cultural context and development

Cultural Context and DevelopmentConceptual Framework

Methodology

Cultural context and development

Maya Nelson, Raj S., Genevieve Sigaran, Zoie Tiller

Darwinism (Evolution and Natural Selection)

Darwinism is based on five key observations and inferences: Species have great fertility. They make more offspring than

can grow to adulthood. Populations remain roughly the same size, with modest

fluctuations. Food resources are limited, but are relatively constant most

of the time.From the three observations it must be inferred struggle for survival must be considered among individuals: In sexually reproducing species, generally no two

individuals are identical. Variation is rampant. Much of this variation is heritable.

Darwinism (Evolution and Natural Selection)

Natural Selection The prime motive for all species is to reproduce and survive,

passing on the genetic information of the species from one generation to the other.

This causes the species to produce more offspring than it can support. The lack of resources means increased competition for them. As a consequence some organisms will not survive.

This 'weeding out' of less suited organisms and the reward of survival to those better suited led Darwin to deduce that organisms had evolved over time, where the most desirable characteristics of a species are favored and those organisms who have them survive to pass their genes on.

Changing environment would mean different characteristics would be favorable in an environment. Darwin believed that organisms had 'evolved' to suit their environments.

Descartes and Dualism

Descartes claimed to have discovered one fact beyond doubt: that he is a thinking thing. This famous argument - called the Cogito after the Latin phrase, “cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am) – tries to establish the mind as a separate substance from the body.

The further the mind is taken away from its proper objects – logic and pure reason – the more likely it is to fall into error. Thus, for Descartes, the purpose of philosophy is to direct the mind away from the confusing images of the senses towards the indubitable truths contained within the mind itself.

He concluded that the mind was completely separated from the matter.

Matter is easily described: it is measurable, has dimensions, can be touched and seen, sometimes smelt and tasted, divided, destroyed and altered. Mind, however, can almost be defined as the opposite. It is invisible, without dimensions, immaterial, unchanging, indivisible and without limit.

Descartes and Dualism

Descartes was a very religious man with a sincere faith, so he connected his theories to his beliefs.

Mind so defined can be equated with the soul, which in turn can be proven to be distinct from the body and

Cabanis

His ideas were based upon the context of the French Revolution, which was the changing of the Old regime to the new ideals.

Psychology is with Cabanis directly linked on to biology, for sensibility, the fundamental fact, is the highest grade of life and the lowest of intelligence. All the intellectual processes are evolved from sensibility, and sensibility itself is a property of the nervous system.

The soul is not an entity, but a faculty; thought is the function of the brain. Just as the stomach and intestines receive food and digest it, so the brain receives impressions, digests them, and has as its organic secretion, thought.

He had another theory which contradicted his first, Life is something added to the organism; over and above the universally diffused sensibility there is some living and productive power to which we give the name of Nature.

It’s impossible to avoid ascribing to this power both intelligence and will. In us this living power constitutes the ego, which is truly immaterial and immortal.

Plato (Nativism)

NATIVISM VS. EMPIRICISMTwo views:– Nativism: Knowledge is part of our innate endowment (already “built in” at the time of birth).– Empiricism: Knowledge comes from Plato’s (Socrates’) view:– At some unconscious level, we know everything already, but our knowledge is sometimes ‘hidden’.– Knowledge is innate: It is carried over from an earlier existence, but forgotten.– Learning: recollecting (anamnesis)

Plato (Nativism)

“PLATO’S PROBLEM”• How is it possible that native speakers come to know things (about their language) in conditions of sparse evidence?• In particular, native speakers know things about their language which:– they have never been taught;– they have never experienced

Phineas Gage

Phineas Gage was a railroad worker who, through a freakish accident, got a 3-foot-long rod through his head. The rod went through his left cheek to exited the midline of the skull anterior to the bregma, resulting in severe injury to his left and, in all probability, his right prefrontal cortex.

It was seen as impossible for anyone to survive and at first Gage was the same. He remembered what happened before the accident, could immediately walk, and communicate sensibly.

Overtime his contractors noticed a difference in his attitude. He was once an efficient and capable foreman in their employ previous to his injury but he became fitful, irreverent, and indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom).

Phineas Gage

Gage is an example for the theory of cerebral localization which described in detail the focal mapping of the cerebral function and of how frontal lobe injury can result in changes of personality that are not demonstrable by sensory and motor exam.

