ctlhe07_monograf 2

2MONOGRAF

PENGAJARAN & PEMBELAJARAN IPTA

Ke

Ara

h Pe

ning

katan

Kualiti Modal Insan

STRATEGI DAN KAEDAH

PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN........................

siri MONOGRAF

PENGAJARAN & PEMBELAJARAN IPTA

12-14 Disember 2007

Hotel Palace of the Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor

STRATEGI DAN KAEDAH

PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN

2

C

Siri Monograf Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran IPTA

Koleksi eksklusif kertas kerja Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di

Peringkat Pengajian Tinggi 2007 (CTLHE07)

Monograf 1

Pembangunan Modal Insan

Monograf 2

Strategi dan Kaedah Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran

Monograf 3

Teknologi dan Inovasi dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran

Monograf 4

Polisi dan Pengurusan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran

Monograf 5

Isu Semasa dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Pengajian Tinggi

Buku Abstrak

Ke Arah Peningkatan Kualiti Modal Insan

ISBN 978-967-960-222-7

© 2007 Pusat Pembangunan Akademik (CADe), Universiti Putra Malaysia.

Semua Hakcipta Terpelihara.

Tiada bahagian terbitan ini boleh diterbitkan semula, disimpan untuk

pengeluaran atau ditukarkan ke dalam sebarang bentuk atau dengan

sebarang alat juga pun, sama ada dengan cara elektronik, gambar serta

rakaman dan sebagainya tanpa kebenaran bertulis dari penulis artikel

dan Pusat Pembangunan Akademik (CADe), Universiti Putra Malaysia

terlebih dahulu.

Diterbitkan oleh

Pusat Pembangunan Akademik (CADe)

Universiti Putra Malaysia

43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Tel: 603-8946 6112/6175

Fax: 603-89466043

Web: www.cade.upm.edu.my

Mohd. Majid Konting

Mansor Ahmad

Zaidan Abdul Wahab

Mohd. Kamil Yusof

Rusli Abdullah

Hamidah Meseran

Mohd. Farid Jaafar

Marzanah A. Jabar

Fatimah Sidi

Nor Azirawani Man

Juraidah Mohamad Amin

Lailawati Bakar

Muhammad Asrul Abd. Salam

Azura Adam

Nurhafizah Mat Sah

Hasmah Abdul Wahab

Saiful Ramadzan Hairani

Muhammad Khairuddin Yusuf

Mohd. Ridzuan Ishak

SIDANG EDITOR

Monograf

Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran

di Peringkat Pengajian Tinggi 2007

Ketua Editor

Sidek Hj. Ab. Aziz

Sidang Editor

Editor Teknikal

i


Koleksi eksklusif kertas-kerja Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran

di Peringkat Pengajian Tinggi 2007 (CTLHE07) di Hotel Palace of Golden

Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor, pada 12-14 Disember 2007.

Pembangunan Modal Insan

Strategi dan Kaedah Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran

Teknologi dan Inovasi dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran

Polisi dan Pengurusan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran

Isu Semasa dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran PengajianTinggi

Ke Arah Peningkatan Kualiti Modal Insan (Buku Abstrak)

ii

PRAKATA

Siri Monograf Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran IPTA merupakan koleksi eksklusif kertas kerja Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Pering-kat Pengajian Tinggi 2007 (CTLHE07) yang berlangsung pada 12-14 Disember 2007 di Hotel Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selan-gor. CTLHE07 dianjurkan bersama Universiti Putra Malaysia dan Majlis Ketua Pusat Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Institut Pengajian Tinggi Awam Malaysia di bawah naungan Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malay-sia.

Pembangunan modal insan merupakan salah satu teras dalam Misi Nasional dan Rancangan Malaysia Kesembilan bagi meningkatkan keupayaan pengetahuan, kreativiti dan inovasi serta memupuk minda warga kelas pertama. Institut Pengajian Tinggi (IPT) merupakan saluran utama penjanaan modal insan negara yang berpendidikan, berkemahi-ran, kreatif, inovatif, bersikap progresif dan berfikiran kritis. Kini pelbagai inisiatif dan usaha penambahbaikan secara menyeluruh ke atas sistem penyampaian sistem pendidikan dan latihan, peningkatan kualiti sistem pengajaran dan pembelajaran secara holistik sedang giat dijalankan di peringkat IPT untuk melahirkan graduan yang berkualiti dan berdaya saing.

Usaha kerajaan adalah untuk mewujudkan universiti bertaraf antara-bangsa dan memastikan pendidikan dan latihan di peringkat tertiari berkualiti tinggi bagi memenuhi prospek kerja dan keperluan majikan. Kerajaan juga menyediakan lebih banyak peluang dan akses kepada pendidikan, latihan dan pembelajaran sepanjang hayat di semua pering-kat pendidikan. Inisiatif Hasil Pembelajaran merupakan langkah awal IPT bagi menyediakan pelajar kepada pengalaman pembelajaran dan pendi-dikan yang lengkap sebelum mereka bergelar graduan bagi menempuh alam pekerjaan. IPT turut berhasrat untuk menjana graduan yang memi-liki kemahiran yang komprehensif dan seimbang bukan sahaja dari sudut kualiti kognitif bahkan juga dari segi kemahiran insaniah yang merang-kumi pelbagai aspek insani seperti sikap dan akhlak.

Siri Monograf Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran IPTA dibahagikan kepada 6 bahagian iaitu:1. Pembangunan Modal Insan 2. Strategi dan Kaedah Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran3. Teknologi dan Inovasi dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran4. Polisi dan Pengurusan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran5. Isu Semasa dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Pengajian Tinggi6. Ke Arah Peningkatan Kualiti Modal Insan (Buku Abstrak)

Semoga penerbitan siri monograf ini dapat dimanfaatkan oleh semua pihak terutama dalam usaha kolektif menjana modal insan negara yang berkualiti serta melonjakkan kualiti pendidikan Malaysia ke peringkat global dan dapat bersaing di arena antarabangsa.

- EDITOR -

iii

PENGHARGAAN

Sekalung penghargaan kepada

Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia (KPT) Naib Canselor, Universiti Putra Malaysia Timbalan Naib Canselor (Akademik dan Antarabangsa) Universiti Putra Malaysia Majlis Ketua Pusat Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Institut Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia Puncak Niaga (M) Sdn Bhd Anjung Visi Solution Sdn Bhd Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA) Aniotek Sdn Bhd Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Koperasi UPM Berhad Mavisco (M) Sdn Bhd Kospeta Printing Bhd

Setinggi penghargaan dan terima kasih kepada individu-individu yang terlibat secara langsung dan tidak langsung dalam usaha menerbitkan Siri Monograf Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran IPTA ini.

iv

Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Pengajian Tinggi 2007 KE ARAH PENINGKATAN KUALITI MODAL INSAN

KANDUNGAN

BIL TAJUK M/S

Sidang Editor

i


ii

Prakata

iii

Penghargaan

iv

1) A Contextual Approach, using Problem-Based, to the Teaching and Learning Statistics in the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Nafisah Kamariah Md Kamaruddin, Wan Mohd Rashid Wan Ahmad, UTHM

1

2) Impact on the Implementation of Bilingualism in Science and Mathematics in Higher Education Mohini Mohamed, Aziz Nordin UTM

10

3) Hubungan Pengajaran Pensyarah dan Minat Pelajar dengan Kefahaman Konsep Moral: Kajian di UUM Mohamad Khairi Haji Othman, Abdull Sukor Shaari, UUM

19

4) Teachers’ Use of Questions in ESL Classrooms Kalyani a/p Rajoo, Institut Perguruan Darulaman

28

5) Gaya Pembelajaran, Kemahiran Generik dan Motivasi Pelajar Merentasi Bidang Sains Tulen, Kejuruteraan dan Sains Sosial di UTM Abdul Rahim Hamdan, Mohamad Najib Ghaffar, Azlina Kosnin, Jamaluddin Ramli, Mahani Mokhtar,UTM

39

6) Multiple Intelligence: The Reliability of MyMICA in Identifying Teaching and Learning Strategy Siti Rahayah Ariffin, Rusminah Musliman

52

7) The Importance of Law in Sports and Physical Education from A Pedagogic Perspective Zaidi Hassim, UKM

66

8) Tema-tema dalam Pembelajaran Bersepadu: Implikasi kepada Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran ¹Ling Siew Eng, ²Siti Rahayah bt. Ariffin, ²Saemah bt Rahman ¹Uitm, ²UKM

79


9) Implementation of Outcome-Based Education Delivery System at Pre-University Level Balbir Singh Mahinder Singh, Chong Fai Kait, Hasnah M Zaid UTP

90

10) Outcome-Based Curriculum: Its Implementation in the Teaching of English Language Proficiency Courses Shahrina Md. Nordin, Subarna Sivapalan, UTP

100

11) A PBL Approach for Acquiring Global Project Experiences in Architectural / Engineering / Construction Education Rahinah Ibrahim, UPM

111

12) Predicting Successful Completion of MBA Study Using e-Miner Izwan Nizal Mohd Shaharanee, Chooi-Leng Ang, UUM

125

13) Facilitating Graduate Level-Learning: A Case Study of the “Newfoundland Strategy” Normah Haji Omar, UiTM

134

14) Penilaian Kemahiran Teknikal Berasaskan Model Kompetensi bagi Sumber Guna Tenaga Menerusi Pendekatan Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional di Malaysia Kahirol Mohd. Salleh, Nor Lisa Sulaiman, UTHM

148

15) Persepsi Pelajar terhadap Pembelajaran Akses Kendiri melalui Penggunaan Laman Web dan Kesannya terhadap Mata Pelajaran Sejarah Ahmad Rafaai Ayudin, Norhasni Zainal Abidin

158

16) Facilitator and Learner’s Understanding on Roger’s Core Conditions of a Person Centered Counseling (And Learning) in the Student Centered Learning Environment Mansor b Abu Talib, UPM

167

17) Managing Diversity Training for Medical Students Harlina HS, Ruzanna Z, Juriza I, Siti Mariam B, Nabishah M UKM

176

18) Instilling Moral Values in Report Writing Course Hajah Siti Akmar Abu Samah, UiTM

180

19) Persepsi Pelajar terhadap Aktiviti di dalam Kelas Bahasa Arab: Tinjauan di USIM Lubna Abd Rahman, Wan Azura Wan Ahmad, Arnida A.Bakar USIM

189

20) Writing a Case as a Teaching Tool Zainal Abidin Mohamed, UPM

199


21) Analisis Gaya Pembelajaran Pelajar Baru Universiti Malaysia Terengganu Nur Amirah Amiruddin, Fauziah Abu Hasan Wan Abd Aziz Wan Mohd Amin, UMT

211

22) A Study of Visual Ability Based on Gender Differences with First -Year UiTM Chemistry Students Sharipah Ruzaina Syed Aris, Nesamalar V. Kantasamy Mashiah Domat Shaharudin, Badariah Abu Bakar, UiTM

223

23) Pembelajaran Kolaboratif: Bekerja Sebagai “Satu Kumpulan” atau “Bekerja dalam Kumpulan”? Wan Zah Wan Ali, Ahmad Fauzi Mohd.Ayub, Rosnaini Mahmud Mokhtar Hj.Nawawi, Rusli Abdullah, UPM

233

24) Penggunaan Kamus Arab-Melayu dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Bahasa Arab Tasnim binti Mohd Annuar, UDM

248

25) Knowledge and Interest on Traditional Medicine among UiTM Pharmacy Students Ibtisam Abdul Wahab, UiTM

258

26) Tahap Kefahaman Kemahiran Mereka Bentuk Eksperimen dan Kemahiran Mengeksperimen di Kalangan Pelajar Tahun Dua Program Pendidikan Fizik Merentas Jantina Noor Anita binti Ali, Shaharom bin Noordin, UTM

266

27) Board Game: Nun-Forecaster Fast Forward into the Corporate Future – What Lies Ahead of You? Rozainun Abdul Aziz, UiTM

276

28) Pelaksanaan Kaedah SCL dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia di Universiti Putra Malaysia dan Kesannya ke atas Gred Pencapaian Pelajar Zarina Muhammad, UPM

286

29) Pendekatan Pembelajaran Bahasa Arab Pelajar China di Xi’an International Studies University (XISU): Suatu Tinjauan di USIM Arnida A. Bakar, Lubna Abd. Rahman, Wan Azura Wan Ahmad USIM

297

30) Enhancing Environmental Engineering Curricula through Intensification of Field Course Sumiani Yussoff, Onn Chiu Chuen. UM

311

31) Freemind for the Teaching and Learning of Electrical Machines Mohd Fakhizan bin Romlie, UTP

321

32) Pengajaran Kursus Pemikiran Kritis Berteraskan Al-Qur’an di Peringkat Pengajian Tinggi: Satu Cadangan Mohd Fauzi Hamat, UM

332


33) Facilitating Graduate Level-Learning: A Case Study of the “Newfoundland Strategy” Normah Haji Omar, UiTM

344

34) Cikgu, Gambarajah Ini Menyusahkan Saya! Johari Surif, Nor Hasniza brahim, Mohammad Yusof Arshad UTM

357

35) The Impact of Coorperative Learning Method in Increasing Student’s Academic and Soft Skill Performance. An Exploratory Study in UMS Caroline Geetha, Vivin Vincent Chandran, UMS

371

36) Online Interaction: Quantitative versus Qualitative Approach ¹Mohd Fadzli bin Ali, ²Gordon Joyes ¹UTM, ²University of Nottingham

379

37) Explication of Tacit Knowledge in Higher Education Instituitional Research through the Criteria of Professional Practice Action Research Approach: A Focus Group Case Study at an Australian University

Edward Wong Sek Khin. UTAR

387

38) Implementation of Outcome-Based Education (OBE) in Universiti

Putra Malaysia: A Focus on Student Learning Outcomes (SLO) Mohd Ghazali Mohayidin, Turiman Suandi, Ghazali Mustafa Roselan Baki, Norfaryanti Kamaruddin, Nor Azirawani Man Azura Adam, Siti Norziah Abdullah, UPM

402

39) Program Peningkatan Profesional: Pemantap Pegawai Akademik Institusi Pengajian Tinggi Mansor Ahmad, Juraidah Mohamad Amin, Haryati Abdullah UPM

427

Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Pengajian Tinggi 2007

KE ARAH PENINGKATAN KUALITI MODAL INSAN

1

A CONTEXTUAL APPROACH, USING PROBLEM-BASED, TO THE TEACHING AND LEARNING STATISTICS IN THE UNIVERSITI TUN

HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA (UTHM)

NAFISAH KAMARIAH MD KAMARUDDIN MOHD RASHID WAN AHMAD

Centre for Science Studies Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) [email protected]

© Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor, 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRACT - The Mathematics Department, Centre for Science Studies in the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) has adopted the contextual teaching and learning approach. In the contextual approach, by using the problem-based method, students engage in the problem-solving investigation that integrates skills and concept from many content areas. Students will be working in teams to perform tasks and the lecturer will facilitate them. Vygfotsky emphasized that cognitive development results from a dialectical process whereby a child learns through the problem-solving experiences shared with someone else, usually a parent or teacher but sometimes a sibling or peer. In addition, according to Vygotsky, when children were tested on tasks on their own, they rarely did as well as when they were working in collaboration with an adult as the process of engagement with the adult enabled them to refine their thinking or their performance to make it more effective[. This is what the social constructivism emphasizes on which meanings and understanding grow.The implementation of contextual approach in the UTHM is already more than four years; however there is no proper module of teaching and learning mathematics contextually. Thus, this research is to study the effectiveness of the contextual approach. This study will be conducted on the second year engineering students taking statistics. In this research, a quasi-experimental research design is used. The research instruments will consist of 2 sets of questionnaires, 3 quizzes and a standard test. Likert scale will be used as a form of measurement for the questionnaires. Solomon’s Four-Group Design will be used where the students will be divided into four groups: 2 control groups and 2 treated groups as shown in the attachment. This design allows the researcher to assess whether there is an interaction between the treatment and the pretest. This design combines two basic experimental designs.This research will produce a proper implementation of the contextual approach in the teaching and



2

learning mathematics in higher learning institutions. Hence it will help students to learn mathematics and most importantly to apply it in their engineering subjects.

Keywords: Social Constructivism, Problem-based Learning, Contextual, Statistics

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In 1997, the Technical Education Department under the Ministry of Education, Malaysia, introduced the contextual approach in the teaching and learning mathematics, additional mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology in all Malaysian technical secondary schools. After one month of the implementation of this approach to selected technical schools, a pilot test was done to see the effectiveness of this approach. The students were divided into two groups: control and treated groups. The contextual groups used the contextual module, watched the contextual video and did the laboratory activities. After watching the video, the students started to realize the use of mathematics in real life situations. The students enjoyed the laboratory activities and they were more involved with the lesson. The students were more motivated because they started doing their homework given by the teachers. Weak students who did not like mathematics tended to appreciate mathematics. It seemed that the barrier between them and mathematics had been broken. A good student commented that she would still understand the concept by either method but she understood faster with the contextual approach. After a month, these two classes were given the same test. Due to the result of the study where the findings were very positive (11% increase in performance) and hence the implementation of the contextual learning in mathematics, additional mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology subjects in the year 1998 for all vocational /technical secondary schools[3]. Starting from the year 2001, the contextual approach has been used for learning and teaching applied mathematics in the Malaysian community college, Ministry of Education, so that students will be able to understand abstract concepts through concrete experiences.

From 1998 to 2000 more than 80% of the UTHM intake was from Malaysian Technical Secondary Schools. Thus it is the UTHM’s obligation to introduce this program as a continual process in higher learning institutions. In 2002, the contextual approach in the teaching and learning mathematics was introduced in the Centre for Science Studies in UTHM. The implementation of contextual approach in UTHM is already more than four years; however there is no proper module of the teaching and learning mathematics contextually and there is no proper experimental research that has been done to study whether this method has been effective. Thus, this research is to study the effectiveness of the contextual approach.



3

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Contextual Learning

The contextual learning means one that incorporates examples that are drawn from everyday experiences in personal, societal and occupational life which provide concrete hands-on applications of material to be learned[3]. In the first project by the Ohio State University College of Education and Bowling Green State University, the definition of the contextual teaching and learning was developed as the conception of the teaching and learning that helps teachers relate subject matter content to real world situations and motivates students to make connection between knowledge and its applications to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers; and engage in the hard work that learning requires[4]. The contextual approach was introduced for students’ technical and career preparation or Tech Prep by the Center for Occupational Research and Development, Texas, USA. The contextual approach is one of the Tech Prep elements.

In the contextual approach, by using the problem-based method,

students engage in the problem-solving investigation that integrates skills and concept from many content areas. Students will be working in teams to perform tasks and the lecturer will facilitate them. Vygfotsky emphasized that cognitive development results from a dialectical process whereby a child learns through problem-solving experiences shared with someone else, usually a parent or teacher but sometimes a sibling or peer[1]. In addition, according to Vygotsky, when children were tested on tasks on their own, they rarely did as well as when they were working in collaboration with an adult [2]. He added that it was always the case that the adult was teaching them how to perform the task, but the process of engagement with the adult enabled them to refine their thinking or their performance to make it more effective [2].

2.2 Contextual Learning Key Elements

2.2.1 Develop Subject Matter CONTENT

Students learn best if we can relate to their past experiences. According to constructivism, students construct their own knowledge by testing ideas based on prior knowledge and experiences, applying these ideas to new situation, and integrating the new knowledge gained with preexisting intellectual constructs[3].

2.2.2 Involve Students in DOING

According to Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, the students learn best by thinking and doing[5]. In the contextual



4

approach, the lab activities or mathematical experiments help students to study by this method. The old way of teaching is a one-way communication. We cannot assume students accept and understand everything that is taught by the teacher. By looking at the notes that the students copied from the blackboard, we can see that certain students copied differently from what was given to them and that means they understand the concept wrongly. By using the lab activities or mathematical experiments in the contextual approach, it helps them to understand the concept better as the concept of experiential learning explores the cyclical pattern of all learning from Experiences through Reflection and Conceptualizing to Action and on further Experience[5].

2.2.3 Make The CONNECTION Between Context and Practice According to.Kolb and Hull in the Center of Curriculum

Development, Malaysian Ministry of Education (2001), the contextual approach makes the learning connect with all kinds of experiences in social, culture, physical and psychological contexts[6]. This theory encourages educators to choose or generate surrounding that get good learning outcomes. The uses of motivational video programs take students into workplace and demonstrate the use of mathematics on the job. Through the video presentation and the class discussion, students associate and recognize the mathematical skills needed in the rapidly changing workplace. After watching the video, the students started to realize the use of mathematics in real life situations. Studies done by Zaidi in KUiTTHO shown that the technical students agreed that the application of multimedia using simulation, illustration with video attracted their attention during the lesson and this approach was able to motivate them to focus on the lessons[7]. In addition, the research done by Baharudin and NurHaiza who used Learning Styles Questionnaires (LSQ) by Honey & Mumford , reflector is the main learning style for the technical teachers and students[8] [9]. The teaching and learning activities which were effective for this group were to stimulate them by watching video or giving them time to think before react, giving conclusion without pressure which was being focused in the contextual approach.

2.2.4 Practice Cooperative Learning The contextual approach helps students to learn in a

group where this approach will encourage them to ask questions, discuss and solve problems together. Students will practice cooperative learning while the teacher serves as a guide. According to Zahariah et all, cooperative learning promoted positive relations among students and there was a tendency to be more cooperative among the peer members in discussing and solving problems[10]. The main goal for schools is



5

to prepare the students for work. Thus it is important that the students work together because in real life situations they have to work with other workers. They will learn to do things in a working environment. They will need to communicate with each other and this will increase their communication skills. Cooperative learning helps learners acquire the curriculum the basic cooperative attitudes and values[11]. However cooperative learning does not mean students achieve better academically as in Messier research, the overall achievement scores were higher in the traditional lecture-based groups (control) than the cooperative lecture groups (treatment) [12].

2.2.5 Carry out Learning in Workplace Setting, Where Possible Workplace lab activities created by business and

industry focus on measurement and computation, and help students to develop critical thinking skills. Students relate the formulas and theories that are taught in the classroom to their everyday lives or their future jobs. If we can bring students to the real life atmosphere let say a company then they can see the real thing. However if we cannot, we need to simulate the workplace. In the experiment besides making them understand the concept, the students also work in environment or group projects that simulate the workplace. This is a good practice because there is a lot of complain from companies that the students who graduated from higher learning institution cannot perform well in the workplace. In the contextual approach, by using the problem-based method, students engage in the problem-solving investigation that integrate skills and concept from many content areas or by using the project-based learning, students work autonomously to construct their own learning, and culminate in realistic products[13].

2.2.6 Problem-based Learning

There are also many definitions of the problem-based learning (PBL). Fogarty defined PBL as a curriculum model designed around real-life problems that are ill-structured, open-ended, or ambiguous. In problem based learning students go through many stages which are defining the problem, gathering known facts, generating questions, hypothesizing, eventually generating alternatives, advocating solutions and justifying recommendations[14].

Many researchers have found out that PBL is very

effective and helps the students, not only in understanding the concepts but also in developing themselves. According to Vygotsky in Cole, understanding is social in origin[15]. In addition, in a study by Acar et al., they found that PBL provided the basis



6

for the development of systems engineers[16]. Sometimes students are not able to connect what they learn in class with the real world. PBL will be a good method of learning as the creation of most PBL classes is built around the delivery of the real-world learning experience to the students[17]. Traditional method is a one-way method of teaching and the students are expected to just accept what the teacher teaches. However in PBL, there is a connection between the teaching method and the depth and complexity of the learning, as the students may be expected to reach the level of analytically complex comprehension through the problem-based work that is not done in the traditional method of teaching[18].

The success of this method will depend on many

aspects such as the experience of the lecturers, the implementation of PBL, the evaluations of the students’ performances, etc. This variation in PBL design would occur as the use of PBL is increasing[19]. Lecturers should be aware of the problems that may occur when implementing PBL. For example, the students would get a lot of information all at once and found difficulty to plow through the concepts or the introductory application with less theory makes the computation more difficult[20].

3.0 SCOPE

This reasearch will focus on the contextual approach, using problem-

based, in the teaching and learning statistics for the second year degree engineering students, UTHM As it is important that the students know the importance of statistics and the application of statistics in engineering, this research will focus on statistics subject. The duration of this research is 3 years.

4. 0 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

The objectives of this research are as follow:

1. To determine whether using statistics video clips embedded in power point presentations in learning statistics help students to understand the statistics concepts

2. To determine whether using the mathematical lab using SPSS in

learning statistics helps students to understand the statistics concepts

3. To determine whether the class activities using problem-based

learning helps students to understand the statistics concepts.

4. To determine whether there is a significant difference between the test result of the contextual group with the non-contextual group.



7

5.0 METHODOLOGY

In this research, a quasi-experimental research design is used. The research instruments will consist of 2 sets of questionnaires, 3 quizzes and a standard test. The 1st set of questionnaires which will consist of 5 main sections : Background, Teaching and learning approach, Video, Class activities, Statistics lab. The 2nd set of questionnaires will consist of 3 main sections: creativity, criticality and team working. Likert scale will be used as a form of measurement. Before the questionnaires are given to the respondents, a pioneer test will be done where ten degree students will be randomly selected to answer the questionnaires. The pioneer test is to find the value of the Alpha-Cronbach, that is to determine the validity of the questionnaires. Solomon’s Four-Group Design will be used where the students will be divided into four groups: 2 control groups and 2 treated groups as shown in the attachment. This design allows the researcher to assess whether there is an interaction between the treatment and the pretest. This design combines two basic experimental designs.

Solomon’s Four-Group Design : R Group A Pretest Treatment Posttest R Group B Pretest No Treatment Posttest R Group C Treatment Posttest R Group D No Treatment Posttest

The study will focus on the teaching and the learning that provide concrete hands-on application of materials to be learned. It will investigate whether the contextual approach in using mathematics lab, statistics video clips embedded in power point presentations and class activities is effective, that is, the degree technical students are able to understand the mathematics concepts and apply the concepts in their engineering subjects.

Independent t-test is used with the achievement test as the independent

variable for the Grouping Variable and the students’ marks as the dependent variable for the Test Variable. All data will be collected through the questionnaire survey and 3 quizzes on these technical students after they do the class activities, watch the mathematics video and they do the mathematical lab. The treated groups will do all the three activities that are contextually design while the 2 control groups will do all the 3 activities that is non-contextually design. After they do all the activities, a common test will be given to all students. This research will produce a proper implementation of contextual approach in the teaching and the learning mathematics in higher learning institutions and the research findings will indicate whether the technical students understand mathematics concept better by using the contextual approach

Frequency and percentage will be used to answer the first three research questions. Inference statistics will be used to study the effectiveness of understanding mathematical concept using contextual approach. The research hypothesis is as below:

Ho : µcontrol = µtreated



8

Ha : µcontrol ≠ µtreated

An observations of the activities and interview will be also carry out to complement the quantitative study.

CONCLUSION

This research will produce a proper implementation of contextual approach in the teaching and the learning mathematics in higher learning institutions. Hence it will help students to learn mathematics and most importantly to apply it in their engineering subjects.

REFERENCES

[1] Funderstanding (2001). Vygotsky and Social Cognition. http://www.funderstanding.com/vygotsky.cfm. Retrieved 12 July, 2007.

[2] Atherton J. S. (2005). "Learning and Teaching". http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/constructivism.htm. Retrieved 12 July, 2007.

[3] First Tech Prep National Convention, organized by Technical Education Department, Malaysian Ministry of Education in September, 1997.

[4] National Conference on Teacher Quality, Department of Education. Washington D.C., USA in January, 2000.

[5] Kolb, D. A. Experiential Learning : Experience As The Source of Learning and Development. (Englewood : Prentice Hall, 1985).

[6] National Conference on Teacher Quality, Department of Education. Washington D.C., USA in January, 2000.

[7] Mohd Zaidi Abdul Hamid and Nafisah @ Kamariah Md Kamaruddin A Survey Of The Application Of Multimedia In The Process Of Teaching And Learning In Kuittho, Malaysia.4th International Conference On Technology In Teaching And Learning In Higher Education. Beijing, China : 2005.

[8] Baharuddin Aris, Jamaluddin Hj Harun, Noraffandy Yahya, and Zaidatun Tasir, “Teknologi Pendidikan : Modul Pembelajaran Johor” (Univeristi Teknologi Malaysia, 2000).

[9] Nurhaiza Abd Wahab and Nafisah @ Kamariah Md Kamaruddin.). Learning Styles Of Form Four Electrical Engineering Students In Three Technical Schools In Malaysia. 3rd International Seminar on Learning and Motivation. Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia, 2005.

[10] Zahariah Mohd Zain, Geetha Subramaniam, and Arlinah Abd Rashid. 2004. Cooperative Learning in an Economic Classroom. INCULT 2004 : International Conference on University Learning & Teaching. UiTM Shah Alam, Malaysia. Unpublished.

[11] Borich G. D., Effective Teaching Methods. (New Jersey : Prince-Hall Inc., 1996).

[12] Messier, William P. Traditional Teaching Strategies verses Cooperative Teahcing Strategies : Which Can Improve Achievement Scores in Chinese Middle Schools? US-China Education Review, ISSN1548-6613,Volume 2, No1(Serial No.2). Jan 2005,USA.



9

[13] Berns, Robert G and Erikson, Patricia. (2001). “Contextual Teaching and Learning.” The Higlight Zone : Research @ Work No . 5. The National Centers for Career and Technical Education, USA.

[14] Fogarty, Robin ( 1997). Problem-based Learning & Other Curriculum Models for the Multiple Intelligences Classroom. SkyLight Training and Publishing Inc.

[15] Cole, Michael and Wertsch, James V. (2001). Beyond the Individual-Social Antimony in Discussion of Piaget and Vygostky. http://www.massey.ac.nz/%7Ealock/virtual/colevyg.htm. Retrieved 12 July, 2007.

[16] Acar, B. S. and Newman, I. A. "Students as Tutors – Learning Problem-Solving Skills by Tutoring PBL", International Journal Engineering Education, Vol, 19, No.5, pp 712-716 (2003).

[17] Cockayne, W., Feland III, J. M. and Leifer L. (2003)Using the Contextual Skills Matrix for PBL Assessment. International Journal Engineering Education, Vol, 19, No.5, pp 701-705.

[18] De Graaff, E. and Kolmos, A. Characteristics of Problem-Based Learning. International Journal Engineering Education, Vol, 19, No.5, pp 657-662.

[19] Zolin, R., Fruchter, R. and Levitt, R. (2003). Reaslism and Control: Problem-Based Learning Programs as a Data Source for Work-Related Research. International Journal Engineering Education, Vol, 19, No.6, pp 788-798.

[20] Nasr, K and Thomas, C. (2004). Student-centered, Concept-embedded Problem-based Engineering Thermodynamics. International Journal Engineering Education, Vol, 20, No.4, pp 660-670.



10

IMPACT ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF BILINGUALISM IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS IN HIGHER EDUCATION

MOHINI MOHAMED AZIZ NORDIN

Department of Science and Mathematics Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia [email protected] [email protected]


ABSTRACT - Understanding bilingualism in science and mathematics education and developing a principled instruction is a pressing issue in Malaysian system of education. With the implementation of government policy of teaching science and mathematics in English starting from year 2003, an increasing number of students are affected with this policy. It is vital to examine the view of instructors from tertiary level, who are bilingual themselves, about their views in the implementation of this policy. An initial study has been undertaken to examine the view of instructors from two public universities in Malaysia. A total of 175 respondents comprise of professors, associate professors and lecturers from eleven faculties participated in the research. It is important to gather theoretical and practical information from a variety of societal context in order to empower educators to see possibilities beyond their own constraints and to be able to perform their role appropriately. In the context of Malaysia, even though the dilemma was due to governmental initiatives, it is important to raise the consciousness of the bilingual educator and to liberate their view of bilingual education beyond a simple governmental definition or a single societal perspective. Keywords: Bilingualism, Science and Mathematics Education, Current Issues In Higher Education



11

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Globalization is impacting on education system in many countries throughout the world. One aspect of this process is the language usage in the teaching of science and mathematics. This is particularly true in the context of Malaysia. The phenomenon where knowledge, value, principle and curricular developed in a local context gaining a global adherence is perceived as being an inevitable outcome. (Clarkson,. 2004). At the beginning of the 1970’s, the main medium of instruction of Malaysian school system was changed from English to Malay, the national language. This was done in some way for political reason and motivated by the call of patriotism and moving away from colonial influence. However from 2003 onwards, the government has launched a reform in education system where all first year primary, secondary and Malaysian matriculation college has to use English in teaching science and mathematics as well as related subjects. The level that started to be affected with this policy were year 1 in primary school, form 1 in lower secondary schools and form 6 for higher secondary and matriculation level. The level that were affected increased gradually and culminated to all level affected by year 2008 including the tertiary level. Public university in Malaysia has mandated that English is to be used as a medium of instruction for all science and mathematics related courses starting from semester 1 for 2005/6 session and all first year courses beginning 2006/7 session. The implementation of this policy brings obvious ramification in the teaching of mathematics in higher education. 2.0 ENGLISH AS GLOBAL ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

EDUCATION

Students are required to take English exam as a compulsory requirement for entrance to public university. MUET (Malaysian undergraduate English Test) result for new entry student for the 2007/8 intake at one public university which can be considered as a typical sample for other public university indicated that most students scored below the satisfactory level in English competency. From the population of 2916 new students’ intake at a public university, about 72.7% has a score of band 1, 2 and 3. (FIGURE 1)



12

FIGURE 1: MUET score for 2007/8 student’s intake

Courtesy of Centre for Teaching & Learning, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (2007)

After four years of implementation of the policy, it is obvious that the

incoming students that were admitted to university and other higher institution still have low proficiency in English. This scenario sends alarming signal and brings the Malaysian education system in great turmoil. The greatest dilemma of Malaysian education system has been its inability to understand the ethno linguistic complexity of bilingual education and its impact on student, classroom and society in such a way as to enable teacher and instructor to make informed decision about practice in classroom setting. There is a need in Malaysian education system for information about sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic issues that surround bilingualism in science and mathematics education. It is important to gather theoretical and practical information from a variety of societal context in order to empower educators to see possibilities beyond their own constraints and to be able to perform their role appropriately. In the context of Malaysia, even though the dilemma was due to governmental initiatives, it is important to raise the consciousness of the bilingual educators and to liberate their view of bilingual education beyond a simple governmental definition or a single societal perspective (Baker, 1996). A common assumption is that mathematics is a universal language and as such mathematical symbols cut across nations, ethnicity and cultures with different languages. However a study by Aziz et al (2000) showed that there is a strong correlation between test score in science and mathematics with English test score. The result indicated that student with high proficiency in English were more likely to achieve high scores in their science and mathematics test. In other word, the findings revealed that students with low proficiency in English are

51

544

1526

667

127

10

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

1 2 3 4 5 6

UTM



13

somewhat deprive of achieving high score in science and mathematics. This raise the issues of equity and language gap which is tantamount to creating performance gap in education. 3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The data for the research were collected from two public universities in Malaysia. A total of 175 respondents comprise of professors, associate professors and lecturers from eleven faculties had participated in the research. Questionnaires were used as the instrument for data collection and later analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for social science) software. The statistics used in the research were frequencies and percentages. 4.0 FINDINGS

The study indicated that some of the reasons behind the use of English in classroom setting for most of the respondent in order of importance were as below:

a. contributes to the internationalization of the university b. is necessary for competition in the job market c. is meaningful for Malaysian students, since it provides training in

an internationalized context d. makes it possible for students from many cultures to learn

together There is an innate wish among the respondents to contribute to the

internationalization of their university by conducting their courses in English (Table 1). By doing so, the respondents feel that they can provide platform in enhancing the proficiency of English among their student. The reason for using English can be seen as utilitarian in nature because they hope by acquiring and mastering English among their students can improve their prospect in the job market. The government is exerting effort to make Malaysia as the center of learning in the world map. In line with this aspiration, public universities has received enrollment from international students from various countries especially from the Middle East and Africa. The respondents feel that it is important to conduct their course in English in order to facilitate the students from different countries and cultures to learn together with the local students.

