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13/08/13 Yiddish language - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language

Yiddish

yidish

Pronunciation [jd]

Native to Argentina, Australia, Austria,

Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and

Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada,

France, Germany, Hungary, Israel,

Latvia, Lithuania, Mexico, Moldova

Netherlands, Poland, Romania,

Russia, Sweden, Ukraine, United

Kingdom, United States, and

elsewhere

Native

speakers

unknown (undated figure of 1.5

million)[1]

11 million L2 speakers

Language

family

Indo-European

GermanicWest GermanicHigh GermanYiddish

Writing

system

uses a Hebrew-based alphabet

Official status

Official

language in

Ukrainian People's Republic

(1918-1921)

Jewish Autonomous Oblast,

Russia

Recognised

minority

language in

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Netherlands

Poland

Romania

Sweden

Ukraine

Regulated by no formal bodies;

YIVO de facto

Language codes

Yiddish languageFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Yiddish ( yidish or idish, literally "Jewish") is aHigh German language of Ashkenazi Jewish origin, spoken inmany parts of the world. It developed as a fusion of differentGerman dialects with adstrats of Hebrew, Aramaic and

Slavic vocabulary and some traces of vocabulary from theRomance languages.[2][3] Yiddish orthography uses theHebrew alphabet.

The language originated in the Ashkenazi culture thatdeveloped from about the 10th century in the Rhineland andthen spread to Central and Eastern Europe and eventually toother continents. In the earliest surviving references to it, thelanguage is called (loshn-ashknez= "language ofAshkenaz") and (taytsh, a variant oftiutsch, the

contemporary name for the language otherwise spoken in theregion of origin, now called Middle High German). Incommon usage, the language is called (mame-loshn, literally "mother tongue"), distinguishing it from BiblicalHebrew and Aramaic, which are collectively termed

(loshn-koydesh, "holy tongue"). The term "Yiddish" didnot become the most frequently used designation in theliterature of the language until the 18th century. In the late19th and into the 20th century the language was morecommonly called "Jewish", especially in non-Jewish contexts,

but now "Yiddish" is again the more common designation.

For a significant portion of its history, Yiddish was theprimary spoken language of the Ashkenazi Jews and oncespanned a broad dialect continuum from Western Yiddish tothree major groups within Eastern Yiddish: Litvish, Poylishand Ukrainish. Eastern and Western Yiddish are mostmarkedly distinguished by the extensive inclusion of words ofSlavic origin in the former. Western Yiddish has fewremaining speakers but the Eastern dialects remain in wide

use.

Yiddish is written and spoken in many Orthodox Jewishcommunities around the world, although there are also anumber of Orthodox Jews who do not know Yiddish. It is ahome language in most Hasidic communities, where it is thefirst language learned in childhood, used in schools and inmany social settings. Yiddish is also the academic language ofthe study of the Talmud according to the tradition of theLithuanian yeshivas.
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ki/Argentinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Yiddish


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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language 3

the westernmost part of Germany. Its geographic extent did not coincide with the German principalities of the timeand it included northern France. Ashkenaz bordered on the area inhabited by another distinctive Jewish culturalgroup, the Sephardim or Spanish Jews, which ranged into southern France. Ashkenazi culture later spread intoEastern Europe with large scale population migrations.

Nothing is known with certainty about the vernacular of the earliest Jews in Germany, but several theories have

been put forward. The first language of Ashkenazi Jews may have been Aramaic,[6] the vernacular of the Jews inRoman-era Judea and ancient and early medieval Mesopotamia. The widespread use of Aramaic among the large

non-Jewish Syrian trading population of the Roman provinces, including those in Europe, would have reinforced thuse of Aramaic among Jews engaged in trade. In Roman times, many of the Jews living in Rome and Southern Italappear to have been Greek-speakers, and this is reflected in some Ashkenazi personal names (e.g., Kalonymus).Hebrew, on the other hand, was regarded as a holy language reserved for ritual and spiritual purposes and not forcommon use. Much work needs to be done, though, to fully analyze the contributions of those languages toYiddish.

It is generally accepted that early Yiddish was likely to have contained elements from other languages of the NearEast and Europe, absorbed through migrations. Since some settlers may have come via France and Italy, it is alsolikely that the Romance-based Jewish languages of those regions were represented. Traces remain in the

contemporary Yiddish vocabulary: for example, (bentshn, to bless), from the Latin benedicere;(leyenen, to read), from the Latin legere; and the personal names Anshl, cognate to Angel or Angelo; Bunim(probably from "bon homme"). Western Yiddish includes additional words of Latin derivation (but still very few):for example, orn (to pray), cf. Latin and Italian "orare".