Paul Broca

Paul Broca (1824-1880) was a well-known French surgeon-anthropologist-neurologist. Best known for his work on cerebral cortical localization and speech mechanisms, Broca also carefully worked out skull and scalp localization for underlying cortical regions.

In 1871, Broca treated a man who had sustained a scalp laceration from a blow to the head without loss of consciousness or skull fracture. The patient exhibited a not confluent aphasia about 1 month after injury and became progressively dulled and eventually lacked alertness.

In a post-mortem autopsy Broca found the patient had a lesion caused by syphilis in the left cerebral hemisphere. This lesion was determined to cover the area of the brain important for speech production.

Shift from dualism to materialism

Dualism was somewhat accepted but did not add up biologically. Human beings start their lives as entirely physical or material entities and since nothing outside of the domain of the physical is added later on in the course of development, then we must necessarily end up being fully developed material beings.

Its difficult for the dualist to explain where and why there could have intervened some non-material, non-physical event in this process of natural evolution.

Our development can be explained as the accumulation of matter through the process of nutrition.

Discoveries from people like Broca and Darwin only hurt the idea of Dualism.

Shift from dualism to materialism

During the Enlightenment theorists moved away from such Christian thinking and to what the world really was made up of other than what the church told them, basically to find a way to explain their existence.

Dualism was acceptable but as the times changed materialism became a basis for thought and scientifically acceptable.

Conceptual Framework

Biological Concepts that Affect Behavior

Natural Selection: Darwin argued that if a heritable trait contributes to an organism’s survival or reproductive success, organisms with that trait should produce more offspring than those without the trait and that the prevalence of that trait should gradually increase over generations.

Controversy of Darwin’s Theory:› Suggested that the diversity of life is a result of an

unplanned, natural process than that of a divine creation.

› Implies that humans are NOT unique and that they share a common ancestry with other species.

Due to the gradual increment nature of evolution, adaption's sometimes linger in a population even though they no longer provide a survival or reproductive advantage.

Self Sacrifice explained: W.D. Hamilton proposed the theory of inclusive fitness. An organism may contribute to passing on its genes by sacrificing itself to save others that share the same genes.

Biological Concepts that Affect Behavior (cont..)

Theorists have focused primarily on the evolution of physical characteristics in the animal kingdom but from the very beginning Darwin recognized the natural selection was applicable to behavioral traits.

Dualism Materialism Thought and consciousness

Biological Concepts that Affect Behavior (cont…)

Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter are

chemical messengers that carry signals across the synapse (junction between two neurons where the axon bulb of one neuron comes in close proximity with specialized receptor sites on another neuron).

Neurotransmitters (cont..)


Action potential= neural impulses within the neuron


Neurotransmitters will cause excitation in the postsynaptic cell (receiving neuron).› Excitation occurs when the neurotransmitters

make the postsynaptic cell MORE likely to fire an action potential. When the neurotransmitter binds with the receptor site, it causes Na+ to leak into the cell, thus making the inside of the cell more positive and closer to the threshold of excitation.

› It depolarizes the postsynaptic cell.


Inhibition: When a neurotransmitter further polarizes the postsynaptic cell and it becomes less likely to fire an action potential.› The cell is less likely to fire an action

potential.› Cause chlorine (CL-) to enter the neuron or

potassium K+ to leave the neuron.


Only a sum of the signals moves the resting potential at the axon the threshold (-55 mv) will the neuron fire an action potential.

Excitation starts actions in the nervous system. Inhibition is required to slow down and stuff off certain processes.

Example: Bend your arm› Muscles contract= excited› Muscles relax= inhibited


Neurotransmitters are the brain's chemical messengers.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters balance mood and are affected by excitatory neurotransmitters, which stimulate the brain.

Within the two types of neurotransmitters are chemicals that serve to stabilize mood and regulate the fight or flight response associated with anxiety.

When the neurotransmitters are out of balance, it can lead to chronic anxiety or other anxiety disorders.

Source


“Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter that links motor neurons and muscles. Ach has an excitatory effect on muscles. Dopamine, however inhibits muslces and helps control the voluntary movements.”

Endorphins= body’s pain relievers Diseases due to malfunctioning chemical

messengers:› Alzheimer’s disease › Parkinson’s disease› Schizophrenia

Localization of Functions 1860s-Paul Broca's discovery that damage to

a specific part of the brain-the left frontal lobe-was associated with speech impairment.

