CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENTAL & DESIGN PROCESS

The curriculum development process systematically

organizes (a) what will be taught, (b) who will be taught,

and (c) how it will be taught.

Each component affects and interacts with other

components.

For example, what will be taught is affected by who is

being taught (e.g., their stage of development in age,

maturity, and education).

Methods of how content is taught are affected by who is

being taught, their characteristics, and the setting.

In considering the above three essential components, the

following are widely held to be essential considerations in

experiential education in non-formal settings:

Essential Considerations for Curriculum Development

Issue/problem/need is identified (issue what),

Characteristics and needs of learners (target audience

who),

Changes intended for learners (intended outcomes

/objectives what the learners will be able to do),

The important and relevant content (what),

Methods to accomplish intended outcomes (how),

Evaluation strategies for methods, content, and intended

outcomes (what works?).

Deductive Curriculum Development

Philosophy

Programme Concept

Broad Goals

Objectives

Programme Design

Evaluative Standards

Needs Assessment

Curriculum Alignment

Programme Design

Course Frameworks

Lesson Planning

Wiles (1999)

Overview of the Curriculum Development Process

We shall now look at four (4) phases in curriculum

development inclusive of twelve (12) steps / processes:

PHASE I: PLANNING

Step 1. Identify Issue / Problem / Needs

Step 2. Form Curriculum Development Team

Step 3. Conduct Needs Assessment & Analysis

PHASE II: CONTENT AND METHODS

Step 4. State Intended Outcomes (Educational Objectives)

Step 5. Select Content

Step 6. Design Experiential Learning Methods

PHASE III: IMPLEMENTATION

Step 7. Produce Curriculum Product

Step 8. Test and Revise Curriculum

Step 9. Recruit and Train Volunteers/Facilitators

Step 10. Implement Curriculum

PHASE IV: EVALUATION AND REPORTING

Step 11. Evaluation Strategies

Step 12. Reporting and Securing Resources

PHASE I: PLANNING "If you do not know where you are going you will end up somewhere else”

Step 1. Identify Issue / Problem / Needs

After reviewing this step, you should be able to identify

contributing factors to the issue or problem and develop a

broad issue or need statement.

The very first step in the curriculum development process

is to clearly state the issue that prompted the initiation of

a curriculum development effort. An issue statement should indicate:

who is affected or involved,

the scope of the problem (issue) to be addressed by the curriculum, and

the consequences.

An issue statement should not:

describe impacts of potential programs,

define a programmatic response to an issue, or

be a positive statement about the future. (USDA/ES, 1992)

Questions that must be asked:

• What is the most pressing problem in this issue?

• How or where can programs and/or curriculum materials make a

difference?

• Who else is working on this issue?

• Are there specific areas of the issue where others have specialized

to meet certain needs?

• Where can cooperating organizations and/or agencies contribute to

make a significant difference?

• In what sequence should these problems be addressed? Where

should we start?

• Who are the target audiences?

• Why is each audience significant?

• Can this target audience effect the issue? Or are they effected by it?

• Should audiences be reached in a particular sequence to effectively

address this issue?

Step 2. Form Curriculum Development Team "None Of Us Is As Smart As All Of Us“

"The greatest good you can do for another is not just to share your riches but to reveal theirs to them". Benjamin Disraeli

"Coming together is a beginning....Keeping together is progress. ...Working together is a success".

After reviewing this step, you should be prepared to:

identify who to select for your curriculum development

team members,

describe the roles and responsibilities of curriculum team

members, and

apply the principles of collaboration during the curriculum

development process.

Additional information on collaboration • know several techniques that help a group gather and

fosters group collaboration,

• understand and be able to apply several ways to develop trust in a group,

• appreciate the significance of "I messages" and develop your own method for monitoring personal "I" messages in a group situation,

• understand significant characteristics of real life collaborations and share them with others,

• recognize problems associated with leaving persons or groups affected by an issue out of a collaboration and learn ways to ensure that collaborative groups are inclusive,

• recognize developmental group stages and how to meet the needs of the group as it progresses through these stages.

• "Teamwork is the ability to work toward a common vision. The ability to direct individual accomplishment

toward organizational objectives. It is the fuel that allows common people to attain uncommon results."

Step 3. Conduct Needs Assessment & Analysis "Start with what people already know and build on what they already have.“

Curriculum development was described as the process of determining who will be taught what and how.