The Jewish community in the Rhineland would have encountered the many dialects from which standard Germanwould emerge a few centuries later. In time, Jewish communities would have been speaking their own versions ofthese German dialects, mixed with linguistic elements that they themselves brought into the region. Although notreflected in the spoken language, a main point of difference was the use of the Hebrew alphabet for the recording the Germanic vernacular, which may have been adopted either because of the community's familiarity with the

alphabet or to prevent the non-Jewish population understanding the correspondence. In addition, there wasprobably widespread illiteracy in the non-Hebrew script, with the level of illiteracy in the non-Jewish communitiesbeing even higher. Another point of difference was the use of Hebrew and Aramaic words. These words and termwere used because of their familiarity, but more so because in most cases there were no equivalent terms in thevernacular which could express the Jewish concepts or describe the objects of cultural significance.

Apart from the obvious use of Hebrew words for specifically Jewish artifacts, it is very difficult to determine theextent to which the Yiddish spoken in any earlier period differed from the contemporary German. There is a roughconsensus that by the 15th century Yiddish would have sounded distinctive to the average German ear, even when

restricted to the Germanic component of its vocabulary.[citation needed]

Written evidence

It is not known when the Yiddish writing system first developed but the oldest surviving literary document using it i

a blessing in the Worms mahzor,[7] a Hebrew prayer book from 1272 (with a scalable image online at theindicated reference; described extensively in Frakes, 2004 and Baumgarten/Frakes, 2005):
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The calligraphic segment in the

Worms Mahzor.

Yiddish

Transliterated gut tak im betage se vaer dis makhazor in beis hakneses trage

Translated May a good day come to him who carries this prayer book into the synagogue.

This brief rhyme is decoratively embedded in a purely Hebrew text.[8] Nonetheless, it indicates that the Yiddish ofthat day was a more or less regular Middle High German written in the Hebrew alphabet into which Hebrewwords , makhazor(prayer book for the High Holy Days) and , beis hakneses (synagogue) ha

been included. The pointing appears as though it might have been added by a second scribe, in which case it mayneed to be dated separately and may not be indicative of the pronunciation of the rhyme at the time of its initialannotation.

Over the course of the 14th and 15th centuries, songs and poems in Yiddish, and macaronic pieces in Hebrew and

German, began to appear. These were collected in the late 15th century by Menahem ben Naphtali Oldendorf.[9]

During the same period, a tradition seems to have emerged of the Jewish community's adapting its own versions oGerman secular literature. The earliest Yiddish epic poem of this sort is the Dukus Horant, which survives in thefamous Cambridge Codex T.-S.10.K.22. This 14th-century manuscript was discovered in the geniza of a Cairosynagogue in 1896, and also contains a collection of narrative poems on themes from the Hebrew Bible and theHaggadah.

Printing

The advent of the printing press resulted in an increase in the amount of material produced and surviving from the16th century and onwards. One particularly popular work was Elia Levita'sBovo-Bukh, composed around 150708 and printed in at least forty editions, beginning in 1541. Levita, the earliest named Yiddish author, may also havwrittenPariz un Viene (Paris and Vienna). Another Yiddish retelling of a chivalric romance, Vidvilt(often referreto as "Widuwilt" by Germanizing scholars), presumably also dates from the 15th century, although the manuscriptsare from the 16th. It is also known asKinig Artus Hof, an adaptation of the Middle High German romanceWigalois by Wirnt von Gravenberg. Another significant writer is Avroham ben Schemuel Pikartei, who published

paraphrase on the Book of Job in 1557.

Women in the Ashkenazi community were traditionally not literate in Hebrew, but did read and write Yiddish. Abody of literature therefore developed for which women were a primary audience. This included secular works,such as theBovo-Bukh, and religious writing specifically for women, such as the Tseno Ureno and the Tkhines.One of the best-known early woman authors was Glckel of Hameln, whose memoirs are still in print.