1874-Carl Wernicke identified the part of the brain responsible for receptive speech (the upper rear part of the left temporal lobe),

1870-Gustav Fritsch and J. L. Hitzig found that stimulating different parts of the cerebral cortex produced movement in different areas of the body.

Localization of Functions (cont..)

Three main parts: brainstem, limbic system, cerebral cortex.


Brainstem (HINDBRAIN): contains the› Medulla - which controls

vital involuntary functions (breathing), heart rate.

› Pons - involved in sleeping and arousal.

› Reticular Formation- network like group of cells that filter sensory information and help control sleep, arousal and attention.


Brainstem (HINDBRAIN)= SO IMPORTANT YOU WOULD DIE WITHOUT IT. NO LIE.

The medulla sits at the top of the spinal column at the point where the spinal cord enters the base of the skull. There are no such things as MINOR DAMAGES to the medulla, a “minor damage” can lead to death from heart or respiratory failure.› Sneezing, coughing, vomiting, swallowing and

digestion.


The pons is located above the medulla, where the brainstem bulges inside the skull. CRUCIAL TO LIFE.

Plays a role in respiration, consciousness, sleep, dreaming, facial movement, sensory processes and the transmission of neural signals from one part of the brain to another. › Sensory information coming from the right and

left sides of the brain will have to cross through the pons before they can move on to other parts of the brain.


Cerebellum is the large deeply grooved structure at the base of the brain. NOT AS CRUCIAL TO SURVIVAL as the medulla and pons.

It is necessary for the balance of the body, muscle tone, and performance of motor skills. Some researches believe it plays a role in learning motor skills.

ALCOHOL impairs the functioning of the cerebellum structure because (in part) it produces the familiar symptoms of staggering, clumsiness and slowed reaction time.


The Midbrain structure connects the hindbrain with the more detailed forebrain. Primarily for psychologists the most interesting structure is the Reticular Activating System (RAS). It is located near the pons, composed of a network of neurons that extends from the hindbrain regions into the midbrain.

It regulates arusal levels in the forebrain, and takes an important role in sleeping, attention and consciousness.

It also is believed by some that it plays a role in regulating the cardiovascular activity, respiratory functioning and body movement.


The forebrain contains several groups of structures that ultimately works as subsystems. › The Limbic system governs emotional and

motivational process. › The diencephalon contains structures

important to sensory processing and motivation.

› The cerebral cortex is responsibly for cognition and language.

It is divided into the right and left cerebral hemispheres.


Limbic System- helps govern motivation, emotion and memory.› Amygdala- linked to fear,

anger and aggression› Hippocampus- performs

a key function in memory formation.


Diencephalon› Hypothalamus- regulates

autonomic nervous system, emotions and basic drives. It also serves as a point of connection between the nervous system and the endocrine system. Interestingly, it can also change

the hormone levels in the bloody stream by communicating with the endocrine system.

Example: If the body needs water, it “makes” you feel thirsty.

› Thalamus- relay station for sensory information. Most of the information our brain collects is first sent to the thalamus before being sent to the cortex.


Cerebral Cortex- controls higher-order mental processes. Composed of two hemispheres and four lobes. › It is said to give us our humaness.

1. Sensory areas specialize in receiving sensory information. The somatosenory cortex receives information from the touch receptors in the skin.

2. Motor Cortex-controls voluntary muscles.3. Association Cortex- communicates with the

sensory and motor areas and house higher mental processes.

1. Two areas that specialize in language:1. Brocas’s area- production of speech2. Wernick’s area- involved in language comprehension


Cerebral Cortex


Frontal Lobe- (lies closest to the forehead).› Broca’s area (production of speech). › Plays a role in cognitive processes such as

problem solving, judgement, planning and executing behavior, and certain parts of personality.

› At the back of the frontal lobe is the motor cortex (execute motor movements). On the right side of the brain it affects movement on the left side of the brain, and vice versa.

› SPECIFIC POINTS along the motor cortex corresponds to particular points in the body.


Parietal Lobe (not much is known in comparison)› Is involved with reading. › Damages to the parietal lobe is associated with

deficits in reading ability. › Sensation: a thin strip of the lobe plays a role in

our sense of touch, pressure and pain= somatosensory cortex (behind the motor cortex). Specific points along the somatosensory cortex corresponds to specific particular points in the body Damage to the somatosensory cortex would often

result in numbness of the corresponding body part.


