedimages that create self-perceptions of phenomenalactivity

Homeostaticloops

Complex organisation of logical relations defining thecognitive being as a functional unit. Globallyhomeostatic cycles and hypercycles creating viable co-evolution between agent behaviour and thecorresponding relational network like the pattern ofmyths

Ontological relation(autogenesis) creatingfigurative intelligence

Feed-forwardautogenesis

Patterns of social elaborator knowledge (Yolles, 2006)exist that create what Piaget called figurativeintelligence, and can be used to project identity. In thecognitive personality, the knowledge is constituted aspatterned coherence in information gathering. Thenature of figurative intelligence may be extended toinclude the metacoupling that occurs between cognitivebeing and the autopoietic dialogue. It is responsible forthe influence that is created by the network of cognitiveprinciples that define “I” and result in the agent’s ownrules of production

(continued )

Table III.The nature of viableagents

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with figurative intelligence. The notions of figurative and operative intelligence[10]arose through the work of Piaget (1969, 1977) in his exploration learning in children.

The dynamic relationships in Figure 2 and Table III are applicable to the modellingof complex situations, and can also take on a methodological orientation. It describesautonomous viable agents how change in their form and even in their very naturewhile maintain their durability.

Table IV is provides the properties of the autonomous agentic domains. Its columnsare set up as semantic streams[11]: kinematic, directional and latency, and each streamis an indicator of an agent attribute. This table can be used, in a manner related toYolles and Guo (2003), to explore the viability of the agent. There is a knowledge basisfor Table IV that originates from Habermas (1987) and his notion of cognitive interests.This has been developed further for cognitive purposes and influences by Yolles (2006)to account for the additional two domains. This table can also be used to explore theknowledge basis of the autonomous agent to evaluate its viability (Yolles et al., 2006).

We recall that we are able to use, as far as this paper is concerned, the san li WSR inthe stead of Marshall’s modified schema. This triad resides in the existential domain(Table III), but a social agent usually projects them into the other domains (Table II),applying say elaboration knowledge for noumenal tasks, or executor knowledge forphenomenal tasks. Also included have been the Tao three treasures, the JQS energiesthat enable the respective states to arise. These energies can be assigned to variablesthat can be assigned to these domains, and explain how dominant states arise and aremaintained. An illustration of this comes from Jung (1923) who explained thesociocognitive nature of personality. He identified “mental functions” and conceived ofthem as comprising the dimensions of a psychological space. Each function constituteda dyadic state that occurred in pairs. He originally uses the term enantiomodria[12] toexplain their relationship, but later replaced this with the simpler Tao notions ofyin-yang (Yolles, 2009). In the same way, Sorokin (1937-1942) adopted a similarrepresentation for qualitative dyadic states of the variable “cultural mentality”, whichcould take on the appearance of an ideational or sensate quality that were constantly in

Domain activity/ontological relation

Conceptualoccurrence Interpretation

Feedbackautogenesis

Figurative intelligence involves the metacouplingbetween the autopoietic dialogue (operativeintelligence) and the cognitive outcome of the dialogue.Personality creation, regeneration, evolution orcognitive transformation can continuously developaffecting figurative and operative intelligence

Existential activityDriven by shen energy, andexplored through renli

Being Cognitive being as an existing whole. Its degrees ofautonomy, coherence and identity (teleonomy) increasewith its complexity

Self-referentialloop

The cognitive entity emerging from the dialoguebetween its phenomenal self and its own image throughit operative intelligence. The closer the phenomenalstructures (objects) are to the images, the greater itsharmony and autonomy. This is like saying that anagentic personality is more balanced if its ownperception of self is consistent with that of others Table III.

Cyberneticsof Tao

539

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interaction (Yolles and Frieden, 2005) in the development of a model to exploresociocultural dynamics. They can also be seen in terms of opposing forces that operatewith a yin-yang interaction through Sorokin’s principle of immanent change. It is alsoreminiscent of the way that Lewin (1947) has explored group dynamics. It is alsopossible to assign more than a dyadic state of energy to a variable, as illustrated inYolles (1998).

