curriculum studies essay
TRANSCRIPT
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
BA (Hons) Professional Studies
Module 1
Curriculum Studies
Towards a Learner’s Curriculum
Module tutor Trudie McNeill
Daiva Stalnionyte
1
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
The most significant contributing factor to personal success can be attributed
to Education, and most individuals will experience more than ten years of
study before reaching adulthood. Schools, Colleges and Universities follow an
organised curriculum specifically designed by educators to provide
set learning paths for students. The task of improving and creating new
curriculum is an ongoing process. “More recently the Qualifications and
Curriculum Authority has announced its intention to promote a broad debate
about how the curriculum for schools in England can best adapt to changing
needs and demands.” (ATL 2005, page 7).
This essay highlights various definitions of the curriculum and demonstrates
how different curriculum theoretical models fit in today’s education particularly
in vocationally related teaching and learning. In addition, it evaluates factors
affecting curriculum control and highlights the changes required for curriculum
to be effective to meet demands of today’s society.
To be able to appreciate how curriculum and its models reflect in today’s
education, there must first be an understanding of different definitions of
curriculum that have been used for many years.
Throughout the years content of curriculum has been influenced by many
thinkers and philosophers who seriously influenced schooling in Western
civilisation. The historical aim of education was for a man to become a better
man (ATL 2007). Being a better man was described as educated with aims to
use his knowledge as power in his adult life. Formal education can be tracked
back to the Egyptian Civilisation (3000 BC) and curriculum in those days was
described in a form of academic subjects and was known as knowledge-
2
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
based. The word curriculum originally came from Latin which means
‘racecourse’. In Education today this could be interpreted as students studying
their programme to achieve a qualification.
"The curriculum debates of the past 5,000 years have primarily been around
the issues of general versus vocational programmes, what people do, against
an ideal of what they should be" (Historical Context of Curriculum Change
Resource Pack page 11). Since then, many definitions of curriculum have
evolved, however, their interpretations vary.
Smith (1996) described curriculum in a range of approaches. One of them is
linked to syllabus or a body of knowledge to be transmitted. He also stressed
that curriculum is a set of objectives, where there is a drawn-up plan to apply
intended objectives with a measurable outcome. Another alternative definition
is that curriculum is a student’s total experience. It comprises teachers’ and
students’ communication and relationships between them. Smith also
recommends that curriculum is one’s ability to apply theory to practice.
Clearly all of these definitions are somehow applied in today’s curriculum
context. However, there have been endless debates regarding the relevance
and suitability of present curricula to the society and the culture the learners
belong to. Will it serve the needs of the learners of the twenty first century?
Does curriculum evolve with the times and does it offer students the
knowledge and skills required to fully function in today’s world?
Marsh (2004) suggests that any definition gives insight about the main
characteristics and emphases of curriculum. One of his definitions notes the
3
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
significance of ‘permanent’ subjects such as grammar, mathematics, reading,
logic and literature of the Western world which represent necessary
knowledge. This has been known as the "knowledge-based curriculum". This
model of curriculum has been implemented in most schools. An example of
this could be the National Curriculum which has specific content subjects with
specific goals for student achievement. It is essential to remember that
subjects and syllabus need to be adjusted to fit current culture and the
society. Griffith (2000) views that knowledge-based curriculum would not
survive on its own if it is dependent on time and space.
One of the most traditional and most commonly used models is "content or
syllabus-based". Blenkin et al (1992) suggest that curriculum is delineated into
subjects and delivered through a bulk of knowledge-content. Education, he
states, is the route where these can be transferred to students using efficient
teaching and learning methods. This type of curriculum emphasises students
attending schools to learn subject-specific facts. It also helps to use this
model in assessment process where students, according to their gained
qualification can be grouped in to high and low achievers. Furthermore, it
dictates what route a student will be able to take. Students with high grades
traditionally would be expected to progress to universities, where less
successful students would be advised to take a non academic route (i e. study
a vocational programme or gain employment elsewhere). It is interesting to
note that most of the employers are not as interested in a depth of ones’
subject knowledge but more on practical skills such as problem solving,
analysing, evaluating, self-reflection and self discipline which are directly
4
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
related to work (Ross 2000). However, this does not discount the fact that
subject-based curriculum will always have a place in education.