The Montor + Somatosenory Cortex


The Occipital Lobe (located in the very back of the skull)above the cerebellum. › Much of the area if responsible for processing

visual information. The visual cortex of the occipital lobe is

composed of layers of tissue that contain long axonal fibers. An action potential is stimulated in specialized cells of the visual cortex when our eyes see specific types of visual stimuli.

Damage to the visual cortex could result in blindness. Additionally, in some cases of the visual cortex damaging, blindness may occur even though the eyes are functioning properly.


Temporal Lobe is in front of the occipital lobe (behind our ears in side our skull).› Major function: the processing of auditory

information (aka hearing). The temporal lobe areas devoted to hearing is called the auditory cortex.

› The left temporal lobe of most people contains Wernicke’s area (responsible for the comprehension of speech). Damage to Wernicke’s area results in have

difficulty or cant understand the meaning of spoken words. They can hear them they just can’t understand what they mean.


Temporal Lobe is in front of the occipital lobe (behind our ears in side our skull).› The inner surfaces of the temporal lobe is

important to the processing of memory. This area has direct connection to the hippocampus.

› Also believe to play a role in integration of diverse sensory information.

Communication between the nervous and endocrine systems occur through the hypothalamus and its connection with the pituitary gland(“master” gland that is responsible for regulating hormones release in other endocrine glands).

Endocrine System and our Hormones and

Behavior The endocrine system is a chemical system of communication that relies on the action of specialized organs called endocrine glands. When stimulated, the endocrine glands will release

hormones into the blood stream. The body possess special receptor sites to “accept” the hormones.

When the hormone binds to the site: the create a specific change in the functioning of an organ. In the heart it can be a change of pace (depending on the hormone).

Stimulation created by the hormones last longer than the that created by action potientals at the synapse.


Behavior Hormones: The ovaries and testes are the best known

endocrine glands. They are responsible for sexuality and reproduction. Ovaries release estrogens where as testes release androgens.

The adrenal glands that are located above the kidneys are important for regulating arousal and sexual behavior.


Behavior The adrenal medulla (inside of the Adrenal Gland) releases nor epinephrine and epinephrine (adrenaline) when the nervous system becomes active during times of stress. When they (nor epinephrine and

epinephrine) are released in the body OUTSIDE of the central nervous systems they act as hormones. Then due to the sudden flooding of the bloodstreams with these hormones, the heart rate, blood pressure and respiration increases.


Behavior The adrenal cortex (found externally on the adrenal glands) produces adrenal androgens which are male sex hormones found in both males and females.

Thyroid gland located in the throat, presides over important aspects of metabolism. Malfunctioning of the thyroid can lead to serious

physical symptoms. Hyperthyroidism (over active)= increased

metabolism, weight loss, bulging eyes, weakness, cardiac problems.

Hypothyroidism (underactive)= lowered metabolism, obesity, menstrual abnormalities in females and depression. They often copy that of depressive psychological disorders.

Biological Rhythms Biological rhythms are the periodic

fluctuations in physiological functioning. The Circadian rhythms are the 24 hour

biological cycles found in humans (and other species).

› Regulation of sleep, blood pressure, urine production, hormonal secretions, alertness, short term memory ,etc.

Biological Rhythms (cont…)

http://www.helpguide.org/life/sleeping.htm

Biological Rhythms (cont…) “Biological Clock”

› The Suprachiasmatic SCN nucleus (group of cells) in the hypothalamus receives information about illumination through the eyes and to the retina.

› The SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it and moves it to the pineal gland. Which secrets melatonin (a hormone). The secretion of this hormone peaks at night and recedes during the day.

Biological Rhythms (cont…) Phases Markers of the Circadian rhythm:

› Melatonin secretion by pineal gland.› Core body temperature [Research shows that

people fall asleep as their body temperatures rises and falls.]

Biological Rhythms (cont…) Circadian rhythm disorders…

Jet Lag Shift work sleep disorder (people who work

nights/rotating shifts) Delayed sleep phase syndrome- much later than

“normal” timing of sleep onset and offset; peak of alertness in the middle of the night.