5. A methodology for urban landscapes designIn the West, there is a field of study called urban landscape theory, which is connectedwith urban landscape design and its: social and behavioural processes, aesthetic theoryand critical planning practice. We have formulated Figure 2 into a core inquiry processfor landscape design (Figure 3), that can be represented as a methodology. Here,through figurative intelligence and using appropriate context relevant aspects of theaesthetic theory landscape paradigm, conceptual knowledge (renli ) established on acontext sensitive aesthetics and conceptual planning platform is selected to establishcriteria that are carried through the autogenic network of principles and criteria in afeed-forward process. Autogenetic feedback provides the opportunity to modifyaesthetic or conceptual modelling criteria and principles, thus modifying the figurativeintelligence, which should not be mythical. The network of principles and criteriaare essential in enabling the operative intelligence process to develop. In this, thelandscape design process, involving critical planning, is informed by elaboratorknowledge (shili ), and enables a context sensitive design to be established that satisfiesthe autogenetic criteria. Operative intelligence involves the autopoietic feed-forward ofa network of processes creating operational transference from the critical planningprocess to the development process. Autopoietic feedback regenerates the buildcriteria, and through on-the job (phenomenal) experience modifies, as required, thedesign imperatives – especially where unexpected aspects of the build arise. Where

Figure 3.Inquiry process for thelandscape development

process, showing theprojection (in brackets) oftypes of knowledge from

the existential domain

Autopoiesis and networkof landscape decision

build criteria

Phenom enal domainexecution

landscape development:implementation practice

Shen energy(executor knowledge or

wuli)

Noumenal domainLandscape design:critical planning

Qi energy(elaboration

knowledge or shili)

Autopoiesis andregeneration ofnetworkof decision build criteriathrough build experience

Existential domainDesign paradigm:

aesthetic theory andconceptual planning

figurative intelligenceJing energy

(existential knowledgeor renli)

Autogenesis and thematiccriteria for landscape

processes

Autogenesis andregeneration of evaluativecriteria for conceptualplanning experience

Operativeintelligence

Cyberneticsof Tao

541

operative intelligence indicates, the autogenetic feedback process regeneratesconceptual planning and aesthetics, influencing figurative intelligence. Problemsoccur in this simple process when autogenesis or autopoiesis are disconnected, and theplanning to development activity is subject to systemic pathology. This can inhibit, forinstance, the proper application of renli and shili in the development process.

There are other ways in which the KC schema can be used to explore landscapes.For instance, considering the dynamics shown in Figure 2, referential and informationdrift can be explored to ensure that the landscaping process is viable. Also, Table IIIcan also be applied to the landscaping process, perhaps in a way not too dissimilar tothat indicated in Yolles et al. (2006) thereby mapping the overall beliefs thatparticipants have about the development process. In addition, it is feasible to explorethe viable systems model schema proposed by Beer (1979) to examine a variety ofpossible pathologies.

The distinct forms of activity identified in each of the domains in Figure 3 areclearly distinguished as being ontologically distinct since they have different energyunits of measure. In the existential domain, there is only jing energy, in the noumenaldomain there is only qi energy, and in the phenomenal domain there is only shenenergy. In principle, any exploration of activities having shen units of energy areindirectly influenced by qi and jing related activities.

The urban landscape inquiry schema in Figure 3 has more depth if the recursivenature of KC is adopted. Here, the KC schema is seen as a conceptual fractal that can beset into any of the domains providing context is adequately defined. Within the contextof landscaping, recursion may therefore occur at any of the three level of the inquiryprocess, enabling the exploration of the conceptual design, the critical design, or thedevelopment itself. However, in this illustration we shall look only at one aspect – apart of the critical design process that seeks aesthetic harmony in landscape design.The only schema available for this is feng shui.

5.1 Feng shuiThe critical planning design process that feng shui is concerned with explores urbanlandscapes by examining dynamic “object” relationships, to which relative positionand processes of change in space and time are important, a feature that Western urbanlandscape theory does not have. As a consequence, feng shui is able to seek balance andcanonical harmony in the design development process in a way inaccessible to theWestern approach.

Feng shui is a Taoist approach to critical planning in landscape design. It adopts theproposition that urban landscapes need to be harmonically balanced with the naturallandscape, and without that balance social problems can be more likely. While thispaper will be used to explore some aspects of the urban landscape, it will moregenerally create a generic model that is able to connect Chinese Taoism with science.