The needs assessment and analysis step in curriculum development systematically focuses on learning about an issue or problem and the people who are directly effected by it.

A needs assessment provides the information to determine outcomes (educational objectives) based on a factual foundation and learners needs.

A needs assessment also provides baseline data to evaluate the achievement of intended outcomes.

The goal is to have those who are most directly affected by issues and problems define them, isolate the contributing factors, and suggest solutions.

Wentling, (FAO, 1993) defines a problem (issue) as the gap between desired behaviour (what should be known and/or done) and actual performance (behaviour).

Analysis of Results of Needs Assessment

Once the data is collected, characteristics of the target audience and gaps (the difference between desired and actual performance) are identified, it is time to categorize needs.

Identify the type of needs by putting them into three categories (i.e., knowledge, attitude, or practices) and prioritize them.

"If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost; that is where they should

be. Now put foundations under them". Henry David Thoreau

PHASE II: CONTENT AND METHODS "It's not so much what we do, but how we do it that really matters.“

Step 4. State Intended Outcomes (Educational Objectives)

This phase provides step-by-step procedures for

developing useful, learner-oriented curriculum materials.

Keeping in mind learners' needs as identified from the

needs assessment and analysis, intended outcomes

(educational objectives) are developed to match learner

needs with the components of the issue.

The content (what is taught) is based on the intended

outcomes as well as the knowledge, attitudes, skills,

aspirations and behaviours of the learners.

How the content is taught, is determined by experiential

methods.

It is important to take into consideration the characteristics

of the learners, styles of learning, and the content.

Given information presented in this step, curriculum developers will be able to:

describe, identify, and apply the three essential components (conditions, performance, and standards) to state measurable intended outcomes;

identify, apply, and evaluate categories and terms of each category of learner skills: knowledge and intellectual skills (cognitive); physical action and motor skills, (psycho-motor); and feelings and attitudes (cognitive); and

identify and apply life skills in determining curriculum content and activities.

What is an intended outcome?

An intended outcome is a statement of what a learner will specifically

know and be able to do (from experience) as a result of participating in

the activities planned in the curriculum.

Questions that might be helpful in forming and evaluating intended outcomes: How will learners be different as a result of their participation in

the curriculum?

What will they know or be able to do?

What practices (changes) should each learner attain to address the different components of the issue?

How will you know if the curriculum made a difference on the issue with these learners?

What indicators will provide this information?

What specific kinds of knowledge, intellectual abilities/ thinking (cognitive) skills are desired?

What specific kinds of feelings and attitudes (affective) are desired?

What specific kinds of physical action and motor (psychomotor) skills are desired?

On what critical thinking and decision-making skills will this curriculum focus?

Step 5. Select Content

After reviewing this step, curriculum developers will be able to:

identify the scope of the content of the curriculum material,

plan the sequence in which the content will be presented, and

outline the content, including knowledge, attitude, and skills learners will be able to acquire through participating in the planned curriculum activities.

specific questions about selecting content might include:

√ What content do these specific learners need to know in order to meet (perform) the intended outcomes and have an effect on the issue?

√ What knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours will you assume learners know or have before participating in the program?

√ What subject matter topics of interrelated disciplines are needed to help learners use practices, acquire knowledge, and develop skills?

√ What will learners be able to do if they know this content?

Step 6. Design Experiential Learning Methods "Diversity is the one true thing we have in common. ...celebrate it every day.“

"Variety is the spice of life!"

The next step translates what the curriculum will teach into how learners will acquire the knowledge, attitudes, skills, aspirations, and behaviours needed to attain the intended outcomes. This step is where the curriculum developers pull everything together (i.e., activities that take into account the characteristics and needs of the learner, the intended outcomes, the content or subject matter, and the learning environment).

Key steps to the experiential education process include:

having the learner(s) experience the activity— perform or do it;

having the learner(s) share the experience by describing what happened;

asking the participants) to process the experience to identify common themes;

having the learner(s) generalize from the experience to form principles or guidelines that can be used in real-life situations (e.g., life skills);

asking participant(s) to apply what was learned to another situation.