The segmentation of the Yiddish readership, between women who read mame-loshn but not loshn-koydesh, andmen who read both, was significant enough that distinctive typefaces were used for each. The name commonlygiven to the semicursive form used exclusively for Yiddish was (vaybertaytsh = "women's taytsh,"shown in the heading and fourth column in the adjacent illustration), with square Hebrew letters (shown in the third
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A page from the Shemot Devarim

(http://cf.uba.uva.nl/nl/publicaties/trea

sures/page/p08.html) (literallyNames

of Things), a Yiddish-Hebrew-Latin-

German dictionary and thesaurus,

published by Elia Levita in 1542

column) being reserved for text in that language and Aramaic. This distinction was retained in general typographicpractice through to the early 19th century, with Yiddish books being set in vaybertaytsh (also termed

mesheytor mashket the construction is uncertain).[10]

An additional distinctive semicursive typeface was, and still is, used forrabbinical commentary on religious texts when Hebrew and Yiddishappear on the same page. This is commonly termed Rashi script, fromthe name of the most renowned early author, whose commentary is

usually printed using this script. (Rashi is also the typeface normally usedwhen the Sephardic counterpart to Yiddish, Ladino, is printed in Hebrewscript.)

Secularization

The Western Yiddish dialectsometimes pejoratively labeled

auscheldeutsch[11] (i. e. "Moses German")[12]began to decline inthe 18th century, as the Enlightenment and theHaskalah led to a view of

Yiddish as a corrupt dialect. Owing to both assimilation to German andthe revival of Hebrew, Western Yiddish survived only as a language of"intimate family circles or of closely knit trade groups" (Liptzin 1972).

In eastern Europe, the response to these forces took the oppositedirection, with Yiddish becoming the cohesive force in a secular culture(see Yiddish Renaissance). Notable Yiddish writers of the late 19th andearly 20th centuries are Sholem Yankev Abramovitch, writing asMendele Mocher Sforim; Sholem Rabinovitsh, widely known as SholemAleichem, whose stories about (tevye der milkhiker

= Tevye the Dairyman) inspired the Broadway musical and filmFiddleron the Roof; and Isaac Leib Peretz.

20th century

In the early 20th century, especially after Socialist October Revolution in Russia, Yiddish was emerging as a majorEastern European language. Its rich literature was more widely published than ever, Yiddish theatre and Yiddishfilm were booming, and it for a time achieved status as one of the official languages of the Ukrainian People'sRepublic, the Belarusian and the short-lived Galician SSR, and the Jewish Autonomous Oblast. Educationalautonomy for Jews in several countries (notably Poland) after World War I led to an increase in formal Yiddish-

language education, more uniform orthography, and to the 1925 founding of the Yiddish Scientific Institute, YIVOYiddish emerged as the national language of a large Jewish community in Eastern Europe that rejected Zionism and

sought Jewish cultural autonomy in Europe.[citation needed] It also contended with Modern Hebrew as a literarylanguage among Zionists. In Vilna there was intense debate over which language should take primacy, Hebrew or

Yiddish[13]

Yiddish changed significantly during the 20th century. Michael Wex writes, "As increasing numbers of Yiddishspeakers moved from the Slavic-speaking East to Western Europe and the Americas in the late 19th and early 20tcenturies, they were so quick to jettison Slavic vocabulary that the most prominent Yiddish writers of the timethfounders of modern Yiddish literature, who were still living in Slavic-speaking countriesrevised the printed
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American World War I-era poster in

Yiddish. Translated caption: "Food

will win the war You came here

seeking freedom, now you must help

to preserve it We must supply the

Allies with wheat Let nothing go to

waste". Colour lithograph, 1917.

Digitally restored.

editions of their oeuvres to eliminate obsolete and 'unnecessary' Slavisms."[14] The vocabulary used in Israelabsorbed many Modern Hebrew words, and there was a similar increase in the English component of Yiddish inthe United States and, to a lesser extent, the United Kingdom. This has resulted in some difficulty in communication

between Yiddish speakers from Israel and those from other countries.

Numbers of speakers

On the eve of World War II, there were 11 to 13 million Yiddish speakers (Jacobs 2005). The Holocaust,however, led to a dramatic, sudden decline in the use of Yiddish, as the extensive Jewish communities, both seculaand religious, that used Yiddish in their day-to-day life were largely destroyed. Around five million people85

percent of the Jews who died in the Holocaustwere speakers of Yiddish.[15] Although millions of Yiddishspeakers survived the war (including nearly all Yiddish speakers in the Americas), further assimilation in countriessuch as the United States and the Soviet Union, along with the strictly monolingual stance of the Zionist movementled to a decline in the use of Eastern Yiddish. However, the number of speakers within the widely dispersedOrthodox (mainly Hasidic) communities is now increasing. Although usedin various countries, Yiddish has attained official recognition as a minority

language only in Moldova, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Netherlands[16]

and Sweden.