TABLE 1: Positive views

Items on positive views M Disag Ag

1. contributes to the internationalization of the university 2.81

10

(6.17) 152

(93.83) 2. makes it possible for students from many

cultures to learn together 2.73

18 (11.39)

140 (88.61)

6. is meaningful for Malaysian students, since it provides training in an

2.73

11 (7.43)

137 (92.57)



14

internationalized context 8. is unavoidable given the prevalence of

the English language 2.21

32 (30.48)

73 (69.52)

10. is necessary to compete with the world 2.69

16 (10.60)

135 (89.40)

11. is necessary for competition in the job market

2.80

11 (6.79)

151 (93.21)

Despite the low English proficiency among Malaysian university students, their instructors strongly feel that Malaysian students are able to compete internationally. However, there are negative arguments as well, such as, Malaysian students are more passive than other international students namely Africans, Bosnian or other Asian students (Table 2 and Table 3). Given their low English proficiency, 81.25% of the respondent viewed that Malaysian students have insufficient training in stating their opinion in English. Naturally, the student who has a good command of English tend to dominate the class discussion. However, this seem to be an elite group because less than 10 percent of Malaysian population has good command of English and are comfortable in using it as a form of communication(Johari et al., 2006). TABLE 2: Positive views for courses taught in English M Disag Ag

1. It is livelier than a regular course 1.84

30 (44.12)

38 (55.88)

5. It is exciting since there are many different opinions

2.07

13 (15.48)

71 (84.52)

12. Malaysian students can compete internationally

2.50

6 (4.58)

125 (95.42)

TABLE 3: Negative views for courses taught in English

M Disag Ag

2. Malaysian students are more passive than other Asian Students

1.87

37 (41.57)

52 (58.43)

3. Malaysian students are more passive than other non-Asian foreign students (Africans, Bosnians, etc)

1.84

35 (38.46)

56 (61.54)

4. It is difficult since the needs of the students are diverse

1.64

34 (36.96)

58 (63.04)

5. It is exciting since there are many different opinions

2.07

13 (15.48)

71 (84.52)

6. It is difficult to find teaching material since there are few English publications that share your viewpoint

1.16

122 (91.73)

11 (8.27)

7. The students whose first language is English tend to dominate the discussions

2.16

26 (22.61)

89 (77.39)



15

10. Malaysian students have insufficient training in stating their opinion in English

2.24

24 (18.75)

104 (81.25)

11. Malaysian students have insufficient training in explaining about their country to non-Malaysians

1.87

39 (40.21)

58 (59.79)

The study also give evidence that university instructor prefers to write papers in English (Table 4). The main reason is because they perceived that the paper written in English will be read more widely in the world (Table 5). Writing in English for bilingual instructor is of course not without its hurdle. Admittedly, they have difficulties in writing articles in correct grammatical sentences and it became a common challenge for most English learner. TABLE 4: Writing and publishing papers

ITEM 15 Freq %

1. I write almost all of my papers in English but I also try to publish in Malay

117

66.86

2. I write mostly in Malay, but I also try to publish in English 32

18.29

3. It is not necessary to publish in English in my area 4 2.29

4. Other (Please explain: ______________________)

19

10.86

TABLE 5: Reasons for preference to write in English

ITEM 16 Freq %

1. The paper will be read more widely in the world that way 125 71.43

2. There are not that many academic journals in the national

language in which I can publish 55

31.43

3. People that write in English are more highly considered

even within the country 35

20.00

4. Other (Please explain: ________________________) 67

38.29

5.0 IMPLICATIONS

Unlike the situation that occurs in some western countries, bilingual education in Malaysia is not the needs of minority students but the massive population of student. English is the second language of almost all of the students while their first language maybe Malay, Mandarin or Tamil. How can instructors meet the language development needs of these students while at the same time providing all of them the opportunity to fully develop their science and mathematics knowledge at the requirement level? There is no immediate,



16

absolute or universal answer. All university programs have to be adapted according to the local context.

Students need access to multicultural environment, appropriate use of first language and use effective English method of content instruction as well as opportunity to show their competence in a variety of ways. In an active integrated learning environment, the development of language proficiency, thinking skills and science and mathematics knowledge are all intertwined. In the beginning, the use of instruction time for mathematics might be insufficient because of the emphasis of language development. However one can imagine a range of instructional emphasis as in FIGURE 1.

FIGURE 2: A continuum of instructional emphasis Situations arise in which end of the continuum maybe appropriate for an instructional emphasis in bilingualism education. And as a continuum, there is not always a clear demarcation between the language focus and the content focus. The concurrent approaches, the switching back and forth in one lesson between two languages are the most common approach. Concurrent approach is actually a skill that needs to be developed. The rationale for the skilled use of concurrent approach is to make the lesson comprehensible to all students and is accessible in an intellectually challenging ways. However, because of the primacy of language as a vehicle for cognitive and academic development, how it is used in the bilingual classroom can have a significant impact on the question of the learning environment. The following is a summary of recommendations brought forth from this study:

• Implementation of bilingualism should be grounded in the context of socio cultural, economic and ideological realities

• Instead of focusing on deficiencies, instruction should build on the background and interests that student brings to classroom.

• Bilingualism instruction has to provide a balance and integrated environment in developing thinking skills, science and mathematics knowledge as well as language proficiencies.

• Concurrent approach or a skilled use of both languages may become a part of teaching process in science and mathematics instruction.

Instructional emphasis

Use of science and mathematics to

develop English

Use of English to develop science and mathematics



17

6.0 CHALLENGES

This initial study emphasized that the implementation of bilingualism in science and mathematics raise several dilemmas and issues. The instructors need to cope in situations where they will not have full control of their situation. Intake of students to public university who are low proficiency in English compelled instructors to switch back and forth from their mother tongue to English. Instead of being frown upon, this practice could create opportunities for bilingual learners to flourish. There is a need to shift to other socio cultural perspective in countering the obstacles of bilingualism in science and mathematics learning. A socio cultural perspective shift away from deficiency models of bilingual learner and instead focuses on describing the resources bilingual students use to communicate mathematically (Moschkovich). By refusing to shift to socio cultural perspective, may result in designing instructional policy that neglects the experiences and competencies of student that they bring to science and mathematics classroom. If all we see are students, who don’t speak English, mispronounce English words, incapable to discuss in English, instruction will focus on this deficiencies. If, instead, we learn to recognize the science and mathematical ideas this student express in spite of their accents, code-switching, or missing vocabulary, then instruction can build on students’ competencies and resources. How to implement socio cultural perspective in order to better understand the processes underlying bilingualism in learning science and mathematics needs further exploration. CONCLUSION

Understanding the complexity of bilingual science and mathematics education and developing a framework for bilingual education in science and mathematics instruction is a pressing practical issue in Malaysia. When the government mandated the policy of using English in teaching science and mathematics, there followed an unquestioned aggressiveness on the part of some administrator of schools and higher education institutions in implementing the rule. An increasing number of students who enter public university will have to face the dilemma of learning science and mathematics and other related courses entirely in English. It is crucial for teachers and educators to make an informed decision and performed an appropriate role in supporting bilingualism in a changing classroom setting. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to appreciate and extend my gratitude to Research Management Center of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for the full support of this research. I am also indebted to Professor Rosnani Hashim for her help in distributing and analyzing the data from various faculties at International Islamic University of Malaysia.



18

REFERENCES [1] Barwell, R. & Clarkson, P. “Researching Mathematics Education in

Multilingual Contexts: Theory, Methodology and the Teaching of Mathematics.” Proceedings of the 28th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, vol. I (pp.227-256) (2004)

[2] Clarkson, P.C. Teaching Mathematics in Multilingual Classrooms: The Global Importance of Contexts. In I.P.Cheong, H.S.Dhindsa, I.J.Kyeleve & O.Chukwu (Eds.), Globalisation Trends in Science, Mathematics and Technical Education (pp.9-23). Brunei Darussalam: Universiti Brunei Darussalam (2004)

[3] Clarkson, P.C. Language, Logical Thinking and Communication in

School Mathematics: Whose Responsibility. In H.S.Dhindsa, L.S.Bee, P.Achleitner & M.A.Clements (Eds.), Studies in Science, Mathematics and Technical Education (pp.99-116). Brunei Darussalam: Universiti Brunei Darussalam (2003)

[4] Clarkson, P.C. & Atweh, B. More Perspective on The Impact of Globalisation on Mathematics Education in Higher Education in Australia. In L.Bragg, C.Campbell, G.Herbert & J.Mousley (Eds.), Mathematics Education Research: Innovation, Networking, Opportunity (pp.238-245). Geelong, Vic.: Mathematics ducation Research Group of Australia (2003)

[5] Ester J. de Jong Effective Bilingual Education: From Theory to Academic Achievement in a Two-Way Bilingual Program. Bilingual Research Journal, vol. 26 (1) (2002)

[6] Moshkovich, Judith To appear in N.Nassir and Cobb (Eds.) Diversity, Equity, and Access to Mathematical Ideas. Teacher College Press (In press)



19

HUBUNGAN PENGAJARAN PENSYARAH DAN MINAT PELAJAR DENGAN KEFAHAMAN KONSEP MORAL

MOHAMAD KHAIRI HAJI OTHMAN ABDULL SUKOR SHAARI

Fakulti Sains Kognitif dan Pendidikan,Universiti Utara Malaysia


ABSTRAK - Pengetahuan dan kefahaman moral akan menimbulkan kesedaran dan penghayatan kepada pelajar tentang pelbagai isu moral yang seterusnya menguasai dan mempengaruhi amalan dan tindakan seseorang. Pensyarah merupakan faktor terpenting dalam mempengaruhi persepsi dan kefahaman pelajar tentang moral. Kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan hasil kajian yang berkaitan dengan hubungan pengajaran pensyarah dan minat pelajar dengan kefahaman konsep moral. Kajian ini dijalankan melalui kaedah tinjauan dengan mengedarkan soal selidik kepada 305 orang pelajar Universiti Utara Malaysia. Fokus utama kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti tahap kefahaman moral dalam kalangan pelajar dan adakah terdapat hubungannya dengan pengajaran pensyarah dan minat pelajar. Hasil kajian mendapati secara keseluruhannya, kefahaman konsep moral responden kajian ini didapati adalah tinggi dan dimensi agama menunjukkan tahap kefahaman yang paling tinggi berbanding dimensi-dimensi lain. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara pengajaran pensyarah dan minat pelajar dengan kefahaman konsep moral dalam kalangan responden. Walaupun begitu, masih ada perkara yang perlu diperkemaskan bagi meningkatkan lagi mutu pengajaran dan pembelajaran kursus-kursus berkaitan etika dan moral di IPTA khususnya untuk merealisasikan agenda negara dalam aspek pembangunan modal insan. Sehubungan itu, implikasi dan cadangan juga turut diperbincangkan dalam kertas kerja ini untuk dikongsi bersama.

1.0 PENGENALAN

Dalam sistem pendidikan di negara kita penumpuan terhadap dasar pendidikan untuk melahirkan insan yang baik, menyeluruh dan bersepadu dari segi jasmani, emosi, rohani dan intelek adalah jelas berdasarkan apa yang tersurat pada Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan. Elemen akhlak dan moral adalah merupakan salah satu unsur yang penting dalam memastikan hasrat Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan ini tercapai. Al-Attas (1980) dan Ashraf (1985)



20

telah menegaskan bahawa pembangunan insan yang baik adalah menjadi matlamat yang utama di dalam sistem pendidikan negara. Menurut mereka, insan yang baik dengan sendirinya akan melahirkan warganegara yang baik manakala warganegara yang baik tidak semestinya melahirkan insan baik. Pendidikan akhlak dan moral adalah amat penting kepada mereka khususnya di kalangan generasi muda. Oleh itu, setiap pelajar perlu memahami, menghayati dan mengamalkan kesemua prinsip-prinsip akhlak dan moral.

Dalam era globalisasi ini, amalan nilai dan akhlak telah menjadi begitu kompleks dan ini telah menimbulkan persoalan dan mungkin mengelirukan tentang apakah yang dianggap baik dan betul dalam pemikiran dan tingkahlaku pelajar. Dalam media sering memaparkan situasi di mana pelajar-pelajar terlibat dalam kegiatan yang bukan hanya membahayakan nyawa dan kemuliaan sendiri tetapi juga orang lain seperti gengsterisme, buli-membuli, mencuri, kehamilan, pelacuran, dadah dan sebagainya. Ini semuanya akibat mereka yang tidak menghiraukan tentang akhlak dan moral yang baik.

Sesungguhnya penampilan manusia yang berakhlak dan bermoral merupakan sesuatu yang diharapkan oleh masyarakat. Tanpa ada kefahaman yang sebenar tentang konsep akhlak dan moral sudah tentu ia amat sukar untuk dihayati dan diamalkan dalam kehidupan. Dalam hal ini, para pelajar perlu mempunyai kefahaman yang mantap terhadap konsep akhlak dan moral seterusnya dapat berakhlak mulia dan bermoral pada setiap masa dan dimana jua.

2.0 PENYATAAN MASALAH

Masyarakat sering membincangkan tentang masalah keruntuhan akhlak terutama dalam kalangan remaja khususnya para pelajar di sekolah dan di institusi pengajian tinggi. Remaja sering dikatakan tidak berakhlak, tidak pandai membuat pertimbangan dan pelbagai lagi ciri negatif (Lihanna, 2001). Masalah sosial yang melibatkan golongan remaja dengan budaya lepak, curi, dadah, bohsia dan sebagainya telah didedahkan kepada kita setiap hari menerusi akhbar, radio dan televisyen. Mengikut kenyataan Napsiah (Berita Harian, 3 Februari 1993) dalam Azizi dan Yusof (2001) bilangan remaja yang rosak akhlak masih tinggi. Pada tahun 1988 sebanyak 3, 978 kes dicatatkan, 4,111 kes pada tahun tahun 1989, 3,763 kes pada tahun 1990 dan 2658 kes sehingga Oktober 1996. Selain daripada itu, pihak Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia telah mengakui bahawa terdapat 76, 300 pelajar di negara ini terlibat dalam pelbagai masalah disiplin termasuk juga kegiatan samseng (Utusan Malaysia, 3 September 2003).

Tidak dapat dinafikan lagi masalah keruntuhan akidah dan sosial seperti gejala murtad, keruntuhan akhlak, zina, rogol, serta kegagalan remaja untuk melaksanakan tuntutan asas sebagai seorang insan telah menimbulkan pelbagai pandangan dan persepsi di dalam masyarakat terhadap sejauhmana kefahaman konsep akhlak dan moral dalam kalangan remaja.

Pendidikan akhlak dan moral adalah penting kerana ianya dapat membantu pelajar merungkai pelbagai situasi dan isu moral yang mungkin mereka hadapi dalam kehidupan harian mereka. Kepentingan mata pelajaran ini menjadi lebih ketara memandangkan peningkatan gejala sosial dalam kalangan remaja kini. Walaupun beberapa pendekatan dan langkah telah diambil oleh



21

pihak berwajib termasuk menerapkan nilai murni merentas kurikulum, masalah gejala sosial dalam kalangan remaja masih tidak dapat dibendung secara berkesan (Asmawati, Rahyl & Abdul Rahman, 2001).

Dalam kajian Ab. Halim dan Zarin (2001) yang bertujuan melihat persepsi pelajar terhadap konsep akhlak mendapati ada responden yang mendefinisikan orang yang berakhlak adalah individu yang mempunyai dan mengamalkan sifat-sifat mulia yang tidak menghubungkaitkan definisi-definisi tersebut dengan nilai-nilai keagamaan yang menjadi teras akhlak di dalam Islam. Keadaan ini mungkin timbul disebabkan kefahaman mereka yang menganggap “orang yang berakhlak” sama dengan “orang bermoral”. Kekeliruan ini harus segera diperbetulkan kerana nilai-nilai akhlak dalam Islam adalah berteraskan kepada al-Quran dan Sunnah yang bersifat tetap, universal dan tidak berubah-ubah. Manakala nilai-nilai moral pula berasaskan kepada pemikiran rasional, tidak tetap dan berubah-ubah mengikut suasana dan masa.

Kajian Ab. Halim dan Zarin l (2002) juga mendapati sejumlah kecil responden tidak dapat menghubungkaitkan keimanan kepada Allah (s.w.t) serta ilmu agama yang ada pada seseorang dengan kepentingan pelaksanaan nilai-nilai akhlak dalam kehidupan mereka. Maka, definisi-definisi mereka kurang menepati konsep akhlak dalam Islam kerana ilmu, keimanan dan pelaksanaan perlu disepadukan bagi menyempurnakan ketaqwaan dan kepatuhan kepada Allah dan kesempurnaan keimanan seseorang individu.

Sementara itu Asmawati, Rahyl dan Abdul Rahman (2001) dalam kajiannya mendapati kebanyakan responden kurang memahami dengan tepat makna moral yang mana dapatan menunjukkan bahawa 83.6% responden menyatakan orang bermoral ialah orang yang sentiasa mematuhi peraturan dan undang-undang masyarakat dan 79.9% menyatakan orang bermoral ialah orang yang berkelakuan baik dalam semua situasi.

Begitu juga kefahaman yang tidak jelas tentang aspek penerapan nilai-nilai murni dan proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran juga wujud dalam kalangan guru-guru baru dan lama (Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, 1992).

Dapatan-dapatan ini memberi gambaran tentang kefahaman terhadap akhlak dan moral dalam keadaaan yang bermasalah dan faktor pengajaran pensyarah dan minat pelajar memainkan penting dalam kefahaman berkaitan dengan konsep etika dan moral. Justeru, kertas kerja ini cuba ingin mengenengahkan dapatan kajian berkaitan dengan kefahaman konsep moral di kalangan mahasiswa dan adakah faktor pengajaran pensyarah dan minat pelajar mempengaruhi kefahaman konsep moral di kalangan responden.

2.1 SOALAN KAJIAN

1. Apakah tahap kefahaman pelajar terhadap konsep moral?

2. Adakah terdapat hubungan antara pengajaran pensyarah dan minat pelajar dengan kefahaman pelajar terhadap konsep moral?



22

3.0 METODOLOGI KAJIAN

Kajian ini berbentuk kuantitatif dengan menggunakan kaedah tinjauan berdasarkan soal selidik yang dijawab oleh responden. Populasi sasaran penyelidik ialah semua pelajar Universiti Utara Malaysia yang mengambil kursus Sains Pemikiran dan Etika Semester Kedua Sesi 2005/2006 iaitu seramai 1327 orang pelajar. Sampel kajian ini adalah seramai 305 orang pelajar yang dipilih secara rawak mudah.

Kajian ini akan menggunakan borang soal selidik sebagai instrumen. Ia dibentuk berpandukan adaptasi daripada kajian-kajian lepas. Instrumen ‘Kefahaman Moral’ mengandungi 4 item bagi setiap dimensi. Soalan-soalan ini dibentuk dan diubahsuai berpandukan kajian oleh Arlene (1980), Nageswararav (1991) dan Nur Surrayyah (1999). Instrumen aspek pengajaran pensyarah Sains Pemikiran dan Etika terdiri 9 item dan aspek minat terhadap kursus Sains Pemikiran dan Etika atau Pendidikan Moral juga terdiri 9 item. Soalan-soalan dibentuk dan diubah suai berpandukan kajian Ab. Halim dan Khadijah (2003) dan Haryati (2004). Item-item tersebut menggunakan skala Likert yang terdiri daripada empat pilihan jawapan iaitu 1 = sangat tidak setuju, 2 = tidak setuju, 3 = setuju dan 4 = sangat setuju.

Kajian rintis telah dijalankan terhadap 40 orang pelajar minor Pendidikan Moral Fakulti Sains Kognitif dan Pendidikan Semester Kedua Sesi 2005/2006. Data daripada kajian rintis tersebut digunakan untuk menentukan tahap kebolehpercayaan instrumen dan memantapkan item-item soal selidik. Ujian Cronbach Alpha dijalankan dan didapati nilai alpha bagi setiap bahagian item berada di atas 0.7 dan ini menunjukkan instrumen tersebut mempunyai kebolehpercayaan yang boleh diterima untuk menjalankan kajian ini.

Data kajian sebenar dikumpulkan dan dianalisa dengan menggunakan perisian Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS). Statistik deskriptif digunakan untuk melihat frekuensi, peratus dan min. Ujian Korelasi Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan pengajaran pensyarah dan minat pelajar terhadap kursus Sains Pemikiran dan Etika dengan kefahaman moral.

4.0 DAPATAN KAJIAN

Tahap kefahaman pelajar terhadap konsep moral

Berdasarkan Jadual 1, tahap kefahaman pelajar terhadap konsep moral secara keseluruhannya adalah tinggi iaitu berada pada min 3.22 (SD = .31). Seterusnya, Jadual 1 menunjukkan kefahaman responden dianalisis mengikut setiap dimensi. Dimensi Agama menunjukkan min yang paling tinggi (min = 3.57, SD = .46), diikuti dimensi tradisi (min = 3.27, SD = .41) dan dimensi universal (min = 3.01, SD = 51). Min yang paling rendah mengikut dimensi ialah dimensi relatif (min = 3.01, SD = .40)



23

Jadual 1 : Ringkasan Statistik Deskriptif Kefahaman Konsep Moral

Mengikut Dimensi dan Keseluruhan

Bil. Item Min S.D.

Dimensi Agama 4 3.57 .46

Dimensi Tradisi 4 3.27 .41

Dimensi Universal 4 3.02 .51

Dimensi Relatif 4 3.01 .40

Konsep Moral Keseluruhan

16 3.22 .30

Hubungan antara pengajaran pensyarah dan minat pelajar dengan kefahaman konsep moral.

Daripada Jadual 2 dibawah, dapatan menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang positif dan signifikan antara pengajaran pensyarah dengan kefahaman moral (r=0.33, p<0.01). Dapatan juga menunjukkan minat pelajar terhadap kursus-kursus etika dan moral mempunyai hubungan yang positif dan signifikan dengan kefahaman konsep moral (r = 0.37, p<0.01).

Jadual 2 : Korelasi Pengajaran Pensyarah dan Minat Pelajar dengan Kefahaman Konsep Moral

Pembolehubah Kefahaman Moral

Nilai r*

p

Pengajaran pensyarah

0.33** .001

Minat terhadap pendidikan moral / Sains Pemikiran Etika

0.37** .001

**p<0.01, * p<0.05



24

5.0 PERBINCANGAN

Secara keseluruhannya tahap kefahaman konsep moral dalam kalangan responden adalah tinggi iaitu min 3.22. Kajian ini juga mendapati kefahaman konsep moral mengikut dimensi menjelaskan bahawa dimensi agama menunjukkan tahap kefahaman yang tinggi, diikuti dimensi tradisi, dimensi universal dan yang terakhir dimensi relatif. Dapatan kajian ini bersesuaian sebagaimana pendapat (McGregor, 1977) menjelaskan bahawa moraliti bererti nilai-nilai yang bersifat mutlak dan tatahukum, peraturan dan kod-kod nilai-nilai moral yang tetap. Selain itu, dapatan menunjukkan kefahaman moral dimensi agama adalah tinggi berbanding dimensi-dimensi lain dan ini selari dengan pandangan Peters (1973) yang menjelaskan bahawa kod-kod nilai moral dan peraturan yang bersifat tetap merupakan garis panduan untuk tingkahlaku bermoral dalam masyarakat. Peters (1973) juga menyatakan bahawa konsep moraliti seumpama ini pada hakikatnya berasal daripada ajaran dan dogma agama, malah kadangkala pendidikan moral sering dihubungkaitkan dengan pendidikan agama yang tidak boleh dipersoalkan kewibawaannya.

Sementara itu, dalam melihat perkaitan antara pengajaran pensyarah dengan kefahaman konsep moral. Dapatan kajian ini menjelaskan bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara pengajaran pensyarah dengan kefahaman konsep moral (r = 0.33, p<0.01). Kajian ini menyokong dapatan kajian Asmawati, Rahyl dan Abdul Rahman yang mendapati pensyarah merupakan faktor penting dalam mempengaruhi persepsi dan kefahaman pelajar tentang moral. Kajian Rohayi Majzub dan T. Subahan (1993) pula menjelaskan bahawa proses pengajaran yang dibantu oleh sifat guru yang positif, komitmen guru, cara penyampaian guru, aktiviti yang dilaksanakan oleh guru dan kaedah pengajaran guru mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan kecemerlangan akademik dan tahap kefahaman pelajar. Begitu juga Cantrell (1977) menjelaskan bahawa pengetahuan, sikap dan ciri-ciri lain yang ada pada guru mempunyai hubungan dengan proses pengajaran guru dan seterusnya mempengaruhi kefahaman pelajar.

Sementara itu, Azizah (1999) menyatakan seorang guru yang berkesan seharusnya mengetahui segala aspek yang terkandung dalam silibus dan perlu menguasai ilmu. Bukan sahaja mahir dalam ilmu yang hendak diajar tetapi perlu mempelbagaikan kaedah dan strategi pengajarannya. Azizah juga menjelaskan antara sifat guru berkesan ialah mesra, bertanggungjawab, bekerjasama dengan guru lain, sayangkan pelajar, sabar dan kreatif. Hopkins dan Stern (1996; 501) menjelaskan tentang beberapa ciri guru berkesan ialah ;

The key characteristics of high quality teachers highlighted by the study are : commitment, love of children, mastery of subject didactics and multiple models of teaching, the ability to collaborate with other teachers and a capacity for reflection.

Begitu juga dalam aspek minat terhadap kursus Pendidikan Moral terdapat hubungan yang signifikan dengan kefahaman konsep moral. Dapatan ini adalah selari dengan kajian Crow dan Crow (1980), Abu Zahari (1988) dan Abu Seman (1997) yang mendapati bahawa terdapat hubungan antara minat dalam mata pelajaran dengan pencapaian. Kajian ini juga menyokong kajian yang dibuat oleh Nurhizan dalam Haryati (2004) yang mendapati bahawa minat pelajar terhadap bahasa Inggeris mempunyai hubungan dengan pencapaian



25

bahasa Inggeris tingkatan dua. Ini menjelaskan bahawa semakin pelajar minat terhadap sesuatu kursus atau mata pelajaran akan meningkatkan kefahaman dan pencapaian pelajar dalam kursus yang dipelajari.

Aspek yang agak penting dalam meningkatkan minat pelajar dalam pembelajaran adalah suasana persekitaran yang memberangsangkan dan suasana pembelajaran yang kondusif. Isahak dan rakan (1988) menyatakan tempat atau bilik darjah perlu strategik dan jauh dari sebarang gangguan seperti kebisingan, pertembungan kelas dan lain-lain. Pelajar perlu diberi suasana kelas yang berlainan dari biasa dan bersesuaian dengan tajuk yang akan dibincangkan pada hari itu. Tindakan ini akan lebih membantu mempercepatkan pemahaman pelajar terhadap isi pelajaran disamping menimbulkan semangat baru dalam diri pelajar. Dapatan kajian Noorlia (2000) menjelaskan bahawa pelajar boleh belajar dengan baik dalam pelbagai situasi pembelajaran dan pelajar lebih cenderung untuk belajar dengan suasana pembelajaran pelbagai cara.

KESIMPULAN

Hasil kajian ini diperlihatkan tahap kefahaman konsep moral adalah baik dan dimensi agama menunjukkan tahap kefahaman yang paling tinggi berbanding dimensi-dimensi lain, justeru program dan projek-projek berbentuk keagamaan haruslah diperhebatkan lagi oleh semua pihak ke arah meningkatkan dan memantapkan moral di kalangan pelajar.

Selain itu, dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara kepentingan kursus Pendidikan Moral atau Sains Pemikiran dan Etika serta minat pelajar dengan kefahaman konsep moral, justeru kursus seperti ini perlu diberi perhatian serius dan diwajibkan kepada semua pelajar sebagai teras universiti.

Dapatan kajian ini juga menjelaskan bahawa pengajaran pensyarah mempunyai hubungan yang siginifikan dengan kefahaman konsep moral dalam kalangan pelajar. Justeru, para pensyarah haruslah meningkatkan keprofesionalisme ke tahap yang lebih tinggi. Para pensyarah hendaklah sentiasa mengamalkan amalan pendekatan pengajaran yang lebih baik , berkesan dan bersifat andragogi. Siri bengkel berkala perlu diadakan bagi tenaga pengajar untuk tujuan mengemaskini pengetahuan pengkuliahan, bahan bacaan dan mempertingkatkan kefahaman tentang ilmu berkaitan strategi pengajaran yang berkesan atau aspek pedagogi dan andragogi.

BIBLIOGRAFI

[1] Ab. Halim Tamuri dan Zarin Ismail. (2001). Persepsi pelajar muslim terhadap konsep akhlak. Kertas Kerja Persidangan Kebangsaan Pendidikan Moral Dalam Dunia Globalisasi, Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Malaya, 23 – 25 Mei.

[2] Ab. Halim Tamuri dan Zarin Ismail. (2002). Pendidikan akhlak dalam KBSM : Persepsi pelajar terhadap konsep akhlak. Prosiding Wacana



26

Pendidikan Islam (Siri 1) : Kurikulum Bersepadu Pendidikan Islam Menghadapi Cabaran Era Globalisasi. Bangi : Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

[3] Ab. Halim Tamuri dan Khadijah Abdul Razak. (2003). Pengajaran akhlak di sekolah menengah : Persepsi pelajar-pelajar. Prosiding Wacana Pendidikan Islam (Siri 3) : Perkaedahan Pengajaran Pendidikan Islam : Antara Tradisi dan Inovasi. Bangi : Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

[4] Abdul Rahim Abdul Rashid. (2001). Nilai-nilai murni dalam pendidikan : Menghadapi perubahan dan cabaran alaf baru. Kuala Lumpur : Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.

[5] Abu Seman Sareh Mat Isa. (1997). Penentu pencapaian mata pelajaran sains dan matematik di kalangan pelajar Tingkatan 4 di Daerah Padang Terap. Tesis Sarjana Sains Pengurusan, Universiti Sains Malaysia.

[6] Abu Zahari Abu Bakar. (1988). Memahami psikologi pembelajaran. Petaling Jaya : Penerbit Fajar Bakti.

[7] Al-Attas, Syed Muhammad al-Naquib. (1980). The concept of education in Islam. Kuala Lumpur : ABIM

[8] Arlene Bastion. (1980). Moral education : A survey of teachers perception in selected schools. Tesis Sarjana Pendidikan, Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Malaya. (Tidak diterbitkan).

[9] Ashraf, Syed Ali. (1985). New horrizon in muslim education. Cambridge : The Islamic Academy.

[10] Asmawati Suhid, Rahyl Mahyuddin dan Abdul Rahman Mad Aroff. (2001). Persepsi pelajar institusi pengajian tinggi terhadap Pendidikan Moral. Kertas Kerja Persidangan Kebangsaan Pendidikan Moral Dalam Dunia Globalisasi, Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Malaya, 23 – 25 Mei.

[11] Azizah Lebai Nordin. (1999). Guru pendidikan Islam yang berkesan. Masalah pendidikan, Jilid 22.

[12] Azizi Hj. Yahaya dan Yusof Boon. (2001). Program pemulihan akhlak wanita : sejauhmanakah keberkesanan pusat perlindungan wanita membantu proses pemulihan. Kertas Kerja Persidangan Kebangsaan Pendidikan Moral Dalam Dunia Globalisasi, Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Malaya, 23 – 25 Mei.

[13] Cantrell, R.P. (1977). Teacher knowledge, attitudes and classroom teaching correlations of student achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 69, 172-179.

[14] Crow, I. D & Crow, L. (1980). Psikologi pendidikan untuk perguruan (terj) Habibah Alias. Kuala Lumpur : Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

[15] Haryati Borham. (2004). Mata pelajaran tasawwur Islam : Minat dan keberkesanannya terhadap pelajar-pelajar Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan di Daerah Petaling Jaya, Selangor. Disertasi Sarjana Pengajian Islam, Akademi Pengajian Islam Universiti Malaya. (Tidak



27

diterbitkan).

[16] Hopkins, D. & Stern, D. (1996). Quality teachers, quality school : International perspectives and policy implications. Teaching & Teacher Education, 12 (5).

[17] Isahak Haron & rakan. (1988). Asas-asas dalam amalan pedagogi. Kuala Lumpur : Utusan Publication & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.

[18] Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia : Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum. (1992). Laporan Pengesahan Awal Perlaksanaan KBSM.

[19] Lihanna Borhan. (2001). Persepsi nilai etika dan idealisme remaja Malaysia. Kertas kerja Persidangan Kebangsaan Pendidikan Moral Dalam Dunia Globalisasi, Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Malaya, 23 – 25 Mei.