In setting up a feng shui schema, we could adopt a variable called landscape. It hasdichotomous energy states that can also be modelled as opposing and dichotomous(yin-yang) interactive forces, which in practice determine the resulting qualitativeenergy level of the variable. These forces are normally expressed in terms of a dragonmetaphor, when the mountain and water dragons are used. The traditional Taorequirement is for the two dragons to interact over a given landscape, and as a result abalanced landscape state arises, referred to as the landscape dragon. These dragons

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are code for the conceptual qi forces that emerge from the urban landscape structure.The mountain and water dragons can become one when they find harmony together,and when this occurs they are spontaneously manifested into the planes dragon.

In the feng shui schema, landscape variable is also provided with measurablecharacteristics that arise from higher levels of archetypal complexity (Figure 1),leading to ways of measuring the qualitative state of the landscape variable. Where themeasures have shen energy units, they need to be transformed into qi energy units.This is equivalent to saying that data needs to be transformed into information; thetwo are different but related since one is connected with the other. One result is theidentification of whether the landscape is in balance or not.

Also in feng shui landscape dimensions can also be created through more complexdimensions[13] in the archetypical schema of Figure 1, are created from the octadictrigram called Bagua[14]. The dimensions of the octal are fundamentally the eightsymmetric points of the compass to define a landscape in terms of space-time energychanges. More complexity is introduced by relating this octal to the five elementsarchetype, which creates a context for additional metaphorical representations aremade in areas that relate to wealth, fame, love, family/health, education, career andthree types of luck. All of these approaches come together to contribute to the overallmeasuring process in feng shui, and this can therefore be used as a means by whichlandscapes can be related to personal fortune. It is this particular aspect that somescientists are sceptical about.

The characteristics of the dragons will determine what energy state the landscapevariable finds itself in. Location is one of these characteristics, and it indicates that theurban landscape can harmonise with the natural landscape. In traditional classicalXuan Kong Fung Shui, a river map is also used to evaluate the landscape.

There are really two schools of thought in the development of feng shuimeasurement and calculation. One of these is the Form School which focuses on theformative structure of the landscape, and an example of this comes through the work ofYu (1991). The other is the Li school, which involves the creation of a virtual dragonthat results from the interaction between the mountain and water dragons which havebeen constituted as the front and back of a building. The virtual dragon enables changein time and space to be apprehended within the mountain and water dragons.

Once the characteristics of the landscape variable have been determined, thenmeasurements must be made so that outcomes can be calculated. A “magic square” isused to perform feng shui calculations. This consists of a 3 £ 3 matrix on which theTaoist metaphysics develops. Its distribution of nine numbers constitutes a reflection ofthe overall landscape, and this distribution needs to be ordered to reflect landscapeharmony and balance in the landscape design. The numerical shape of the matrix is aresult of the feng shui measuring process that uses a set of algorithms. It is beyond thescope of this paper to discuss these. Measurement of the change processes is described insome detail in the Book of the Burial by Guo written in the Jing dynasty 1,400 years ago.

5.2 Alternative landscape metaphorsConsider that a given urban landscape inquirer is taken as an autonomous system, and letus understand landscape as a dependent variable with units of qi energy. It will havecharacteristics that together can be represented as independent variables linked togetherthrough a set of parameters. Know the parameters and take appropriate measurements for

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the independent variables and landscape can be evaluated quantitatively. Givenquantitative boundaries for discrete qualities using something like landmark theory(Yolles, 1998, 1999), and qualtiative landscape states can be indicated.

These states are represented as autonomous interactive qi forces participating inprocesses of immanent change. Where the states are dichotomous, they can be arguedto interact in a yin-yang relationship, and their balance is capable of creating landscapeharmony. However, they will have invisible (as far as the noumenal domain isconcerned) influences from jing energy elements since the critical planning is, in ahealth inquiry system, a result of conceptual planning and aesthetics.

While feng shui has been explained in terms of dragon metaphors, there arealternatives to this which will create very different narratives and ways of measuring.In addition, the way in which harmony is calculated is determined by the nature of themetaphor, and the characteristics that the variable has.