Reports of the number of current Yiddish speakers vary significantly.Ethnologue estimated in 2013 there were 1,505,030 speakers of Eastern

Yiddish,[1] of which over one-third lived in the United States. In contrast,the Modern Language Association reports fewer than 200,000 in the

United States.[17] Western Yiddish, which had "several tens of thousandsof speakers" on the eve of the Holocaust, is reported by Ethnologue to

have had an "ethnic population" of slightly below 50,000 in 2000.[18]

Other estimates are also given, for example, of a worldwide Yiddish-

speaking population of about two million in 1996 in a report by theCouncil of Europe.[19] Further demographic information about the recentstatus of what is treated as an Eastern-Western dialect continuum is

provided in the YIVOLanguage and Cultural Atlas of Ashkenazicewry (Language and Cultural Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry).

Status as a language

There has been frequent debate about the extent of the linguisticindependence of Yiddish from the languages that it absorbed. There has

been periodic assertion that Yiddish is a dialect of German, or even "just
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-Ethnologue-western-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Language_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-Ethnologue-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnologuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocausthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#jacobs2005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg


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broken German, more of a linguistic mishmash than a true language".[20] Even when recognized as an autonomouslanguage, it has sometimes been referred to as Judeo-German, along the lines of other Jewish languages like JudeoPersian or Judeo-French. A widely cited summary of attitudes in the 1930s was published by Max Weinreich,quoting a remark by an auditor of one of his lectures: (a shprakh iz dialekt mit an armey un flot"A language is a dialect with an army and navy", facsimile excerpt(http://www.bisso.com/ujg_archives/pix/armyNavyFull.jpg) discussed in detail in a separate article). More recentlyProf. Paul Wexler, of Tel Aviv University in Israel, has proposed that Eastern Yiddish should be classified as a

Slavic language, formed by the relexification of Judeo-Slavic dialects by Judeo-German.

[21]

Israel and Zionism

The national languages of Israel are Hebrew and Arabic. The debate in Zionist circles over the use of Yiddish inIsrael and in the Diaspora in preference to Hebrew also reflected the tensions between religious and secular Jewislifestyles. Many secular Zionists wanted Hebrew as the sole language of Jews, to contribute to a national cohesiveidentity. Traditionally religious Jews, on the other hand, preferred use of Yiddish, viewing Hebrew as a respectedholy language reserved for prayer and religious study. In the early 20th century, Zionist activists in Palestine tried to

eradicate the use of Yiddish among Jews in preference to Hebrew, and make its use socially unacceptable.[22]

This conflict also reflected the opposing views among secular Jews worldwide, one side seeing Hebrew (andZionism) and the other Yiddish (and Internationalism) as the means of defining Jewish nationalism. In the 1920s an1930s,gdud meginy hasaf, "the language defendants regiment", whose motto was ivr, dabr ivrt"Hebrew[i.e. Jew], speak Hebrew!", used to tear down signs written in "foreign" languages and disturb Yiddish theatre

gatherings.[23] However, according to linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the members of this group in particular, and thHebrew revival in general, did not succeed in uprooting Yiddish patterns (as well as the patterns of other Europeanlanguages Jewish immigrants spoke) within what he calls "Israeli", i.e. Modern Hebrew. Zuckermann believes that"Israeli does include numerous Hebrew elements resulting from a conscious revival but also numerous pervasive

linguistic features deriving from a subconscious survival of the revivalists mother tongues, e.g. Yiddish."[24]

After the founding of the State of Israel, a massive wave of Jewish immigrants from Arab countries arrived. In shororder, these Mizrachi (literally: eastern) Jews and their descendants would account for nearly half the Jewish

population. While all were at least familiar with Hebrew as a liturgical language, essentially none had any contactwith or affinity for Yiddish (some, of Sephardic origin, spoke Ladino, others various Judeo-Arabic vernaculars).Thus, Hebrew emerged as the dominant linguistic common denominator between the different population groups.

In religious circles, it is the Ashkenazi Haredi Jews, particularly the Hasidic Jews and the Lithuanian yeshiva world(see Lithuanian Jews), who continue to teach, speak and use Yiddish, making it a language used regularly byhundreds of thousands of Haredi Jews today. The largest of these centers are in Bnei Brak and Jerusalem.