PHASE III: IMPLEMENTATION

producing the curriculum materials; testing and revising them; recruiting and training volunteers; and implementing the curriculum materials with the target audience

Step 7. Produce Curriculum Product "Form follows Function “

The seventh step in the curriculum development process

is the production of curriculum products (materials). After

a review of the outlined information and procedures,

curriculum developers will know:

where to find existing curriculum materials;

how to evaluate them;

factors to consider before writing and producing new

materials;

production recommendations; and

how to design and conduct a formative evaluation of the

curriculum materials

Factors To Consider Before Writing And Producing New Curriculum Products:

A number of factors need to be considered before new materials are developed:

The writer should have knowledge of the issue, the target audience, and curriculum design. Ideally, the writer is a member of the curriculum design team and has been involved in the planning and decision making processes from the very beginning. If not, plan to spend time briefing the writer on team expectations and continue to work with the writer throughout the process. Feedback is critical to achieve the desired outcome.

The type of publication must be identified. Is the product for youth? For facilitators? Are handouts or worksheets included? The product needs to be "directed" toward a specific audience. It is helpful for the writer to meet with targeted audience members to write "for" them. The formative evaluation, in the next step, will provide valuable insights for the writer.

Format is important. "Form follows function." If the product is for a facilitator, determine what a facilitator needs to have and do to facilitate an experiential learning process. The experiential learning model (Figures 3 and 4, pages 35 and 36) provides guidance (i.e., activity /experience, share, process, generalize, and apply).

If the learner is the direct user of the product: determine what the learner will do; provide opportunities for them to reflect on their actions; and encourage them to apply what they learn to a new situation.

Validityin curriculum materials is essential. Validity is when activities (what is done) aligns with the stated intended outcome (what we said we intended to do). Intended outcomes must be matched with supporting activities.

Step 8. Test and Revise Curriculum "If you don't have time to do it right the first time, how in the world will you ever find time

to do it right a second time?“

This step is where everything is "put on the line." It includes

suggestions on how to pilot test the materials and to conduct a

formative evaluation. Do not be intimidated by the words "formative

evaluation." It is a process used to determine if a curriculum product

is valid (if it does what is intended) and reliable (it consistently does

what it is intended to do). After reviewing this step, you will know how

to conduct a pilot test of the curriculum materials, evaluate them and

the training provided for the test facilitators.

Facilitators test the curriculum product with target audience groups

and provide the writer and the curriculum development team

feedback. This step is divided into two separate phases: 1) the

selection of group facilitators and pilot test sites and 2) the selection

of evaluation tools to assess the effectiveness (validity and reliability)

of the curriculum product.

"There are no mistakes, only learning experiences“ Dorothy Emerson

Step 9. Recruit and Train Volunteers/Facilitators

"A mind once stretched by a new idea, never regains its original dimension.'„

It is a waste of time and resources to develop curriculum materials if

facilitators are not adequately trained to use and implement the

program. Even professional trainers and educators need to be

trained in new content and methods. The facilitators who help

learners attain program outcomes (i.e., teachers, trainers, leaders,

guides, or mentors) must be trained. When the content includes

sensitive issues (as is the case with population education) and group

interaction is the primary method used to process content, training is

critical.

This step addresses two major topics, recruiting volunteers to

facilitate and implement the new curriculum and facilitator training.

After reviewing this step you should be prepared to recruit volunteer

facilitators and design a training program for them.

'The greatest good you can do for another is not just to share your riches

but to reveal to him his own.“ Benjamin Disraeli

An effective facilitator training sequence:

Introduce intended outcomes, content, and methods of the curriculum.

Show trainees an example of a well presented lesson. Review steps and

procedures. Ask them to critique effective techniques and identify needed

improvements.

Have facilitators prepare their own lessons to present to small groups of

facilitators.

Small groups participate, observe, and provide feedback to each facilitator

about the activity or lesson.

Facilitators share their observations with the whole group.

Trends are identified and modifications made.

Facilitators rework the same lessons incorporating new

ideas/improvements.

Conduct an evaluation of the training.

Analyze "lessons learned" where learners reflect on what they learned.

Identify areas where they excelled and where they need more improvement.

Facilitators should complete an evaluation of the training and a plan of

action that prepares them to implement the curriculum once the training is

completed

Step 10. Implement Curriculum "When all is said and done, it is what is done that counts.“

This step identifies considerations and strategies to implement the developed curriculum product.

Curriculum development is usually part of a larger and broader program initiated to address a major issue or problem. Members of the curriculum development team have collected knowledge about the learners (rural out-of-school youth), their needs, environment, and communities.

They also understand how the curriculum addresses the issue. Their knowledge of the target audience and the ways to address the issue through curriculum learning processes uniquely qualifies them to plan how the curriculum can be incorporated into the total program.