[20] McGregor. (1977). Moral Education. Dlm. Wong, F.H.K. (ed.). Readings in Malaysian education. Kuala Lumpur : Penerbit Universiti Malaya.

[21] Nageswararav Ramamoorthy. (1991). Persepsi guru-guru sekolah rendah terhadap pendidikan Moral di Daerah Klang dan Kuala Langat. Tesis Sarjana Pendidikan, Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Malaya. (Tidak diterbitkan).

[22] Noorlia T. Goolamally. (2000). Hubungan antara gaya belajar dengan pencapaian Matematik dan pencapaian akademik di kalangan pelajar. Tesis Sarjana Pendidikan, Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Malaya.

[23] Nur Surrayyah Madhubala Abdullah. (1999). The understanding of moral education among form four Moral education teachers in the federal territory. Tesis Master of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia. (Tidak diterbitkan)

[24] Nur Surrayyah Madhubala Abdullah, Izah Isa dan Zakaria Kasa. (2001). Perceptions of pre-service teachers from the Faculty of Educational Studies on the need for Moral education. Kertas kerja Persidangan Kebangsaan Pendidikan Moral Dalam Dunia Globalisasi, Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Malaya, 23 – 25 Mei.

[25] Rohayi Mohd Majzub dan T. Subahan Mohd Meerah. (1993). Satu tinjauan sahsiah dan tingkah laku pendidik yang berkaitan dengan embelajaran. Jurnal Pendidikan, 15, 125-135.

[26] Peters. R. S. (1973). Reason and compassion. London : Routledge and Kegan Paul.

[27] Sufean Hussin. (1989). Pengajaran nilai dalam kurikulum. Petaling Jaya : Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd.

[28] Utusan Malaysia, (September 3, 2003).



28

TEACHERS’ USE OF QUESTIONS IN ESL CLASSROOMS

KALYANI RAJOO

Language Department, Darulaman Teacher Training Institute, 06000 Jitra, Kedah. kelly_rajoo @yahoo.com © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRACT - Oral questions play a significant role in the language classroom. Despite arguments that classroom questions do not reflect questions that are asked in real conversations outside the classroom and whether language teaching methodologies need the sort of interaction produced by questions (Chaudron, 1988), language teachers regard questions as an effective tool to initiate the target language and to help students’ learning by providing them opportunities to practice the target language. This paper reports on a qualitative study exploring the use of display and referential questions and their effect on students’ responses. The aim of the study was also to investigate the use of probing questions to follow-up and extend the students’ responses. Data was collected from 2 ESL classrooms in a teacher training institute by means of classroom observations. This paper discusses the results of the study and concludes with recommendations for ESL teachers on ways of utilizing questions effectively in the language classroom.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

One of the aims of teaching English as a second language (L2) is to facilitate opportunities for second language learners to use the language for oral communication and maximize opportunities for language acquisition to take place. In the classroom, teachers have long used questions to stimulate student thinking, facilitate student learning, and to initiate teacher-student interaction. Using questions and answers to challenge assumptions, expose contradictions, and to lead to new knowledge and wisdom is an undeniably powerful teaching approach. Thus the technique of questioning forms an integral part of instruction in the classroom.

Gall (1984) claimed that 80% of all school time is devoted to questions and answers. Brown and Edmonson (cited in Borich, 1992) found that an average of 100 to 150 questions per class hour were asked in the typical elementary and secondary classrooms. Teachers teaching at all grade levels regard the act of asking questions as an effective way of transferring factual knowledge and conceptual understanding, as well as to facilitate the learning process. Teacher-pupil interaction in the classroom is usually by means of the



29

teacher eliciting pupils’ responses through questioning. Ferris (cited in Basturkmen, 2001), found that 79% of students considered ‘in-class questions’ as the category of talk most often required in courses of study. Such perceived usefulness of questions has led to its widespread use as a contemporary teaching technique in the classroom. However, research by Gall (1970) and Stubbs (1983) indicate that through questioning, teachers dominate the available talking time in the classroom, thus limiting pupils’ opportunities to participate. Good and Brophy (1987) contend that discussions initiated by questions are parrot-like and boring with teachers asking a question, students giving a response, and the teacher redirecting or asking another question and so forth.

Related studies on the relationship between teachers’ questions and students’ responses in L2 classrooms have been inconclusive and contradicting findings have been reported. Both Brock (1986) and Nunan (1987) claimed that the use of referential questions elicited longer responses. Nunan also argued that despite the learners’ insufficient proficiency in L2, there was an increase in length and complexity of students’ turns. These findings were, however, contradicted by Wu (1993) who argued that irrespective of their type, an overwhelming number of responses to the questions solicited restricted responses. In fact, Wu takes the position that referential questions were less effective as a means of eliciting response. However, Wu cited factors like cultural values, students’ attitudes and interpersonal variables on answering behaviour as possible reasons for students’ reluctance in responding to questions

Using these studies as a point of departure, the present study was intended to investigate teacher questions and student responses in two ways: (1) the initial questions that were asked by the teachers and the responses the questions elicited, and (2) the probing questions used by the teachers to follow through the students’ responses to enable them go beyond their initial responses. A comparison was also made to find out if the use of probing questions could improve student responses in terms of language output. Hence, this study sought to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the types of questions asked by teachers in the ESL classroom?

2. What type of student responses are initiated by the questions? 3. What types of probing questions are used by teachers to enable

students to extend and improve their responses? 4. Do responses elicited by the probing questions indicate an

improvement to the students’ initial responses?

2.0. THE FRAMEWORK OF QUESTIONS

This study adopted Long and Sato’s Model (1983) where teacher questions are categorized using the terms referential and display. A referential question refers to a question to which the response is not known by the teacher. In asking this question, an information gap exists between the teacher and student. On the other hand, a display question is a question to which the asker knows the answer and the purpose of this question is to get students to demonstrate some previously-learned knowledge. The terms display and



30

referential are commonly referred to in research (Brock, 1986; Nunan, 1987; Wu, 1993) on teachers’ use of questions in L2 classrooms. However, based upon the findings in these studies, the researcher felt that classifying teacher questions as simply display and referential seemed inadequate in investigating the effectiveness of teacher questions on student responses. Thus, in this study, both referential and display questions were further sub-categorised into open or closed types which is the simplified version of the Barnes Model as cited in Kerry (1982).

The Barnes Model classifies questions based on their elicitation functions. Questions are identified as factual, reasoning, open, non-reasoning and social based on the functions and the linguistic demands of the questions. Factual questions where student responses can be limited to one-word or short responses are categorized as closed questions, and reasoning questions which require students to explain, interpret and construct a logical organized sequence are referred to as open questions.

This study, also adopted Turney’s (cited in Kerry, 1982) framework for identifying probing questions as it would enable the researcher to identify the probing questions based on their functions. A probing question follows students’ responses and attempts to stimulate student’s to think through their initial responses, thus helping students to expand and develop the quality of their response.

3.0 TEACHER QUESTIONS AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

In the second language classroom, the act of answering questions is known to engage the students in interaction and provide opportunities for the use of the target language (TL). Studies by Mizon and Early (both cited in Chaudron, 1988) found that questioning was used more by teachers with students who are non-native speakers (NNS) than with native speakers (NS). Long and Sato (1983), for example, found that the most frequent use of teachers’ questions in the classroom was concerned with comprehension checks, and that such questions are actually never asked in NS-NNS interaction outside the classroom.

Long and Sato (1983) also found that ESL classrooms were characterized by display questions. This, they say does not occur in naturalistic NS discourse. Research by Brock (1986) and Pica and Long (1986) also found that ESL teachers used significantly fewer referential questions than display questions. Mehan (cited in Brock, 1986) claimed that the use of known-information questions generated discourse which does not reflect the demands of discourse that occurs outside the classroom. Brock (1986) contends that as opposed to display questions, the use of referential questions increases the amount of learner output, and that an increased use of referential questions by teachers may create communication that occurs outside the classroom.

Despite changes and innovations in the curriculum and in L2 teaching and learning, there seems to be no distinct improvement in the ways teachers ask questions. For teacher questions to be effective in the language classroom and help achieve the aims of L2 learning, there is a need for teachers to examine and improve their questioning practice. Brown (1997) considers the initiation of



31

interaction by the teacher as an important key to creating an interactive language classroom, and one of the best ways to develop the teacher’s role as an initiator and sustainer of interaction is for teachers to develop a repertoire of questioning strategies.

4.0 METHODOLOGY

4.1 Method of Data Collection

This study adopted a qualitative methodology. The primary source of data was the classroom observations carried out by the researcher. Audio recording equipment was used during the observation to record the lessons. The researcher was also present to take field notes. Semi-structured interviews with the teachers and students was also conducted as ‘method triangulation’ (Borg and Gall, 1989). The interviews enabled the researcher to further understand the teachers’ and students’ attitudes and perceptions on engaging in asking and answering questions in the language classroom. Also, to remove bias in reporting and to determine accuracy in interpreting, some patterns of questioning behaviour of the participants were put forth to the participants themselves to obtain explanation and verification.

4.2 Research Sample

This study was carried out in a Teacher Training Institute and the study sample was made up of two lecturers from the English Studies Unit of the Language Department of the institute. The method and procedure identified for data collection limited the number of participants who could be accommodated in this study, and thus led to purposive sampling (Gay and Airasian, 2003). Both lecturers selected for this study were teaching the English Language Proficiency component. Two classes taught by these lecturers were also identified for this study. The students in both these classes were enrolled in the pre-service courses offered in the institute and were majoring in various subjects. The English Language Proficiency component is a compulsory subject for all major pre-service courses.

4.3 Research procedure

The data collection started with the classroom observations. The recordings of the two lessons were first transcribed. The researcher adopted a verbatim transcription as it would allow for excerpts from the transcripts to be used for the purposes of reporting, discussing and interpreting the findings.

The classroom transcripts were then inductively analysed based on the research questions. Topics were generated from the corpus of data for the purpose of reporting the findings. This, together with data derived from the teacher and student interviews was used for the discussion and interpretation of the results.



32

5.0. FINDINGS

Asking and answering questions seemed central in the classroom discourse of both Teacher A (TA) and Teacher (TB). Between them, both teachers had asked a total of 248 questions for the whole duration of their lessons, thus, indicating that questions are still commonly favoured as a means of eliciting learner language and involving students in the lesson. The questions asked by the teachers during the course of their lessons included those that were repeated, rephrased, redirected as well as questions used for prompting and probing.

TA, who conducted a discussion- based aural-oral lesson had selected a theme for the lesson. Discussion about the theme was generated primarily through the use of teacher questions. On the other hand, TB, who conducted a reading comprehension lesson had used questions to work through the understanding of the reading text. As observed in the transcripts of the two lessons, initial questions (Q1) asked by the teachers consisted of both referential and display questions. Most of the initial questions asked by TA were of the referential-closed type. Similarly the ‘closed’ model featured significantly in Teacher B’s use of display questions. In comparing the students’ responses elicited by referential questions and display questions, no distinct changes were noted in terms of length, structure and the quality of the responses. Regardless of the questions being display or referential, students’ responses were often limited to one-word or short phrases as in the following examples:

Example 1 (TA lines 69 – 70) (The teacher was seeking the student’s opinion) Teacher: When you are alone, do you feel bored?

Student: No.

Example 2 (TA lines 49 – 1.50) (The teacher was seeking the student’s opinion) Teacher: What do you think happens when people are lonely?

Student: They cry.

The ‘closed’ nature of the referential question in Example 1 constrained the student’s response to providing the monosyllable “No” response. Similarly, in Example 2, the referential question by the teacher to seek the student‘s opinion was met with a short response. Since the closed-referential question had functioned to seek factual information, the short response had sufficed in answering the question. Similarly, a significant number of the display questions by TB elicited only short responses. Although the material the teacher used had provided students with content information and linguistic help, students had opted to supplying short responses to the questions. Again this was largely due to the nature of the display questions as evident in the example below:



33

Example 3 (TB lines 9 – 10)

(The teacher was checking the student’s knowledge) T: What is the condition of the car?

S: Damaged.

The closed-ended questions used to elicit factual information contained in the text had effectively constrained the students’ responses to supplying one-word answers. The responses however met the requirements of the questions and the teacher had judged the responses as appropriate and seemed satisfied with them.

In TA’s lesson, the instances where the referential questions produced long responses were few and far between. In fact throughout the lesson, there were only three instances where the referential questions solicited longer responses from the students. An example from TA’s lesson is provided below:

Example 4 (TA lines134 -135) (The teacher was asking the student to relate her experience) T: Sally, tell me your experience when you first came to this

college. Why did you cry? S: Because I came from far away. I cannot adapt …the food was

spicy …

The student’s response to the referential question had demonstrated that the ‘open’ nature of the question had allowed the student to engage in her cognitive process and the manner in which the student responded also reflected that she had attempted to structure a complex response. Similarly, there were also a few instances when responses to the display questions in TB’s lesson succeeded in eliciting longer responses. This is demonstrated in the example provided below:

Example 5 (TB lines101 – 102) (The teacher was seeking student’s opinion about the causes of accidents)

T: Now, why do you think drivers like to speed? S: To reach their destination faster.

Although dealing with known or predictable information, the ‘open’ nature of the display questions had succeeded in eliciting longer response. The display question may not have engaged the student in the same cognitive process as the use of the referential question, but at least there was some improvement in terms of language output. Despite the significant number of display questions asked by TB, the few instances that referential questions were used in the lesson had generated discussions that were more interesting as reflected in an example below:



34

Example 6 ( TB lines 176 – 177) (The teacher was seeking the student’s opinion) T: Are you happy plastic surgery is around? S: Yes, can make the nose look better.

The use of the referential questions had allowed the teacher to venture beyond textual information, factual knowledge as well as information known to the teacher. In asking these questions, the teacher had been genuinely concerned with seeking information from her students and the communication seemed more ‘real’ than that structured by the use of display questions.

One of the strategies employed by both teachers to enhance the questioning-answering sequence in their classroom was the use of probing questions as follow-up to students’ initial responses as in the example below:

Example 7 (TA lines 59 – 64) (The teacher was asking for the student’s opinion) T: Aik, do you like spending time alone? Yes or no? S: Sometimes. T: When do you like being alone? Is there a particular time?

Normally, when do you want to be alone? S: When angry. When have assignments. T: When do you like being with people?

S: When I need to discuss things.

In the above example, the teacher’s initial question was followed up with a number of probing questions which were aimed at seeking clarification based on the student’s responses. Data from the transcripts also showed that both teachers had employed probing questions to raise consciousness about TL use as in the example below:

Example 8 (TA lines 37 – 44) (The teacher was evaluating the student’s knowledge about the subject of mental health) T: Can you tell me one problem that people with mental health

have? S: Psychic. T: Is that the right response? I mean if someone is having a mental

problem, what is the effect? S: Suicide. T: Have you had friends who committed suicide? S: Yes. T: Really? Commit suicide is to kill yourself. Have you had friends

who committed suicide? S: No.



35

Here, the teacher had used a number of probing questions to enable the

student to think through and assess his response and to enable student to form a clearer implication his own response. Such exchanges initiated by questions had prolonged teacher-student interaction and made the discussion interesting.

This study found that both referential and display questions could be followed-up with probing questions. However, student responses to the use of probing questions did not show any pronounced changes in terms of quality or length of structure. This again was a result of the characteristics of the questions. The use of ‘What’ or ‘When’ questions that dealt with factual or known information elicited only short responses. Open questions such as ‘How’ and ‘Why’ questions elicited improved responses in terms of length and the quality of the students’ response.

6.0 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In studying the contrast between the use of referential and display questions, the researcher observed that the choice of questions used by teachers was largely determined by the nature of the lessons and their instructional objectives. In the reading comprehension lesson, a significant number of display questions were asked by the teacher. As display questions were associated with factual questions, they were used for comprehension checks. In explaining her choice of questions, TB who had conducted the reading comprehension lesson said that her primary concern had been to get her students to understand the textual information in the reading material. Her choice of questions, she asserted, enabled her to ascertain whether the lesson fulfilled her objectives of getting her pupils to comprehend the textual information.

Although some research (Brock, 1986; Holmes, 1986; Nunan, 1987) dismiss the use of display questions as ineffective in the language classroom, the researcher shares Shoomosi’s (2004) view that they have a place in the Reading Comprehension lessons for checking students’ comprehension and for asking students to recall facts from the text. However, this does not mean that referential questions cannot be used in the reading comprehension lesson. With careful planning of classroom instructions, teachers can allow the use of more referential questions and achieve instructional gains at the same time.

Long and Crookes (cited in Nunan, 1987) for example, suggested that increasing the use of referential questions over display questions is likely to stimulate a greater quantity of genuine classroom communication. Data from this study also seemed to suggest that referential questions used in the aural-oral lesson had stimulated more interesting discussions as in the example below:

Example 9 (TA lines134 -135) T: When you first came to college, did you feel lonely? S: Yes, Sally cried. T: Sally, tell me your experience when you first came to this

college. Why did you cry?

The use of referential question had allowed for topic nomination by the learners. It is clearly evident that the next question by the teacher was based on



36

the student’s response. Similarly, it was observed that in the two instances that TB had employed referential questions in her reading comprehension lesson, the discussion had been more interesting and had reflected genuine communication.

This research also found that students’ responses improved when open questions were asked. Both the open display and open referential questions elicited improved responses as opposed to the closed questions. The quality of the students’ responses too depended on the types of probing questions used. For example, the “Why” and “How” types of probing questions produced improved responses in terms of length and complexity of structure compared to the “What”, “Who” or “When” types of questions. It was also noted that the use of probing questions enhanced interaction and prolonged communication between teacher and pupil thus supporting Kerry’s (1982) view that probing is beneficial because it can help students to express more fully and more clearly what they have in mind.

One of the teachers in this study viewed probing questions as questions that were able to ‘provoke’ the students’ linguistic capabilities. According to him, using probing questions can bring about improvement to students’ responses as well as influence them to reflect on their responses. His view was shared by the other teacher who said that using probing questions does not only directly affect the particular responder, but can facilitate other students’ thinking as well. Despite these views, the data seemed to suggest that probing questions were seldom employed by the teachers. In fact, Groisser’s (cited in Good & Brophy, 1987) statement that teachers seize upon the first answer given, and often react to it with a comment or move on to asking another question seems to hold much truth.

Therefore, this study makes the following recommendations to enable teachers to utilize questions effectively in the language classroom.

1. Questions should have relevance to the objectives of the lesson. Each context requires an appropriate strategy for itself. However, the objectives should not impose a strict restriction on the types of questions used. Both referential and display questions can be utilized irrespective of the type of lesson and the method of instruction selected by the teacher. With careful planning teachers can effectively use more referential questions to generate greater interest to the topic and lesson.

2. The use of questions should ensure that it increases student participation and student talk in the classroom. As such, teachers should employ more ‘open’ questions than ‘closed’ questions. Closed questions have been found to constrain and limit students’ responses as these questions can be answered by one word, often “yes” or “no”, or by using very short phrases. Open-ended questions, on the other hand, elicited much more thinking or information and required complex responses from the students.

3. Teachers need to determine their learners’ needs in order to achieve the sort of balance needed in using the different types of questions. For example, data from the students’ interview



37

showed that some students preferred open questions as they said the questions allowed them to supply a variety of answers. Also the students said that they preferred questions that required more than just needing them to provide the correct answers, though they admitted that their low proficiency in the language imposed restrictions in being able to answer appropriately.

4. Using good questioning strategies such as asking probing questions will guide students to figure out their answers and also stimulate the questioning process. As questioners, teachers should also be able to further explore students’ responses to enable them to apply their knowledge and encourage them to think through their responses. In using probing questions, teachers will also be able to show students how to extend their responses as subsequent questions are formed based on the students’ responses.

CONCLUSION

In the language classroom, teachers’ questions have important functions

in facilitating language learning. One of the objectives of the ESL curriculum is to promote speaking and expressing in the TL. Therefore, this study implies that teachers’ questioning behaviour, and a greater awareness regarding the use of questions can foster a conducive climate for language learning. As questioners, there is a need for teachers to realize that there are different types of questions, and that some types of questions can limit or constraint students’ responses. As questioners, teachers have to realize that much of the quality and quantity of the information that they are going to receive depends on how it is asked in the first place. Since teacher questions are regarded by both teachers and students as a valuable tool in the language classroom, there is a need for it to be exploited appropriately to maximize teaching and learning.

REFERENCES

[1] Pica, T & Long, M. (1986). The linguistic and conversational performance of experienced and inexperienced teachrs. In Day, R.R.(ed) Talking to learn: conversation in second language acquisition, 85 – 89. Mass.: Newbury House

[2] Chaudron, C. (1988).Second Language Classroom: Research on teaching

And learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [3] Borich, G.D. (1992). Effective Teaching Methods. New York: MacMillan

Publishing Company. [4] Gall, M.D. (1984). Synthesis of research on teachers’ questioning.

Educational Lesdership. 42. 40 – 47.



38

[5] Basturkmen, H. (2001). Descriptions of spoken language for higher learners: the example of questioning. English Language Teaching Journal. 55 (1). 4-13.

[6] Stubbs, M. (1983). Discourse Analysis: the sociolinguistic analysis of

natural language. Oxford: Blackwell. [7] Good, T.L & Brophy, J.E. (1987). Looking in Classrooms. New York:

Harper Row [8] Brock, C.A. (1986). The effects of referential questions on ESL

classroom discourse. TESOL Quarterly. 20 (1), 47 – 58 [9] Nunan, D. (1987). Communicative language teaching: Making it work.

ELT Journal. 41 (2). 136 – 145 [10] Wu, Kam-yin. (1993). Classroom Interaction and Teacher Questions

Revisited. RELC Journal. 24 (2). 49 – 68. [11] Long, M.H. & Sato, C. (1983), Classroom foreigner talk discourse: forms

and functions of teachers’ questions in Seliger, H. and Long, M.H.(eds). Classroom Oriented Research in Second Language Acquisistion.

[12] Kerry, T. (1982). Effective Questioning: A teaching skill workbook.

London: MacMillan. [13] Brown, H.D. (1994). Teaching by Principles: An interactive approach to

language pedagogy. New Jersey:Prentice Hall. [14] Borg, W. R. and Gall, M. D. (1989). Educational Research: An

Introduction. New York: Longman [15] Gay, L.R. and Airasian, P. (2003). Educational Research: competencies

for analysis and applications. New Jersey: Pearson Education. [16] Holmes, J. (1986). Classroom interaction and the second language

learner. Guidelines. 8 (2). 19 – 30. [17] Shoomosi, N. (2004). The Effect of Teachers’ Questioning Behavior on

EFL Classroom Interaction: A Classroom Research Study. The Reading Matrix. [Online] 4 (2) 96-104. Available: http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/shoomosi/article/pdf. [2005, Jan. 21].



39

GAYA PEMBELAJARAN, KEMAHIRAN GENERIK DAN MOTIVASI PELAJAR MERENTASI BIDANG SAINS TULEN, KEJURUTERAAN DAN

SAINS SOSIAL DI UTM

ABDUL RAHIM HAMDAN MOHAMAD NAJIB GHAFFAR AZLINA BT. KOSNIN JAMALUDDIN RAMLI MAHANI BT. MOKHTAR

Jabatan Asas Pendidikan Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Johor Bahru [email protected] © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor . 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRAK - Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mengenalpasti amalan gaya pembelajaran pelajar, kemahiran generik, motivasi belajar dan pencapaian akademik pelajar-pelajar tahun tiga fakulti-fakluti dari disiplin Sains, Sains Sosial dan Kejuruteraan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Seramai lima ratus orang pelajar telah dipilih secara rawak dari semua fakulti sebagai sampel kajian. Kajian ini juga mengenalpasti perbezaan amalan gaya pembelajaran pelajar, kemahiran generik, motivasi belajar dan pencapaian akademik pelajar. Kajian deskriptif berbentuk tinjauan ini menggunakan siri soal-selidik untuk mendapatkan maklumat yang berkaitan. Perbandingan nilai min dan ujian-t digunakan sebagai asas dapatan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa amalan gaya pembelajaran yang berorientasi pembelajaran dalaman adalah sederhana dan amalan gaya pembelajaran yang berorientasi pembelajaran luaran adalah tinggi. Bagi kemahiran generik pula didapati bagi aspek komunikasi, kemahiran kerja dalam kumpulan, pembelajaran sepanjang hayat, kemahiran kepimpinan, beretika dan berintegriti adalah tinggi manakala bagi aspek kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah dan kemahiran keusahawanan adalah sederhana. Pelajar mempunyai motivasi belajar secara intrinsik yang tinggi dan motivasi belajar ekstrinsik yang sederhana. Dari segi pencapaian pelajar didapati secara keseluruhannya sebahagian besar pelajar-pelajar berada pada aras kelas dua tinggi. Secara perbandingannya didapati pelajar-pelajar yang datang dari disiplin yang berbeza mengamalkan gaya pembelajaran yang berbeza, kemahiran generik yang berbeza dan motivasi yang berbeza. Keadaan ini menunjukkan pelbagai langkah perlu diambil secara pro-aktif untuk menyeimbangkan dan meningkatkan



40

keupayaan pelajar sebagai graduan yang kompeten dari pelbagai aspek untuk memenuhi cabaran globalisasi. Kata Kunci: Gaya Pembelajaran, Kemahiran Generik, Motivasi dan Pencapaian Akademik

1.0 PENGENALAN

Pencapaian akademik merupakan alat ukur kepada kejayaan pelajar mengikuti sesuatu kursus di universiti. Walau bagaimanapun tahap kesediaan pelajar untuk mengharungi dunia luar selepas mengikuti kursus dengan jayanya di universiti telah menjadi persoalan yang hangat dibincangkan sejak akhir-akhir ini. Perbagai persoalan timbul berkaiatan dengan bagaimanakah pelajar itu belajar, apakah kemahiran generik yang telah di terapkan dan apakah yang memotivasikan mereka untuk belajar dan apakah kaitannya dengan pencapaian mereka.

Ilmu pengetahuan hendaklah disertai dengan tahap kemahiran yang tinggi untuk mencapai sesuatu kerja yang bermutu tinggi. Kemahiran adalah salah satu unsur yang penting dalam kehidupan manusia. Lebih banyak bidang kemahiran yang dapat dikuasai, ia akan mendatangkan lebih banyak faedah dalam kehidupan. Dalam konteks pembelajaran dan pekerjaan, para pelajar perlu didedahkan dengan kemahiran generik yang merupakan kemahiran utama yang perlu ada untuk memudahkan pelajar melaksanakan tugas dalam pelbagai situasi di alam pembelajaran, kehidupan dan pekerjaan seharian.

Dalam konteks menuntut ilmu, universiti adalah merupakan sebuah pusat penyebaran ilmu pengetahuan yang terkemuka. Para pelajar dapat mempelajari berbagai-bagai bidang baru yang ditawarkan di universiti. Kewujudan universiti telah memberi peluang kepada semua pelajar-pelajar yang berkelayakan untuk melanjutkan pelajaran di dalam bidang yang diminati. Pelbagai bidang atau mata pelajaran dirancang dan disediakan untuk memenuhi keperluan para pelajar di peringkat universiti.

Kajian ini akan cuba melihat perkaitan antara kemahiran generik, gaya pembelajaran dan motivasi pelajar yang datang daripada disiplin program yang berbeza di Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

1.1 Objektif Kajian

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk melihat tahap kemahiran generik, gaya belajar pemilihan dan bentuk motivasi pelajar-pelajar tahun 3 kesemua 10 fakulti, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

Antara objektif kajian yang akan dijalankan adalah :

i. Mengenalpasti tahap pencapaian akademik pelajar-pelajar tahun 3 dari teras disiplin yang berbeza iaitu Sains, Kejuruteraan dan Sosial Sains di Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.



41

ii. Mengenalpasti tahap kemahiran generik dikalangan pelajar-pelajar tahun 3 dari teras disiplin yang berbeza iaitu Sains, Kejuruteraan dan Sosial Sains di Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

iii. Mengenalpasti tahap pendekatan belajar pelajar-pelajar tahun 3

dari teras disiplin yang berbeza iaitu Sains, Kejuruteraan dan Sosial Sains di Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

iv. Mengenalpasti bentuk motivasi pelajar-pelajar tahun 3

dari teras disiplin yang berbeza iaitu Sains, Kejuruteraan dan Sosial Sains di Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

v. Menentukan adakah terdapat perbezaan kemahiran generik,

gaya belajar dan motivasi antara pelajar-pelajar dari teras disiplin yang berbeza (Sains, Kejuruteraan dan Sains Sosial).

2.0 KAJIAN LITERATUR

Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (1995) dalam konteks sistem

persekolahan di Malaysia telah menggariskan bentuk kemahiran generik untuk pelajar adalah seperti berikut:

1. Kemahiran berkomunikasi 2. Kemahiran menggunakan teknologi 3. Kemahiran merancang dan mengelola aktiviti 4. Kemahiran bekerja dengan orang lain dan dalam kumpulan 5. Kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah 6. Kemahiran mengurus, memilih dan menganalisa maklumat 7. Kemahiran memahami budaya 8. Kemahiran menggunakan idea dan teknik metematik

Menurut Gibbs et al.(1994), kemahiran generik melibatkan kemahiran

personal dan interpersonal yang diperlukan untuk komunikasi dan bekerja secara koperatif dan kolaboratif dalam kumpulan. Gibbs et al.(1994) dan Blumhof et al. (1996) menyatakan, kemahiran generik merupakan satu kemahiran di mana seseorang itu boleh bekerja dengan baik secara berdikari mahupun dalam kumpulan. Industri kini memerlukan graduan dapat menjadi pekerja yang mempunyai kepelbagaian jenis kemahiran. Oblinger dan Verville (1998) menyatakan bahawa graduan yang berjaya adalah mahir dan pakar dalam bidang mereka, walaupun begitu mereka haruslah melengkapkan diri mereka dengan kemahiran generik untuk membolehkan mereka menyesuaikan diri mereka dengan alam pekerjaan.

Michelle Tullier (2000), menjelaskan bahawa kemahiran-kemahiran yang sering dilihat oleh majikan ialah kemahiran berfikiran secara kreatif dan kritis, kemahiran komunikasi, kemahiran interpersonal, kemahiran mengurus, memilih dan menganalisis maklumat, kemahiran memahami budaya dan kemahiran bekerjasama dengan orang lain. Sijil sahaja tidak menjamin seseorang itu berjaya dipilih untuk bekerjaya. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) telah menggariskan bentuk kemahiran generik yang akan diterapkan kepada pelajar-



42

pelajarnya adalah berdasarkan kepada atribut graduan selaras dengan misi Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia. Atribut inilah yang digunakan penyelidik sebagai 7 daripada kemahiran generik yang di kaji. Berikut merupakan kemahiran generik yang disasarkan UTM beserta dengan ciri-ciri bagi setiap kemahiran:

1. Kemahiran Komunikasi 2. Kemahiran bekerja secara kumpulan 3. Kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah 4. Kemahiran mengurus dan menganalisa maklumat 5. Kemahiran usahawan 6. Kemahiran kepimpinan 7. Beretika dan berintegriti

Dari kajian-kajian lepas, terdapat dua perbezaan kumpulan pendekatan gaya belajar iaitu pendekatan dalaman dan luaran untuk pembelajaran yang telah dibangunkan oleh Entwistle et al. dalam program kajian di Lancaster 1983). Pendekatan dalaman bergantung pada penggunaan hubungan makna pembelajaran antara konsep dalam ’semantic-long term memory’. Makna dari bahan dicipta melalui jaringan di antara perhubungan, yang mana akan melibatkan ’episodic’ seperti ’schemata semantic’ dari pengalaman peribadi. Ausubel (1978) mengatakan, adalah penting sekali bahawa memori batas waktu panjang akan tidak terbatas dalam saiz dan waktu lamanya. ’Scemata’ dan imej dari peristiwa lepas disimpan dalam memori batas waktu panjang, ia juga mengandungi konsep untuk menyediakan cara dari memeluap makna. Ini menunjukkan bahawa pendekatan dalaman melibatkan tujuan untuk memahami dan mencuba untuk menceritakan maklumat yang datang untuk pengetahuan yang dahulu dan pengalaman dalam aturan untuk mengutip makna peribadi.

Pendekatan luaran berasaskan pada pembelajaran menghafal melalui ulangan dalam memori batas waktu yang singkat sehingga kata demi kata perwakilan daripada bahan terancang dalam episodic memori batas waktu panjang. Tujuannya adalah untuk memenuhi permintaan tugas, yang mana memimpin untuk memperingatkan hanya dari pandangan yang diperlukan oleh guru. Ausubel (1978) juga menyatakan bahawa memori batas waktu singkat nampak terbatas dalam saiz dan waktu lamanya. Proses menggunakan ulangan untuk melakukan memori bahan yang sama diterangkan oleh Ausubel sebagai “pembelajaran menghafal”.

Pendekatan kepada pembelajaran adalah merujuk kepada perbezaan motif dengan kesamaan strategi yang pelajar gunakan untuk berjaya melakukan berbagai-bagai tujuan berkaitan kepada pembelajaran. Entwistle & Ramsden (1983) menyatakan hubungan diantara pendekatan kepada pembelajaran dan pencapaian akademik, penemuan khas adalah korelasi negatif diantara pendekatan luaran dan pencapaian. Pendekatan dalaman adalah lebih kepada menyukai kepada mengaitkan kepada kecemerlangan akademik dalam tahun dari kursus ijazah dan bila prosedur pengkajian secara terus dihadiahkan demonstrasi pemahaman tentang konsep, tapi gabungan pendekatan luaran dan strategik mungkin berguna kepada pelajar sains dan walau apa fakta berorientasikan penggunaan pengkajian (Entwistle, et al. 2000).



43

Dalam kajian kepada pencapaian akademik pelajar psikologi pada perbezaan peringkat dalam program pengajian mereka, Sadler-Smith (1997) menemui kesignifikanan dan korelasi yang positif diantara prestasi dan pendekatan dalaman (r = 0.26) dalam sampel pelajar-pelajar perniagaan. Keputusan ini mencadangkan hubungan sederhana diantara pendekatan pembelajaran dan prestasi. Abdul Rahim (2004), menemui hubungan yang lemah antara pendekatan dalaman (r = 0.05) dan pendekatan luaran (r = 0.12) dengan pencapaian akademik pelajar dalam kajiannya ke atas pelajar-pelajar Perdana PTV, UTM. Manakala kajiannya ke atas pelajar-pelajar PKPG PTV, UTM pula hubungan yang diperolehi antara pendekatan dalaman (r = 0.43) dengan pencapaian akademik adalah sederhana. Pendekatan luaran (r = 0.25) dengan pencapaian akademik pula adalah rendah.