People will need to be able read, write and calculate. One should also be
aware of one’s culture and history, explore facts about different places,
experience the arts and learn about spiritual qualities as well as academic
subjects. Content-based curriculum covers these, but emphasises the
delineation of subjects. Further more, it aims to acquire the knowledge and
does not take into account any other learning experiences. It is an end-in-itself
curriculum and education process is known as knowledge-based (ATL 2005).
Another definition by Marsh (2004) is that curriculum is a variety of learning
experiences where students gain general skills and obtain knowledge in
different learning sites. This definition concentrates more on learning and
learning skills rather than teaching. It also values the practical skills gained
from other learning sites other than from school alone. This particular
approach to curriculum has been supported by employers requiring vocational
skills and other vocationally oriented groups which support this type for
curriculum for economic reasons. Since it is dependent on the end-product of
learning, which would be specific skills, it has been known as the "Product
model". Education providers such as Further Education Colleges or private
training centres delivering vocational programmes have adapted this
approach and gear their curriculum on the necessary skills needed in the
specific jobs. Part of the curriculum for these programmes is delivered in
classroom situations where students gain knowledge required for particular
skills. However, such practical skills are introduced and gained in either work
5
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
placements or realistic working environments. This approach allows students
to link education with employment in more realistic ways and provides a
broader understanding of the nature of work. For example, hospitality and
catering students in Croydon College go on work placements either in hotels,
restaurants or any quality catering establishments as part of their course and
gain the necessary experiences there that build up their knowledge and skills.
Feedback from students and course evaluations suggests that relevant 'hands
on' experience gained from work placements could prove vital in being able to
demonstrate the real skills required for future employment. It has been noted
that most students value this method of learning more than basic
theoretical input from teachers. This way of thinking and viewing education as
more product-oriented has been influenced by American writer Ralph W. Tyler
(1949). He believed that people need to learn not for any other reason but to
be able to work and live their lives. He lays emphasis on four key questions:
what are the intentions of the educational organisation, what experiences can
be provided for students to meet the organisation’s aims, how can all the
experiences be arranged effectively and how can they be evaluated to ensure
the outcomes were met. The advantages of Tyler’s approach are that product
model avoids vague general statements of intent. It also makes assessment
more specific and helps to select and arrange content.
Smith (1996) suggests that product model of curriculum makes teachers
aware of different styles and levels of learning involved in particular subjects.
However, he states, that this method has been criticised as discouragement
of creativity for the teacher and learner. Having preset objectives will not allow
learners to achieve their full potential. Grundy (1987) in his definition
6
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
describes curriculum as “A programme of activities (by teachers and pupils)
designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and
other schooling ends or objectives” (page 11). In line with Tyler’s approach, it
is suggested that this type of model works well for vocational courses as it
intends to assist young people to find work after concluding their education.
Vocationally- related programmes have been taken by many as a popular
route since the late 1970s when John Callaghan (1976), in his Ruskin speech,
raised his concerns about the school levers’ level of skills. He stressed that
there were many complaints from the industry of newly-qualified workers who
do not have the basic tools to do the job (ATL 2005). Since then providers of
further education have been held responsible for vocational curriculum
programmes and made more accountable for student achievement.
Another way of looking at curriculum is to view it as process. This type of
more holistic perspective of learning is now being supported by many
educators. Curriculum as Process could be viewed not as a physical thing, but
rather the interaction of teachers, students, and knowledge. Further more,
curriculum is what essentially happens in the classroom and what people do
to prepare and evaluate the experiences. The focus is placed on interactions.
This can mean that attention moves from teaching to learning. "Teachers
enter particular schooling and educational situations with an ability to think
critically in-action an understanding of their role and the expectations others
have of them, and a proposal for action which sets out essential principles
and features of the educational encounter” (Smith 1996, page 19). However
some theorists have raised their concerns that process model ignores the
need of united standards of teaching to ensure quality. This approach to the
7
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
theory of curriculum, Smith states, places meaning-making and thinking at its
core and treats learners as subjects rather than objects. It can also lead to
very different means being transferred in classrooms and a high degree of
range in content. Another major problem has been raised that this type of
curriculum heavily relies on the quality of teaching staff and depth of their
skills. If the teachers are not up to this, then there is a restriction to what can
happen educationally (Smith 1996). For example, some of hospitality teachers
in Croydon College are obliged to undertake teaching subjects that they are
not specialists of and in result it could affect learners’ experience.