To illustrate this, we shall propose two alternative metaphors here that both arise inscience, which explain the way in which the forces can relate, and how calculations canbe invented. The first we shall refer to arises from Sorokin (1937-1942) who wasinterested in the variable cultural mentality. This has two possible dominant states(ideational and sensate) that can be seen as two opposing forces that interact through aprinciple of “Principle of Immanent Change”. As a yin-yang process, the forces ofcultural mentality are in continual interactive conflict and where they find balance oneor other emerges in a society with some degree of dominance to create a culturaldisposition[15] that will determine the direction that a society takes. Sensate culturalmentality perceives reality to be only that which is presented to the sense organs; thereis no belief in super sensory reality. Sensate reality is thought of as becoming, process,change, flux, evolution, progress and transformation. Therefore, it is also temporalistic,giving time a high value. While the needs and aims of the sensate mind are primarilyphysical, satisfaction is achieved by materialistic and utilitarian activities. Ideationalcultural mentalities perceive reality as non-sensate and non-materialistic, everlastingbeing. Eternalism is a prominent feature. Its needs and ends are mainly spiritual,and its method of fulfilment or realisation is self-imposed depravation. Since to theIdeational mind reality is a state of being, change and process are considered to beillusionary or of secondary importance. In essence, these states of cultural mentalityconstitute two extremes of a given cultural disposition in a durable social communitythat form a balance that likely involves the dominance of one state, but this tends alteraccording through immanent change. Sorokin also talks of a third cultural disposition,idealistic. This can be seen as the two other dispositions working together in harmony.Hence, there is a distinct parallel in the way the cultural and the dragon metaphorsoperate, with idealistic culture taking a similar position as the planes dragon. Applyingthis to the dragon metaphor in feng shui, the water dragon might be classes as beingideational, and the mountain dragon as being sensate.

Yolles and Frieden (2005), Yolles et al. (2008) and Yolles and Frieden (2005) haveexplored the dynamic relationship between the ideational and sensate forces, and haveexplained how the idealistic balance can emerge. Yolles and Frieden have alsoproposed the use of mathematical information theory to enable calculations to identifydominant cultural mentality or an idealistic balance.

Relating this back to feng shui, it is now possible to propose something new in thisTao paradigm: the existence of jing sensate mountain and ideational water dragons

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that represent spiritual relationships in an urban landscape. The spirit of a building isrelated to its style, flow and cultural significance, and many urban landscapes aredeveloped on economic rather than cultural criteria, so that building may that havea different mix of spiritual content are be set against each other, sometimes resulting ina distressed landscape. It is like building a block of flats with minimal grace and costplaced next to an elaborate seventieth century construction, and not considering theresulting flow of the aesthetic flow of the urban landscape.

A different metaphor arises from the theory developed by Shotwell et al. (1980),when they were investigating the way in which children play (Yolles, 2006). Taking thevariable play mentality, they found that it had two alternative states that they classedas dramatising and patterning. Patterners show strong interest and skill inconfiguration uses of materials, deriving from persistent curiosity about the objectworld and how it works, it is constructed, and is named, varied or explored. It isconnected to problems of symmetry, pattern, balance, and the dynamics of physicalrelationships between entities. Dramatists, however, are interested in sequences ofinterpersonal events, having dramatic or narrative structures and undertakingeffective communications. We can extend the nature of drama and narrative by notingits tendency towards creating distinction, through such techniques as defining anddistinguishing scenes or chapters that must be connected. That a child may besubstantively concerned with patterning does not mean that it is not also able toengage in dramatic narratives, and vice versa. One of the play mentality states is likelyto be dominant, but there may well be situations where a balance occurs between them.

Applying this as a metaphor to Tao feng shui landscapes, operating with qi energy,there is a patterning mountain dragon concerned with the problems of symmetry,pattern, balance and the dynamics of physical relationships between entities. It definespatterns of long-term change, embeds principles of organisation, is associated withmass and inertia, is able to metamorphose and maintain an implicit record of its ownhistory. This compares to the dramatising water dragon that is associated withpurpose, and embeds direction, flow and narrative in its ever-changing story. Sincethese two dragons use qi energy, it is would seem to be the case that they have verysimilar functions to the existing mountain and water dragons in feng shui, and there istherefore little value in exploring this avenue further.

6. ConclusionWe began this paper by exploring some Taoist philosophical principles, and illustratedthat there was some commonality with the science of cybernetics. However, the Taosource frame of reference uses different metaphors to underpin its knowledgeprocesses from the science target, and so that their narratives are incommensurable.We have created a target frame of reference from the KC, and migrated material fromthe Tao source to the target, seeking to resolve problems of incommensurability andcreating new narrative. Necessarily, this has been done with respect to a specific areaof inquiry, in this case urban landscape theory.