Teori dua faktor herzberg menyarankan bahawa terdapat dua faktor motivasi iaitu ’dissatisfier’ dan ’satisfier’. Faktor ’dissatisfier’ mewakili faktor ekstrinsik terhadap pekerjaan seperti upah, suasana kerja polisi pengurusan dan lain-lain. Herzberg percaya bahawa faktor-faktor ini tidak menjadi faktor secara terus sabagai motivasi tetapi sebagai tambahan kapada motivasi iaitu sesuatu yang perlu sahaja. Kehilangan salah satu faktor motivasi ini mungkin menjejaskan motivasi tetapi kehadiran semiua faktor akan menyebabkan muncul motivasi kedua iaitu ’satisfier’ yang menjelaskan tahap motivasi seseorang. Faktor ’satisfier’ meliputi kerja itu sendiri iaitu kompetensi, pengiktirafan, dan perkembangan.

Motivasi boleh dikategorikan kepada dua iaitu motivasi intrinsik dan motivasi ekstrinsik. Motivasi intrinsik berpunca daripada dalam diri seseorang, manakala motivasi ekstrinsik adalah berpunca dari luar diri seseoarang dan ia berkait rapat dengan pengukuhan. 3.0 METODOLOGI KAJIAN

Kajian ini adalah berbentuk deskriptif iaitu kajian yang menerangkan sesuatu fenomena atau bagi mendapatkan maklumat mengenai sesuatu peristiwa yang sedang berlaku (Majid, 1990). Kajian ini dijalankan di semua fakulti, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor iaitu;

i. Fakulti Sains (FS) ii. Fakulti Pendidikan (FP) i. Fakulti Alam Bina (FAB) ii. Fakulti Pengurusan Sumber Manusia (FPPSM) iii. Fakulti Sains Komputer (FSK) iv. Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam (FKA) v. Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik (FKE) vi. Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal (FKM) vii. Fakulti Kejuruteraan Kimia Sumber Asli (FKKSA) viii. Fakulti Kejuruteraan Sains Geoinformasi (FKSG)



44

Sampel yang digunakan ialah Pelajar-Pelajar Tahun Tiga Pendidikan Fakulti-fakulti dalam disiplin Sain Tulen, Kejuruteraan dan Sains Sosial UTM iaitu seramai 500 orang pelajar. Oleh itu, kaedah persampelan tidak rawak-sampelan bertujuan telah digunakan. Soal selidik digunakan untuk mendapatkan maklumat yang dikehendaki. Menurut Mohamad Najib (1999), penggunaan soal selidik dapat meningkatkan ketepatan dan kebenaran yang diberikan oleh sampel kerana ia tidak dipengaruhi oleh pengkaji. Set soal selidik yang digunakan mengandungi dua bahagian iaitu bahagian A dan bahagian B. Bahagian A mengandungi perkara yang berkaitan biodata responden. Manakala bahagian B pula tiga sub yang berkaitan iaitu pendekatan belajar, kemahiran generik dan motivasi. Kajian rintis tidak dijalankan kerana kajian ini menggunakan instrumen yang dibina oleh Abdul Rahim Hamdan (2004) dalam kajiannya ke atas pelajar-pelajar PKPG dan perdana Pendidikan Teknik dan Vosional yang bertajuk “Student Study Approach Preferences and Motivation in Teacher Training in Malaysia”. Nilai Alpha Cronbach untuk item soalan pendekatan dalaman adalah 0.89 manakala untuk item soalan pendekatan luaran adalah 0.73.

Hasil analisis bahagian A akan ditunjukkan dalam bentuk jadual peratusan. Bahagian B pula, pengkaji akan menganalisis setiap persoalan kajian yang dikemukakan mengikut aspek kajian yang ditentukan. Kaedah yang digunakan bagi memproses data-data yang diperolehi adalah berdasarkan kepada min. Pertimbangan Skor Min dibuat mengikut aras rendah, sederhana dan tinggi. Ujian Anova Satu Hala pada aras signifikan, p=0.05 digunakan untuk menunjukkan perbezaan antara pemboleh ubah yang digunakan terhadap pelajar-pelajar dari berlainan disiplin.

4.0 DATA DAN PERBINCANGAN

Jadual 4.1 di bawah menunjukan jumlah dan peratusan responden bagi setiap fakulti yang telah di ambil sebagai sampel untuk tujuan kajian ini, pada dasarnya reponden tersebut merupakan wakil keseluruhan pelajar yang mengikuti pengajian difakulti-fakulti berkaitan.

Jadual 1: Taburan Responden Mengikut Fakulti

Bil Fakulti Jumlah Responden

Peratusan

1. Fakulti Pendidikan 79 15.8

2. Fakulti Alam Bina 47 9.4

3. Fakulti Pengurusan Sumber Manusia

40 8.0

4. Fakulti Sains 92 18.4

5. Fakulti Sains Komputer 26 5.2

6. Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam 41 8.2

7. Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal 39 7.8

8. Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik 59 11.8



45

9. Fakulti Kejuruteraan Sains Geoinformasi

46 9.2

10. Fakulti Kejuruteraan Kimia dan Sumber Asli

31 6.2

Jumlah 500 100

Tahap pencapaian akademik pelajar-pelajar mengikut fakulti, pada

dasarnya ramai pelajar dari setiap fakulti berada dalam kedudukan CGPA 3.00 hingga 4.00. Sebagai contohnya Fakulti Pendidikan (87.3%), Fakulti Alam Bina (70.3%), Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam (90.3%), Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal (59%), Fakulti Kejuruteraan Sains Geoinformasi (73.9%), , Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik (86.4%), Fakulti Pengurusan Sumber Manusia (72.5%), Fakulti Sains Komputer (73.1). Walaubagaimanapun terdapat fakluti yang mempunyai pencapaian yang agak rendah berbanding dengan fakulti-fakulti lain iaitu Fakulti Kejuruteraan Kimia dan Sumber Asli (54.9%) dan Fakulti Sains (39.1%). Pelajar-pelajar masih lagi mempunyai 3 semester lagi untuk mengekalkan prestasi atau meningkat prestasi sebelum tamat pengajian. Bagi pelajar-pelajar Fakulti Sains pula mereka yang diambil sebagai sampel kajian ialah merupakan pelajar tahun akhir pengajian memandangkan pada tahun pengambilan pelajar-pelajar tahun tiga fakulti-fakulti laian, fakulti sains tidak membuat pengambilan. Secara keseluruhannya, 69.6% pelajar-pelajar dari semua fakulti adalah berada pada kedudukan CGPA 3.00 hingga 4.00 dan ini memberikan gambaran yang baik terhadap pencapian pelajar. Rajah 1 menunjukkan carta bar kedudukan CGPA pelajar mengikut fakulti.

1=FP2=FAB

3=FKA4=FKM

5=FKSG6=FS

7=FKKSA8=FKE

9=FPPSM10=FSK

0

10

20

30

40

50

60CGPA

2=2.00 - 2.49

3=2.50 - 2.99

4=3.00 - 3.49

5=3.50 - 4.00

Pencapaian Akedemik Mengikut Fakulti

Rajah 1: Carta Bar Pencapaian Akademik Mengikut Fakulti berdasar

peperiksaan akhir semester 1 2006/2007 pelajar tahun 3



46

Tahap kemahiran generik pelajar-pelajar tahun 3 bagi semua fakulti di Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Secara keseluruhannya semua pelajar dari setiap fakulti mempunyai tahap yang tinggi untuk bahagian kemahiran komunikasi iaitu berada di antara tahap min 3.7-3.9 dan min keseluruhan ialah 3.82. Untuk kemahiran menyelesai masalah pula Fakulti Pendidikan, Fakulti Alam Bina, Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam, Fakulti Kejuruteraan Elektrik dan Fakulti Mekanikal mempunyai tahap min yang tinggi iaitu diantara 3.67 hingga 3.8. Manakala bagi Fakulti Kejuruteraan Sains Geoinformasi, Fakulti Sains, Fakulti Kejuruteraan Kimia dan Sumber Asli, Fakulti Pengurusan Sumber Manusia dan Fakulti Sains Komputer mempunyai tahap yang sederhana iaitu min diantara 3.4 hingga 3.66. Secara keseluruhannya tahap kemahiran menyelesai masalah adalah pada tahap sederhana iaitu dengan min 3.65. Bagi kemahiran bekerja dalam kumpulan pula didapati pelajar-pelajar dari semua fakulti mempunyai tahap min yang tinggi iaitu di antara 3.9 hingga 4.2 dan min keseluruhannya ialah 4.08. Pembelajaran sepanjang hayat dan kemahiran pengurusan maklumat juga menunjukkan pelajar-pelajar dari semua fakulti berada pada tahap min yang tinggi iaitu di antara di antara 3.9 hingga 4.2 dan min keseluruhannya ialah 4.07. Bagi kemahiran Keusahawanan pula di dapati pelajar-pelajar dari tiga fakulti (Fakulti Kejuruteraan Sains Geoinformasi, Fakulti Sains Komputer dan Fakulti Pengurusan Sumber Manusia) yang mempunyai tahap min yang tinggi iaitu diantara 3.68-3.81. Manakala kemahiran keusahawanan pelajar dari fakulti-fakulti lain berada pada tahap sederhana iaitu di antara min 3.11 hingga 3.66 dan ini mempengaruhi min keseluruhan menjadi sederhana iaitu 3.49 sahaja. Bagi Kemahiran Kepimpinan pula menunjukkan hanya pelajar-pelajar dari tiga fakulti (Fakulti Sains, Fakulti Kejuruteraan Kimia dan Sumber Asli dan Fakulti Pengurusan Sumber Manusia) menunjukkan tahap min yang sederhana iaitu di antara 3.61-3.64, manakala fakulti-fakulti lain semuanya berada pada tahap min yang tinggi iaitu diantara 3.67 hingga 3.92dan ini mempengaruhi min keseluruhan bagi Kemahiran Kepimpinan iaitu 3.73 untuk berasda pada tahap tinggi. Kemahiran Beretika dan berintegriti, pelajar-pelajar dari semua fakulti menunjukkan mereka berada di tahap yang tinggi iaitu di antara 3.8 dan min keseluruhan kategori ialah pada tahap min 4.20. Secara keseluruhannya, semua pelajar dari semua fakulti mempunyai tahap kemahiran generik yang tinggi iaitu pada tahap min 3.86. Dari aspek pendekatan pembelajaran pula di dapati pelajar-pelajar dari Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam dan Fakulti Sains Komputer mengamalkan pendekatan pembelajaran luaran pada tahap yang tinggi iaitu pada aras min 3.72 dan 3.77, manakala pelajar dari fakulti-fakulti lain hanya mengamalkan pembelajaran pada tahap sederhana iaitu antara 3.45 hingga 3.66 sahaja. Keadaan ini menunjukkan secara keseluruhannya pelajar-pelajar dari semua



47

fakulti mengamalkan pembelajaran luaran secara sederhana iaitu pada tahap min 3.56.

Bagi amalan pembelajaran dalaman pula didapati Fakulti Pendidikan,

Fakulti Alam Bina dan Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam menunjukkan pelajar-pelajarnya berada pada tahap min yang tinggi iaitu dalam lingkungan min 3.68 hingga 3.72, manakala pelajar-pelajar dari lain-lain fakulti berada pada tahap sederhana iaitu di antara min 3.32 hingga 3.66 dan ini secara keseluruhannya menunjukkan amalan pembelajaran secara dalaman juga berada pada tahap sederhana iaitu dengan min 3.58 tinggi sedikit berbanding min untuk pembelajaran secara luaran.

Dari aspek motivasi belajar pula di dapati pelajar-pelajar dari semua

fakulti mempunyai tahap motivasi intrinsik yang tinggi iaitu diantara min 3.74 hingga 4.15 dengan min keseluruhannya yang tinggi iaitu min 3.95. Bagi motivasi ekstrinsik pula didapati pelajar-pelajar dari semua fakulti mempunyai tahap motivasi intrinsik yang sederhana iaitu pada min 3.32 hingga 3.53 kecuali Fakulti Kejuruteraan elektrik yang berada pada tahap tinggi dengan min 3.67. Secara keseluruhannya didapati tahap motivasi ekstrinsik adalah pada tahap sederhana dengan minnya 3.47.

Berdasarkan analisis Anova Satu Hala Kemahiran Generik Pelajar, nilai signifikan yang diperolehi ialah 0.001 iaitu lebih kecil daripada nilai signifikan yang ditentukan iaitu p<0.05, oleh itu hipotesis yang menyatakan tidak terdapat perbezaan kemahiran generik pelajar dari fakulti-fakulti yang berbeza adalah ditolak. Analisis ini menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan kemahiran generik di antara pelajar-pelajar dari fakulti yang berbeza. Pada dasarnya keupayaan kemahiran generik pelajar adalah berbeza dan ini dapat dilihat berdasarkan plot perbezaan yang signifikan dari jadual 2.

Jadual 2 Plot Perbezaan Kemahiran Generik pelajar antara fakulti di UTM FP FAB FPPSM FS FSK FKA FKM FKE FKSG FKKS

A

FP / /

FAB / /

FPPSM / / / /

FS / / / /

FSK /

FKA / / / /

FKM

FKE /

FKSG / /

FKKSA /

/ : Perbezaan Kemahiran Generik yang paling signifikan antara fakulti



48

Nilai signifikan yang diperolehi bagi gaya belajar dalaman pelajar adalah 0.000 dan ia adalah lebih kecil berbanding dengan nilai signifikan p<0.05, hipotesis nol adalah di tolak, di mana terdapat perbezaan dari segi gaya belajar secara dalaman pelajar-pelajar dari berlainan fakulti. Bagi Gaya belajar Luaran pula,nilai signifikan yang diperolehi adalah 0.001 dan ia adalah lebih kecil berbanding dengan nilai signifikan p<0.05, hipotesis nol juga adalah di tolak, di mana terdapat perbezaan dari segi gaya belajar secara luaran pelajar-pelajar dari berlainan fakulti.Pada dasarnya gaya belajar sama ada secara dalaman atau luaran pelajar adalah berbeza dan ini dapat dilihat berdasarkan plot perbezaan yang signifikan dari jadual 3 dibawah

Jadual 3 Perbezaan penggunaan gaya belajar dalaman dan luaran pelajar antara fakulti di UTM

FP FAB

FPPSM

FS FSK

FKA FKM

FKE FKSG

FKKSA

FP * /* /* /

FAB / / /

FPPSM

* * *

FS /*

/ /*

/* /*

FSK * /* * /* /*

FKA * /* * /* /

FKM * * /

FKE /*

/ /*

/* *

FKSG

/* * /

FKKSA

/ / /*

/ / /

/ : Perbezaan gaya belajar Dalaman yang paling signifikan antara fakulti * : Perbezaan gaya belajar Luaran yang paling signifikan antara fakulti

Analisis bagi Motivasi Belajar Intrinsik pelajar menunjukkan nilai signifikan yang diperolehi adalah 0.001 dan ia adalah lebih kecil berbanding dengan nilai signifikan p<0.05, hipotesis nol adalah di tolak, di mana terdapat perbezaan dari motivasi intrinsik pelajar-pelajar dari berlainan fakulti. Manakala nilai signifikan bagi Motivasi Belajar Ekstrinsik adalah 0.012 dan ia adalah lebih kecil berbanding dengan nilai signifikan p<0.05, hipotesis nol adalah di tolak, di mana terdapat perbezaan dari motivasi ekstrinsik pelajar-pelajar dari berlainan fakulti. Walau bagaimanapun perbezaannya tidak sebesar motivasi intrinsik. Pada dasarnya motivasi belajar pelajar juga adalah berbeza adalah berbeza dan



49

ini dapat dilihat berdasarkan plot perbezaan yang signifikan dari jadual 4.4 dibawah. Jadual 4 Perbezaan motivasi belajar pelajar antara fakulti di UTM

FP FAB FPPSM FS FSK FKA FKM FKE FKSG FKKSA

FP / / /* /

FAB / /

FPPSM / * /

FS / / * / /* / /* /

FSK / * /

FKA / /* / /

FKM / /

FKE /* /* * / * /*

FKSG / * /

FKKSA / / / / / /* /

/ : Perbezaan motivasi intrinsik yang paling signifikan antara fakulti * : Perbezaan motivasi ekstrinsik yang paling signifikan fakulti

RUMUSAN Kajian ini telah dijalankan ke atas 500 orang pelajar tiga dari sepuluh fakulti di Universiti Teknologi Malaysia dengan menggunakan kaedah soal selidik sebagai instrumen untuk mengumpul maklumat berkaitan kemahiran generik, pendekatan belajar dan motivasi belajar pelajar. Hasil daripada analisis yang dijalankan, pengkaji mendapati tahap pencapaian akademik pelajar-pelajar tahun tiga keseluruhannya berada pada tahap yang berbeza mengikut fakulti. Pelajar-pelajar masih boleh memperbaiki keputusan mereka kerana mereka masih ada tiga semester lagi untuk diharungi kecuali pelajar-pelajar dari Fakulti Sains yang hanya tinggal satu semester sahaja lagi. Pengkaji juga mendapati kesemua pelajar-pelajar tahun tiga dari semua teras disiplin mempunyai tahap kemahiran generik yang sederhana walaupun terdapat perbezaan di antara fakulti. Mereka juga mengamalkan pendekatan belajar secara dalaman dan luaran dalam pendekatan belajar mereka semasa belajar. Walaubagaimanapun pelajar harus bijak memilih kesesuaian pendekatan kerana belajar diperingkat tinggi memerlukan ras kognitif pada tahap yang tinggi. Dari segi motivasi belajar pula, dapat dirumuskan disini bahawa keseluruhan pelajar mempunyai tahap motivasi intrinsik yang tinggi berbanding motivasi ekstrinsik. Kedua-dua jenis motivasi adalah penting kepada pelajar kerana kejayaan pelajar adalah berkait rapat dengan motif pelajar untuk



50

mencapai sesuatu.

Pelajar-pelajar tahun tiga dari fakulti-fakulti di UTM mempunyai tahap kemahiran insaniah, amalan belajar dan motivasi belajar yang tersendiri. Walaupun ketiga-tiga elemen yang dikaji menunjukkan tahap yang sederhana, kedudukan pencapaian akademik pelajar-pelajar ini boleh di perbaiki dari semasa ke semasa dengan memberikan kesedaran terhadap kepentingan kemahiran dan pencapaian apabila mereka graduan kelak.

Selain itu, adalah diharapkan agar hasil kajian ini dapat digunakan oleh pihak-pihak yang terlibat untuk memperbaiki kelemahan-kelemahan yang dikenal pasti dapat menangani masalah pembelajaran pelajar agar pada masa akan datang lebih ramai lagi pelajar akan memperolehi pencapaian Kepujian Kelas Pertama bagi melahirkan generasi dan masyarakat yang kaya dengan ilmu pengetahuan dan cemerlang di dalam bidang akademik dan boleh bersaing dengan graduan-graduan dari universiti-universiti lain dalam dunia yang semakin kompetetif ini.

PENGHARGAAN

Setinggi-tingggi penghargaan diucapkan kepada Centre of Teaching and Learning UTM kerana membiayai dana penyelidikan ini, dekan-dekan fakulti-fakulti yang terlibat kerana memberikan kebenaran menjalankan kajian, pelajar-pelajar tahun 3 yang telah menjadi sampel kepada kajian, pensyarah-pensyarah yang memberikan kebenara untuk pelajar-pelajar mereka menjawab soal-selidik dan tidak ketinggalan kepada rakan-rakan dalam kumpulan penyelidikan ini yang telah berusaha dan sama-sama mengembeleng tenaga dan buah fikiran dalam melaksanakan kajian ini. RUJUKAN [1] Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (1995), ”Kemahiran Generik.” Kuala

Lumpur : Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. [2] Gibbs G., Rust, C., Jenkins, A., & Jaques, D..(1994) ‘ Devoloping

Students’ Transferable Skills’. Oxford. [3] Blumhof, J., Honeybone, A., Pearlman, D., & Pink, K. (1996). “Tackling

the Problem of Skills Development in a modular degree programme” ; the skillswise project. In G. Gibbs (Ed. “, Improving student Learning : Using Research to Improve Student Learning (pp. 328 – 339). OxFord, UK : OxFord Centre For Staff Development.

[4] Oblinger, D. G and Verville, A.L (1998) ‘What Business Wants From

Higher Education’. Phoenix, The Oryx Press [5] Michelle Tullier (2000) ‘The Skills You Have, The Skills They Want’.

Tidak diterbitkan.



51

[6] Entwistle, N. J. (1983). Understanding Student Learning. London. Nichols Publishing Company.

[7] Ausubel, D. P., J. S. and Anesian, H. Novak (1978) Educational

Psychology: A Cognitive View (2nd Ed). New york. Holt, Rinehart and Wilson.

[8] Entwistle, N. J. and Ramsden, P. (1983) Understanding Student

learning. London: Croom Helm [9] Entwistle, N., Tait, H., & McCune, V. (2000). Patterns of response to an

approaches to studying inventory across contrasting groups and contexts. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 15(1), 33-48.

[10] Sadler-Smith, E. (1997). ‘Learning style’: Frameworks and instruments.

Educational Psychology, 17(1&2), 51-63. [11] Abdul Rahim Hamdan (2004). Student Study Approach Preferences and

Motivation in Teacher Training in Malaysia. University of Surrey, United Kingdom: Tesis PHD.

[12] Mohd Majid Konteng (1993), “Kaedah Penyelidikan Pendidikan,” Kuala

Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka. [13] Mohd Najib Abdul Ghafar (1999), “Penyelidikan Pendidikan,” Johor

Bharu : Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.



52

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE : THE RELIABILITY OF MyMICA IN IDENTIFYING TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGY

SITI RAHAYAH ARIFFIN RUSMINAH MUSLIMAN

© Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRAK - The purpose of this study is to examine the reliability and construct validity of Multiple Intelligence Checklist for Adult (MyMICA), that incorporates the theory and practice of Multiple Intelligences. The instrument was developed by a group of researchers from Malaysia led by Siti Rahayah Ariffin (2004). MyMICA which has 80 perception items using 5 point Likert Scale comprises nine constructs namely: (i) verbal-linguistics (vl), (ii) logical mathematic (lm), (iii) bodily-kinesthetic (kb), (iv) music (mz), (v) spatial (vr), (vi) interpersonal (ie), (vii) intrapersonal (ia), (viii) naturalist (na) and (ix) spiritual (kr). There were 526 respondents from secondary schools involved in this study. The data collected was analysed using computer programme Winsteps version 3.63.0 which applied Rasch Model based on Item Response Theory (IRT) Models. The instrument reliability was examined by analysing item reliability index. The construct validity was examined by analysing the point-measure correlation index. The findings showed that the item reliability of 9 constructs were between 0.97 and 1.00. Construct validity analysis showed that every item in the constructs were correlated positively to measure a single underlying construct. Hence, MyMICA with a high reliability and construct validity is a vital tool in helping educators to discover the unique potential of each student as well as the areas of challenges. The awareness on the individual’s unlimited potential in the different area helps educators to realign their pedagogy in order to meet students’ individual needs. As a conclusion, MyMICA is a solution in helping educators accommodate different learning styles to better value the individual student.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Today’s classrooms present a number of new challengers to people in

the field of education. Students come from diverse backgrounds, have different skills sets, possess various levels of background knowledge and represent various learning styles. In order to cater the challengers, there is a need to design instruments in assessing students strengths and weaknessess for the



53

educaters to shape the teaching styles. Wright & Stone (1979) suggested that in the construction of items which aim to measure person’s behaviour, it is very important for instrument developer to be aware of the crucial task of constructing high-quality items. A high quality items is related to the validity and reliability of the instrument. Rasch analysis provides general guidelines to assist the developers determine the validity and reliability of items developed. Developers must assess whether all items work together to measure a single variable. This is called a unidimentionality concept; an important touchstone in psychological research. A unidimentionality concept can be assessed by examining the point measure correlation value (PTMEA Corr) to see the correlation between items in measuring a single underlying construct. A construct with a set of unidimentional items should display a positive PTMEA Corr value. Any item which does not show as measuring the single construct should be rewritten or excluded (Bond & Fox 2001). Bond & Fox (2001) also suggested that an instrument with high item reliability index indicates the replicability of item placements along the pathway if these items were given to another sample with comparable ability levels. 2.0 METHODOLOGY

2.1 Research Design

This research has been carried out using a quantitative survey approach in which the instrument were distributed to a group of secondary school students. The aim of the study is to determine the construct validity and reliability of Malaysian Multiple Intelligence Checklist for Adult (MyMICA).

2.2 Population and Sample

A total of 526 form four students from five daily schools were involved in this research. Two hundred and fourty students are boys while the remaining two hundred and eighty six are girls. 3.0 INSTRUMENT

The Malaysian Multiple Intelligence Checklist for Adult (MyMICA) is used in this research. This instrument which was developed by Siti Rahayah et. al., is based on the Multiple Intelligence theory by Howard Gardner (1983). Besides the theory, the instrument development was also based on the in-depth and focus group interviews as well as literature review. MyMICA consists of perceptions and performance items from nine constructs that is verbal linguistics (vl), logic mathematics (lm), spatial (vr), bodily kinesthetic (kb), music (mz), interpersonal (ie), intrapersonal (ia), naturalist (na) and spiritual (kr). The face and content validity of MyMICA had been validated by construct experts in the nine fields and those with academic credentials. In this study, researcher used 80 likert scale perceptions items which comprises of 9 vl items, 9 lm items, 8 vr items, 9 kb items, 9 music items, 9 ie items, 9 ia items, 9 na items and 9 kr items. RESEARCH FINDINGS

The data was analysed using Winsteps 3.63.0 to determine the validity



54

and reliability of the instrument. Rasch analysis provides item reliability and construct validity as showed in the table. The item reliability index is between 0 and 1 whereby 0.8 and above is strongly acceptable (Fox and Jones 1998). A construct with a set of unidimentional items should display a positive PTMEA Corr value which means that the items are working together to measure a single underlying construct. This is the basic step in measuring the construct validity (Bond & Fox 2001).

Table 1 to 9 showed the item reliability of nine constructs. The item reliability of nine constructs is acceptable which ranges from 0.97 to 1.00. The item reliability of vl is 0.99, lm 1.00, vr 0.98, kb 0.99, mz 0.99, ie 0.98, ia 0.99, na 0.99 and kr 0.97. Table 1 : Item Reliability : Verbal Linguistics Summary of 9 Measured Items

RAW

SCORE

COUNT MEASURE MODEL

ERROR

INFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQ

ZSTD

MEAN 1890.2 523.0 .00 .06 .95 -1.0 .97 -.7

S.D. 169.3 .0 .50 .00 .28 4.3 .27 4.3

MAX 2072.0 523.0 1.06 .06 1.33 4.4 1.29 4.2

MIN 1508.0 523.0 -.59 .05 .59 -6.9 .62

-

5.5

REAL RMSE .06 SEPARATION 8.28 ITEM RELIABILITY

.99

MODEL RMSE .06 SEPARATION 8.64 ITEM RELIABILITY

.99

S.E. OF student MEAN = .18

Table 2 : Item Reliability :Logic Mathematics Summary of 9 Measured Items

RAW

SCORE

COUNT MEASURE MODEL

ERROR

INFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

MEAN 1969.8 516.0 .00 .07 1.02 .0 1.00 -.4

S.D. 227.6 .0 1.11 .01 .26 3.9 .27 3.8

MAX 2245.0 516.0 1.71 .08 1.51 7.1 1.49 6.9

MIN 1603.0 516.0 -1.39 .07 .78 -3.8 .73 -4.1



55

REAL RMSE .08 SEPARATION 14.65 ITEM RELIABILITY 1.00

MODEL RMSE .07 SEPARATION 15.56 ITEM RELIABILITY 1.00


Table 3 : Item Reliability : Spatial Summary of 8 Measured Items

RAW

SCORE

COUNT MEASURE MODEL

ERROR

INFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

MEAN 1764.5 521.0 .00 .06 1.00 -.2 1.00 -.2

S.D. 119.9 .0 .48 .00 .22 3.3 .23 3.4

MAX 1932.0 521.0 .70 .07 1.53 7.5 1.55 7.7

MIN 1586.0 521.0 -.68 .06 .77 -4.1 .76 -4.2

REAL RMSE .07 SEPARATION 7.21 ITEM RELIABILITY .98

MODEL RMSE .06 SEPARATION 7.51 ITEM RELIABILITY .98


Table 4 : Item Reliability : Bodily Kinesthetic Summary of 9 Measured Items

RAW

SCORE

COUNT MEASURE MODEL

ERROR

INFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

MEAN 1832.4 520.0 .00 .06 1.00 -.1 .99 -.3

S.D. 261.3 .0 .76 .00 .19 3.4 .20 3.3

MAX 2194.0 520.0 1.38 .06 1.34 5.4 1.33 5.0

MIN 1327.0 520.0 -1.14 .05 .63 -7.2 .64 -6.8




Table 5 : Item Reliability : Music Summary of 9 Measured Items

RAW

SCORE

COUNT MEASURE MODEL

ERROR

INFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

MEAN 1867.0 520.0 .00 .06 1.01 -.1 1.01 -.1

S.D. 254.8 .0 .79 .01 .24 4.0 .23 3.6



56

MAX 2282.0 520.0 1.00 .07 1.32 4.7 1.35 5.1

MIN 1505.0 520.0 -1.38 .05 .66 -6.6 .70 -5.0


MODEL RMSE .06 SEPARATION 14.18 ITEM RELIABILITY 1.00


Table 6 : Item Reliability : Interpersonal Summary of 9 Measured Items

RAW

SCORE

COUNT MEASURE MODEL

ERROR

INFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

MEAN 1953.1 520.0 .00 .07 1.00 -.3 1.00 -.2

S.D. 96.9 .0 .54 .00 .23 3.3 .23 3.4

MAX 2120.0 520.0 .59 .08 1.54 7.1 1.57 7.6

MIN 1843.0 520.0 -.96 .07 .72 -4.8 .72 -4.7




Table 7 : Item Reliability : Intrapersonal Summary of 9 Measured Items

RAW

SCORE

COUNT MEASURE MODEL

ERROR

INFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

MEAN 1992.1 509.0 .00 .08 1.00 .0 .99 -.1

S.D. 108.5 .0 .66 .00 .06 1.0 .07 1.0

MAX 2157.0 509.0 1.21 .08 1.12 1.8 1.10 1.6

MIN 1787.0 509.0 -1.06 .07 .92 -1.3 .90 -1.4






57

Table 8 : Item Reliability : Naturalist Summary of 9 Measured Items

RAW

SCORE

COUNT MEASURE MODEL

ERROR

INFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

MEAN 1896.7 517.0 .00 .07 1.01 -.1 1.00 -.2

S.D. 184.6 .0 .84 .01 .21 3.2 .21 3.0

MAX 2295.0 517.0 1.01 .08 1.42 5.9 1.40 5.7

MIN 1656.0 517.0 -1.93 .06 .70 -5.3 .70 -5.3




Table 9 : Item Reliability : Spiritual Summary of 9 Measured Items

RAW

SCORE

COUNT MEASURE MODEL

ERROR

INFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQ ZSTD

MEAN 1839.0 425.0 .00 .10 1.05 .6 .96 -.6

S.D. 68.6 .0 .60 .01 .20 2.5 .17 2.3

MAX 1939.0 425.0 1.05 .11 1.36 4.2 1.32 4.0

MIN 1711.0 425.0 -.96 .08 .76 -3.3 .69 -4.4




Table 10 – 18 display a positive PTMEA Corr value in every item examined. It means that the items are working together to measure a single underlying construct which shows a good construct validity. Therefore all MyMICA items are acceptable (Bond & Fox 2001).



58

Table 10 : Analysed PTMEA Corr : Verbal Linguistics INPUT: 526 students, 9 items , measured : 526 students, 9 items, 5

categories 3.63.0

ENTRY

NO

RAW

SCORE COUNT MEASURE

MODEL

S.E.

INFIT

MNSQ

ZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQ

ZSTD

PTMEA

CORR. ITEM

4 1508 523 1.06 .05 1.19 3.3 1.27 4.2 .60 VL4

2 1740 523 .48 .05 1.27 4.1 1.28 4.1 .59 VL2

5 1805 523 .30 .05 1.01 .1 1.06 .9 .53 VL5

7 1903 523 .00 .05 1.09 1.3 1.09 1.3 .50 VL7

6 1949 523 -.15 .05 1.33 4.4 1.29 4.0 .58 VL6

8 1985 523

-.27 .05

.60 -

6.6 .63

-

6.3

.57 VL8

9 2017 523

-.38 .05

.59 -

6.9 .62

-

6.5

.57 VL9

3 2033 523

-.44 .05

.75 -

3.8 .77

-

3.7

.53 VL3

1 2072 523

-.59 .05

.69 -

4.9 .71

-

4.7

.53 VL1

MEAN 1890.2 523.0 .00 .06 .95

-

1.0 .97 -.7

S.D. 169.3 169.3 .50 .00 .28 4.3 .27 4.3

Table 11 : Analysed PTMEA Corr : Logic Mathematics INPUT: 526 students, 9 items , measured : 526 students, 9 items, 5

categories 3.63.0

ENTRY

NO

RAW

SCORE COUNT MEASURE

MODEL

S.E.

INFIT

MNSQZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQZSTD

PTMEA

CORR ITEM

8 1603 516

1.71 .07 .79 -3.6 .78 -

3.78

.74 LM8

7 1722 516 1.20 .07 1.51 7.1 1.49 6.9 .51 LM7

5 1772 516 .98 .07 .78 -3.8 .76 -4.1 .71 LM5

4 1883 516 .48 .07 .85 -2.6 .84 -2.7 .72 LM4



59

6 1962 516 .11 .07 .90 -1.6 .91 -1.5 .63 LM6

3 2081 516 -.48 .07 .93 -1.1 .91 -1.5 .73 LM3

9 2229 516 -1.30 .08 1.30 4.5 1.37 4.4 .50 LM9

2 2231 516 -1.31 .08 .82 -3.1 .73 -3.9 .71 LM2

1 2245 516 -1.39 .08 1.29 4.3 1.20 2.5 .62 LM1

MIN 1969.8 516.0 .00 .07 1.02 0 1.00 -.4

S.P. 227.6 .0 1.11 .01 .26 3.9 .27 3.8

Table 12 : Analysed PTMEA Corr : Spatial INPUT: 526 students, 9 items , measured : 526 students, 9 items, 5

categories 3.63.0

ENTRY

NO

RAW

SCORE COUNT MEASURE

MODEL

S.E.