After reviewing this step team members will know what to consider to develop and implement a plan to promote and use the curriculum developed.

Considerations and strategies for implementation:

What is the most effective way to recruit members of the target

audience to participate in the curriculum activities? Are there

existing organizations that can collaborate (i.e., rural youth groups,

religious groups, older boy scout and girl scout organizations, etc.)?

Are there co-sponsoring opportunities with program and service

organizations (e.g., Rotary, Lions, Extension HomeMakers Clubs,

etc.)? Are there additional organizations or ways of recruiting

participants in your community?

What is the most effective way to promote the program with

other organizations? Would it be appropriate in your area to

promote participation through the radio, television, and newspapers?

Consider a puppet show, short role play or dramatic presentation in a

public square, at a village fair, or some other community gathering.

Are there ways to use the creative and performing arts to promote

participation? Can music draw attention and recruit participation?

Consult with team members, try target audience focus groups to

identify suggestions for the most effective recruitment strategies.

What promotional support could be included for

facilitators? Would a promotional flyer be effective?

Would slide sets, overheads, posters, audio video aids,

and/or promotional tapes be helpful? The best

promotional supports for facilitators need to be simple

and effective. Consult with facilitators to determine what

they would use.

PHASE IV: EVALUATION AND REPORTING "If You Don't Know Where You Are Going

, You'll End Up Somewhere Else.“

Describe the plan to evaluate the effectiveness of the curriculum

Closes the loop

Provides information about continuous quality improvement.

The process entails comprehensive study of the data with the view of

identifying possible deficiencies and root causes that can lead to

corrective action. It is the findings from this exercise that directly

influence the final stage of review.

Design Evaluation Strategies

Evaluation is a phase in the curriculum development model as well

as a specific step. Two types of evaluation, formative and

summative, are used during curriculum development.

Formative evaluations are used during the needs assessment,

product development, and testing steps.

Summative evaluations are undertaken to measure and report on the

outcomes of the curriculum.

This step reviews evaluation strategies and suggests simple

procedures to produce valid and reliable information. A series of

questions are posed to guide the summative evaluation process and

a sample evaluation format is suggested.

Reporting and Securing Resources

The final element in an evaluation strategy is "delivering the pay off

(i.e., getting the results into the hands of people who can use them).

In this step, suggestions for what and how to report to key

shareholders, especially funding and policy decision makers, are

provided and a brief discussion on how to secure resources for

additional programming.

The Tyler Model

Tyler recommended that curriculum planners identify general objectives by gathering data from three sources:

Student as Source

Society as Source

Subject Matter as Source.

After identifying numerous general objectives, the planners refine them by filtering them through two screens: the educational and social philosophy of the school and the psychology of learning. The end-product would be precise educational objectives.

Tyler’s Curriculum Rationale

The Taba Model

Hilda Taba took what is known as a grassroot approach to curriculum development. She believed that the curriculum should be designed by teachers rather than handed down by higher authority.

The model is intended to design courses down to lessons in areas where students are supposed to learn how to think.

Taba identified three inductive thinking skills:

concept formation (concept learning)

interpretation of data

application of principles

Taba’s inductive model lists a five-step sequence for accomplishing curriculum change. These are as follows:

1) Producing pilot units

a) Diagnosis of needs

b) Formulation of objectives

c) Selection of content

d) Organization of content

e) Selection of learning experience

f) Organization of learning activities.

g) Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it.

h) Checking for balance and sequence.

2. Testing Experimental Units

3. Revising and consultation

4. Developing a framework

5. Installing and disseminating news units

The Oliva Model

This model illustrate a comprehensive step by step process that takes the curriculum planner from the sources of the curriculum to evaluation.

The model sets forth the following steps

1. Specify the needs of students in general.

2. Specify the needs of society.

3. Write a statement of philosophy and aims of education.

4. Specify the needs of students in your school(s).

5. Specify the needs of the particular community.

6. Specify the needs of the subject matter.

7. Specify the curriculum goals of your school(s).

8. Specify the curriculum objectives of your school(s).

9. Organize and implement the curriculum.

10. Specify instructional goals.

The following diagram shows the details of the

Oliva model.

Squares are used to represent planning phases;

Circles are used to represent the operational phases.

Questions for consideration:

1. Who should decide which model for curriculum development to follow?

2. In your opinion which is better; an inductive or a deductive model for curriculum development?

3. What are the strengths and limitations of a linear model for curriculum development?