Advanced sleep phase syndrome- difficulty staying awake in the evening and staying asleep in the morning.

Irregular sleep-wake rhythm- sleeping at irregular times; more that one per day (waking up frequently during the night and naps during the day).

Non-2-4-hour-sleep-wake syndrome- affected the individual’s sleep occurs later and later each day; period of peak alertness continuously moves around the clock from day to day.

Methodology

Correlational Studies Correlational studies are used to look for

relationships between variables. There are three possible results of a correlational

study:› a positive correlation› a negative correlation› no correlation

The correlation coefficient is a measure of correlation strength and can range from –1.00 to +1.00.

Positive Correlations: Both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation.

Negative Correlations: Indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation.

No Correlation: Indicates no relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no correlation.

Limitations of Correlational Studies

While correlational studies can suggest that there is a relationship between two variables, they cannot prove that one variable causes a change in another variable.

Types of Correlational Studies

1. Naturalistic Observation› Naturalistic observation involves

observing and recording the variables of interest in the natural environment without interference or manipulation by the experimenter

Advantages of Naturalistic Observation› Gives the experimenter the opportunity to view

the variable of interest in a natural setting. › May be the only option if lab experimentation is

not possible.› Can offer ideas for further research.

Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation› Can be time consuming and expensive.› Does not allow for scientific control of

variables.› Experimenters cannot control extraneous

variables.› Subjects may be aware of the observer and

may act differently as a result.

The Survey Method› In this method, a random sample of participants

completes a survey, test, or questionnaire that relates to the variables of interest.

› Random sampling is a vital part of ensuring the generalizability of the survey results.

Advantages of the Survey Method› It’s fast, cheap, and easy. Researchers can

collect large amount of data in a relatively short amount of time.

› More flexible than some other methods.

Disadvantages of the Survey Method› Can be affected by an unrepresentative

sample or poor survey questions› Participants can affect the outcome.

Some participants try to please the researcher, lie to make themselves look better, or have mistaken memories.

3. Archival Research› Archival research is performed by analyzing

studies conducted by other researchers or by looking at historical patient records.

Advantages of Archival Research› The experimenter cannot introduce changes in

participant behavior.› Enormous amounts of data provide a better view of

trends, relationships, and outcomes› Often less expensive than other study methods.

Researchers can often access data through free archives or records databases.

Disadvantages of Archival Research› The researchers have not control over how

data was collected.› Important date may be missing from the

records› Previous research may be unreliable

Double Blind Trials A study is referred to as double-blind if both the

researcher and the participants are not aware of which treatment each participant is receiving.

Ex: “a placebo is usually given to half the participants and the actual medication of interest to the remaining participants. In a double-blind experiment, neither the researchers nor the participants know who received the placebo and who received the medication. “

Double-blind studies are conducted to prevent bias on the part of the researchers and the participants.

Experiments Test under controlled conditions where one

variable is manipulated to find out its effect on the dependent variable.

Four Types› Laboratory experiments › Field experiments › Quasi experiments: these are experiments in

which the researcher does NOT randomly allocate the participants to the conditions.

› Natural experiments :psychologists take advantage of a naturally occurring event

Lab Experiments

Advantages› The experimenter has control over variables› Experiments are reliable – the procedure is standardized and

therefore replicable› It is the only method that determines cause and effect› Accurate recordings can be made

Disadvantages› Laboratory experiments may lack ecological validity. As the setting

is artificial, the behavior of participants may be unnatural and the findings may not be generalized to other settings.

› The independent and dependent variables tend to be very narrow and specific. Psychologists have squeezed the study of human life into a laboratory setting to the extent that it is different from the natural setting.

Field Experiments This is an experiment carried out in the natural environment or setting

whilst the independent variable is still manipulated by the experimenter. Advantages

› Field experiments are higher in ecological validity as the research is conducted in a natural setting. Behavior is likely to be relatively unaffected compared with an experiment conducted in a laboratory.

› Field experiments are higher in ecological validity as the research is conducted in a natural setting. Behavior is likely to be relatively unaffected compared with an experiment conducted in a laboratory.