Extension of a process model is praxis (practice) model. Practice is often
described as the act of doing something and focuses not just on individuals or
the group alone, but pays careful attention to the way in which individuals and
the group create understandings and practices, as well as meaning (Smith
1996). In addition this model is known as having a close relationship between
action, reflection over action and new action (Afdal 2005). In another words,
learning is evaluated and put in to practice in a new situation. In addition,
teachers as practitioners are expected to influence curriculum by being
actively involved in peer observation and assessment and share good
practice and experience with others. Lindeman describes praxis model as
‘education for use’ (1944: 103). NVQ and BTEC programmes can be viewed
as combination of product and praxis models.
Many adults decide to go back into education to enhance their learning and
become more competent in order to achieve higher earnings in more lucrative
employment. They do not necessarily go to college or university, as some
8
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
courses can be quite lengthy and certain people may feel alienated being
"back at school". Alternative routes to gain competencies are well promoted
by the government. For example, apprenticeship programmes and Train to
Gain initiatives allow young people and mature adults to achieve their
qualifications whilst they are at work. In addition, it allows mature learners to
take further steps to progress their career and improve self esteem. Learners
on Train to Gain programmes are full time employees and gain their
qualifications through assessments in the workplace. This method is very
favourable amongst the learners; however, it questions its value. For example
management of Croydon College is under pressure for ‘high demand
achievement numbers’ therefore quality of learning and teaching is
compromised. Assessors are overloaded with high number of candidates to
meet college demands. The question must be asked, to have high
achievement rates in colleges does this mean that learners had fulfilled their
needs and had positive educational experience? Train to Gain initiative is a
perfect example of product model functioning ineffectively without support of
other curriculum models. Very opposite, full time students of NVQ and BTEC
programmes are allowed to spend one full day a week to learn about
employment in the Hospitality and catering industry as they develop skills that
can help them in that prospective career. A variety of educational strategies
such as independent research and hands-on experience expose them to the
realities of the industry. Enthusiasm for the course is sustained by regular field
visits to local hotels and restaurants, including trade shows and exhibitions.
They study subjects such as front of house operations, customer care,
promotions and marketing using real customers in the real environment. They
9
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
also get familiar with contemporary cuisine including authentic recipes and
menus used in today’s catering industry. It is acknowledged that visiting
places familiar to them due to cultural factors lifts their self-esteem and
cultural pride. To support their learning students are also actively involved in
planning and monitoring their own learning and development. They set their
own targets, review them and with teacher’s support develop further action
plans to reach their goal. This demonstrates that although vocational
programmes are mainly known as product model based, there is evidence of
process and praxis models. In designing an appropriate course curriculum, an
essential process needs to be considered including which curriculum model is
most suitable for the needs of the learner.
It is evident that any curriculum definition one way or another puts emphasis
on the learning process, gained knowledge and skills, subject content and
students’ comprehensive learning experience. The process of learning is as
important as the content learned (Newby 2005). This statement summarises
that any curriculum model on its own can not be fully functional and effective
to gain full potential of learning experience.
Currently, the Association of Teachers and Lecturers, (ATL 2006) proposes
changes in the National Curriculum of the United Kingdom. The curriculum
model proposed should start with the pupil in mind – his needs and interests
and should be designed in terms of the skills and attitudes educators would
want pupils to pursue and develop. Emphasis of the curriculum must be
transferred from being knowledge-based to being skills-based to adequately
prepare them for more work-based learning in the future. More than content,
10
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
learners must be engaged in various learning processes – "how to discover
things, make sense of them, package them in different ways, and put
knowledge to use in a wider variety of forms and for more, and more diverse,
functions" (Newby 2005, p. 298). Ways of knowing will be given much
significance rather than the knowledge itself. He continues that the processes
of learning will be no less important than the content learned.
Over the years the balance between what and how has not been reached and
the same question as what curriculum should look like to meet everyone’s
needs is still ongoing. There is also a debate has been for years about who
should decide what should be learned. There are numerous individuals and
groups, because of their professional status are in power to make decisions
about what is taught, when and how. Alongside decision makers are people
who influence those decisions. ‘Influences’ are those groups or individuals
who have common interests to convince authorities of particular change
(Marsh 2004). Each group have their own ideas and agenda. Marsh has
developed a list of decision makers and influences and grouped them in line
with their involvement and level of influence. On the top of the list of the
decision makers are politicians, superintendents, state departments and
assessment boards. Politicians being on the top of the list have the interest of
the state and its economy as well as raising national literacy and numeracy
standards. Teachers, parents and school councils are very influential in
decision making and as Marsh (2004) suggests need to work together.