Initially an inquiring methodology for urban landscape design has been formulatedin outline using KC. It calls on inquiring principles of Western theory, involving threephases of the landscape processes: conceptual planning and aesthetics, design andcritical planning and development. Part of the methodological process involves anexamination of the san li aspects of landscapes, ensuring that each of these phases

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maintain their own integrity. However, critical planning does not engage withthe notion of landscape canonical harmony, and it has been shown how this can bemigrated from Taoist feng shui. In addition, we have migrated the san bao from theTao source into the target to highlight the fact that each of the activity phases in urbanlandscape design are ontologically different, and use distinct energy measures thatshould not be confused. Thus, conceptual planning and aesthetics can be seen in termsof jing or spiritual energy, design and critical planning in terms of qi orpsycho-cognitive energy, and development in terms of shen physical energy.

These energies can be represented as autonomous interactive forces that representdistinct states of the variable landscape, a theoretical model that is composed of qienergy. It has also been explained that the dragon metaphor is reflective of these forcesinteractively connecting and affecting a principle of immanent change, thus givingthem a Tao yin-yang representation. Alter the relationships of urban landscapeelements and the forces alter in their relationship, possibly resulting in a change in thedominant state of the landscape. The approach seeks an urban landscape that has abalance between these forces, therefore creating landscape canonical harmony.

By creating a new metaphor developed from Sorokin’s work in socioculturaldynamics that uses an ideational and sensate dichotomy and relates to the conceptualplanning and aesthetics phase of urban landscapes design, it has been suggested thatthe Tao feng shui can be enriched by incorporating such considerations. We have alsolooked briefly at the Shotwell et al. metaphor with its opposing patterning anddramatising dichotomy. Using the san boa energies as a way of comparing theontological nature of these metaphors, it is suggested that the latter does nothing newfor feng shui.

The convergence of theory can often produce new unexpected outcomes. It shouldnot therefore be surprising from this paper that it is not only science that can benefitfrom the creation of synergies in theory. In urban landscape design, it is possible forboth science and Tao theory to benefit, likely in more ways that explained in thispaper.

Notes

1. The word canonical (adj.) is taken to mean “conforming to orthodox or well-established rulesor patterns, as of procedure”, as defined in within feng shui. In physics, it also relates to“complementary pairs” (www.answers.com/topic/canonical) and in this case we are referringto the complementary pairs of yin-yang forces that are responsible for the creation ofharmony.

2. There are lots of illustrations of this. For instance, “the US government’s experiments in the1960s and 1970s to use high-rise apartments as a means of providing the housing solutionfor the poor resulted in a spectacular failure” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_block.This is also, for instance, illustrated more globally in a document by UN-Habitat, the UNHuman Settlements Programme, in an article in Vol. 17 No. 3 of its publication provides auseful summary. Also see www.unhabitat.org/mdg/documents/global/Vol7_No3_housing_the_urban_poor.doc

3. A paradigm may be defined as an expressed shared worldview that is built on a culturalbelief system, maintains a pattern of knowledge that provides particular ways ofunderstanding situations, and directs the behaviour of its membership.

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4. Following (Yolles, 1996, 1999), a virtual paradigm can be seen as a temporary workingparadigm that has been created for a specific purpose. This has virtually all of the elementsof a paradigm, and it may become still born or it may develop into a healthy vibrantnew paradigm. If it survives, then like all natural organic gestations, the final form of theparadigm that develops will be a function of the complexities that impinge on itsdevelopment.

5. See for instance www.katarxis3.com/Alexander_Eisenman_Debate.htm

6. A comparative anthology of ancient texts, in http://origin.org/ucs/ws/wsintr4.cfm (accessedApril 2005).

7. The nature and dynamics of yin-yang are discussed in some detail by Chan (1973).

8. Chinese-English on line dictionary at: www.tigernt.com/cgi-bin/cedict.cgi

9. For a definition of these terms, see for instance the The Tai QiChuan Lun (Discourse) at theweb site www.taichichuan.co.uk/information/classics_lun_commentary.html, or the theToowoomba Buddhist Centre, T’ai Chi, and www.fwbo.org.au/toowoomba/tai_chi_chuan.html (accessed June 2005).