There is a growing revival of interest in Yiddish culture among secular Israelis, with the flourishing of new proactivecultural organizations like YUNG YiDiSH, as well as Yiddish theater (usually with simultaneous translation toHebrew and Russian) and young people are taking university courses in Yiddish, some achieving considerable

fluency.[25]

Former Soviet Union
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_theaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bnei_Brakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Jewshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeshivahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haredi_Judaismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Arabichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladinohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizrahimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_and_Muslim_countrieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Hebrewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-Wexler-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relexificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_is_a_dialect_with_an_army_and_navyhttp://www.bisso.com/ujg_archives/pix/armyNavyFull.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weinreichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Frenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Persianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-20


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The Jewish Autonomous Oblast in th

Russian Federation

In the Soviet Union during the 1920s, Yiddish was promoted as the language of the Jewish proletariat. It was oneof the official languages of the Byelorussian SSR, as well as several agricultural districts of the Galician SSR. A

public educational system entirely based on the Yiddish language was established and comprised kindergartens,schools, and higher educational institutions (technical schools, rabfaks and other university departments). At thesame time, Hebrew was considered a bourgeois language and its use was generally discouraged. The vast majorityof the Yiddish-language cultural institutions were closed in the late 1930s along with cultural institutions of otherethnic minorities lacking administrative entities of their own. After the Second World War, growing anti-Semitictendencies in Soviet politics drove Yiddish from most spheres. The last Yiddish-language schools, theaters and

publications were closed by the end of the 1940s. It continued to be spoken widely for decades, nonetheless, inareas with compact Jewish populations (primarily in Moldova, Ukraine, and to a lesser extent Belarus).

In the former Soviet states, presently active Yiddish authors include Yoysef Burg (Chernivtsi 1912-2009) andAleksander Beyderman (b. 1949, Odessa). Publication of an earlier Yiddish periodical ( - der fraynd; li"The Friend"), was resumed in 2004 with (der nayer fraynd; lit. "The New Friend", St.Petersburg).

Jewish Autonomous Oblast of Russia

Main articles: Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Birobidzhan, and

Jews and Judaism in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast

The Jewish Autonomous Oblast was formed in 1934 in the Russian FarEast, with its capital city in Birobidzhan and Yiddish as its officiallanguage. The intention was for the Soviet Jewish population to settlethere. Jewish cultural life was revived in Birobidzhan much earlier thanelsewhere in the Soviet Union. Yiddish theaters began opening in the1970s. The newspaper (Der Birobidzhaner

Shtern; lit: "The Birobidzhan Star") includes a Yiddish section.[26]

Although the official status of the language was not retained by theRussian Federation, its cultural significance is still recognized and bolstered. The First Birobidzhan International

Summer Program for Yiddish Language and Culture was launched in 2007.[27]

Russia

On the 2010 census, 1,683 people speak Yiddish in Russia, approximately 1% of all the Jews of the Russian

Federation.[28] According to M. E. Shvydkoy, Yiddish culture in Russia is gone, and its revival is unlikely.[29]

Council of Europe

Several countries which ratified the 1992 European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages have includedYiddish in the list of their recognized minority languages: the Netherlands (1996), Sweden (2000), Poland (2009),Romania (2008), Bosnia and Herzegovina (2010). In 2005, Ukraine did not mention Yiddish as such, but "the

language(s) of the Jewish ethnic minority".[30]

Sweden
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Charter_for_Regional_or_Minority_Languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Census_(2010)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birobidzhaner_Shternhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Far_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Jewish_Autonomous_Oblasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birobidzhanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Autonomous_Oblasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Petersburghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odessahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olexander_Beydermanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernivtsihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Semitismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeoishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabfakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galician_SSRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byelorussian_SSRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proletariathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Jewish_Autonomous_Oblasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RussiaJewish2007-07.png


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Banner from the first issue of the

Jidische Folkschtime (Yiddish

People's Voice), published in

Stockholm, 12 January 1917.

Yiddish distribution in the United States.

More than 100,000 speakersMore than 10,000 speakers

More than 5,000 speakers

More than 1,000 speakers

Fewer than 1,000 speakers

In June 1999, the Swedish Parliament enacted legislation giving Yiddish

legal status[31] as one of the country's official minority languages (enteringinto effect in April 2000). The rights thereby conferred are not detailed,

but additional legislation was enacted in June 2006 establishing a new

governmental agency, The Swedish National Language Council,[32] themandate of which instructs it to, "collect, preserve, scientifically research,and spread material about the national minority languages", naming them

all explicitly, including Yiddish. When announcing this action, thegovernment made an additional statement about "simultaneouslycommencing completely new initiatives for ... Yiddish [and the otherminority languages]".