INFIT

MNSQ

ZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQZSTD

PTMEA

CORR. ITEM

1 1586 521 .70 .06 1.10 1.5 1.11 1.7 .66 VR1

3 1625 521

.55 .06

.93 -

1.1 .93 -1.1

.73 VR3

6 1690 521

.30 .06

.84 -

2.7 .84 -2.8

.67 VR6

7 1745 521 .09 .06 .99 -.2 .97 -.4 .70 VR7

4 1804 521

-.15 .06

.88 -

1.9 .89 -1.8

.68 VR4

5 1807 521

-.16 .06

.77 -

4.1 .76 -4.2

.75 VR5

8 1927 521 -.66 .07 .95 -.8 .93 -1.2 .68 VR8

2 1932 521 -.68 .07 1.53 7.5 1.55 7.7 .60 VR2

MEAN 1764.5 521.0 .00 .06 1.00 -.2 1.00 -.2

S.D. 119.9 .0 .48 .00 .22 3.3 .23 3.4



60

Table 13 : Analysed PTMEA Corr : Bodily Kinesthetic INPUT: 526 students, 9 items , measured : 526 students, 9 items, 5

categories 3.63.0

ENTRY

NO

RAW

SCORE COUNT MEASURE

MODEL

S.E.

INFIT

MNSQZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQZSTD

PTMEA

CORR. ITEM

3 1327 520 1.38 .05 1.34 5.4 1.33 5.0 .60 KB3

7 1672 520 .49 .05 .63 -.72 .64 -6.8 .75 KB7

9 1705 520 .40 .05 .98 -.3 .98 -.3 .59 KB9

2 1710 520 .39 .05 1.24 3.8 1.27 4.1 .59 KB2

8 1712 520 .39 .05 .98 -.2 1.04 -.6 .58 KB8

6 2015 520 -.49 .06 .90 -1.6 .90 -1.6 .61 KB6

5 2044 520 -.59 .06 1.05 .8 .98 -.3 .63 KB5

4 2113 520 -.83 .06 .92 -1.2 .84 -2.4 .61 KB4

1 2193 520 -1.14 .06 .98 -.3 .91 -1.2 .54 KB1

MEAN 1832.4 520.0 .06 1.00 -.1 .99 -.3

S.D. 261.3 .0 .00 .19 3.4 .20 3.3

Table 14 : Analysed PTMEA Corr : Music INPUT: 526 students, 9 items , measured : 526 students, 9 items, 5

categories 3.63.0

ENTRY

NO

RAW

SCORE COUNT MEASURE

MODEL

S.E.

INFIT

MNSQZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQZSTD

PTMEA

CORR. ITEM

5 1505 520 1.00 .05 .76 -4.5 .89 -1.9 .67 MZ5

9 1668 520 .61 .05 .66 -6.6 .73 -4.9 .72 MZ9

2 1683 520 .57 .05 1.29 4.5 1.35 5.1 .50 MZ2

6 1699 520 .53 .05 1.30 4.7 1.33 4.9 .64 MZ6

3 1784 520 .31 .05 .99 -.2 .95 -.8 .64 MZ3

1 1930 520 -.09 .05 1.12 1.9 1.13 2.0 .60 MZ1

4 1995 520 -.29 .06 .74 -4.4 .70 -5.0 .68 MZ4

8 2257 520 -1.26 .07 1.32 4.2 1.16 1.9 .53 MZ8

7 2282 520 -1.38 .07 .95 -.6 .85 -1.9 .56 MZ7



61

MEAN 1687.0 520.0 .00 .06 1.01 -.1 1.01 -.1

S.D. 254.8 .0 .79 .01 .24 4.0 3.6 3.6

Table 15 : Analysed PTMEA Corr : Intrapersonal INPUT: 526 students, 9 items , measured : 526 students, 9 items, 5

categories 3.63.0

ENTRY

NO

RAW

SCORE COUNT MEASURE

MODEL

S.E.

INFIT

MNSQZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQZSTD

PTMEA

CORR. ITEM

9 1787 509 1.21 .07 1.09 1.3 1.10 1.5 .68 IA9

8 1880 509 .69 .08 .99 -.1 .9 -.1 .72 IA8

5 1934 509 .37 .08 1.00 .0 1.02 .3 .65 IA5

4 1940 509 .34 .08 1.12 1.8 1.10 1.6 .63 IA4

1 2036 509 -.25 .08 .94 -1.0 .93 -1.0 .69 IA1

7 2057 509 -.38 .08 .98 -.2 .98 -.3 .68 IA7

6 2068 509 -.45 .08 .92 -1.3 .94 -.9 .64 IA6

2 2070 509 -.47 .08 1.00 .0 .96 -.6 .67 IA2

3 2157 509 -1.06 .08 .94 -.9 .90 -1.4 .65 IA3

MEAN 1992.1 509.0 .00 .08 1.00 .0 .99 -.1

S.D. 108.5 .0 .66 .00 .06 1.0 .07 1.0

Table 16 : Analysed PTMEA Corr : Interpersonal INPUT: 526 students, 9 items , measured : 526 students, 9 items, 5

categories 3.63.0

ENTRY

NO

RAW

SCORE COUNT MEASURE

MODEL

S.E.

INFIT

MNSQZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQZSTD

PTMEA

CORR. ITEM

1 1843 520 .59 .07 1.54 7.1 1.57 7.6 .54 IE

2 1869 520

.46 .07 .72 -4.8 .72 -

4.7

.73 IE

3 1869 520

.46 .07 .77 -3.8 .77 -

3.7

.70 IE

9 1879 520 .41 .07 1.00 .1 .78 -.4 .66 IE

8 1906 520 .27 .07 1.14 2.1 .97 2.1 .67 IE



62

7 1985 520 -.15 .07 1.03 .5 1.14 .3 .69 IE

5 2026 520

-.39 .08

.94 -1.0 1.02 -

1.1

.70 IE

4 2081 520

-.72 .08

.93 -1.0 .92 -

1.4

.66 IE

6 2120 520 -.96 .08 .90 -1.5 .91 -.6 .62 IE

MEAN 1953.1 520.0 .00 .07 1.00 -.3 1.00.96 -.2

S.D. 96.9 .0 .54 .00 .23 3.3 .23 3.4

Table 17 : Analysed PTMEA Corr : Naturalist INPUT: 526 students, 9 items , measured : 526 students, 9 items, 5

categories 3.63.0

ENTRY

NO

RAW

SCORE COUNT MEASURE

MODEL

S.E.

INFIT

MNSQZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQZSTD

PTMEA

CORR. ITEM

5 1656 517 1.01 .06 .83 -2.8 .83 -2.8 .74 NA5

6 1707 517 .81 .06 1.08 1.3 1.10 1.6 .63 NA6

2 1783 517 .52 .06 .83 -2.8 .85 -2.5 .73 NA2

4 1824 517 .35 .06 .70 -5.3 .70 -5.3 .74 NA4

3 1866 517 .18 .06 .98 -.3 .96 -.6 .71 NA3

8 1915 517 -.03 .07 1.42 5.9 1.40 5.7 .61 NA8

7 1948 517 -.17 .07 .98 -.3 1.00 .0 .66 NA7

1 2076 517 -.75 .07 .99 -.1 .95 -.8 .66 NA1

9 2295 517 -1.93 .08 1.26 3.7 1.25 2.6 .49 NA9

MEAN 1896.7 517.0 .00 .07 1.01 -.1 1.00 -.2

S.D. 184.6 .0 .84 .01 .21 3.2 .21 3.0



63

Table 18 : Analysed PTMEA Corr : Spiritual INPUT: 526 students, 9 items , measured : 526 students, 9 items, 5

categories 3.63.0

ENTRY

NO

RAW

SCORE COUNT MEASURE

MODEL

S.E.

INFIT

MNSQZSTD

OUTFIT

MNSQZSTD

PTMEA

CORR. ITEM

5 1711 425 1.05 .08 1.36 4.2 1.32 4.0 .63 KR5

3 1743 425 .82 .09 .87 -1.7 .92 -1.1 .76 KR3

7 1815 425 .25 .09 1.05 .7 1.00 .01 .73 KR7

2 1839 425 .04 .09 .80 -2.7 .75 -3.5 .74 KR2

9 1857 425 -.12 .10 .76 -3.3 .69 -4.4 .74 KR9

1 1870 425 -.24 .10 1.17 2.1 .99 -.1 .69 KR1

4 1888 425 -.42 .10 1.07 .9 .92 -.9 .70 KR4

6 1889 425 -.43 .10 1.07 .9 .96 -.4 .65 KR6

8 1939 425 -.96 .11 1.33 3.8 1.09 .9 .61 KR8

MEAN 1839.0 425.0 .00 .10 1.05 .6 .96 -.6

S.D. 68.6 .0 .60 .01 .20 2.5 .17 2.3

DISSCUSSION AND IMPLICATION

Based on this research, it can be concluded that validity and reliability is a very important aspect to be taken into consideration in the construction of items. The examination on the validity and reliability of MyMICA proved that this instrument is having a desirable quality to be used by parents and educationists.

The implication of the research is MyMICA is a truly Malaysian multiple intelligence instrument that offer educaters a tool to view their students’ potentials and challengers. This is the basic step before educators structure various teaching styles for practical application in the classroom in order to ensure all students are achieving at their highest potential. CONCLUSION

There are several methods in helping students achieving their highest potentials. The researcher strongly suggests teaching and learning strategy based on Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983) to be absorbed in the field of education. The theory proposed eight different types of intelligences with their own identifiable characterictics to distinguish certain skill sets and behaviours from one another. Gardner (1993) is considering a new intelligence relates to an existential intelligence. The basic step to view the students potentials and challengers is measuring their multiple intelligences using an instrument. Through the awareness of the students’ potentials and



64

challengers as well as their specific profiles of intelligence, educators can then work to tailor their teaching styles to best meet the specific needs of the individual student. Differentiation is one way to ensure students’ achievement at the highest potential. One uniform method of teaching students does nothing but to limit their potentials. Lastly, it is hoped that with a smart way nurturing students, there will be no “hopeless students” but rather that each child interpretes the world and learns in a unique way as no scientist of yet has ever found a limit to human potential. REFERENCES [1] Amstrong, Thomas. 2000. Multiple intelligences in the classroom. 2nd ed.

USA: ASCD Publications. [2] Bond, T.G. & Fox, C.M. 2001. Applying the Rasch Model : Fundamental

measurement in the human sciences. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

[3] Gardner, Howard. 1983. Frames of mind : A theory of multiple

intelligences. New York: Basic Books. [4] Gardner, Howard. 1993. Multiple intelligences : The theory in practice.

New York: Basic Books. [5] Fox, C.M. & Jones, J.A. 1998. Uses of Rasch Modelling in counseling

psychology research. Journal of counselling psychology, 45(1), 30-45. [6] Hanizah Hamzah. 2006. Kebezaan kefungsian item berkaitan gender

dalam item peperiksaan kebangsaan : Kewujudan dan perkaitan dengan jenis item. Tesis Dr. falsafah, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

[7] Lazear, David. 2004. Multiple intelligence approaches to assessment:

Solving the assessment conundrum. UK: Crown House Publishing Limited.

[8] Linacre, J.M.. 2006. A User’s Guide to Winsteps. Chicago.

[9] Noraini Md. Yunos. 2006. Mengenalpasti kebezaan kefungsian item

dalam MAMIT menggunakan Model Rasch. Tesis Sarjana, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

[10] Pallant, Julie. 2001. SPSS survival manual. Open University Press. [11] Siti Fazriyah Raja Mohamed. 2005. Pengesanan perbezaan kefungsian

item dalam Ujian Kecerdasan Pelbagai Remaja Malaysia menggunakan Model Rasch. Laporan Kertas Projek Sarjana, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.



65

[12] Wright, B.D., & Masters, G.N. 1982. Rating scale analysis. Chicago: MESA Press. Wright, B.D., & Stone, M.H. 1979. Best test design. Chicago: MESA Press.



66

THE IMPORTANCE OF LAW IN SPORTS AND

PHYSICAL EDUCATION FROM A PEDAGOGIC PERSPECTIVE

ZAIDI HASSIM

Fakulti Undang-undang Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

ABSTRACT - Legal education in Malaysia has undergone a dramatic transformation with many new additions to the traditional array of courses offered, for example Computer law, Space law and Sports law. Many legal educators do not regard sports law in Malaysia seriously but this subject has proliferated throughout the United States, United Kingdom and Australia. Sports law has evolved as a popular elective course in American and Canadian law schools and legal scholars have produced numerous books, treatises and articles exploring a wide variety of legal issues generated in the context of sports activities. This article will not only to discuss the importance of introducing this course but also to reflect some pedagogic trends of teaching law in sports and physical exercise. It reflects some pedagogic trends (PBL, Holistic Approach etc) of teaching law for both educators and instructors in other institutions for example, Sports Academy in UPM, Sports Science and Sports Education programme in UM, UiTM, UTM and UPSI. It is expected that this article will be a basic reference for legal educators, teachers, professional instructors and sports enthusiasts to understand and apply legal concepts and legal terms associated with sports and physical education “Law is not something immutable written on tablets of stone but that law is to serve man, not that man should serve the law, though of course he should obey it. Law is a living thing that should be kept under constant review, that it should be brought up to date from time to time so that it will always remain suitable for contemporary needs, so that it can be used as an instrument for satisfying the hopes and aspirations of the people. Antiquated law must be constantly review updated and improved for economic, social and political advancement and create and increase



67


his opportunities for prosperity and happiness”. Tun Abdul Razak Malaysian Law Conference, 1973

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Malaysian National Education Philosophy (NEP) states that, education is

an on going effort towards further developing the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner so as to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious. Sport serves to promote not only to a healthy competition, goodwill, tolerance, understanding and the development of physical and moral quantities, but also provides a conductive platform for integrating the various races in Malaysia. Thus, it deserves the same recognition to enable the Government to achieve national development, unity and continued stability.

The Ministry of Education via National Sports Policy 1988 provides adequate time for sports and physical education (mass sports and high performance sports) as well as develop and coordinate sports activities in schools including the development of the leadership qualities in sports and physical education with the cooperation and assistance of the Ministry of Youth and Sports (KBS), the National Sports Council (NSC) and the national sports association. In addition, the Education Ministry should also responsible to train teachers with ability to teach sports and physical education.

More than that, the Ministry of Education should actively promote sport at

the various colleges and polytechnics while the Malaysian Universities Sports Council (MASUM) will promote such activities at the institutions of higher earning. Some schools (i.e. Bukit Jalil Sports School) will be designated as centers of excellence for the promotion of certain sports and the National Sports Institute should undertake research on sports sciences and train sportspersons, coaches, sports administrators and other related sports personnel.

Acknowledging the critical importance of children and youth

development, KBS also coordinates the national youth policy to increase their



68

participation in sports and cultural activities and has developed their leadership qualities via program such as Rakan Sukan and Rakan Wajadiri. Thus, sport in Malaysia through the implementation of National Sports Policy, National Education Philosophy and National Youth Development Policy is more than educational institutions.

2.0 SPORTS, PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND THE LAW: AN OVERVIEW

2.1 Sports and Physical Education

Sports and physical education uses physical activity to produce

holistic improvements in a person’s physical, mental and emotion qualities. It treats each person as a unity, a whole being, rather than as having separate physical and mental qualities that bear no relation to and have no effect on each other.[1]

Jesse Feiring Williams defines Physical Education as ‘the sum of

man’s physical activities selected as to kind, and conducted as to outcomes. Its goal is not entirely physical but to influence all areas of educational development, including the mental and social growth of the students and athletes

[2] James A. Baley and David A. Field describe Physical Education as ‘a process through which favourable adaptations and learning – organic, neuromuscular, intellectual, social, cultural, emotion and esthetic – result from and proceed through selected and fairly vigorous physical activities

[3]

A sport is defined as all activities incorporating standard rules and regulations, official regulatory bodies, learning of skills, strategies and tactics, physical exertion and competition.[4]

Sports may also be defined as an organised play with a distinct

code of ethics, rules and regulations.i Its spectrum ranges from simple friendly events to highly competitive and organised championships. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines sports as follows: (i) physical activity for exercise or amusement, usually played in a special area and according to fixed rules; (ii) meeting for athletic competitions for example sports day; and (iii) particular game or pastime examples are hockey, football and tennis.[6]

Coakley comments sports as ‘an institutionalised competitive activity that involves vigorous physical exertion or the use of relatively complex physical skills by individuals whose participation is motivated by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors[7]. Sir Ludwig Guttman states sports as ‘any physical activity, which has the character of play and involves a struggle with oneself or others, or a confrontation with natural elements. If this activity involves competition it must be performed with a spirit of sportsmanship

[80]

The European Sports Charter defines sports as a term that includes ‘all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mutual



69

well being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels

[9].

Legally, the definition of sports as provided in Section 2 of the Sports Development Act 1997 which simply interpret sports as ‘any of the activities listed in the First Schedule’ is not precise and needs more physical and character interpretations to illustrate the importance of sports as character-building.

However, the rise of sports science as one of the discipline in

sports and physical education show that sport holds a prominent place in modern life where millions of people participate in sporting activities, watch and read about them. The impact of sport makes it clear that sport is a very legitimate field of academic study that has slowly crept into the academic mainstream. In U.K. and U.S., several new titles and names suggested for academic sports and physical education where higher institutions and colleges wanted a more contemporary names for sports. Among them are Movement Arts and Science, Kinesiology, Human Physical Science, Physical Fitness, Athletics and Sports Science.

2.2 Law and Legal System

Law is an English term, which refers to a certain collection of

institutions and practices. It may be used in many different sense, and in the context of its relationship to society, law denotes a set of defined principles that govern and regulate human behavior[10].

Precisely, law means a rule of action to which men are obliged to make their conduct conformable; a command; enforced by some sanction, to acts or forbearance of a class. And in the Malaysian context, law may be referred as body of rules that is legally binding and enforceable in the courts as found in the Acts of parliament, delegated legislation and judicial precedents (case law).

A legal system is the framework of rules and institutions within a

nation and regulating the individual’s relations with others and between them and the government. Examples of institutions are parliament, courts, prisons and people generally involved in the law, notably, lawyers, judges, magistrates and police.

Basically, there are two sources of Malaysian law, written and unwritten law. Malaysian written law consists of legislation enacted by the Parliament and the State Assemblies under powers conferred on them by the respective constitutions; and subsidiary or delegated legislation made by persons or bodies under powers conferred on them by Acts of Parliament or Enactments of State Assemblies[11]. Laws made by the Federal Parliament are referred to as Acts while those made by the state Legislative Assemblies are referred to an Enactment[12].



70

The unwritten law of Malaysia comprises of judicial decisions of the Superior Courts, namely the High Courts, the Court of Appeal and the Federal Court. The common law and the rules of equity based on English law principles also applicable as provided in section 3(1) of the Civil Law Act 1956.ii The doctrine of judicial precedent (case law or judge made law) is documented and reported in various series of law reports (Malayan Law Journal or Current Law Journal).

Islamic law is also one of the importance sources of Malaysian

law but it is only applicable to Muslims, which is administered by a separate system of Syariah court. In addition, custom of the local inhabitants, which has been accepted by the court, also could be referred as a valid law. Judicial precedents of Commonwealth countries are not binding on Malaysian courts but in cases where the law is pari materia, they will be given the greatest respect.iii

2.3 Sources of Law in Sports Context

In the context of sports, it involved not only the intervention of

local law but as well as international public law. It depends on the popularity of the sports itself (such as football) and jurisdictional boundaries. There are basically 6 levels of law that could regulate the activities of sports in Malaysian.

1. Games Rules and Regulation or Rules of Play that regulate the

sports persons in that particular game;

2. Disciplinary Sanctions for referees and umpires to control and sanction the indiscipline sports person for example, the given of red card which result to the expulsion of the sports person in that particular game;

3. Administrative law, as stated in the National Sports Body’s

Constitutional law and bye laws for fair and sensible control. It is also supported by section 23 of Sports Development Act 1997 which gives discretionary power to the National Sports Bodies to decide upon their own internal procedure for any disputes and conflicts.

4. National governing laws, for example, Malaysian Contract Act

1950, Employment Act 1955, Copyright Act 1987. The laws were enacted by the legislative body at the federal level and gazetted by the Yang DiPertuan Agong. The national law will override control for justice and fair play at all the above three levels.

5. International governing Body, for example: FIFA who controls

the international regulation for football.

6. English Common Law and Overseas National Laws: Section 3 and 5 of the Civil Law Act 1956 which was revised in 1972, are



71

directly relevant to the reception of English law in Malaysia. Section 3 deals with ‘general reception’ of English Common Law and the rules of Equity as administered in England up to 7th April, 1956.

2.4 The Role of Law in Sport and Physical Education

Teaching sports and physical education is a risk profession. It

provides one of the few environments in which people can experience risks in a control setting[15]. Activities such as swimming and gymnastic involve a high level of cognitive understanding of how one’s body will react under certain environments. Physical skill capacity among the sportspersons is variety and some sports may inherently dangerous for overweight, poorly coordinated or ill-conditioned sportspersons. Thus, professionals who engaged in the administration, supervision and teaching of physical activity become more concern about the possibility of being named as a defendant in the law suit. And they should prepare themselves with information and safety planning to decrease the possibility of negligence and injury.

Therefore, teachers and instructors especially at the school level

need to study some basic knowledge of law and able to examine the situations in which the litigation might be anticipated. They are not expected to become advocate and solicitor but at least they should be able to explain their role and learn to design proper risk management modules that will prevent injuries while supervising and teaching sports and physical education.

Since the sports industry in Malaysia now is the big industry that

involve many sports sponsorships, franchising and international organizing-events and sports marketing issues (patent / trade mark and broadcasting), government takes the initiative to establish many sports-related institutions for example National Sports Council of Malaysia (NSC) to produce more professionals and educators in this field. Many universities (UPM, UM, UiTM and UPSI) also take the same initiative to introduce and offer sports-related syllabus to their students in Sports Studies and Sports Science in variety of level namely certificate, diploma and degrees. This subject was taught due to high demand by the students and coaches who are interested in this field. Not only that, many universities around the globe already offered the course.

Thus, in the higher level of learning law within the context of

sports and physical education, educators (lecturers) must understand more juridification of sports. Juridification at a simple level merely reproduces the traditional idea of private and public realism, with private areas increasingly being subject to public or judicial control, a move from voluntarism to legalism[16]. Hunt said that ‘the model of law as regulation can be seen as a shift towards public law that focuses on the varied means whereby extensive fields of social life are made subject to regulatory intervention

[17]. For example, the commercialization of sport



72

presents a palpable need for legal regulation. Many problems such as drug use and sports violence are presented as ‘moral panic’ in need of legal regulation.

There is vast variety of legal issues in sports. It does not only

concern the principle of tort (negligence) and contract but all sports administration related issues such as product liability, stadium facilities, risk management and sports equipment. In addition, legal aspects of fundamental liberties (constitutional rights and litigation processes), drug doping, sex discrimination and even spectators safety must also be covered. More advanced sports-related issues such as patent, trademark, sports broadcasting and sports marketing are also attractive and interesting. Anyhow, it is all depends on how the teaching is carried out by the educators.

3. 0 APPROCHES TO LEGAL TEACHING IN SPORTING CONTEXT.

Law teaching is conducted in a variety of ways. Lecturers may have their own ideas about what constitutes a proper learning environment; some are committed to student-directed learning and the integration of skills, other believes that the more hours spent in the classroom the better will be the students results, while yet others believe that a well produced set of learning materials with minimum academician-student contact should be sufficient to ensure student success[18].

Teaching sports and physical education need both linguistic and physical expression. And the students must successfully attain the learning objectives. According to Benjamin Bloom, there are six hierarchical levels of learning objectives that has been identified namely knowledge; comprehension; application; analysis; synthesis and evaluation[19]. In teaching law in sports and physical education, this cognitive learning as supported by Petter could be summarized as ‘…it is necessary that they teach students (1) to know the law; (2) to comprehend it; (3) to apply it to particular fact situations; (4) to break it down into its components parts; (5) to reorganise it and apply it creatively to serve clients’ interests; and (6) to evaluate the strength of its authority and its probable impact upon clients[20]

In teaching law in sports and physical education, educators and instructors have to rethink the epistemological basis of their teaching, and to view it as a reflexive and context-related activity. Although in skills-based legal education theories, there are two dominant paradigms choice (outcomes approach [21] and capability approach[22]), but students in this sports science and sports education programme are not expected to practice for litigation and conveyancing.

Since sports law aims to protect all related sports-legal issues, the

educator do not aim students gain rote knowledge of many detailed legal rules but rather, aims are concerned with the acquisition of legal principles, together with the ability to apply those principles to sports-related problems and thereby solve them. According to Grodecki, ‘legal education has always aimed at



73

education rather than the simple imparting of information. It is less concerned with rules and techniques than it is with the principles and ideas which underlie them…it is less concerned with verbal precepts than with the legal concepts of which they are a reflection

[23].

3.4 Holistic Approach

One of the approaches that may be used by the educators and instructors in teaching law in sports and physical education is by socio-practical approach. Law by its definition is not natural constructs, but a product of a particular way of seeing the world and interacting with it.[24] Thus, students will be able to compare and analyse different interpretations of legal rules and start to develop different phenomenon understanding. Sports and physical education is one of the world phenomena, based on social and culture of the people in this world.

In addition, this approach stresses reflective relationship between theory and practice. Law is actually transformed by its application to a particular situation in the context of legal issues. Epistemologically, it builds on the assumption that legal education constitutes a socio-practical field and allies law more with areas of study such as medicine, philosophy and social activity (sports and physical education).

Holistic approach stresses the practical use of legal

knowledge.[25] It is also liberating, in the sense that it creates a capacity for action. It is not enough to be able to think but one must be able to do. Teaching someone to think does not of itself enable them to act. Sports and physical education needs practical approach where the educators and instructors must solve real human problems based on their experience and life. Thus, a holistic approach sees learning as a person’s lifelong process, which integrates prepositional, practical and personal knowledge.

3.5 Experiential Learning Theory

According to Kolb, Experiential learning ‘offers the foundation for

an approach to education and learning as a lifelong process that is soundly based in intellectual traditions of social psychology, philosophy, and cognitive psychology. The theory pursues a framework for examining and strengthening the critical linkages among education, work and personal development’.[26] Sports persons understand themselves better as learners whose integrate their knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. Thus according to Kolb, this learning process involves the whole being by integrating thinking, feeling, perceiving and behaving. [27] While teaching law in sports context, students have to be able to involves themselves fully, reflect on and observe their sports experience from legal perspective, create legal concepts that integrate their observations into legal-rational theories, and use these theories to make decisions and



74

solve problems. Cowan, in his presentation, suggests four level of this theory.

First, students’ needs should be identified by reviewing their own prior experiential learning. Second, after the learner has been offered the opportunity to explore new concepts or experiences in further experimental learning, he should be encouraged to reflect on that experience, analyse it and generalise from it to formulate a sharper definition of what has been learnt and what remains to be learned. Third level is to consolidate and refine in order to prepare for the last level of applying what you had learnt.[28]

3.6 Problem Based Learning (PBL)

PBL is a learning driven by a problem as opposed to a teacher-centered approach. PBL is defines as ‘encompassing characteristics like student-centeredness, small group based collaborative learning and interdisciplinary’.

[29] PBL is a rapidly spreading learning strategy used internationally

in many social legal areas, management, medicine and even sports and agriculture. It is a learning method more than a teaching method. It is observed that the nurturing nature of PBL is to promote teamwork, mentorship, critical thinking and reflection, which transcend cultural differences and nationalities.

In PBL, the student is presented with a problem situation before

any subject-matter knowledge is acquired. He will form a small group, analyse the problem, and identify resources for learning how to solve it. The problem is presented to the student as a simulated client. Through a real interview and investigation of facts, guided by an educator (facilitator), the students meet the problem as in reality. [30]

Three key principles, which form the foundation of PBL, are:

encouraging learning through building on prior knowledge; solving authentic problems; and learning through reflection. In implementing PBL in sports and law context, the problem related to athletes, and sports administrators must be arose first which reflects a real-world situations affecting their rights. It is also asserted that good problems are important as the ‘pique students’ curiosity, require analysis and encourage learning’. Since the problems analysed affecting their professional career as sports persons, it then will motivate them to find out what they need to know the problems presented.

In ensuring the success of the PBL implementation for teaching

law in sports, the students’ acceptance, commitment and readiness are significant. However, the facilitator (educators and instructors) also plays a critical role in providing good support infrastructure in order to enhance the quality of learning in students. He must guide students in non-directive ways, using questions at a metacognitive level, and help students reduce their anxiety by developing their cognitive reasoning



75

skills so that they can ease gradually into self-directed and independent learning.

In terms of benefit, mature students or professional

sportspersons will take this approach better as they can relate it to their prior experience as compared to young athletes. Thus, facilitators in sports law may only pose a relevant question and communicating in a language and terms use by sports students.

4.0 CONCLUSION FUTURE DIRECTION AND

Traditional legal education pedagogy through ordinary lecture-dictation or tutorial format in teaching sports and physical education will undertake sports programme students a limited range of activity only. A new learning approach especially in enhancing their development in legal-skills based learning must be adopted by any non-legal institutions, which offers this sports laws subject. It is timely to change the sports-legal and practical pedagogy and not only to develop skills sports courses at the lowest cognitive levels which offers sports students with little of real legal intellect worth.

The sports related legal issues especially in the area of risk management, sports insurance, sports patent and copyright, sponsorship and broadcasting, contract employment and even criminal sports violence which needs legal intervention must use more practical legal approaches involving court litigation and contract-negotiation drafting. Thus, students must have clear vision on how the judicial process takes place and the law applies in this country.

Bourdieu et al argued that, “…when we try to make teaching more effective by clarifying its goals and the conditions needed to improve its efficiency, we clash with the pedagogical philosophy of academics, whose disdain for the ‘elementary’ nature of a reflexive pedagogy reflects the superior level of the education system which they occupy. Their rejection of an explicit teaching practice follows from a perception of the student favoured by the professional craft, one which is armed with all the certitudes and all the blindness of cultural ethnocentrism. Defined by their lesser knowledge, students can do nothing which does not confirm the most pessimistic image that the professor, in his most professional capacity, is willing to confess to: they understand nothing; and they reduce the most brilliant theories to logical monstrosities or picturesque oddities, as if their only role in life was to illustrate the vanity of the efforts which the professor squanders on them and which he will continue to squander, despite everything, out of professional conscience, with a disabused lucidity which only redoubles his merit”.[31]

And according to Julian Webb, if we are to live with a system of mass

higher education, we need to adjust our pedagogy.[32] Teaching law in sports and physical education will also needs new paradigm to prepare the sports students



76

from any possible litigation and sports liability. REFERENCES [1] William, H. F., Physical Education and Sport in a Changing Society, 4th

Ed., New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992, p. 1. [2] William, J.F., The Principles of Physical Education, 8th Ed., Philadelphia:

Saunders, 1964, p. 4. [3] Baley, J.A. and Field, D.A., Physical Education and the Physical

Educator, 2nd Ed., Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1976, p. 4. [4] Kwame A.B., Issues in Sport, Kuala Lumpur: Bina Minda Resources,

2002, p. 33. [5] Teoh, T.L., A Conceptual Approach Towards a Policy of Sports for All,

presented at the Asean Universities Sports Seminar, 8-9 Nov 1984, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor.

[6] Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1996,

p.1237. [7] Coakley, J.J., Sports in Society: Issues and Controversies, St. Louis:

Times Minor, 1986, p. 37. [8] Guttman, L., Textbook of Sport for the Disabled, in Grayson E. Sports

and the Law, 2nd Ed. Butterworth & Co., 1994, p. xlviii. [9] See European Sports Charter. [10] Anwarul Yaqin, Law and Society in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur:

International Law Book Services, 1997, p. 1. [11] Wu Min Aun, The Malaysian Legal System, 2nd Ed., Selangor: Pearson

Education Malaysia Sdn Bhd, 1999, p. 90. [12] Ibid., pp. 93 – 94. [13] See: Re Yap Kwan Seng’s Will (1924) 4 FMSLR 313; and Yong Joo

Lin v Fung Poi Fong (1941) MLJ 63. [14] For example, Malaysia has enacted statutes modelled on those of

Commonwealth Countries in addition to England, the Penal Code and Contracts Act are based on those of India, and the national Land Code is based on the land law of South Australia. See: Director-General of Inland Revenue v Kulim Rubber Plantations Ltd [1981] 1 MLJ 216.

[15] Clement, A., Law in Sport and Physical Activity, United States:

Benchmark Press, Inc. p. 4.



77

[16] Foster, K., Development in Sporting Law, in Allison, L. (ed), The Changing Politics of Sport, Manchester: Manchester UP, 1993, p. 108.

[17] Hunt, A., Law as a Constitutive mode of Regulation, in Explorations in

Law and Society: Towards a Constitutive Theory of Law, London: Routledge, 1993, p. 307.

[20] Diana, T., How Students Learn, Julian, W and Caroline, M. (ed.),

Teaching Lawyers’ Skills, Butterworth, pp. 5 - 6. [21] Read: Bloom, B. S., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive

Domain, Longmans, New York, 1956. [22] n. 20. Diana, T., p. 11. [23] This approach tends to be an assessment (through paralegal training)

whether he or she able to perform his or her job competently. This approach enables students to focus on the product of learning, what students should know and be able to do their job.

[24] Problem-solving methodology is where students are confident in their

ability to take effective and appropriate action even within unfamiliar and changing circumstances.

[25] Grodecki, J., Legal Education: Dillemmas and Opportunities, Leicester

University Press, Leicester, 1977, in Julian, W. and Caroline, M. (eds.), Teaching Lawyers’ skills, London: Butterworths, 1990, p. 353

[26] Julian, W., Why Theory Matters, in Julian, W. and Caroline, M. (eds.), Teaching Lawyers’ skills, p. 39.

[27] Ibid., p. 40. [28] D.A.Kolb., Experimental Learning: Experience as the Sources of learning

and Development, Prentice hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1984, pp. 3-4. [29] Ibid., p. 31. [30] See: Cowan, J., A Model of Experiential Learning and its Facilitation’

Learning for Action, Standing Conference on Education Development, Occasional Paper no. 51, c.f. Julian, W. and Caroline, M. (eds.), Teaching Lawyers’ skills, p. 16.

