Culture, Language, Culture, Language, and and CommunicationCommunication

Language is a universal psychological ability possessed by all humans.

Language forms the basis for creation and maintenance of human cultures.

In many instances, language differences reflect important differences between cultures.

The Structure of LanguageThe Structure of Language

All languages have: Lexicon Syntax and Grammar Phonology Semantics Pragmatics

Two key linguistic concepts: Phonemes: smallest, most basic units of sound in a

language Morphemes: smallest, most basic units of meaning

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON VERBAL LANGUAGEVERBAL LANGUAGE

Cultural Influences on Language Cultural Influences on Language AcquisitionAcquisition

Culture influences language acquisition from the very early stage through the entire developmental process.

Culture influences all aspects of language.

It is through use of language the an individual is transformed into agent of culture.

Culture has a powerful influence on verbal and nonverbal encoding and decoding processes.

Culture affects not only language lexicons, but also the function and/or pragmatics.

Language differences across culturesLanguage differences across cultures

Culture and Lexicons Self-Other Referents

In U.S., the use of “I”, “we”, is prevalent, but in Japan there are cultural rules governing how to refer self and other. It is dependent largely on the status relationship between you and the other person.

This reflects importance of status and group differentiation in Japan.

Language differences across culturesLanguage differences across cultures

Counting Systems

Different objects counted by different suffix in Japan.

Basis for number

In Japanese (and many languages, including Spanish), cultural meanings of numbers based on the words for one through ten.

Language differences across culturesLanguage differences across cultures

Culture and Pragmatics Drop of pronouns

The dropping of pronouns occurs Less in individualistic than in collectivistic cultures.

Language use and communication styles Collectivistic cultures use principle of equity

involving greater social penetration when communicating with ingroups

Cultural differences in apology, self-disclosure

High vs. Low Context Cultures

This has to do with the extend to which the specific contents of messages are spelled out.

In Low Context Cultures, everything is made crystal clear; no need to read between the lines. “What part of ‘NO’ don’t you understand” mode of communicating.

The opposite is true for High context Cultures. If you don’t read between the lines and understand the cultural context of the words used, you won’t get the meaning of what was said.

In-group vs. outgroup communication,

Use of apologies, Self-disclosure, Compliments, and Interpersonal criticism.

Link Between Culture and Language Link Between Culture and Language

At a more technical level, culture can affect the structure of thought processes ala Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

Despite legitimate criticism of the link between culture and thinking, research on bilingualism shows a close relationship between culture and language.

LanguageLanguage and Thought: and Thought: The Sapir-Whorf HypothesisThe Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: speakers of different language think differently because of differences in languages.

In support of Sapir-Whorf: Navajo children are more likely to categorize objects by shapes than European or African American children.

Challenging Sapir-Whorf: Dani speakers did not have lower ability to discriminate or remember colors than Americans even though they only have two color terms (dark and light).

Comments on BilingualismComments on Bilingualism

The unique circumstances surrounding communication by individuals who speak more than one language has generated much interest among experimental psychologists, psycholinguists. educators and politicians.

I will address only a few of the more critical issues.

Perceptions of BilingualsPerceptions of Bilinguals

People have negative impressions and stereotypes about people communicating in their second language.

Foreign language processing difficulties: cognitive difficulties while processing information due to lack of fluency in speaking a language.

Foreign language effect: temporary decline in thinking ability of people using foreign language.

Language Development of BilingualsLanguage Development of Bilinguals

The context in which the various languages are acquired is a good starting point for our discussion of bilingualism.

Compound vs. coordinate development

Subordinate DevelopmentSubordinate Development

Meaning

Language A

Language B

Compound DevelopmentCompound Development

Meaning

Language A Language B

Coordinate DevelopmentCoordinate Development

Meaning Meaning

Language A Language B

Linguistic InterferenceLinguistic Interference

“…those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a results of familiarity with more than one language.”

Types of linguistic interferenceTypes of linguistic interference

1. Semantic

2. Syntactic

3. Lexical

4. Phonological

Linguistic Integration? The Tex-Mex phenomenon.

Psychological Differences Psychological Differences as a Function of Bilingualismas a Function of Bilingualism

It’s often the case that bilinguals have two mental representations of culture encoded in their minds.

Some research even suggests language-related shifts in personality.

Culture-affiliation hypothesis: immigrant bilinguals tend to affiliated themselves with values and beliefs of culture associated with language currently speaking.

Psychological Differences Psychological Differences as a Function of Languageas a Function of Language

Minority group-affiliation hypothesis: immigrant bilinguals adopt behavioral stereotypes of majority culture about their minority as their own.

Code frame switching: bilinguals switch back and forth from one cultural meaning system to the other when accessing one language or another.

Cognitive independence vs. Cognitive independence vs. interdependenceinterdependence

Primary DV = Reaction Time

Blue

Green

Red

Red

Green

Blue

Azul

Verde

Amarillo

Overarching ConclusionsOverarching Conclusions

Bilinguals access different cultural systems in their minds when speaking their respective languages.

Culture also affects nonverbal behavior. Despite the well-documented universality of many facial expressions such as anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise, as noted in precious lectures, cultures differ in display rules for these pan cultural expressions.

Overarching ConclusionsOverarching Conclusions

In addition, there are well-established cultural differences in gestures, gaze and visual attention, interpersonal space, body posture, and voice and vocal characteristics.

Basically then, both verbal and nonverbal encoding and decoding processes are influenced by culture.