› The researcher still manipulates the independent variable› They are reliable – structured using a standardized procedure and

therefore replicable Disadvantages

› Compared to a laboratory experiment, field experiments do not have the same amount of control

› They are time consuming and expensive› Field experiments raise serious ethical issues – it is almost impossible

to give informed consent in these experiments

Famous Psychology Experiments Pavlov’s Dog

› Classical conditioning is one of the major topics studied by students in every introductory psychology class. You may be surprised to learn that it was actually a physiologist who made this important psychological discovery. The Asch Conformity Experiment

Asch Conformity Experiment› Researchers have long been interested in the degree to which people

follow or rebel against social norms. During the 1950s, psychologist Solomon Asch conducted a series of experiments designed to demonstrate the powers of conformity in groups.

The Stanford Prison Experiment› Philip Zimbardo's famous experiment cast regular students in the roles of

prisoners and prison guards. While the study was originally slated to last two weeks, it had to be halted after just six days because the guards became abusive and the prisoners began to show signs of extreme stress and anxiety

Interviews A conversation, such as one conducted by a reporter, in which

facts or statements are elicited from another. Two Types

› Formal (structured) which use a questionnaire› Informal (unstructured) – interviewee talks freely

Ex: A researcher will ask a series of questions in which you must answer. Some questions that could be asked are…› Is there a history of mental illness in your family?› Have you ever been prescribed medication for bi-polar

disorder?› How old are you?› What is your daily schedule like?› Have you ever thought about suicide?› When was the last time you engaged in sexual activity?

Advantages› High in VALIDITY – the interview should

measure what it claims to measure, and the responses should give a true and accurate picture. Their flexibility enables the clarification of meanings

› Qualitative data – the responses provide insights about peoples’ feelings, attitudes, beliefs, opinions – about the experience of being a human being. They may yield hypotheses for testing

› Primary source of data› Cooperation of the interviewee

Disadvantages› Lack reliability – reliability refers to structure. An unstructured

interview lacks structure – it is not consistent, trustworthy in terms of procedure; it is not replicable

› Interviewer bias – the characteristics of the researcher, such as age, sex, race, may affect the responses. The greater the status differences e.g. young interviewer/old interviewee, the greater the effect on the results. LABOV found that black children would not talk to white interviewers and this was interpreted as black children being unintelligent. Labov also found that if interviewers got down to the same level as children, the children would speak much more.

› Interviewer bias – leading. Leading refers to how the interviewer might guide the responses of an interviewee. Leading may be effected verbally by the actual words used, and by the use of paralanguage – pitch and tone of voice. Leading may also be effected non-verbally by body language, by nods and gestures

› Time consuming, expensive

Case Studies

A case study is an in-depth study of one person. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the

subject’s life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior.

The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized to many others.

Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

Questionnaires Common sets of questions set out on paper or the internet

There are two types of questionnaires› OPEN ENDED – a respondent may talk freely – qualitative data› FIXED CHOICE – a respondent is given options to select – tick box – quantitative

data Advantages

› RELIABILITY – this refers to consistency, trustworthy. As the procedure is standardized, it is high in reliability. Everyone receives the same questions in the same order and this ensures consistency

› LARGE NUMBERS mean that the sample is likely to be REPRESENTATIVE – ALIKE THE TARGET POPULATION IN EVERY IMPORTANT RESPECT

› Reach a wide geographical area – sample is more likely to be representative› Simple quick and easy to use – participants understand what is required of them

Disadvantages› Lack VALIDITY – with regard to method, it should measure

what it claims to measure and with regard to data, it should provide a true and accurate picture. In the case of questionnaires, memories could be faulty, LaPiere noted that what people say and what people do are two very different things, and people may mislead – be deceitful

› NON-RESPONSE – many people fail to answer questionnaires and this may be significant if NON RESPONDENTS DIFFER SIGNIFICANTLY FROM THOSE WHO DO RESPOND

› Pre-determined questions means that important assumptions about the phenomenon being investigated have already been made.

Twin Studies• Nature vs. Nurture:

• Researchers focus on twin studies. Twin studies compare specific traits between pairs of identical twins (100% of their genetic code) and fraternal twins (no more genetically related that other siblings.

• If identical twins have similar traits more than then fraternal twins do, a genetic basis for the trait is implied. HOWEVER, if identical twins and fraternal twins do no differ in similarities there is less support for the existence of genetic influence on trait.

• Identical twins in different environments?• Identical twins in same environment

cultural context and development

Documents

suited organisms

diffused sensibility

living power

changing environment

productive power

methodology cultural

better suited led darwin

different characteristics