[31] See: Tan Siok San, Introducing PBL in an Institute of Higher Learning:

Role of the Facilitator, 5th Asia-Pasific Conference on PBL, Singgahsana

Hotel, Petaling Jaya, 16-17 March, 2004. [32] David, A. Cruickshank, Problem-based learning in Legal Education, in

Julian, W. Teaching Lawyers’ skills, p. 191.



78

[33] Bourdieu, P., Passerson J.C., and Saint Martin, M, Academic Discourse: Linguitic Misunderstanding and Professional Power (trans Teese, R., Polity Press, Cambridge, 1994, pp. 6 – 7, c.f. Julian, W., Teaching Lawyers’ skills, p.30.

[34] Ibid.



79

TEMA-TEMA DALAM PEMBELAJARAN BERSEPADU: IMPILKASI KEPADA PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN

SIEW ENG LING

Fakulti Teknologi Maklumat dan Sains Kuantitatif, UiTM Kampus Sarawak, [email protected]

SITI RAHAYAH BT. ARIFFIN SAEMAH BINTI RAHMAN

Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

[email protected] [email protected]


ABSTRAK - Mod pembelajaran yang terkini dalam abad ke-21 merupakan mod pembelajaran bersepadu. Mod ini merupakan kombinasi terbaik daripada mod pembelajaran bilik darjah bersemuka tradisional dan pembelajaran dalam talian. Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mendapatkan tema-tema dibawah mod pembelajaran bersepadu di Malaysia. Kertas ini membincangkan hasil kualitatif temu bual pengguna akhir dalam mod pembelajaran bersepadu serta implikasi tema-tema ini kepada pengajaran dan pembelajaran. 53 orang peserta temu bual yang terdiri daripada pelajar-pelajar universiti yang mendaftar kursus pembelajaran bersepadu serta fasilitator-fasilitator yang terlibat dalam bimbingan mod pembelajaran bersepadu terlibat dalam kajian ini. Senarai mengenai pembelajaran bersepadu hasil daripada data kualitatif dikategorikan ke dalam tema-tema umum. Tema-tema hasil kajian ini adalah kandungan kursus, teknikal, kefleksibelan, komuniti pembelajaran, motivasi, perkongsian, maklum balas, pelengkap dan agenda peribadi. Implikasi kajian ini ialah para pendidik boleh menggunakan tema-tema ini dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran, rekaan kurikulum pembelajaran bersepadu serta menggunakan tema-tema ini untuk membangunkan instrumen bagi mengukur tema-tema ini.

Kata kunci utama: pembelajaran bersepadu, tema-tema, pengajaran dan pembelajaran



80

1.0 PENGENALAN

Era bimbingan instruktor (Instructor-led Era) telah bermula sejak 3000 tahun dahulu di mana pengajaran bersemuka tradisional merupakan cara pemindahan ilmu yang utama [1] dan ia masih merupakan kaedah pengajaran yang dominan pada hari ini [2]. Penggunaan teknologi dalam pendidikan pula bermula dengan perkembangan teknologi pada tahun 1960an dengan perkembangan komputer mini dan kerangka utama. Kerangka utama yang menyediakan pelantar yang pertama untuk pembelajaran mengunjurkan model bimbingan instruktor dari segi masa dan ruang [1]. Selain daripada itu, pelajar-pelajar dapat belajar mengikut kemampuan dan kadar yang tersendiri [1, 3].

Evolusi teknologi dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran melangkah lagi dalam 70-an apabila penggunaan rangkaian video telah diperkenalkan [1]. Era Video Siaran Langsung ini dilaksanakan dengan menggunakan satelit di mana pelajar-pelajar dalam lokasi berbeza berada dalam bilik darjah atau bilik kuliah masing-masing menonton instruktor mengajar melalui televisyen. Menjejak tahun 80-an, teknologi melangkah lagi ke era yang baru apabila lahirnya komputer peribadi (PC) yang pertama.

Dalam tahun 90-an, halaman web merupakan perkembangan terbaru dan terpenting dalam teknologi. Kemaraan ini memandu Era Multimedia ke arah Era Permulaan Web (Web Infancy Era). Dengan terlahirnya teknologi Internet, pembelajaran elektronik (e-pembelajaran) menjadi gembar-gembur yang terbaru dalam era itu [4]. Keadaan ini mencetuskan gelombang yang pertama dalam e-pembelajaran yang memfokus kepada kuantiti kursus yang ditawarkan [4]. Program-program dalam e-pembelajaran generasi pertama dipenuhi dengan pelarik halaman isi kandungan dengan urutan yang panjang serta kuiz-kuiz yang menggunakan perkakas ‘tunjuk dan klik’ [5]. Menurut Singh [5], ini hanya merupakan penyusunan semula versi kursus-kursus berasaskan bilik darjah dalam talian sahaja.

Daripada pengalaman yang didapati dalam e-pembelajaran generasi pertama, para pendidik sedar bahawa satu mod penyampaian instruktur tidak dapat memberi pertunjukkan, menyediakan pilihan, hubungan sosial, urusan, kaitan dan konteks yang diperlukan untuk memudahkan kejayaan dalam pembelajaran [5] .

Orang ramai mula ragu tentang e-pembelajaran dan ini mencetuskan gelombang e-pembelajaran yang kedua yang menolong kita mengimbangkan semula pembelajaran dan menyedarkan kita bahawa e-pembelajaran sahaja adalah tidak mencukupi [4]. Dalam gelombang e-pembelajaran yang kedua, lebih ramai pereka pembelajaran mempunyai pengalaman dalam model pembelajaran bersepadu yang merupakan kombinasi pelbagai mod penyampaian [5] .

Institusi-institusi pengajian tinggi, universiti-universiti serta kolej-kolej yang tradisional lambat menyedari keupayaan impak teknologi ke atas pengajaran dan pembelajaran [6]. Apabila kita melangkah ke millinium baru, para pendidik sedang menghadapi cabaran yang berlainan dengan cabaran lepas. “World Wide Web (WWW)” menukar cara kita mengajar untuk selama-lamanya dalam semua tingkat pendidikan [3]. Kini, banyak antara instutusi-institusi sedang berusaha untuk membangun dan menyampaikan kursus-kursus berasaskan web [6].



81

Beberapa institusi pengajian tinggi di Malaysia sudah menawarkan kursus dalam mod pembelajara bersepadu seperti Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Universiti Terbuka Malaysia dan Universiti Multimedia Malaysia. Universiti-universiti awam tempatan pula mengadapatasikan teknologi terutamanya penggunaan dalam talian dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran.

Ramai penyelidik berpendapat kaedah pembelajaran bersepadu diperkenalkan untuk mengekalkan kelebihan kedua-dua pembelajaran tradisional dan pembelajaran dalam talian [7-11]. Dengan kelebihan mod pembelajaran bersepadu yang dilaporkan, adakah Malaysia telah mula dengan revolusi ini?

2.0 PEMBELAJARAN BERSEPADU

Pelbagai definisi pembelajaran bersepadu terdapat dalam literatur. Menurut, [12] tidak terdapat konsistensi dalam mendefinisikan pembelajaran bersepadu. Menurut beliau juga, pembelajaran bersepadu membawa maksud yang berbeza untuk individu yang berbeza.

Menurut [13], kebanyakan definisi merupakan variasi bagi beberapa tema umum dan beliau mengkategorikan definisi-definisi pembelajaran bersepadu ke dalam tiga tema iaitu kombinasi media-media pengajaran [2,5,14-16] kombinasi kaedah-kaedah pengajaran [12, 17,18] an kombinasi pembelajaran dalam talian dan pembelajaran bersemuka [11,19-23].

Grahamet al. [24] memberi komen bahawa pembelajaran bersepadu didefinisikan dengan terlalu meluas dalam dua tema yang pertama sehingga ia merangkumi hampir kesemua sistem pembelajaran. Penyelidik-penyelidik ini turut memberi komen bahawa definisi dalam dua tema pertama tidak dapat membezakan konsep pembelajaran bersepadu dengan kombinasi pembelajaran yang lain. Mereka mencadangkan tema ketiga kerana ia adalah lebih tepat menggambarkan sejarah perkembangan bagi sistem-sistem pembelajaran bersepadu. Kajian ini juga mendefinisikan pembelajaran bersepadu sebagai pembelajaran yang mengkombinasikan mod pembelajaran bersemuka tradisional dan pembelajaran dalam talian.

Literatur telah menunjukkan sebab-sebab untuk memilih pembelajaran bersepadu di mana ia dikategorikan ke dalam kategori-kategori yang berikut :

i) Penambahbaikan pedagogi[10,24]. Pembelajaran bersepadu dikatakan boleh memberi pilihan pedagogi tambahan kepada guru untuk membantu pelajar-pelajar menguasai kandungan pelajaran dengan lebih berkesan. [24] telah merumuskan faedah-faedah pedagogi dalam persekitaran pembelajaran bersepadu iaitu peningkatan dalam penggunan strategi pembelajaran aktif [19,25,26] perubahan dari pembelajaran yang lebih berpusatkan guru kepada pembelajaran yang berpusatkan pelajar [9, 27], lebih penekanan ke atas pembelajaran rakan sebaya Collis [26], perubahan dari segi fakulti memperuntukkan masa, membenarkan peningkatan bimbingan untuk pelajar secara individu [28,29] kemungkinan untuk berinteraksi dan berbincang



82

dengan pakar-pakar kawalan jauh atau tinjauan projek-projek oleh rakan-rakan kawalan jauh [30].

ii) Peningkatan kefleksibelan. Dalam pembelajaran bersepadu, pelajar-pelajar mempunyai lebih kemudahan dan kefleksibelan mencapai bahan-bahan pembelajaran [13]. Dalam pembelajaran bersemuka tradisional, kekangan masa dan lokasi menyebabkan pembelajaran tidak dapat dicapai secara pratikal [24]. Kebanyakan pelajar pula inginkan kemudahan dalam talian tetapi tidak sudi mengorbankan interaksi sosial dan faktor manusia seperti yang terdapat dalam persekitaran pembelajaran bersemuka tradisional [13]. Dalam pembelajaran bersepadu, keadaan ini dapat diseimbangkan dengan meningkatkan kemudahan dan pada masa yang sama, hubungan antara manusia dapat dikekalkan dalam pertemuan bersemuka [9,26].

iii) Interaksi sosial / komuniti. Interaksi sosial memainkan peranan yang penting dalam pembelajaran bersepadu. Persekitaran pembelajaran bersepadu dilihat sebagai satu langkah untuk mengimbangkan pembelajaran yang berdikari dalam pembelajaran dalam talian dengan interaksi manusia yang terdapat dalam pembelajaran bersemuka tradisional (Morgan, Hartman, Dziuban & Moskal).

iv) Agensi Peribadi. Kajian paling awal dalam bidang rekaan pengajaran melaporkan bahawa ahli-ahli teori telah mengemukaan kepentingan ‘kawalan pelajar’ iaitu pelajar boleh mengarahkan pembelajaran sendiri selain daripada menurut arahan guru atau pereka. (Pask, 1969, cited in Osguthorpe et al., 2003). Menurut Osguthorpe et al. (2003), pembelajaran bersepadu boleh meningkatkan julat pilihan pelajar dan dengan ini, pelajar diberi peluang untuk mengamalkan agensi peribadi mereka.

v) Keberkesanan Kos. Penjimatan kos merupakan salah satu matlamat institusi-institusi pengajian tinggi dan syarikat korporat (Graham, 2004). Pembelajaran bersepadu membuka peluang untuk menyampaian pembelajaran kepada pelajar dengan lebih ramai dan berselerak secara global dalam masa yang singkat dengan cara penyampaian yang konsisten (Graham, 2004). Dengan ini, kos dapat dikurangkan.

vi) Mudah membuat penyemakan. Osguthorpe et al. (2003) melaporkan, kebanyakan daripada persekitaran pembelajaran bersepadu dibangunkan oleh guru atau instruktor kursus. Oleh itu resos-resos kursus dalam talian secara relatif adalah ringkas, senang diubah dan tidak memerlukan kemahiran penghasilan audio dan video yang khas, grafik serta program-program yang rumit. Keadaan ini berbeza dengan kursus dalam talian sepenuhnya yang kompleks dan memerlukan bantuan pakar dalam penyemakan rekaan dan teknologi. Instruktor dalam pembelajaran bersepadu yang mengendalikan sesuatu kursus boleh menukarkan apa sahaja yang diperlukan pada bila-bila



83

masa walaupun kelas sedang berlangsung. Misalnya menjawab soalan-soalan yang dikemukakan oleh pelajar-pelajar dalam talian dan memberi komen-komen dalam talian. Kemudahan penyemakan sistem pembelajaran bersepadu mempunyai potensi untuk mewujudkan atmosfera pembelajaran yang fleksibel, responsif dan spontan.

Adakah kategori-kategori dalam pembelajaran bersepadu ini juga terdapat dalam pembelajaran bersepadu di Malaysia? Pengkaji menjalankan kajian kualitatif ini untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang dapat menghasilkan kepuasan dan kepentingan nilai kepada pelajar dalam mod pembelajaran bersepadu dalam kalangan pelajar di Malaysia,

3.0 METODOLOGI

Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah kualitatif yang diadaptasi daripada kaedah yang digunakan oleh Keeney (1999). Menurut Keeney (1999), kaedah terbaik untuk mengetahui tanggapan pengguna ialah dengan menanya mereka. Pengguna yang berbeza mempunyai tanggapan yang berbeza dan mereka akan meluahkan dengan cara yang berbeza. Oleh itu, setiap pengguna boleh memberi maklumat yang berharga.

Dalam menentukan satu set tema-tema pembelajaran bersepadu, soal selidik kualitatif digunakan untuk mendapatkan tema-tema dalam pembelajaran bersepadu. Metodologi dan struktur soal selidk adalah berpandukan kaedah yang digunakan oleh Kenney (1992) dalam kajian beliau untuk mengumpul data kualitatif nilai pengguna dalam membuat pembelian melalui Internet. Soal selidik ini dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian. Bahagian pertama merupakan soalan terbuka di mana pengguna diberi peluang untuk memberi pendapat mereka tentang kelebihan dan kelemahan dalam pembelajaran bersepadu. Seterusnya, soal selidik adalah lebih berstruktur untuk mestimulasikan pemikiran di mana pengguna ditanya tentang pandangan yang mereka berikan sebelum ini.

Data kajian ini dikumpul daripada lima puluh tiga orang pelajar-pelajar dan fasilitator-fasilitator daripada universiti-universiti tempatan yang menawarkan kursus dalam mod pembelajaran bersepadu. Temu bual dalam kajian ini berhenti selepas lima puluh orang responden ditemu bual kerana data didapati sudah tepu dan mencukupi (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992)

Dapatan kajian ini kemudian diproses dengan mereduksikan data, memaparkan data dan membuat kesimpulan seperti yang dicadangkan oleh Miles dan Huberman (1994). Data kualitatif ini diproses dengan menggunakan perisian NVivo.

4.0 DAPATAN DAN PERBINCANGAN

Senarai mengenai pembelajaran bersepadu hasil dapatan temu bual setiap responden kemudian disatukan. Kombinasi senarai ini menghasilkan satu senarai lengkap mengenai pembelajaran bersepadu. Seterusnya, senarai ini dikategorikan ke dalam tema-tema dengan mengumpulkan penerangan mengenai pembelajaran yang serupa di bawah satu tema umum. Senarai mengenai pembelajaran bersepadu dalam kajian ini dikumpulkan ke dalam



84

sembilan tema yang dinamakan sebagai kandungan kursus, teknikal, kefleksibelan, komuniti pembelajaran, motivasi, perkongsian, maklum balas, pelengkap dan agenda peribadi.

Dalam tema kandungan kursus, responden memberi faktor-faktor seperti sukatan pelajaran, kemudahan mendapat bahan bacaan serta resos-resos lain selain daripada buku teks, tutorial-tutorial atau latihan-latihan yang disediakan dan soalan-soalan tahun lepas yang dimuatnaik. Responden juga mengatakan kekerapan mengemaskini maklumat adalah penting serta peluang mereka dalam memperlengkapkan diri melalui komponen dalam talian sebelum perjumpaan bersemuka seterusnya. Tema ini adalah selari dengan cadangan yang dikemukan oleh Driscol (2002) di mana beliau mencadangkan komponen-komponen seperti menyediakan bahan-bahan rujukan, menghantar kerja dalam talian dan melanjutkan pengalaman bilik darjah dimasukkan dalam mod pembelajaran bersepadu. Faktor-faktor yang didapati dalam tema ini juga selari dengan cadangan Chim (2004) yang membangunkan teori panduan rekaan pengajaran untuk kursus-kursus pembelajaran bersepadu.

Di bawah tema teknikal, faktor-faktor yang dikenal pasti termasuk pasukan sokongan teknikal, masalah akses , kemahiran menggunakan teknologi maklumat dan komunikasi (ICT), reka bentuk antara muka pembelajaran, alamat untuk sumber Internet (URL), masalah pelayan, perisian komputer, kemudahan internet dan fon simbol dalam talian yang terhad. Dapatan ini adalah selari dengan Levy [31] yang mencadangkan sokongan teknikal sebagai satu konstruk dalam pembelajaran dalam talian. Dalam pembelajaran bersepadu, komponen dalam talian merupakan komponen utama, maka teknikal perlu dipertimbangkan apabila komponen dalam talian digunakan.

Kefleksibelan merupakan tema yang penting kerana literatur telah menunjukkan bahawa salah satu sebab utama mereka memilih pembelajaran bersepadu kerana kefleksibelannya (Graham et al.; 2003; Graham, 2004). Dalam kajian ini, faktor-faktor yang dikumpulkan dibawah tema ini termasuk kefleksibelan dari segi masa dan lokasi belajar. Di samping itu, pelajar boleh belajar mengikut kadar tersendiri dan mengulangi pelajaran terakam seberapa banyak kali yang diingin. Selain daripada ini, pelajar-pelajar juga boleh menghubungi rakan-rakan dan fasilitator pada bila-bila masam seperti yang dicadangkan oleh Collis (2003). Dapatan tema ini juga selari dengan dapatan Leh (2002) di mana beliau mendapati jadual dan masa adalah sangat fleksibel dalam pembelajaran bersepadu dan pelajar-pelajar boleh memilih keadaan yang terbaik untuk belajar.

Komuniti Pembelajaran merupakan satu lagi tema yang dikenal pasti dalam kajian ini. Antara faktor-faktor yang dikategorikan dibawah tema ini termasuk peluang berinteraksi dengan rakan sebaya dan fasilitator, kemudahan komunikasi yang terdapat dalam pembeljaran bersepadu, peluang berkomunikasi dengan pelajar-pelajar dari kumpulan lain, peluang berkomunikasi dengan rakan sebaya yang senyap. Melalui komuniti pembelajaran, rakan sebaya yang senyap juga lebih peluang dalam memberi pendapat. Driscol (2002) juga mencadangkan komponen ’menyediakan perhubungan’ dimasukkan ke dalam komponen pembelajaran bersepadu. Selain daripada ini, Leh (2002) juga mendapati pembelajaran bersepadu membenarkan pelajar-pelajar berhubung lebih kerap dengan instruktor-instruktor dan rakan-rakan sebaya



85

mereka. Osghtorpe (2003) pula melaporkan pembelajaran bersepadu meningkatkan interaksi sosial dan komuniti Bailey (2002) melaporkan interaksi antara rakan-rakan sebaya dan antara pelajar dengan fasilitator memberi impak ke atas kepuasan pelajar dalam pembelajaran bersepadu. Ini menunjukkan Komuniti Pembelajaran adalah penting di mana pelajar-pelajar berpeluang berinteraksi dengan pelajar lain serta dengan fasilitator mereka.

Pelajar-pelajar dan fasilitator dalam kajian ini mengatakan proses-proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran adalah lebih menarik, seronok dan selesa dalam pembelajaran bersepadu. Faktor-faktor ini dikumpulkan di bawah tema Motivasi. Dalam tema ini juga, pelajar-pelajar rasa keghairahan dengan pelajaran dan mereka juga mempunyai lebih peluang memberi galakan sesama sendiri. Selain daripada ini, pelbagai pendekatan pembelajaran yang disediakan dalam pembelajaran bersepadu meningkatan minat untuk belajar dan dengan ini mereka tidak rasa bosan dalam proses pembelajaran. Levy (2002) juga mengatakan motivasi adalah penting dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran dan mencadangkan motivasi sebagai satu konstruk dalam kajian dalam talian. Oleh kerana pembelajaran bersepadu merupakan kombinasi terbaik daripada komponen pembelajaran bersemuka tradisional serta pembelajaran dalam talian (Morgon, 2002; Garnham et al., 2002; Haytko, 2001; Young, 2002), maka dapatan komponen ini adalah sesuai dengan matlamat pembelajaran bersepadu.

Perkongsian merupakan proses yang penting dalam proses pembelajaran untuk membina makna baru (Finley, 2000). Kajian ini mendapati peluang perkongsian adalah lebih tinggi dalam pembelajaran bersepadu. Melalui perkongsian, mereka mendapat banyak maklumat baru serta berpeluang belajar daripada rakan-rakan mereka. Proses perkongsian ini betul-betul memanfaatkan mereka. Antara manfaat-manfaat termasuk lebih peluang dan tanpa kekangan masa untuk berkongsi bahan-bahan pelajaran dengan rakan sebaya. Mereka juga berpeluang mendapat bimbingan apabila perlu. Pada masa yang sama, pelajar introvert berpeluang mengemukakan pendapat mereka. Perkongsian dilihat sebagai elemen penting dalam proses pembelajaran dalam Mazhad konstruktivisme sosial (Finley, 2000). Melalui perkongsian, pengalaman rakan sebaya boleh membantu pelajar-pelajar membina makna yang baru. Pembelajaran bersepadu yang merupakan satu pelantar pelajaran seharusnya menyediakan peluang untuk pelajar-pelajar membina makna baru melalui perkongsian. Driscoll (2002) juga mencadangkan penggunaan e-mel dan mesej yang juga merupakan perkakas untuk perkongsian dimaksimumkan.

Maklum Balas merupakan salah satu komponen yang penting di dalam pembelajaran dalam talian (Levy, 2003). Faktor-faktor tema Maklum Balas hasil daripada kajian ini termasuk maklum balas dari segi masalah pelajaran, perkembangan pelajaran, serta penilaian. Driscol (2002) mencadangkan komponen penilaian dalam talian di masukkan dalam pembelajaran bersepadu. Dengan ini, maklum balas segera dpat dilakukan. Dapatan beliau adalah selari dengan dapatan tema ini.

Dalam pembelajaran bersepadu, kelemahan dalam pembelajaran tradisional bersemuka dan pembelajaran dalam talian dapat melengkapkan kelemahan yang terdapat dalam kedua-dua mod pembelajaran (Black, 2002; Garnham & kaleta, 2002). Dengan ini, pembelajaran dikatakan merupakan



86

kombinasi terbaik daripada kedua-dua mod pembelajaran tradisional bersemuka dan pembelajaran dalam talian (Morgon, 2002; Garnham et al., 2002; Haytko, 2001; Young, 2002). Faktor-faktor yang termasuk dalam tema Pelengkap ialah komponen dalam talian yang menyediakan maklumat tambahan kepada buku teks, bahagian pelajaran yang kurang jelas dalam kelas bersemuka boleh dijelaskan dalam perbincangan dalam talian, penerangan konsep yang abstrak dapat dibantu dengan perisian yang interaktif dalam talian, masalah pelajaran yang timbul diluar kelas-kelas bersemuka boleh diselesaikan dalam talian dan rancangan pelajaran dapat diikuti dengan rapi kerana perbincang dalam kelas bersemuka boleh dilanjutkan menerusi pembelajaran dalam talian.

Tema Agenda Peribadi termasuk pelbagai pendekatan pembelajaran, pelbagai perkakas pembelajaran (learning tools), pelbagai teknik yang digunakan dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran disediakan. Kemudahan-kemudahan yang terdapat dalam pembelajaran bersepadu memberi pelajar-pelajar kebebasan untuk memilih apa yang sesuai untuk mereka. Selain daripada ini, pembelajaran bersepadu dikatakan boleh memberi peluang kepada pelajar untuk belajar mengikut kadar yang tersendiri dan mereka juga boleh memilih pembelajaran yang sesuai dengan gaya pembelajaran individu. Menurut Young (2002), model terbaik dalam pengajaran adalah menyediaan bufet seperti yang terdapat dalam pembelajaran bersepadu untuk memenuhi gaya pembelajaran yang berbeza untuk individu yang berbeza. Dapatan ini adalah juga selari dengan Osguthorpe et al. (2003) yang mengatakan pembelajaran bersepadu boleh meningkatkan julat pilihan pelajar.

Tema-tema yang didapati dalam kajian ini adalah dalam konteks Malaysia. Oleh itu, tema-tema ini boleh digunakan dalam rekaan kursus pembelajaran bersepadu. Para pengguna akhir juga perlu diberi peluang untuk mengemukakan pandangan mereka tentang tema-tema ini dalam kursus pembelajaran bersepadu iaitu sama ada mereka rasa tema-tema tersebut adalah penting atau tidak dan juga mengemukakan kepuasan mereka terhadap tema-tema berikut. Berdasarkan pandangan pengguna akhir, maka penambahbaikan kursus pembelajaran bersepadu boleh dilakukan. Oleh itu, pembelajaran bersepadu perlu bergerak ke arah kepentingan dan kepuasan pengguna akhir supaya mutu kursus pembelajaran bersepadu dapat dipertingkatkan.

Tema-tema ini juga boleh digunakan dalam pembinaan instrumen untuk mengukur keberkesanan kursus pembelajaran bersepadu yang ditawarkan . Melalui instrumen yang dibangunkan, peningkatan mutu berterusan kursus pembelajaran bersepadu dapat dilakukan.

5.0 KESIMPULAN

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti tema-tema pembelajaran bersepadu dan implikasinya dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Tema-tema yang didapati bersama dengan literatur boleh dijadikan satu set ciri-ciri pembelajaran bersepadu yang lengkap di Malaysia. Ciri-ciri ini seterusnya boleh digunakan untuk membina instrumen untuk mengukur keberkesanan kursus pembelajaran bersepadu di Malaysia.



87

6.0 REFERENCES

[1] J. Bersin, The Blended Learning Book: Best Practices, Proven Methodologies, and Lessons Learned. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004.

[2] R. Singh, & Reed, C., A White Paper: Achieving Success with Blended

Learning: Centra Software, 2001. [3] G. Black, "A comparison of traditional, online and hybrid methods of

course delivery," Journal of Business Administration Online, vol. 1, 2002. [4] H. Ron, "The second e-learning wave," Training, vol. 38, p. 96, 2001. [5] H. Singh, "Building effective blended learning programs," Issue of

Educational Technology, vol. 34, pp. 51-54, 2003. [6] J. McCormick, "The New School," Newsweek, vol. 135, pp. 60-62, 2000. [7] C. Garnham and R. Kaleta, "Introduction to hybrid courses," Teaching

with Technology Today, vol. 8, 2002. [8] D. L. Haytko, "Traditional versus hybrid course delivery sistems: A case

study of undergraduate marketing plaining courses," Marketing Education Review, vol. 11, pp. 27-39, 2001.

[9] K. R. Morgon, "Blended Learning: A Strategic Action Plan for a New

Campus," Seminole, FL: University of Central Florida, 2002. [10] R. T. G. Osguthorpe, C. R., "Blended learning environments: Definition

and directions," The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, vol. 4, pp. 227-233, 2003.

[11] J. R. Young, "Hybrid teaching seeks to end the divide between traditional

and online instruction," The Chronicle of Higher Education., p. A33, 2002, March 22.

[12] M. Driscoll, "Blended Learning: Let's Get Beyond the Hype," e-learning,

p. 54, March 1, 2002. [13] C. R. Graham, "Blended learning system: Definition, current trends and

future direction," in Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs, C. J. Bonk and C. R. Graham, Eds. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer Publishing, 2004.

[14] Bersin and Associates, "Blended learning: What works?: An industry

study of the strategy, implementation, and impact of blended learning," Bersin & Associates 2003.



88

[15] M. Orey, "One year of online blended learning: Lessons learned," in Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Eastern Educational Research Association, Sarasota, FL, 2002, February.

[16] I. Thomson, Thomson job impact study: The next generation of corporate

learning: Thompson Inc., 2002. [17] R. House, "Clocking in column," in The Spokesman-Review, 2002,

January 8. [18] A. Rossett, "The ASTD E-Learning Handbook," New York: McGraw-Hill,

2002. [19] J. Reay, "Blended learning - a fusion for the future," Knowledge

Management Review, vol. 4, p. 6, 2001. [20] J. E. Rooney, "Blending learning opportunities to enhance educational

programming and meetings," Association Management, vol. 55, pp. 26-32, 2003.

[21] P. Sands, "Inside outside, upside downside: Strategies for connecting

online and face-to-face instruction in hybrid courses," Teaching with Technology Today, vol. 8, 2002.

[22] C. N. Gunawardena and P. L. Duphorne, "Which learner readiness

factors, online features, and CMC related learning approaches are associated with learner satisfaction in computer conferences?," in Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle, WA, 2001, p. 35.

[23] R. A. Robison, "Selected Faculty Experiences in Designing and

Teaching Blended Learning Courses at Brigham Young University," The University of Nebraska - Lincoln, 2004, p. 188 pages.

[24] C. R. Graham, S. Allen, and D. Ure, "Blended learning environments: A

review of the research literature," in Unpublished manuscript Provo, UT, 2003.

[25] L. M. Smelser, "Making Connections in Our Classrooms: Online and Off,"

in Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication, 2002, March 20-23.

[26] B. Collis, "Course redesign for blended learning: modern optics for

technical professionals," International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Lifelong Learning, vol. 13, pp. 22-38, 2003.

[27] J. L. Hartman, C. Dziuban, and P. Moskal, "Faculty satisfaction in ALNs:

A dependent or independent variable?," in Paper presented at the Sloan Summer ALN Workshops: Learning Effectiveness and Faculty Satisfaction, 1999, August 16-18.



89

[28] J. R. Bourne, "Net-learning: Strategies for on-campus and off-campus network-enabled learning," Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, vol. 2, pp. 70-88, 1998.

[29] G. L. Waddoups, G. L. Hatch, and S. Butterworth, "Blended teaching and

learning in a first-year composition course," Quarterly Review of Distance Education, vol. 4, pp. 271-278, 2003.

[30] S. L. Levine and W. K. Wake, "Hybrid teaching: Design studios in virtual

space," in Paper presented at the National Conference on Liberal Arts and the Education of Artists SVA, New York, 2000, October 20.

[31] Y. Levy, "A study of learners' perceived value and satisfaction for implied

effectiveness of online learning system," Miami, Florida. (UMI No. 3126765): Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Florida International University, 2003, p. 330.



90

IMPLEMENTATION OF OUTCOME-BASED EDUCATION DELIVERY SYSTEM

AT PRE-UNIVERSITY LEVEL

BALBIR SINGH MAHINDER SINGH, CHONG FAI KAIT, HASNAH M ZAID YUSNIZA YAAKOP

Foundation Studies Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS 31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan [email protected] © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRACT - The Foundation Studies (FS) department at Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) offers pre-university courses for students who have completed their SPM or any other equivalent qualifications. Students from the engineering stream will be able to move into their respective engineering programmes, namely Petroluem, Chemical, Mechanical, Civil, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, while students from the technology stream will move into Information & Communication Technology and Information System programmes after completing their foundation studies. The FS department adopted the Outcome-based Education (OBE) delivery system for both the engineering and technology streams. The move towards using OBE is inline with the national requirement for universities offering engineering education. The approach used in OBE shifts the focus from the instructor to the learner and it is a student-centred system, where the responsibility of learning is passed on to the students. The instructor needs to master the role of a facilitator, and there must be a genuine shift towards using OBE based assessment tools. One major change made to all the courses were related to the weightage of coursework marks. Most of the courses were using the 40% coursework and 60% final exam format, and to adopt the OBE approach, this was changed to 60% coursework and 40% final exam format. The decision to place more emphasis on the continuous assessment, rather than one final exam was indeed a radical decision, as more tracking and monitoring effort to ensure the integrity of the courses had to be introduced. In this paper, statistical analysis of the overall students’ performance was carried out and one of the early yardsticks used to provide an overall view of the effectiveness of this new approach was the CGPA. It was noticed that percentage of students obtaining a CGPA of 3.00 and above increased by an average of 15%.



91

Keywords: Outcome based Education, Student-Centered and Assessment Tools

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The FS department at UTP offers pre-university courses for students who have completed their SPM or any other equivalent qualifications. The students are placed in the engineering and technology streams, based on their qualifications and performance in the interview sessions. Students from the engineering stream will be able to move into their respective engineering programmes, namely Petroluem, Chemical, Mechanical, Civil, Electrical and Electronics Engineering. Students from the technology stream will move into Information & Communication Technology and Information System programmes after completing their foundation studies. In the January 2007 semester, all the academic programmes at UTP adopted the Outcome-based Education delivery system. This is inline with the university’s corporate agenda, and also to fulfill the national requirement for universities offering engineering education. The national requirement is imposed, as it is part of the condition for Malaysia to be accepted as the full member of Washington Accord (WA). The WA, which was signed in 1989, is an international treaty among bodies responsible for accrediting engineering degree programs. Once the accreditation is obtained, Malaysia can then be accepted as a full member of WA, from its current provisional status, held since 2003. One of the benefits is that graduates of programs accredited by any of the signatory bodies will be recognized by the other bodies as having met the academic requirements for entry to the practice of engineering, in any of the member countries. In Malaysia, the Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM) registers graduates and professional engineers under the Registration of Engineers Act 1967. Only graduates from an accredited engineering programme are accepted as member of BEM. It is therefore the responsibility of BEM to ensure the quality of engineering programmes, so that a certain minimum standard comparable to global practice is maintained. In 1996 National Accreditation Board (LAN) was established to ensure the quality of all private Institute of Higher Learning (IHL) and the Engineering Accreditation Council (EAC) was established in the year 2000, which comprises of BEM, Institute of Engineering Malaysia, LAN and Public Services Department (JPA). In Malaysia, EAC is fully responsible for accreditation of engineering degree programmes and has been given the task to prepare all the IHLs offering engineering education to adopt OBE, hence to receive international accreditation status via WA.