The Swedish government publishes documents in Yiddish, of which the

most recent details the national action plan for human rights.[33] An earlier

one provides general information about national minority language policies.[34]

On 6 September 2007, it became possible to register Internet domains with Yiddish names in the national top-leve

domain .SE.[35]

Ukraine

In the Ukrainian People's Republic (191721[36]) Yiddish was an official language.[37]

United States

At first, in the United States most Jews were of Sephardicorigin, and hence did not speak Yiddish. It was not until the

mid to late 19th century, as first German, then EasternEuropean, Jews arrived in the nation, that Yiddish becamedominant within the immigrant community. This helped to

bond Jews from many countries. (forverts Yiddish Forward) was one of seven Yiddish dailynewspapers in New York City, and other Yiddishnewspapers served as a forum for Jews of all European

backgrounds. The Yiddish Forwardstill appears weekly

and is also available in an online edition.[38] It remains inwide distribution, together with (der

algemeyner zhurnal Algemeiner Journal; algemeyner=general) a Lubavitcher newspaper which is also published

weekly and appears online.[39] The widest-circulationYiddish newspapers are probably the weekly issues DerYid ( = The Jew) and Der Blatt ( ; blat=

paper) and Di Tzeitung ( ; = the newspaper) .Several additional newspapers and magazines are in regular

production, such as the monthly publications(Der Shtern;shtern = star) and (Der Blick; blik= view). (The romanized titles cited in this paragraph arin the form given on the masthead of each publication and may be at some variance both with the literal Yiddish titl
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Di_Tzeitung&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Blatthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Yidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubavitcherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algemeiner_Journalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Forwardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardi_Jewshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-HoUJsntui-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-Ukraine:_Birth_of_a_Modern_Nation-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_languages_of_Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yiddish_language_distribution_in_the_United_States.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jidische.Folkschtime.jpg


10/19


11/19



A typical poster-hung wall in JewishBrooklyn, New York

There are well over 30,000 Yiddish speakers in the United Kingdom, and several thousand children now haveYiddish as a first language. The largest group of Yiddish speakers in Britain reside in the Stamford Hill district of

North London, but there are sizable communities in Golders Green, Stoke Newington, Greater Manchester (inparts of Salford; mainly in the Broughton and Kersal areas, North Manchester and in the north Manchester suburb

of Prestwich) and Gateshead.[45] The Yiddish readership in the UK is mainly reliant upon imported material fromthe United States and Israel for newspapers, magazines and other periodicals. However, the London-based weekewish Tribune, has a small section in Yiddish called Idishe Tribune.

Canada

Montreal (Quebec)

Montreal had and to some extent still has one of the most thriving Yiddish communities in North America. Yiddishwas Montreal's third language (after French and English) for the entire first half of the twentieth century. Der

Kanader Adler("The Canadian Eagle", founded by Hirsch Wolofsky), Montreals daily Yiddish newspaper,

appeared from 1907 to 1988.[46] The Monument National was the center of Yiddish theater from 1896 until theconstruction of the Saidye Bronfman Centre for the Arts, inaugurated on September 24, 1967, where the

established resident theater, the Dora Wasserman Yiddish Theatre, remains the only permanent Yiddish theatre inNorth America. The theatre group also tours Canada, US, Israel, and Europe.[47]

Even though Yiddish has receded, it is the immediate ancestral language of Montrealers like Mordecai Richler,Leonard Cohen as well as of the interim city mayor Michael Applebaum. Besides Yiddish-speaking activists, itremains today the native everyday language of 15,000 Montreal Hassidim, a large and growing community whose

rabbis, alongside most of Quebec's Haredi rabbis, support Quebec separatism.[48]

Religious communities

The major exception to the decline of spoken Yiddish can be found inHaredi communities all over the world. In some of the more closely knitsuch communities Yiddish is spoken as a home and schooling language,especially in Hasidic, Litvish or Yeshivish communities such asBrooklyn's Borough Park, Williamsburg and Crown Heights, and in thecommunities of Monsey, Kiryas Joel and New Square in New YorkState (over 88% of the population of Kiryas Joel is reported to speak

Yiddish at home.[49]) Also in New Jersey Yiddish is widely spokenmostly in Lakewood but also in smaller towns with yeshivos such asPassaic, Teaneck and elsewhere. Yiddish is also widely spoken in the