However, he states, many parent groups are under-represented due to social
economic status and of minority ethnic groups.
11
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
John Callaghan’s (1976) speech had a massive influence in decision making
regarding education in England. In particular, it had an impact on Further
education colleges. For years the sector was regarded as not functioning very
well; students’ retention and achievement rates were very low compared with
all other sectors of education. Three years ago, David Bell, chief inspector of
schools at the time, called further education colleges "a national failure" (Ryan
2007 The Guardian). The Government had to step in and assess the
weaknesses that effected learning and achievement. More pressure was
placed on how colleges were managed. Consequently management had to be
involved in target setting, quality control, setting up systems for measuring
students’ performance, analysing data and making recommendations. In
result, Ryan states, success and achievement rates by year 2000 improved
by 20%. One may argue that if the achievement rates are excellent and
colleges gain their ‘good name’ back does that mean that curriculum has been
adapted to meet learners needs or is that this curriculum suits government’s
agenda to demonstrate successful national educational system. Train to Gain
initiative can be used as an example where politicians steer education to
ensure that work force is educated to a minimum of level 2 qualifications.
There is a conflict between two parties. Whilst Government is busy
announcing outstanding achievements teachers and assessors play the
administrator’s-technician’s role to ensure all documentation is completed to
the standard required by Learning and Skills Council. There is another
question needs to be asked whether such a Government’s initiative has any
value to the learner.
12
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
Curriculum today has gone a long way. Educators have come up with a
variety of curriculum models to suit their philosophy. Over time, many
considerations were emphasised in each of the curriculum models. However,
what stands out is the concept of what or who controls or directs the learning
in pursuit of knowledge and acquisition of skills. Content based or syllabus
models focus on depositing much information on the learner. Much rote
memorisation is entailed in order for learners to regurgitate back knowledge.
Teachers are in control of the curriculum. Thus, the process of gaining such
knowledge may be limited to teacher-directed means. The learner becomes a
passive recipient of learning. Kelly (2004) analyses this type of approach as a
demand to accept the value of the knowledge itself rather than the way in
which a learner may approach and view it.
On the other hand, sharing the reins of control by involving students in a more
hands-on practical approach to learning is sure to keep them motivated
especially if the experiences consider their culture and the community they
are part of. Being an active participant in the learning process makes it more
relevant and meaningful to the learner. Such a curriculum is being endorsed
nowadays by government, as people see the value of the process of learning
in order to derive the products, which are knowledge and skills. The learner
not only gains information, but many learning skills such as problem-solving,
analysis, decision-making, socialisation skills and many more which are
essential skills they would be using when they go out to the real world to
survive on their own.
13
Daiva Stalnionyte/BA (Hons) Professional Studies
Going back to the question previously asked in this paper, "Does the
prevalent curriculum serve the needs of the learners of the twenty first century
and empower them with the knowledge and skills required to fully function in
today’s world?" The answer lies in government priorities. Educators need to
design their curriculum and the learners to voice their needs who acquire
much learning from it. Teachers as practitioners should be involved in
designing of curriculum. They are the professionals who have interest of both,
organisational goals and the learner’s needs. Teachers are the ones who can
equip learners with new skills required in today active and complicated
society. Skills like decision and sense making and problem solving needs to
be included in curriculum. This kind of curriculum aims to prepare young
people for the future and is viewed as experimental, progressive, learner’s
curriculum (ATL 2005). "The vocationally-focused, narrowly-instrumental
curriculum in which secondary pupils acquire particular skills in readiness for
particular jobs will become an anachronism. Instead, skills of adaptability will
be needed, preparing them to take on a wide variety of different occupations".
(Newby 2005, p. 298)
If learners are sent out into the workplace fully prepared with appropriate
knowledge and skills that they can then apply confidently, with the desire to
grow and develop further, then much of that success and empowerment can
be accredited to the quality of teaching provided under the guidance of a well
constructed and targeted curriculum.
14