The FS department embarked on the journey to move towards OBE, starting from July 2006 semester, on a trial basis. An internal curriculum review was conducted prior to that and expert opinions were sought from the external examiners and advisers. The undergraduate departments served as the main stakeholders, and the trial run was carried out for a period of one semester. In the following semester, FS fully implemented the OBE curriculum.



92

2.0 OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION

The quality of learning that takes place in any academic institution relies heavily on the quality of the designed learning materials, the delivery methods and also the modes of assessment used [1]. Traditional education is centered on “inputs” where students are introduced to a specific content and time-based course. At the end of the course, the students are required to sit for an examination and grades assigned regardless of whether the students are able to master the material. On the other hand, the “student-centered” educational approach is focused on course “outcomes” consisting of a list of skills and knowledge in which the students are coached to master and able to demonstrate upon completion of the course [2]. These learning outcomes are designed to inculcate a platform for life-long learning and they are finally assessed in terms of set learning objectives [3]. The approach used in OBE shifts the focus from the instructor to the learner, and can be considered as a student-centred system. In a student-centred system, the responsibility of learning is passed on to the students, and the instructor needs to master the role of a facilitator. In order to move away from the traditional so called instructor-centred system, there must be a genuine shift towards using OBE based assessment tools as well. The impact can only be made, if significant changes are made to the curriculum, delivery system and the assessment tools. These three main areas of concern will be further deliberated in the next section.

Although OBE system is just being introduced in Malaysia, but this concept is not something new. The early usage can be traced back to the education reform model, “K-12”, mainly used at the primary and secondary schools in the United States and Australia. It is believed that the concept was conceived in the late 1970s. The need to embark on this new educational system was to effectively measure student performance and the effectiveness of the curriculum as well. The need to determine the actual performance of student subjected to a particular curriculum was the primary focus, and at the same time a reliable feedback system to further improve the education system had to be certified by the stakeholders. Along the way, many other generic systems similar to OBE surfaced, such as the standards-based education reform, mastery education, systemic education restructuring, performance based education, high performance learning, total quality management, transformational education and competency-based education [3]. One of the countries that used OBE to reform its national education system recently is South Africa. South Africa introduced its own version of OBE to address the need to restructure the curriculum towards a non-racial and democratic social order, resulting in the Curriculum 2005 concept to be launched [4].

3.0 IMPLEMENTATION

As mentioned earlier, in the FS Department, the educational approach used after implementing OBE is “student-centered” rather than “instructor-centered”, as in the traditional education. The need to embrace this radical change was to develop academic competency in the engineering and technology feeder program and the program has only one main objective: “To produce



93

students with sufficient knowledge in fundamental science and mathematics for pursuing education in engineering and technology”.

Students in FS have to complete a total of 42 credit hours, and obtain a minimum CGPA of 2.00. Altogether there are around 17 subjects to be taken over a period of 2 semesters, which can be stretched to a maximum of 4 semesters. After an internal curriculum review was conducted, and changes made using the OBE curriculum designing method, one major change made to all the courses were related to the weightage of coursework marks. Most of the courses were using the 40% coursework and 60% final exam format, and to adopt the OBE approach, this was changed to 60% coursework and 40% final exam format. The decision to place more emphasis on the continuous assessment, rather than one final exam was indeed a radical decision, as more tracking and monitoring effort to ensure the integrity of the courses had to be introduced. The immediate respond to this was to re-look at the delivery and assessment methods. All in all, the essential educational tools and delivery are focused towards the achieving the following outcomes, which were common to all subjects. The program outcomes formulated for the FS program are such that at the end of the program, students should be able to:

• Apply knowledge of science and mathematics in problem solving • Apply analytical skills to interpret and solve problems • Communicate effectively in English • Practice behavior that reflects good values in the learning process

3.1 Delivery methods

In order to initiate the shift in the educational approach to OBE system, lecture classes were reduced from a few hundreds to a maximum of 80 students while the tutorial classes to approximately 30 students. These changes were made so that active learning from students can take place effectively and also enhance the student’s participation in-group discussions. The move to reduce class size allowed the use of cooperative learning, student-centred learning and problem-based learning. The traditional lecture-method is still employed, especially when delivering the theoretical facts. Usually, the theoretical discussions are also interjected with problem-solving situations, especially for technical subjects. The practical sessions are given equal importance, whereby the limit per experimental set is 2 students. Modern data capturing devices are used, to assist in the computerized practical sessions. Since data-capturing time has been reduced, more emphasis is placed on analyzing and reporting of results. In order to ensure that an experiment is fully understood, a brief presentation and viva session are made compulsory. In the non-technical subjects, presentations and case studies are used widely, and all these efforts ensure the achievement of all the program outcomes.



94

3.2 Modes of assessment

Prior to OBE, the emphasis to gauge the performance of

students was heavily inclined to the outcome of the final examinations. The move to reduce the weigthage of the final exam to 40% for most of the courses shows that there is a genuine shift towards implementing OBE. The performance of students is being assessed continuously by using tests, frequent quizzes, assignments, presentations, case studies and laboratory reports.

4.0 METHODOLOGY

In all curriculum design and implementation, the main stakeholder that

finally benefits from it is the student. The feedback from the students must be considered as one of the most important input, for the purpose of continuous quality improvement process. The need to use suitable measurement tools is rather essential, and the usual standard measurement tools in OBE are the course outcome survey and program outcome survey. Upon completion, exit survey is considered as a reliable tool to further improve the program. In order to carry out the investigations for preparing this paper, a questionnaire was developed to identify the level of awareness and understanding of students on OBE approach and also to provide feedback from them on OBE implementation. The survey was conducted on a group of 352 respondents who had undergone one semester of courses delivered in OBE approach. The other measure to gauge the effectiveness of moving towards using OBE system was the overall average CGPA obtained by the students.

5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

As mentioned in the previous section, a survey was conducted on a group of 352 respondents who had undergone one semester of courses delivered in OBE approach. It can be seen from figure 1 that almost more than 70% students have scored excellent results in 4 of the main entry subjects to the engineering stream. In fact the results for English is also very good. So therefore, the outcome from the survey can be considered as reliable, as more than 80% of the respondent have distinctions in all the 4 Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia(SPM) examination subjects.



95

Around 35.24% of respondent indicated that they were very satisfied with their results, while another 32.38% were just satisfied. A total of 14.61% respondent were somehow not pleased with their results, while another 17.77% remained neutral. The results as shown in figure 1 can be taken to be an acceptable level, coupled with around 67.62% of respondent who seems to be satisfied with their achievements. There was also an attempt to get a feedback related to the previous school system. A total of 67.15% of the respondents agreed that the education system at school level is totally exam oriented, while another 26.45% remained neutral and only 6.40% disagreed. The need to revert back to traditional streaming system whereby students are placed in the respective science, art and other streams based their exam results in form 3 received good response. Around 56.10% respondents agreed with the traditional streaming system, and only 16.57% disagreed. The rest of them remained neutral. Around 70.26% respondents went to agree that streaming could be useful for early career path identification, while only 11.37% disagreed. So therefore, around only around 37.46% agreed that the school system has prepared for the engineering education, while another 24.78% disagrees. A total of 37.75% of the respondents remained neutral, perhaps due to loyalty or uncertain about the type of education received at school level. This high level of neutral responses can clearly pose a problem to the OBE system, as the students are not sensitive enough to the education environment that they have been exposed to. This is clearly reflected in the results of the survey, which is related to the understanding of the OBE philosophy. Again around 44.74% of respondent were uncertain about the education system that they were subjected to, while around 33.33% indicated that they fully understand OBE system. The other 21.93% of respondents admitted that they do not understand what OBE is

Figure 1: The percentage of students who scored grades between 1 and 5 in their Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) examination for the year 2006.



96

all about. All these responses are closely related, as shown in figure 2. Since most of them were uncertain about the type of education system that they have gone through, one of the ways to create awareness was through conducting seminars and general briefings. This was carried out effectively, and hoped would have created a difference. Some of the students that were later interviewed indicated that they were better informed about the education systems that they have followed.

The other positive indication was that around 47.49% students

Figure 2: The respond from the students regarding their preparedness to go through engineering education and their understanding of OBE system at UTP.



97

The other positive indication was that around 47.49% students agreed that in OBE system, there is a shift in the delivery form being “instructor-centred” to “learner-centred”. But still around 42.18% respondent chose to remain neutral. The assessment weightage using the 60% coursework and 40% final exam approach was definitely well received, whereby 72.51% respondents agreed to this distribution. Only a small number disagreed, while around 17.84% remained neutral. Clearly this is an endorsement of the assessment method used under the OBE system, which focuses on continuous assessment rather than final examination. Although many respondents chose to remain neutral earlier regarding the understanding of the OBE system, but it can be concluded that they do understand to a certain extent the intend of this new system.

The feedback obtained regarding the delivery and assessment methods were especially helpful and the results are shown in figure 3. It can be clearly seen that the students do agree with the OBE system, although they might not be directly aware of it. From figure 3, around 77.99% of students agree that understanding and application of learning materials are more important than just being materials for merely passing the examinations. Around 76.18% students went on to agree that problem-solving approach is important rather than the conventional teaching-style. But only 61.76% agreed that continuous assessment is a better tool to monitor students’ understanding on the topics that they are working on. In figure 4, the respond received towards implementation of lectures in smaller class sizes certainly seems to be favourable among students, as 74.05% of them agree that it would be more beneficial. Ironically around 5.38%

Figure 3: The respond from the students regarding the delivery and assessment methods used in the OBE system at UTP.



98

disagreed, while the rest remained neutral, although they have been exposed to smaller groups previously in schools. But again only around 51.14% agree that smaller classes means better lecturer-students interaction, while around 42.67% remained neutral. Perhaps this is another area where the instructors have to put in a lot of effort to enhance their professional relationship with the students to further enhance the teaching and learning process using OBE.

CONCLUSION

In this paper, statistical analysis of the overall students’ performance was also carried out and one of the other yardsticks used to provide an overall view of the effectiveness of the OBE approach was the CGPA. It was noticed that percentage of students obtaining a CGPA of 3.00 and above increased by an average of 15%, between the last two cohorts. The latest cohort to complete the foundation studies was subjected to the new system, while the previous one follow the conventional instructor-centred system. Although it is not sufficient enough to conclude using this measure alone, but the results from the survey can somehow complement this outcome. This work can be taken to be the initial effort to track the effectiveness of the implementation of this new system at the FS department. The early indicators seems to be favorable for the system to be continued, although a lot of initiatives, especially in creating awareness among the FS community must be further enhanced. Any system can only be fully functional, if everyone is fully familiar with it.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to take this opportunity to thank the management of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for allowing them to complete and present this paper at the CTLHE 07 conference.

Figure 4: The respond from the students on the class size and the lecturer-students interaction is smaller class size.



99

REFERENCES

[1] Bernstein, B., (1982), “On the classification and framing of educational knowledge”, In: Challenge and change in the curriculum, Horton, T. and Raggatt, R. (eds), Sevencake, Kent, Hodder & Stoughton in association with the Open University, 157-176.

[2] McNeir, G., (1993), “Outcome-based Education”, ERIC Digest 85, University of Oregon, 3-5.

[3] Malan, SPT, (2000), “The ‘new paradigm’ of outcome-based education in perspective”, Tydskrif vir Gesinsekologie en Verbruikerswetenskappe, 28,22-28.

[4] Department of Education, (1996), South African Schools Act, Government Gazette No.84, Pretoria, South Africa: Department of Education.



100

OUTCOME-BASED CURRICULUM: ITS IMPLEMENTATION IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY COURSES

SHAHRINA BT. M NORDIN SUBARNA SIVAPALAN

Management and Humanities Department Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS Bandar Seri Iskandar, Perak


ABSTRACT - There is a major shift in the education sector as outcome-based education (OBE) has been widely adopted in a number of higher learning institutions in Malaysia. The education reform has inevitably involved many fields of study, among which is the field of second language teaching. The implementation of OBE requires a re-designing and re-development of teaching and learning practices which need to be in line with the OBE educational theoretical framework. This paper will thus first discuss what OBE curriculum is and how it is implemented into the framework of English language teaching in Universiti Teknologi Petronas. Upon its implementation, the approach currently emphasizes both on the product and the process of language learning. There has indeed been a line of research findings that support such an eclectic approach in English Language teaching. This paper thus, will also discuss the strength of such approach in the context of OBE. A set of questionnaires will be disseminated to Foundation (semester 2) students to get an insight on the effectiveness of such approach in teaching language proficiency. The results will be reported and discussed in the paper. The findings will also shed some light on some of the pedagogical implications. The paper will conclude with suggestions for future research. Keywords: outcome based education, product and process approach, language learning process



101

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There has been a major shift in the Malaysian education sector with the implementation of outcome-based education (OBE) in institutions of higher learning. This move has affected public and private and institutions of higher learning in the country. This move cuts across both technical and non technical fields of study, one of which is the field of second language teaching and learning. The implementation of OBE not only requires a re-designing and re-development of teaching and learning practices, but is also inclusive of curriculum realignments that must be in line with the OBE educational theoretical framework. This paper will shed some light on the strategies carried out by language practitioners of a private institution of higher learning in the implementation of OBE in a Foundation level English language proficiency course. The implementation of OBE in the said institution is within the communicative language teaching (CLT) framework and entails a synthesis of elements of two approaches, namely the product and process approach, that form an eclectic approach to language teaching. The paper will highlight among others, teaching and learning activities, teaching and learning support materials, assessment and learner perceptions of the effectiveness of the applied approach.

2.0 OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION – A BRIEF DESCRIPTION

Before delving into the study, it is first necessary to comprehend the aims and principles of OBE. According to Spady ‘Outcome-Based Education means clearly focusing and organizing everything in an educational system around what is essential for all students to be able to do successfully at the end of their learning experiences. This means starting with a clear picture of what is important for students to be able to do, then organizing the curriculum, instruction, and assessment to make sure this learning ultimately happens" [18]. As such, OBE can be viewed as an approach to coordinating and operating an education system that is focused in and defined by the successful display of learning sought from each student. OBE is rooted from competency-based education, mastery learning as advocated by Block and Bloom and criterion-referenced assessment as advanced by Masters & Evans and is a synthesis and extension of these approaches.

OBE differs from the traditional form of education particularly in its overall approach, the manner in which standards are assessed as well as the means in which performance is determined. According to [18], an OBE curriculum advocates the importance of beginning with the elements that are important for students to be able to perform, followed by organizing the curriculum, instruction and assessment to ensure that learning takes place. Upon establishing key factors that students should understand and be able to achieve or the qualities they should build upon, the curricula are designed to accomplish the capabilities or qualities identified. As such, OBE embodies the notion that the most effective manner of learning is to first determine what needs to be achieved. Upon the determination of the outcome, the strategies, processes, techniques, and other means are put in place to achieve the goal.



102

OBE also involves designing, developing and documenting educational

instruction in relation to outcomes. OBE entails the reorganization of curriculum, assessment and reporting practices in education with the objective of reflecting the accomplishment of learning. The primary aim of OBE is to facilitate desired transformations or changes within the learners, by increasing knowledge, enhancing skills and/or positively influencing attitudes, values and judgment. An educational system that is based upon OBE requires its learners as well as educators to heed to the following:

1. Outcomes of learning of which learners must demonstrate that they have achieved

2. The use of learning outcomes by educators as a focal point when developing instructional decisions creating lesson plans

Outcomes are explained as the end product of a learning process.

Outcomes depict the results of learning over a duration of time, specifically the results of what is learned versus what is taught. Outcomes are comprehensible learning results that learners have to demonstrate at the end of significant learning experiences. Outcomes are also actions or performances that represent and reflect learner ability in using content, information, ideas and tools successfully. As such, accountability mechanisms or learner assessment that directly reflect student performance and assist learners become aware of what they know are equally pertinent [22]. Learning is deemed as successful when students are equipped with the knowledge, skills and qualities required after they exit the educational system.

As OBE places importance on planning, delivering and evaluating instruction it is therefore pertinent that administrators, educators and students focus their concentration on the desired results that are expressed in terms of individual student learning. There are two common approaches to OBE, one emphasizing on subject-related academic outcomes while the other on long-term outcomes that are in line with the learner’s future roles upon completing their education.

To be implemented successfully, an OBE would should entail a clear set of outcomes that all students will achieve, extension outcomes for students who progress beyond the minimum outcomes, detailed specification of the prerequisites that students must master before attempting to achieve each new outcome, plans for several different teaching strategies to help students achieve the desired learning outcomes and an assessment process that is fair, valid, reliable and reflective of the knowledge and skills that are most important for students to learn.



103

3.0 IMPLEMENTING OBE IN A PROFICIENCY LEVEL ENGLISH

LANGUAGE COURSE Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, a private institution of higher learning offers courses at foundation, undergraduate and post graduate levels. The university prepares students for engineering as well as technology based courses. Students are also exposed to business, management and language courses through courses offered by the Management and Humanities Department. The language courses offered are at Foundation and Undergraduate levels and are compulsory. The Foundation level language courses, i.e. English 1 and English 2 are proficiency level courses. Undergraduate students on the other hand are required to complete Technical Writing and Professional Communication Skills. The researchers would like to highlight that the implementation of OBE encompasses both Foundation and Undergraduate language courses at the university. For the purpose of this study however, the researchers will look into the implementation of OBE in the Foundation level language proficiency courses, specifically English 2.

3.1 The Framework of the Course

The emphasis of the English 2 course, implemented within the framework of the OBE curriculum, is on the outcomes rather than the input of the course. The outcomes, as per OBE guidelines, are concretely measurable which include a range of skills and knowledge. The measurable outcomes are imperative to ensure that the content and skills covered in the course would be seen as the priority of the students to be attained by the end of the course. Under the philosophy of OBE, the outcomes are first specified which must be in line with the overall objectives and outcomes at the program level (Foundation level). “What kind of students is the course trying to produce?” was thus the first question formed when tailoring the existing language proficiency course according to the outcome-based curriculum guidelines. Three learning outcomes for English proficiency course, pitched at level 2, are set. At the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. Demonstrate their comprehension and communicative skills

in English Language. 2. Synthesize information whether linear or non-linear by using

various reading methods. 3. Develop creative and critical thinking skills.

3.2 Teaching and learning activities

To reflect the philosophy of the OBE, the kinds of teaching and

learning activities carried out move away from the traditional way of teaching and explore other delivery methods. The main activities involved in this course therefore do not only focus on teacher-centered approach but also include task-based learning, problem-solving learning and portfolio development. Activities such as dialogues, debates,



104

discussion, drama and role-playing are also carried out in the class.

Through the OBE approach, teaching and learning activities need to be geared towards meeting the learning outcomes identified. The underlying approach underpinning the current teaching and learning activities is communicative language teaching (CLT) which the goal of the language teaching is what [8] referred to as “communicative competence”. Communicative competence is the ability to linguistically apply the language correctly in authentic situations. In the language classroom, with the advent of Communicative Language Teaching in the 1980s, the emphasis is onto the cultivation of the learner’s ability to communicate through the complex interplay of the four skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking. In a classroom adopting CLT, learners are engaged in activities that require them to arrive to an outcome from given information through some process of thought that was regarded as a ‘task’. The activities in communicative language teaching (CLT) thus focus on task-completion, moving away from teacher-centered teaching approach as per the OBE teaching principle. In a CLT classroom, it is necessary that the students be seated in groups to provide them with an opportunity to communicate with one another, apart from interacting with the teacher. Such setting allows collaborative learning and a proper educator-learner and learner-learner interaction as envisaged by OBE. Students are also expected to document significant learning activities and experiences. They collect pieces of evidence from classroom projects and activities. The portfolio is a collection of students’ work that allows students to demonstrate academic achievement and record their progress over time.

3.3 Teaching and learning support materials

A textbook is used as a teaching and learning support material.

The textbook focuses on the four skills emphasized in communicative language teaching approach: reading, listening, writing and speaking. As mentioned earlier, under the influence of CLT approach, ELT practitioners discuss communication in terms of four communicative skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing [17], which form part of the learning outcomes of the course – communicative competence.

A workbook is used to further enhance the students’ acquired

knowledge and skills in the effort to attain the specified learning outcomes of the course. The students are also exposed to literature short stories written by prominent writers like Edgar Allen Poe and Kate Chopin. The objective of such exposure is not only for the purpose of appreciation of literature texts but also to guide learners to develop creative thinking and critical thinking through critical analysis activities carried out during the class. As stated earlier, developing creative and critical thinking forms part of the learning outcomes of the course. Computer assisted language learning (CALL) was also used to help learners attain the learning outcomes by the end of the semester. Students are to go to the lab to do the activities and complete them at



105

their own pace. This is in line with what OBE propagates where students work at their own pace at mastering the learning outcomes until he or she succeeds which may result in lifelong learning.

3.4 Assessment

The assessment in courses that adopt outcome-based

education, such as the course described in this paper, focuses on assessing learners’ learning process. Criterion-referenced assessment is used which compares the learners’ work with the identified assessment criteria. The outcomes of a particular student are therefore not affected by the outcomes of other students [6], but instead using the learning outcomes as the yardstick for achievement. Typical assessment techniques of examination, quiz, reports, oral presentation, observation etc. were employed throughout the course. The assessment was however carried out in a continual basis as per the OBE guideline.

4.0 LEARNERS’ PERCEPTION OF THEIR ABILITY

To get an insight of the effectiveness of this approach, learners were asked to give their perception on their own achievement in attaining the pre-specified outcomes. A fair reflection of the outcomes was obtained at the end of the semester. The students were to grade the outcomes attained according to 1-7 scale (from poor to excellent). The descriptive data reported are as follows.

Table Q1:Demonstrate comprehension and communication skills in English

Scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Res. Population % Resp.

Frequency 0 1 4 27 37 119 117 305 305 100.0%

Percentage 0.0% 0.3% 1.3% 8.9% 12.1% 39.0% 38.4% 100%

Table Q2:Synthesize information whether linear or non linear by using various reading methods


Frequency 1 1 7 45 73 112 66 305 305 100.0%

Percentage 0.3% 0.3% 2.3% 14.8% 23.9% 36.7% 21.6% 100%

Table Q3: Develop creative and critical thinking


Frequency 1 0 7 35 63 120 79 305 305 100.0%

Percentage 0.3% 0.0% 2.3% 11.5% 20.7% 39.3% 25.9% 100%

The results show that 77.4 percent of the students believe that they have attained the first learning outcome that is to demonstrate comprehension and communication skills in English, at scales 6 and 7. The rating is towards the



106

excellent extreme of the scale. This indicates that learners believe that they are able to comprehend the language very well and at the same time they are able to communicate using the language at an excellent level. In the context of this paper, the communicative ability, as emphasized in the CLT approach in the teaching and learning activities, include the four skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking. At the end of the course, 58 percent of the students perceive their ability to synthesize information, whether linear or non linear by using various reading methods, at scales of 6 and 7. 53.5 percent of the students rate such ability as average at the scales of 4 and 5. Learners undertaking the English 2 proficiency course are not only expected to read effectively but are able to read from both linear and non-linear methods. Since the percentages of the students for both at the excellent end and the average level are almost the same, the instructors may want to give more emphasis to help learners attain the second learning outcome. Majority of the students (65.2 percent) however feel that their ability to develop critical and creative thinking skills is good or excellent (the positive end of the scale).

The findings thus lend a degree of support to the value of this course in its ability to produce students with the learning outcomes set at the beginning of the course. The challenge remains in investigating whether the effect of the learning outcomes at the foundation level will persist well into their long-term undergraduate tertiary level. Further studies however need to be carried out to analyze the academic scores of their tests, quizzes, examinations, portfolio and other assessment methods used in determining the effectiveness of the course, within the OBE framework. 5.0 PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

The implementation of OBE, which is widely adopted in a number of higher learning institutions in Malaysia, has indeed caused a major shift in the education sector. The re-development of the current curriculum with specification of the learning outcomes proved to be an arduous task. It involved a major revision in the education pedagogy. The education reform requires a re-designing and re-development of teaching and learning practices which need to be in line with the OBE educational principles. The language instructors for the English 2 course are to re-design and adapt the current English 2 proficiency course, which employs the process approach of communicative language teaching, into the OBE framework which has a strong element of the product approach to teaching language. In the context of language teaching, outcome-based has elements of the product approach to teaching English as second language. In such product-oriented approach, the ends-means syllabuses focus exclusively on the outcomes of instruction. Specifying the end points of learning is seen as crucial to the curriculum designer. The objectives, materials and methodology of the product approach are thus made before there is any encounter between teacher and learner. The first model of a product approach was articulated by Tyler (1949). In line with such approach, outcome-based teaching and learning is concerned with curriculum design and ensuring that the contents, delivery, activities and assessments are all aligned to help facilitate students to attain the pre-specified



107

learning outcomes [23]. Thus, like the product-oriented approach, outcome-based education is a pedagogical approach which also focuses on the achievement of certain specified results.

On the other hand, the communicative language teaching (the approach originally adopted in the course) belongs to the family of the process approach to teaching language, which stands in a stark contrast to the product approach. With the implementation of the OBE, the CLT (process-oriented) has to be adapted into the OBE framework (product-oriented). The difference is that process syllabuses, such as CLT, allow for greater learner reinterpretation and decision-making as usually there are no predetermined outcomes of the course. Process oriented syllabuses focus on the means of gaining knowledge and skills, not the outcomes.

Unlike the product approach (and OBE) the process approach to

syllabus design therefore has less emphasis on specifying the output of the syllabus [5]. In an extreme case of process-oriented syllabuses, [5] suggests “what a syllabus consists of can only be discerned after a course is over, by observing what was not planned, but what took place”, which is in total contrast to the outcome-based curriculum, that is implemented in the current English 2 course. The course however has all the while been adopting communicative language teaching (a process approach). The course thus has been all along stressing on “cognitive psychological processes through communicative language teaching and task-based language learning” [16]. Task-based language learning activities form a strong component of the process approach as “a task-based syllabus is in the family of process syllabuses” [7]. With the implementation of the OBE within the CLT framework requires a synthesis of elements of two approaches (product and process) that form an eclectic approach to teaching language in the course.

Such synthesis of the two approaches in the OBE framework thus emphasizes both on the product (the outcomes) of the course and the learning process that takes place in the course e.g. the process of negotiation of meaning amongst the students when a carrying out a task and that such activity helps learners to attain the learning outcomes of the task.

The OBE framework however differs from the product approach in its evaluation. The linear model of the product approach, which has planning, implementation and evaluation occur in sequential order as the learners’ performance is evaluated at the end of the semester. The evaluation of learners’ performance in the OBE curriculum is however done continually in stages. This is in agreement with the process approach that has been employed in the current language proficiency course. As mentioned by [11], “leaving evaluation until the final stage of the curriculum process is rather like doing military intelligence after the war is over – evaluation should take place at every stage”. Such approach to evaluating learners’ performance facilitates students to gradually attain the intended learning outcomes. This is based on the theoretical framework of OBE that some students learn certain material faster than the others and all students are capable of continuous improvements.

There has been a debate in the literature on the effectiveness of the

approaches. The process-product debate may pose a false dichotomy as it can



108

be argued that there is no product in the absence of the process for getting there. Similarly, there can be no process without resulting to some kind of a product. Both the strength of the product approach and the process approach are therefore synthesized into the teaching and learning of the English 2 proficiency course, within the framework of OBE. According to the feedback from the students reported in the previous section, such eclectic approach is beneficial to the learners. The eclectic approach of the process oriented elements (in the CLT approach adopted) and the product oriented elements (within the OBE framework) may be beneficial to the learners. As according to [19], cited in [9], the OBE approach promotes the integration of various teaching and learning strategies by instructors and educators in order to help learners attain the specified learning outcomes. 6.0 CONCLUSION

Outcomes-based education can lead to successful student learning as it encourages preparedness. Although this approach is more centered to students, teachers play an equally vital role in terms of creating appropriate learning opportunities for students. To facilitate learning, teachers should take the following into account: What do we want students to learn? Why do we want students to learn these things? How can we best help students to learn these things? and, How will we know when students have learned? Establishing an OBE system for education is the good way for learners to achieve and accomplish the desired outcomes. While the role of the teacher is to enable and encourage his or her students to achieve pertinent outcomes of the course, the onus is on the student to actively participate and contribute during the learning process. The researchers would like to note that the conclusion on the effectiveness of the approach is however not conclusive. More empirical studies need to be carried out to verify its effectiveness.

REFERENCES

[1] Block, J. H. (Ed.). (1971). Mastery learning: Theory and practice. New York: Holt, Rinehardt and Winston.

[2] Bloom, B. S. (1973). Every kid can: Learning for mastery. Washington, DC: College/University Press.

[3] Brandt, R. (1993). On Outcome-Based Education: A Conversation with Bill Spady. Educational Leadership, 5 (4), 66-70.

[4] Breen, M. and Candlin, C. (1980). The essentials of a communicative

curriculum in language teaching. Applied Linguistics, 1/2.

[5] Candlin, C. N. (1984). Syllabus design as a critical process. In C. Brumfit (ed.) General English Syllabus Design. Oxford: Pergamon.

[6] Dodridge, M. & Kassinopoulos, M. (2003). Assessment of student



109

learning: the experience of two European institutions where outcomes-based assessment has been implemented. European Journal of Engineer Education. 28.4.549-565

[7] Graves, K. (2000). Designing Language Courses. Cambridge: A Guide

for Teachers. Cambridge University Press.

[8] Hymes, D. (1971). Competence and Performance in Linguistics Theory. In R. Huxley and E. Ingram (eds.), Language acquisition: Models and Methods. London: Academic Press.

[9] Kilfoil, W. R., & Van der Walt, C. (1997). Learn 2 teach: English language teaching in a multilingual context. Pretoria: J. L. Van Schaik.

[10] Killen, R. & Spady, W. (1999). Using the SAQA critical outcomes to inform curriculum planning in higher education in South Africa. South African Journal of Higher Education, 14(1), 200-208.

[11] Lawton, D. (1973). Social Change, Educational Theory and Curriculum Planning. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

[12] Malan, B. 2000. The New Paradigm of Outcomes-based Education in Perspective. Tydskrif vir Verbruikerwetenskappe, 28, 22-28. Retrieved September 30, 2007 from http://www.up.ac.za/academic/acadorgs/saafecs/vol28/malan.html

[13] Mager, R. F. (1962). Preparing instructional objectives. San Francisco: Fearon.

[14] Mamary, A. (1991). Fourteen principles of quality outcomes-based education. Quality Outcomes-Driven Education, October, 21-28

[15] Masters, G. N. & Evans, J. (1986). A sense of direction in criterion-referenced assessment. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 12(3), 257-265.

[16] Nunn, B. (2001). Task-based Methodology and Sociocultural Theory. The Language Teacher Online, 25:8.

[17] Savignon, S.J. (2001). Communicative Language Teaching for the Twenty-First Century In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (3nd ed.), New York: Newbury House/ Harper Collins.

[18] Spady, W. 1994. Outcomes Based Education: Critical Issues and Answers. American Association of School Administration: Arlington, Virginia.

[19] Thobedi, M. 2004. Outcomes-Based Education in the English Second

Language Classroom in South Africa Gawie Schlebusch, The Qualitative Report, 9 (1), 35-48.



110

[20] Towers, J. M. (1994). The perils of outcome-based teacher education.

Phi Delta Kappan, 75(8). [21] Tyler, R. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum instruction. Chicago:

Chicago University Press.



111

A PBL APPROACH FOR ACQUIRING GLOBAL PROJECT EXPERIENCES IN ARCHITECTURAL/ ENGINEERING/ CONSTRUCTION EDUCATION

R. IBRAHIM

Department Architecture, Faculty of Design and Architecture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor D.E., Malaysia [email protected]; [email protected]


ABSTRACT - A major concern in establishing a global project’s operation is ensuring the movement of knowledge amongst the team members for a timely and within the budget implementation. Already operating in the complex property development process, a global project team must also work in a situation where professional, cultural, spatial and technological differences would add the complexity. This paper presents a conceptual framework for an architectural-construction integration (A-CI) design studio curriculum in the context of an architectural graduate program. It aims to apply transdisciplinary principals to educate competent graduates in sustainable global design-build practice.The A-CI curriculum emulates the computer-integrated Project Based Learning Laboratory (PBL) model developed at Stanford University, with a focus on the early design phase of a project’s design development process. The A-CI curriculum builds on the PBL’s framework and principles, extending it to include the project financial and regulatory decision-making process along the planning and architectural design processes that integrate Modular Coordination dimensions for open building systems. The proposed extended model shares PBL’s advantages and cost-effectiveness of working collaboratively in a cross-disciplinary environment. The A-CI model will initially build bridges across disciplines by addressing different stakeholders’ issues in earlier development life-cycle phases. The paper will first present the literature review, followed by a description on the framework and principles of the PBL model before proposing how we extend the PBL model to integrate the early architectural design phase.



112

Keywords: Project Based Learning, Architectural Curriculum, ransdisciplinary Learning, Sustainable Architecture

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Construction Industry Master Plan (CIMP) 2006-2015 [1] states the need for builders to do away with heavy reliance on labor to automated construction and industrialized building. In addition to the above, there is a need to reduce the high rate of design errors that emerged during construction, which is one of the factors for delay and cost increment in many property development projects in Malaysia [2]. Despite emerging processes and high performance team skills that develop as a result of efficient and effective use of advanced IT solutions, knowledge still gets missing in the complex design and development processes for building projects [3]. Although the building industry claims to have standardized its process of delivery products, [4] argue that these delivery processes are still limited to concerns regarding structural safety and temperature controlled shelter—i.e., very “engineering” requirements—while ignoring about other sustainable components, such as socio-cultural and economics sustainability of the community where the building will be located. For the purpose of acquiring a broader understanding of the building process and its related issues, we are proposing a transdisciplinary curriculum at Universiti Putra Malaysia specifically for supporting the nation’s building industry.

The transdisciplinary curriculum would integrate the use of advanced technologies—the main source of creating and improving the competitive advantages of a firm. In the building context, automation and robotics are recognized as the critical solutions to cost reduction, and to improving construction productivity [5]. With many developing countries already feeling the impacts of globalization, the [6] is calling for increasing utilization of computer-integrated design and construction processes by a project team in order for its members to become competitive locally and internationally. The added skills and technologies will allow construction stakeholders to at least partner, if not participate, in global projects with their foreign counterparts.