Antwerp Jewish community and in Haredi communities such as the onesin London, Manchester and Montreal. Yiddish is also spoken in manycommunities throughout Israel. Among most Ashkenazi Haredim,Hebrew is generally reserved for prayer, while Yiddish is used for religious studies as well as a home and businesslanguage. In Israel, however, Haredim commonly speak Hebrew, with the notable exception of many Hasidiccommunities. However, some Haredim who use Modern Hebrew also understand Yiddish. There are some whosend their children to schools in which the primary language of instruction is Yiddish. Members of movements suchas Satmar Hasidism, who view the commonplace use of Hebrew as a form of Zionism, use Yiddish almostexclusively.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satmar_(Hasidic_dynasty)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montrealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Community_of_Antwerphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaneck,_NJhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passaic,_NJhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeshivoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakewood,_NJhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jerseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Square,_New_Yorkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiryas_Joel,_New_Yorkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsey,_New_Yorkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Heights,_Brooklynhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williamsburg,_Brooklynhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borough_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklynhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeshivishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litvishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haredi_Judaismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_separatismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haredihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassidimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Applebaumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Cohenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordecai_Richlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dora_Wasserman_Yiddish_Theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saidye_Bronfman_Centre_for_the_Artshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monument_Nationalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirsch_Wolofskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanader_Adlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montrealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jewish_Tribune_(UK)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatesheadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestwichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broughton,_Greater_Manchesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salford,_Greater_Manchesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Manchesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoke_Newingtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golders_Greenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamford_Hillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklynhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Posters_1.jpg


12/19



A road sign in Yiddish (except for the

word "sidewalk") at an official

construction site in the Monsey

hamlet, a community with thousands

of Yiddish speakers, in Ramapo, New

York.

Hundreds of thousands of young children around the globe have been, and are still, taught to translate the texts ofthe Torah into Yiddish. This process is called (taytshn)"translating" . Most Ashkenazi yeshivas' highestlevel lectures in Talmud and Halakha are delivered in Yiddish by the rosh yeshivas as well as ethical talks of mussaHasidic rebbes generally use only Yiddish to converse with their followers and to deliver their various Torah talks,classes, and lectures. The linguistic style and vocabulary of Yiddish have influenced the manner in which manyOrthodox Jews who attend yeshivas speak English. This usage is distinctive enough that it has been dubbed"Yeshivish".

While Hebrew remains the language of Jewish prayer, the Hasidim have mixed some Yiddish into their Hebrew,and are also responsible for a significant secondary religious literature written in Yiddish. For example, the talesabout the Baal Shem Tov were written largely in Yiddish. As well as the Torah Talks of the late Lubavitch leadersare published in their original form, Yiddish. In addition, some prayers, such as the Got fun Avrohom, werecomposed and are recited in Yiddish.

Moreover, some Hasidic girls in the Diaspora are not taught Hebrew at all, and therefore do not understand eitherancient or modern Hebrew. Even those who are taught parts of the Bible will still use prayer books with Yiddishtranslation and commentaries, as their comprehension of Hebrew is deficient.

Modern Yiddish education

There has been a resurgence in Yiddish learning in recent times amongmany from around the world with Jewish ancestry. The language whichhad lost many of its native speakers during WWII has been making

somewhat of a comeback.[50] In Poland, which traditionally had Yiddishspeaking communities, a particular museum has begun to revive Yiddish

education and culture.[51] Located in Krakw, the Galicia JewishMuseum offers classes in Yiddish Language Instruction and workshopson Yiddish Songs. The museum has taken steps to revive the culture

through concerts and events held on site.[52] There are variousUniversities worldwide which now offer Yiddish programs based on theYIVO Yiddish standard. Many of these programs are held during thesummer and are attended by Yiddish enthusiasts from around the world.One such school located within Vilnius University (Vilnius YiddishInstitute) was the first Yiddish center of higher learning to be establishedin post-Holocaust Eastern Europe. Vilnius Yiddish Institute is an integral

part of the four-century-old Vilnius University. Published Yiddish scholar

and researcher Dovid Katz is among the Faculty.[53] Other schools

which offer Yiddish programs include Tel Aviv University,

[54]

Brandeis University,

[55]

Monash University,Australian Centre for Jewish Civilisation,[56] University College London,[57] University of Oxford,[58] University o

Maryland,[59] YIVO, New York University,[60] Hampshire College campus at Amherst[61] (home of the National

Yiddish Book Center), Binghamton University,[62] Harvard University,[63] Stanford University,[64] University of

Pennsylvania,[65] Indiana University, Bloomington,[66] The Ohio State University,[67] University of Dsseldorf,[68]