10. In his theory of knowledge, Piaget (1977) was concerned with operative and figurative aspectsof child development. As such the terms operative and figurative intelligence havearisen (Demetriou et al., 1998), with which autopoiesis and autogenesis can be connected.According to Piaget, operative intelligence frames how the world is understood and whereunderstanding is unsuccessful operative intelligence changes. Operative intelligence isconcerned with the representation and manipulation of the transformational aspects of reality,and involves all actions that are undertaken so as to anticipate, follow or recover thephenomenal transformations. It also refers to highly integrated and generalised sets of actionsthat are adaptive in nature (Schoenfeld, 1986). It can thus be thought of as the effectivecapacity to create a cycle of activity that manifests virtual images phenomenally. In contrast,figurative intelligence involves any means of representation used to keep in mind the statesthat intervene between transformations that inform perception and mental imagery.Figurative intelligence is responsible for the representation of reality, and derives meaningfrom its operative counterpart. It is concerned with the past. It is related to operativeintelligence which rather refers to the present and future. Hence, figurative intelligence referssubstantively to the patterns of knowledge that drive autogenetic processes.

11. The three semantic streams derive in principle from Habermas’s (1987) concept of threeworlds.

12. The word enantiodromia has been used by Heraclitus, and later by Jung as a key conceptused in his notions about consciousness (www.endless-knot.us/feature.html), and (from theOED online) it is the process by which something becomes its opposite, and the subsequentinteraction of the two: applied especially to the adoption by an individual or by a community,etc. of a set of beliefs, etc. opposite to those held at an earlier stage. For Jung the wordenantiodromia represents the superabundance of any force that inevitably produces itsopposite. In particular, according to Heraclitus who also advocated the term, things tend tomove toward an extreme, and then a reactional counter movement sets in. Consequently, theword enantiodromia often implies a dynamic process which is not necessarily implied bythe word enantiomer. Jung used it particularly to refer to the unconscious acting against thewishes of the conscious mind, that which is responsible for one’s thoughts and feelings, andthe seat of the faculty of reason (as indicated in Jung (1989, paragraph 294)). Yolles (2006)uses the simpler derivative enantiomer which means a mirror image of something, anopposite reflection. It derives from the Greek enantios or “opposite”, is used in a number ofcontexts, including architecture, molecular physics, political theory, and computer systemdesign. By using the simpler word enantiomer, we shall not exclude the possibility of any

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dynamic action that may have been implied by the term enantiodromia and its connection tothe idea of yin-yang interaction.

13. It may be noted that it is not only feng shui that has access to higher orders of archetypicalhierarchy. All forms of Tao practice involve the use of a variety of ontological levels.For instance acupuncture involves the pentadic level, while social measuration may involvea triadic or pentadic archetype levels of the ontology depending upon what degree of detail isrequired.

14. There are many explorations of this, for instance see www.fengshuibestbuy.com/eightaspirations.html

15. We use the word disposition here to mean characteristic or tendency of the collective being.It is consistent with the psychological use of the term mental disposition by Wollheim (1999),and within the context of culture we take it as a collective mental condition that embracesbeliefs, knowledge, memories, abilities, phobias and obsessions, and it has duration, historyand inertia.

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About the authorsZude Ye was born in a traditional Taoist Medicine family in 1954. He was educated inXinjiang Shihezi University. His first degree is in acupuncture and Tuina (Chinese medicinemassage). His Master degree is in biological statistics. He was a Lecturer and a Clinical Doctor ofTraditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in China, the USA and the UK. He has lifetime experience ofacupuncture needle and acupressure finger practice dealing with illness. He is a Feng Shuimaster, and founder of fractal acupuncture and spinal reflexology. He has also developed holisticviable system theory which provides both a theoretic and philosophic base for TCM and otherholistic medicines.

Maurice Yolles was a Professor of Management Systems in the Liverpool Business School,but now operates under his own research and development centre. He has published tworesearch books: Management Systems and Organisations as Complex System, with others inprocess. He has published more than 200 papers in refereed journals, conferences and bookchapters in a variety of related fields. He is Co-Editor of the International Journal ofOrganisational Transformation and Social Change (OTASC). He has also been involved invarious international research and development projects for the EU under various programmeswithin countries experiencing transformational change. Maurice Yolles is the correspondingauthor and can be contacted at: prof.m.yolles@gmail.com

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.comOr visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

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