University of Chicago,[69] Columbia University,[70] Vassar College,[71] UMass Amherst,[72] McGill University,[73

UCLA,[74] Emory University in Atlanta, University of Virginia,[75] the University of Manitoba,[76] and the Universi

of Sao Paulo, in Brazil.[77] Despite this growing popularity among many American Jews,[78] finding opportunitiesfor practical use of Yiddish is becoming increasingly difficult, and thus many students have trouble learning to speak

the language.[79] One solution has been the establishment of a farm in Goshen, New York for Yididshists.[80]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-78http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Jewshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-77http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Sao_Paulohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Manitobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Virginiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emory_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amhersthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassar_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-70http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-68http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_D%C3%BCsseldorfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ohio_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_University,_Bloomingtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binghamton_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Yiddish_Book_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampshire_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YIVOhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Marylandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australian_Centre_for_Jewish_Civilisation&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monash_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandeis_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YIVOhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia_Jewish_Museumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_language#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diasporahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_Abrahamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubavitchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baal_Shem_Tovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_prayerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeshivish_(dialect)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Judaismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebbehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mussar_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosh_yeshivahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halakhahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeshivahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Yorkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramapo,_New_Yorkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsey,_New_Yorkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yiddishsign.JPG


13/19



A 2008 Election poster in front of a

store in Village of New Square, Townof Ramapo, New York, entirely in

Yiddish. The candidate names are

transliterated into Yiddish.

Internet community

Google Translate includes Yiddish as one of its languages,[81][82] as do Wikipedia and Facebook.

See also

List of English words of Yiddish origin

List of Yiddish language poetsThe Yiddish King Lear

Yiddish dialectsas spoken in different regions of Europe.

Yiddish literature

Yiddish grammarthe structural detail of the language.

Yiddish orthographythe written representation of the language.

Yiddish phonologythe elements of the spoken language.

Yiddish Renaissance

Yiddish words used in Englishdefinitions of Yiddish words used

in a primarily English context.Yinglish

References

1. ^ ab Yiddish, Eastern (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ydd), on Ethnologue. Retrieved 29

June 2013.2. ^Introduction to Old Yiddish literature, p. 72 (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eyBQn7JrBVwC&pg=PA72),

Baumgarten and Frakes, Oxford University Press, 2005

3. ^ "Development of Yiddish over the ages" (http://www.jewishgen.org/databases/givennames/yiddial.htm),

www.jewishgen.org

4. ^ Oscar Levant described Cole Porter's 'My Heart Belongs to Daddy" as "one of the most Yiddish tunes ever

written" despite the fact that "Cole Porter's genetic background was completely alien to any Jewishness." Oscar

Levant,The Unimportance of Being Oscar, Pocket Books 1969 (reprint of G.P. Putnam 1968), p. 32. ISBN 0-671

77104-3.

5. ^ Kriwaczek, Paul (2005). Yiddish Civilization: The Rise and Fall of a Forgotten Nation. London: Weidenfeld &

Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-82941-6., Chapter 3, footnote 9.

6. ^ Katz, 20077. ^ "Image" (http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/popups/viewmedia.aspx?id=1116). Yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved

2010-08-07.

8. ^ " " (http://www.milon.co.il/general/general.php?term=%D7%91%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%95).

Milon.co.il. 2007-05-14. Retrieved 2010-08-07.

9. ^Old Yiddish Literature from Its Origins to the Haskalah Period by Zinberg, Israel. KTAV, 1975. ISBN 0-87068

465-5.

10. ^ Max Weinreich, (New York: YIVO, 1973), vol. 1, p. 280, with explanation of

symbol on p. xiv.

11. ^ Bechtel, Delphine (2010). "Yiddish Theatre and Its Impact on the German and Austrian Stage"

(http://books.google.com/books?id=geJnnySQ4rUC). In Malkin, Jeanette R.; Rokem, Freddie.Jews and the makin
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58729-868-4. Retrieved 2011-10-28. "[...] audiences heard on the stage a continuum of hybrid language-levels

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forms of Western Yiddish)."

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02131-7. Retrieved 2011-10-28. "[...] in 1787, over 10 percent of the Prague population was Jewish [...] which

spoke German and, probably,Mauscheldeutsch, a local Jewish-German dialect distinct from Yiddish

(Mauscheldeutsch = Moischele-Deutsch = 'Moses German')."

13. ^ Hebrew or Yiddish? (http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/vilna/before/hebrew_or_yiddish.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki) in the online exhibition The Jerusalem of Lithuania: The Story of the Jewish Community of Viln

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