With the Malaysian Government’s encouragement to go overseas [1], local builders need to equip them with the capability to work with multiple design professionals and builders from different cultures, cross several time zones, and exposure to different technological tools and skills. Hence, the need to update our professional curriculum towards transdisciplinary learning. [7] and [8] state that successful design and building integration requires transdisciplinary inputs very early during the design process. In transdisciplinary situation, each discipline would provide its sound professional input, while capable of accommodating the requirements of other disciplines [8]. Presently, architectural graduates will acquire the leadership and life-long learning skills through real-life experiences only—the reason why many architectural bodies worldwide require



113

architectural graduates to acquire several years of compulsory postgraduate professional working experience before qualifying to sit for their professional examinations. Given the above scenario, it is not possible for students to participate in global projects immediately upon graduation. Hence, we foresee the need to include real-life experiences through a well-developed curriculum at the university level. We would like to propose a curriculum that 1) embraces ICT, 2) allows transdisciplinary learning, and most importantly 3) bring forward the real-life global experience into a safe classroom setting.

Transdisciplinary architectural education embraces understanding about the present built environment where the unity of knowledge from design, engineering, financing, socio-cultural, etc. We found the Project Based Learning (PBL) Laboratory curriculum at Stanford University (Stanford) very close to implementing transdisciplinary learning. We explain the key components of PBL in Section 3 of this paper. The paper will first present the literature review, followed by a description on the framework and principles of the PBL model before proposing how we extend the PBL model to integrate the early architectural design phase.

2.0 BACKGROUND LITERATURE REVIEW

In this section, we present some literature on transdisciplinary education and explain how it can support the education of building professionals in understanding the complex property development processes.

2.1 Transdisciplinary Education

Transdisciplinary architectural education embraces the concern between disciplines, across the different disciplines, and beyond all discipline. Its goal is to understand the present built environment, of which one of the imperatives is the unity of knowledge from design, engineering, financing, socio-cultural, etc. The transdisciplinary approach is a framework for allowing members of an educational team to contribute knowledge and skills, collaborate with other members, and collectively determine the services that most would benefit a student [9].

As opposed to interdisciplinary—the additive use of knowledge from several disciplines to confront a problem or to form a new understanding—[9] explains that transdiciplinary is a meta level above interdisciplinary and is best described as a way to find the patterns and the differences that make a difference by taking the epistemologies from each discipline to drive inquiry. For better understanding of the term transdiscipline, [7] in [10] explains the differences between disciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary. Figure 1 illustrates the differences, where:



114

Figure 1: The difference between disciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary (Adapted from [10]).

i) Disciplinary: Epistemologies, assumptions, knowledge, skills, methods are within the boundary of a discipline. eg. Architecture; Engineering.

ii) Multidisciplinary: Using the knowledge/understanding of more than one discipline, e.g., Architecture and Engineering.

iii) Interdisciplinary: Using the epistemologies/methods of one discipline within another, e.g., Architectural Engineering. One can distinguish three degrees of interdisciplinarity by:

a) A degree of application. For example, the arch to support building loads is used as a decorative entrance into a building.

b) An epistemological degree. For example, electrical knowledge versus mechanical knowledge can both support thermal comfort.

c) A degree of the generation of new disciplines. Natural ventilation can be incorporated with spatial planning creates a field called indoor air quality.

iv) Transdisciplinary: Focus on an issue such as ‘sustainability’ or

‘conservation’ both within and beyond discipline boundaries with the possibility of new perspectives. For example, financing is not taught in detailed in architecture schools, but does impact the delivery of a property project.

[10] additionally outlined several transdisciplinary learning methodologies for inquiry. First, transdisciplinary investigations involve students in using more than one discipline in solving significant real world questions or problems. In doing so,



115

students increase their capacity to make connections in their learning across the curriculum and between disciplines. For example, architectural students learn about their professional practice while observing the structural engineer having difficulties trying to fulfill the design objectives in a complex building design. Secondly, transdisciplinary learning is engaging for students because it supports their involvement in tasks that are worthwhile, significant and meaningful such as those undertaken by successful adults. A close to real-life project can support the global experience one can obtain during postgraduate working. However, while a significant part of learning will be transdisciplinary, there will still be a need for dedicated teaching of some aspects of disciplines. This requires architectural students to learn about construction methodologies while they work on their architectural design. Finally, transdisciplinary inquiry involves multiple disciplines and the space between the disciplines with the possibility of new perspectives 'beyond' those disciplines. One such example is the need to understand the financing requirements during a property development process.

2.2 Complexity in the Property Development Process

The property development process is complex [11]. Property developers are concerned about the financial sustainability of their facilities, while architects assist the property developers to develop their projects. From a property developer’s point of view, how the design proposals advance from schematic drawings to construction documents is not its concern as long as it is aware that the architect is coordinating the design and construction documents. The period during which a formal application for a development permit is made until when construction actually commences at the site is called entitlements phase [3]. This is because, during this period, property developers are busy lining up their permanent financing in order to close their construction loans. This scenario hints a dual side of the development process prior to the construction phase: the well-known architectural-engineering-construction (AEC) design-construction process versus the developer’s public and financing process. Through the proposed curriculum, future building professionals will be exposed to this duality where they would understand their building documents will be used by property developers to obtain construction and permanent financing.

Based on the organizational behavior theory, the contingency theory [12] framework would categorize the operating environment of the property development life cycle as having the characteristics of high complexity, high uncertainty, and high equivocality. It has high complexity because, despite having a functional organizational configuration, the property development organization also reflects a strong matrix configuration. A property development project has high uncertainty because, despite having a general sequential development activity schedule, each project is unique due to having multiple interdependencies between tasks. The operating environment has high equivocality,



116

because there exist multiple and conflicting interpretations, confusion, and lack of understanding among the stakeholders especially when dealing with regulatory agencies, city officials, and the public. The intricate environmental characteristics point to the need for establishing non-traditional methodology for teaching future building industry professionals.

2.3 Transdisciplinary Learning of the Complex Property Development Process

At meta-level, the complex property development process is about the ability of a property developer in delivering a project that is financially sustainable, yet fulfilling the socio-cultural requirements of the community it is located at, and yet environmentally friendly to the natural resources. Most architectural education simply puts a limit to the maximum amount a project should cost, but void of explaining why it has to be so. Using transdisciplinary inquiry principals, students learn the sources of financial, social, and regulatory constraints that would influence the end product of their design studio problem. In this context, for instance, architecture as well as engineering and their underlying ethics have to be based on rather different principles than during the past. Problems are no longer solved or met with a purely "technical" or a mere "architectural" resolution. They are interconnected as they have always been, and definitely require a transdisciplinary approach including landscaping, social as well as political parameters. An example, a living room exudes the cultural needs of hosting guests in a house, but utilizes day lighting for energy saving. In other words, a viable education can only mean integral education of the human being. Transdisciplinary education has its origins in the inexhaustible richness of the scientific spirit, which is based on questioning, as well as on the rejection of all a priori answers and certitude contradictory to the facts [9]. At the same time, it revalues the role of deeply rooted intuition, of imagination, of sensitivity, and of the body in the transmission of knowledge (Ibid.). We concur that this is one way can the society of the twenty-first century reconcile effectiveness and affectivity.

3.0 THE PBL MODEL

Problem Based Learning (PBL) is a term used within education for a range of pedagogic approaches that encourage students to learn through the structured exploration of a research problem [13].

It is a term describing techniques that make students take an active, task-oriented, and self-directed approach to their own learning (ibid.). This section describes the fundamental principals of the PBL model at Stanford University ([14], [15]) whose mission is preparing the next generation of architectural/engineering/construction (AEC) professionals who know how to team up with professionals from other disciplines worldwide and leverage the advantages of innovative collaboration technologies to produce higher quality products, faster, more economical, and environmentally friendly. It explains how close we can apply the four pillars of transdisciplinary learning in the PBL model. The four pillars are: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together with, and learning to be [7].



117

3.1 The PBL AEC Global Teamwork Test Bed

The Architecture/Engineering/Construction (AEC) Global Teamwork course is a two-Quarter class established in 1993 at Stanford that engages architecture, structural engineering, and construction management students from universities worldwide. Every year there are between 4 to 12 AEC teams in the class. Each AEC team is geographically distributed, and has an owner/client with a building program, a location, a budget, and a time line. Consequently, each student has four challenges—i.e., cross-disciplinary teamwork, use of advanced collaboration technology, time management and team coordination, and multi-cultural collaboration.

3.2 The Evolving PBL Global Teamwork EcoSystem

The PBL ecosystem [16] provides a heterogeneous environment for transdisciplinary learning that includes:

(1) Network Infrastructure, i.e, LAN/WAN, Internet2 and the wireless zones at Stanford and the participating universities

(2) Devices used include diverse interactive wireless and wired devices to enable mobile learners to stay connected with their peers. They range from PDAs and pen-based laptops (Tablet PCs) for mobility; Web cameras, SmartBoards, to the iRoom [17] for collaborative synchronous review and decision support.

(3) Collaboration Applications address the need for synchronous and asynchronous communication, interaction and feedback, direct manipulation, knowledge capture, sharing, and re-use; and data collection and analysis.

(4) Places The PBL learners work at various private, public, local and global learning and work places. Such places range from home (private), office (local), meeting rooms (regional), and networked learning hubs (global).

(5) People The global teamwork engages students, faculty, and industry mentors from architecture, structural engineering, and construction management.

3.3 Innovative Learning and Teamwork Experiences

The AEC Global Teamwork learning to know by doing and ‘living’ together experiences are both structured (e.g., AEC round table discussions about product, process and role of each profession, signature building project case studies, project review sessions, project crits, project presentations) and unstructured (e.g., team meetings, students informally meeting with industry mentors, individual brainstorming, asynchronous discussion of ideas and solutions). Several cutting edge technologies were developed to support such collaboration such as RECALL [18], ThinkTank [19], and CoMem (Corporate Memory) [20] into the iRoom environment and mobile devices. Other supporting applications include MS Netmeeting videoconference, Web Groupspace for document management, and instant messaging.



118

3.4 Mentoring and Reverse Mentoring

Understanding the goals and constraints of other disciplines are key to working well in cross-disciplinary project teams. In the PBL, students learn cross-disciplinary design skills through interacting in their design teams through carefully constructed mentoring relationships. Students learn to know by participating in regular meetings between students and mentors are structured for project reviews, project crits, Fishbowl sessions, project presentations, etc. A Fishbowl session is a project review session where students watch industry mentors participate in real-life how AEC professionals were to work together on solving a problem [21]. The student is at times the center of the activity, supported by mentors, and other times observing the industry mentors at work,. The mentors, in turn, learn how to use the technologies they observe the students make new IT practices explicit, and are able to bring these ideas and technologies into their work place [22].

3.5 Cross-Disciplinary Assessment

PBL utilises the cross-disciplinary learning (CDL) assessment, defined as a journey from the state of island of knowledge (discipline-centric) to a state of understanding of the goals, language, and representations of the other disciplines [23]. The objective of the AEC Global Teamwork class is for all or majority of the students to position themselves at the center of learning experience in understanding by the end of the course. More studies will be conducted to use the four transdisciplianry pillars of learning as the future assessment methodology. The four CDL tiers are:

(1) Island of knowledge: The student masters his/her discipline, but does not have experience in other disciplines.

(2) Awareness: The student is aware of the other discipline’s goals

and constraints.

(3) Appreciation: The student begins to build a conceptual framework of the other disciplines, is interested to understand and support the other disciplines’ goals and concept, and know what questions to ask.

(4) Understanding: The student begins to build a conceptual

understanding of the other disciplines, can negotiate, is proactive in discussion with participants from the other disciplines, provides input before the input is requested, and begins to use the language of other disciplines.



119

3.6 Emerging Processes and Skills

Observations through the years have indicated that high-performance teams that use the collaboration and communication technologies effectively exhibit the following two behavioural and process changes that [20] coined as:

(1) Collaboration readiness that entails early and continuous

knowledge sharing, responsiveness, and timeliness, and (2) The 3

rd Way that entails establishing a team

communication process based on the team’s preferences for communication channels, protocols and norms. Any technology choice led to behavioral, process, and team dynamics changes.

40. EXTENDING THE PBL MODEL TO SUPPORT EARLY ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

We plan to extend the PBL model by introducing planning and financing concepts in the schematic conceptual diagramming of a design studio problem. The planning and financing concepts would entails a complete due-diligence feasibility analysis that includes site selection, site analysis, title analysis, governmental requirements study, product design, market analysis, product cost estimation, and financial feasibility analysis [11].

At the conclusion of this analysis, project sponsors decide whether or not they want to proceed to the next stage, i.e., submitting for development approval (ibid.). In architectural education, the components of the due-diligence analysis are essential to achieve successful integration of building, community, natural and economic systems in a sustainable development project. However, the financial aspects are normally omitted as to not impede the creativity of the design process in budding architectural students. Hence, we propose adding these earlier design components into an extended PBL curriculum at a graduate level program to expand the current professional competency requirements in an undergraduate architectural education program.

4.1 Sequence of Design Studio Curriculum

The extended curriculum embraces sustainable development practices, and is divided into four semesters. The design studio emulates the PBL model. Each design studio has a project based learning component covering the different emphasis of the early property development concerns that affects the AEC professionals. They are:

(1) Semester One: Students will develop understanding on the challenges of optimizing financial profit during negotiations with planning authorities. Students will learn how to evaluate different sites for property development, analyse their constraints in terms of regulatory, natural, or manmade constraints. They will learn how to prepare financial cashflow projections that suit the overall development schedule, and experience developing high



120

level project scheduling and costing using softwares, such as MSExcell®,MSProject® or Primavera®, and Timberline® to produce an estimated development cost. The students will learn how to make decisions on whether or not they should proceed with the development.

(2) Semester Two: Students will develop understanding on

the challenges of construction managers. Students will be exposed to Modular Coordination (MC) [24] and Industrialized Building Systems

[25] concepts in design-build integration processes. Students will learn how to select the best IBS components for integration in their design proposals, and produce aesthetically pleasing products that have the ease of delivery. Students will present their findings using 3D/4D CAD softwares.

(3) Semester Three: Students will participate in the AEC

Global Teamwork PBL class offered and organized by Stanford University in collaboration with other worldwide universities. Details as described in the above Section 3.

(4) Semester Four: Students will develop value-engineering

(VE) skills in refining the financial feasibility and design of their projects from Semester Three. Students will conduct VE exercises on at least two selected energy efficiency components in their project. The VE exercises will guide students to refine the previous semester’s work through the innovative use of advance materials, processes, recyclable and renewal energy systems, etc.

4.2 Design Studio Problems

The choice of building typology that will allow optimum exposure to early design issues directs us to propose a 200-unit housing development project as the problem to work on together in Semesters One and Two. A housing development project will expose students to the planning and environmental requirements, i.e., Local Structure Plan and Environmental Impact Assessment needs. Students will gain experience in negotiating with the local authorities and creating solutions that would support the sustainable needs of the community and environment where the project is located. In addition, they will be exposed to rigid financial constraints that would influence the final outcome of the development since all project sponsors wants optimum profit in all their ventures. In the following second semester, students will utilize industrialized building systems for the delivery of the housing units. The problem will allow students to experience the planning of just-in-time delivery that will coincide with just-in-time financing at the design phase.

On the other hand, the Semesters Three and Four design studios will utilize the same problem that PBL uses, i.e., a 3,000 metre-square educational building project on a chosen site in USA. The American-



121

based problem will allow students to experience working on a global project with global teammates. Although the PBL class concludes in one semester, the extended PBL design studio continues to utilize the outcome of the third semester to further study energy efficiency design in detail. Students will conduct value engineering that emphasizes energy efficiency in their evaluation and guide their product refinement.

5.0 A-CI ECOSYSTEM AND FACULTY REQUIREMENTS

The A-CI program at the architecture school will emulate the PBL ecosystem developed at Stanford. The architectural design studio will offer students an opportunity to engage with students from other disciplines and work together on a studio project. The design studio shall include students with graduate standing from additional disciplines synonymous with the common design professionals involved during the early planning phase of a property development process. Besides the main players (e.g., architecture, structural engineering and construction managers), other students shall include planners, quantity surveyors, property managers, urban designers and landscape architects. In view of the additional disciplines participating in the A-CI program, the number of faculty and industry mentors shall reciprocate as diversified as the students’. Nevertheless, departmental, faculty, and university support to develop the A-CI ecosystem and human resource development to support the A-CI program are critical.

CONCLUSION

This paper outlined the key directions of a framework for an architectural-construction integration (A-CI) design studio curriculum for an architectural graduate program that supports the production of competent graduates in sustainable global design-build practice. The curriculum embraces ICT, allows transdisciplinary learning, and most importantly brings forward the real-life global experience into a safe classroom setting. This paper proposes to extend the Stanford’s PBL model to include several key components of the early feasibility phase, namely financing and planning regulations, towards developing a sustainable property development project. At the end of the four-semester program, students will understand the non-technical aspects of the complex property development process, and move from the island of knowledge state of their discipline to the understanding state of the whole property development process. The proposed curriculum supports the Malaysian Construction Industry Master Plan 2006-2015 in enhancing the curriculum for construction-related fields in institutions of higher learning by updating course materials and structure for architectural studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This concept in this paper was earlier presented at the Second International Conference of the Center for the Study of Architecture in the Arab Region (CSAAR2006) in Rabat, Morocco on 14-16 November 2006 sponsored by the



122

Construction Industry Development Board of Malaysia. An extended paper is accepted for publication in Archnet-IJAR Vol. 1 (Issue 3) November 2007 published by MIT, U.S.A.

REFERENCES

[1] Construction Industry Development Board, Malaysian Construction Industry Master Plan 2006-2015. Retrieved 10 October 2007 from http://www.cidb.gov.my/ cidbweb/information/tech/cimp-en.html (2006).

[2] Arain, F.M. and S.P. Low. “The nature and frequency of occurrence of

variation orders for educational building projects in Singapore.” International Journal of Construction Management, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 79-91.

[3] Ibrahim, R., and B. C. Paulson, Jr. “Discontinuity in organizations: How

environmental characteristics contribute to the project's knowledge loss phenomenon.” CRGP Working Paper No. 12, Stanford University. (2005).

[4] Reed, W. and Gordon, E. “Integrated design and building process: What

research and methodologies are needed.” Building Research and Information 28(5/6), pp. 325-337. (2000).

[5] Ping Ho, S. and Liang, Y.L. “How to evaluate and invest in emerging

A/E/C technologies under uncertainty.” ASCE Journal of Construction Engineering and Management Vol. 129 No. 1, pp. 16-24. (2003).

[6] Master Builders Association Malaysia (MBAM). “The Presidents and

CEOs Roundtable 2004”. Master Builders Journal Vol. 3. pp. 34-3. (2004).

[7] Nicolescu, B. La. “Transdisciplinarité. International Congress What

university for tomorrow ? Towards a transdisciplinary evolution of the university.” Locarno, Switzerland, Apr 30 - May 2, 1996). Retrieved December 10 2007, from http://perso.club-internet.fr/nicol/ciret. (1996).

[8] Rowe, P. “Professional design education and practice.” In Salama,

Ashraf M.A., William O'Reilly & Kay Noschis (eds.) Architectural Education Today: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Lausanne: Comportements: pp. 25-29. (2002).

[9] Bruder, M.B. “Working with members of other disciplines: Collaboration

for success.“ In M. Wolery & J.S. Wilbers (Eds.), Including children with special needs in early childhood programs (pp. 45-70). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children(1994).

[10] Seaton, A. “Reforming the hidden curriculum: The Key Abilities Model

and four curricular forms.” Curriculum Perspectives, vol. 22, no. 1, April, pp. 9-15. Retrieved December 10, 2006, from http://www.andrewseaton.



123

com. au/reform.htm (2002). [11] Ibrahim, R. Discontinuity in organizations: Impact of knowledge flow

organizational performance. PhD. dissertation, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University. (2005).

[12] Burton, R. M., and B. Obel. Strategic organizational diagnosis and

design: Developing theory for application. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (2003).

[13] Mills, B. “Problem-based learning.” The Higher Education Academy.

Retrieved 15 April, 2006, from http://www.c-sap.bham.ac.uk/resources/ project_reports/ ShowOverview.asp?id=4. (2006).

[14] Fruchter, R. Architecture/Engineering/Construction Teamwork: A

Collaborative Design and Learning Space. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, Vol 13 No.4, pp 261-270 October (1999).

[15] Fruchter, R. “Global Teamwork: Cross-disciplinary, Collaborative,

Geographically Distributed e-Learning Environment,” to be published in Collaborative Design and Learning: Competence Building for Innovation, ed. J. Bento, J. Duarte, M. Heitor, W. Mitchell, Quorum Books Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. (2002)

[16] Fruchter, R.“Innovation in Engaging Learning and Global Teamwork

Experiences,” Proc. of Computing in Civil Engineering Conference in conjunctions with ASCE National Convention, ed. Ian Flood, Nashville. (2003).

[17] Johanson, B., A. Fox, and T. Winograd. “The Interactive Workspaces

Project: Experiences with Ubiquitous Computing Rooms.” IEEE Pervasive Computing 1 (2) April-June, pp. 67-75. (2002).

[18] Fruchter, R. and Yen, S. “RECALL in action.” Proceedings of ASCE

ICCCBE-VIII Conference, ed. R. Fruchter, F. Pena-Mora, Stanford. (2000).

[19] Fruchter, R. Zitterbart, M., Pehrson, B., Effelsbert, W. „Mobile learners in

dSpace.” Final project report, Wallenberg Global Learning Network, SCIL, Stanford University. (2003).

[20] Fruchter, R. and Demian, P. ”CoMem: Designing an interaction

experience for reuse of rich contextual information for a corporate memory.” AIEDAM Journal 16, 127-147. (2002).

[21] Fruchter, R., and Chao, Y.C. “AEC Global Teamwork: Emergent Work

Processes.” Proc. of ICCCBE-X, Weimar. (2004). [22] Fruchter, R. and Lewis, S. “Mentoring Models.” International Journal of

Engineering Education (IJEE), Vol 19, Nr. 5, 663-671. (2003).



124

[23] Fruchter, R. and Emery, K. “CDL: Cross-disciplinary learning metrics and

assessment method.” Proc. Computer Support for Collaborative Learning Conference, Stanford University, December, pp. 357-364. (1999).

[24] Rahinah, I., and Sumarni, I. “Modular Coordination: A design guide

towards open building system in Malaysia.” Proc. of the World Engineering Congress and Exhibition, Kuala Lumpur, 19-22 July: 19-23. (1999).

[25] Rahinah, I. “Malaysianising the industrialized building system: Towards a

cultural engineered industrialized building system.” Proc. of the World Engineering Congress and Exhibition, Kuala Lumpur, 19-22 July: 49-53. (1999).

[22] Vella, J., Berardinelli, P. & Burrow, J. 1998. How Do They Know They

Know: Evaluating Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. [23] Willis, S. and Kissane, B. (1995). Systematic Approaches to Articulating

and Monitoring Expected Student Outcomes. Report for the Education Department of Western Australia.



125

PREDICTING SUCCESSFUL COMPLETION OF MBA STUDY USING

E-MINER

C.L. ANG IZWAN NIZAL MOHD SHAHARANEE

Faculty of Quantitative Sciences, [email protected] [email protected] G.C. REYNALDO

Executive Development Centre [email protected] MOHAMAD ZAINOL ABIDIN ADAM

Faculty of Business Management [email protected] Universiti Utara Malaysia,06010 Sintok Kedah

ABSTRACT - Data mining is the non-trivial discovery of meaningful, new correlations, patterns and trends, and the extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful information from large amounts of data. Companies are using this tool to further understand their customers, to design targeted sales and marketing campaigns, to predict what product customers will buy products and the frequency of purchase, and to spot trends in customer preferences that can lead to new product development. This paper reports on a study undertaken to explore the strategic application of data mining in higher education. It was a research that used E-miner, a data mining tool, to discover hidden knowledge and unexpected patterns from the MBA student database of a local public university. It attempted to identify which students are likely to perform satisfactorily in their study.

KEYWORDS: MBA, Data Mining, Descriptive Modeling, Predictive Modeling

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Education in Malaysia, as in elsewhere, is among the primary agenda for national development and social transformation. In particular, higher education is seen as a key instrument for employment and social mobility, among others. Statistics showed that enrollment in tertiary education in Malaysia surged by 235.5% from 11,364 in 1970 to 38,125 in 1980 [9]. In 2000, there were already 321,729 students pursuing university education [8]. and this figure may keep on increasing as the country aims to be an educational hub in the region, particularly in postgraduate education. [7] reports that the Malaysian government wants to increase the number of overseas postgraduate students in public universities to around 50% of the total target postgraduate population, which is equivalent to around 4,000 students.

Undeniably, higher education institutions play significant roles in developing future human resources for work and in driving socio-economic growth. There are at present 16 local public universities and one international



126

university providing undergraduate and postgraduate education in Malaysia. One of them, Universiti Utara Malaysia (hereafter referred to as “UUM”), is the sixth public university that is tasked to develop management education and its allied sciences like accounting, quantitative sciences, economics, and information technology, to name a few. Since its establishment in 1984, UUM has produced more than 30,000 graduates [17]. Currently, at the Faculty of Business Management alone, there are 866 postgraduate students, 849 of whom are locals and the remainder, foreign students. The number may not be enough to fulfill the Ministry of Higher Education’s target for postgraduate students, and other universities may also be experiencing some kind of dwindling postgraduate student population due to keen competition among universities in Malaysia as well as in the neighboring countries. Consequently, this may require higher education institutions like UUM to be more aggressive and creative in attracting local and foreign students to pursue graduate education.

Pulling in postgraduate students requires innovative marketing and promotional strategies, in addition to competitive tuition and related fees. Higher education institutions, both private and public, do aggressive advertisement in local and national newspapers in order to attract potential qualified candidates. This is understandable as institutions for higher learning contend with student admission. Likewise, student intake is also akin to additional financial revenues of the higher educational institutions. The more students register for postgraduate programs, the better is the financial inputs of the institutions. Subsequently, these affect the administrative and related operations of the entire organizational system.

Questions like, “What kinds of students are admitted into the highly sought-after Master of Business Administration (MBA) program?”, “How well are these students doing in their studies?”, “Which groups of students are likely to perform and not to perform?” should be addressed by key decision-makers and players in the University. These are some of the fundamental questions that require systematic, objective, and empirical investigation. The need to undertake a methodological study on how to determine the profile of postgraduate students, in particular the MBA students, is thus apparent and necessary; hence, this research.

2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

There are vast capabilities and strengths of data mining technology in the context of higher educational system [10]. This study attempted to discover hidden knowledge and unexpected patterns from the MBA student’s database of public universities using E-miner. For this paper, the main objective is to identify students who are likely to perform satisfactorily in their study. 3.0 METHODOLOGY

The population of this study was MBA graduates of a local public university.

The database maintained by the university, i.e. Graduate Academic Information System (GAIS) was the main data source used for data mining. GAIS is a system created to capture and store all postgraduate students’ information. At the time of this research, there were about 2,400 records of MBA students who were



127

registered in the university, either in the main campus or in other off-campus centers since 1995. For the purpose of this study, records of students who were still pursuing the program were not included for mining. As of end of 2005, there were 1,758 data sets. However, only 847 data sets were usable for this study as many of the graduated students records were with too many missing values.

The increase in the amount of data being collected and the ease of collecting data, the declining cost of data storage and cost of computational power, together with the development of robust and efficient machine learning algorithms to process data have led to the increase interest in data mining among organizations [6]. Data mining is the nontrivial discovery of meaningful, new correlations, patterns and trends, and the extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful information from large amounts of data [2]. The operations of data mining can be classified into: (1) clustering/segmentation, (2) visualization, (3) predictive modeling, (4) link analysis, (5) deviation detection, (6) dependency modeling, and (7) summarization [6]. These operations can be used to serve respective practical purposes in industries today. Companies are now using data mining capability to understand more about their customers, to design targeted sales and marketing campaigns, to predict what and how frequently customers will buy products, and to spot trends in customer preferences that lead to new product development as well as to attract applicants and ensure enrolment at universities [11, 15, 18, 3]. This research utilized E-miner in mining the data. Before the data sets were used to create the models, they were checked for errors and cleaned. Missing values were up-dated with data from other university information systems where possible with the help of the GAIS maintenance personnel at the Computer Center of the university. Some pre-processing was carried out. Age and working experience at the beginning of the MBA program (derived variables) were computed based on date of birth and year start working respectively. The Nationality variable was cross-checked with Race and Address. Nationality of minor groups was recoded as Others. The data set for mining and the description about each variable are as shown in TableS 1, 2 and 3.



128

Table 1: Data set for data mining

Table 2: Summary statistics of interval variables

Table 3: Number of classes of categorical variables



129

4.0 RESULTS

Mining of the data using Decision Tree technique found that only two variables were significant in differentiating MBA students who are likely to complete their study successfully, namely, centre of study and entrance qualification. For those at the main campus in Sintok, Kedah and in Sungai Petani centre, 80% of them would succeed. For those at other centres, only about one third of them with a CGPA of 3.13 and above upon admission are able to complete their study. Figure 1 illustrates the findings.

Figure 1: Decision Tree The researchers also employed Wald statistical analyses of Logistic

Regression to evaluate the statistical significance of each predictor variable in the explanation of the dependent variable. Through this statistic, one could determine whether the coefficient for the predictor was significantly different from zero. If the coefficient was significantly different from zero, then the predictor variable was assumed to make significant contribution to the prediction of the outcome of the dependent variables.

As presented in table 4, ethnic group (Chinese), mode of study (full-time), CGPA, marital status (married), and centre of study (UUM) are significant predictors that are linked to successful completion of MBA. Other factors like gender, work experience, sponsorship, age upon enrolment, and citizenship had no statistically significant bearing with degree completion.



130

Table 4: Wald chi-square of each effect variable

The researchers also attempted to determine which model could best predict completion of the MBA. Three models were used, namely, the decision tree, the logistic regression and the neural network model. As found out, study completion of students is slightly better predicted using the neural network model. The lift charts show that, in the top 20 percentile the selected Artificial Neural Network shows slightly better prediction capability. Figures 2 and 3 presents the models comparison.

Figure 2: Logistic Regression for predicting completion of MBA

Figure 3: Lift Chart: Cumulative Percentage of Captured Response



131

5.0 DISCUSSION

The objective of this paper is to identify variables that could differentiate MBA students who could complete their studies. As found in this research, centre of study and entrance qualification (CGPA) made a statistically significant contribution to the completion of MBA. In particular, those from the main campus in Sintok, Kedah and in Sungai Petani were the most likely to graduate from the programme. This finding lends support to what Paton (2001) stressed that the way ahead for educational institutions, bold enough for the adventure, is to provide a faculty, curriculum and learning process in a differentiated format, even if this is only on a local basis, which delivers the promised outcomes. It might be that students in the main campus and in Sungai Petani perceived the teaching-learning environment in these centres as highly conducive to learning and thus motivated them to carry on with their ultimate aim of obtaining their MBA. The learning environment may also be attributed to ‘curriculum’, which can be expressed in practical terms as regards course offerings. In other words, it might be construed that more courses were offered in these centres than somewhere else, thus, allowing the students to carry academic loads that would allow them to finish their MBA earlier than their colleagues in other centres. Despite the high success rate, however, it is also interesting to note what Crainer (1998) said that the quality of the product and its market attractiveness lies in the hands of the schools, which emphasised on ‘quality’ and ‘attractiveness’ of ‘products’, which are actually the MBA graduates of any institution.

Moreover, it is also interesting to find out that those who completed their

MBA were those whose entrance CGPA was 3.13 and above. It may be deduced that candidates with this CGPA were more academically prepared, had better cognitive abilities, and were more diligent and persistent than those with lower CGPA. In future admission requirements, it is recommended that applicants with CGPA of at least 3.13 be given direct admission into the MBA program because these are the students who would have a very high probability of completing their program on time.

The findings of this research could be utilised by Universiti Utara Malaysia in identifying and monitoring the key factors related to the academic performance of MBA students. The identification of these factors such as full-time student and centred at UUM main campus would allow some proactive academic intervention to assist poor performers to cope with the demands and rigors of MBA. Consequently, this would help current MBA students to be successful throughout the whole duration of the program; that is, to enable them to progress every semester with satisfactory level of academic attainment.

Another interesting part of the research is the finding on the relationship between the students’ academic performance and cumulative grade point average (CGPA) upon admission into the MBA program. The findings will have implications on the policies related to admission/intake of potential candidates, which could be integrated or adopted as well in other programme admission or intake guidelines. The University may thus, be able to determine what CGPA



132

would be acceptable for entry into the MBA and other programmes.

This study could also widen the applications of data mining technique specifically in the higher education sector. Not many researchers may be familiar with the use of this technique; thus, this research would allow scholars and researchers to determine the extent of applicability of data mining in analysing researches such as the present one. The findings would provide these people with insights on the fundamental measures on how to employ data mining and its usability in social science research.

REFERENCES

[1] Baruch, Y., & Leeming, A. (1996). Programming the MBA program – the quest for curriculum. Journal of Management Development, 15(7), 27-37.

[2] Berry, M.J.A., & Linoff, G.S. (2000). Mastering Data Mining: The Art and

Science of Customer Relationship Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

[3] Bohannon, T. (2007) Predictive Modelling In Higher Education, SAS

Global Forum 2007 [4] Crainer, S. (1998) Battle of the business schools. Management Today,

54-8. [6] Hormozi, A.M., & Giles, S. (2004). Data mining: a competitive weapon for

banking and retail industries. Information Systems Management, 21(2), 62-71.

[7] Juhary Ali (2003). The Malaysian Public Universities in the New

Millennium: Future Directions, Paper presented during the ASAIHL International Conference, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, 28 September – 1 October.

[8] Malaysia (2001). Eighth Malaysia Plan 2001-2005. Putrajaya: Economic

Planning Unit. [9] Malaysia (1981). Third Malaysia Plan 1976-1980. Kuala Lumpur:

Government Press. [10] Mohammad Reza Beikzadeh & Naeimeh Delavari (2004). “A New

Analysis Model for Data Mining Process in higher Educational Systems”. [11] Min, H., Min, H., & Emam, A. (2002). A Data Mining Approach to

Developing the Profiles of Hotel Customers. Int. Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 14 (6), 274-285.

[12] Min, H., & Emam, A. (2003). Developing the Profiles of Truck Drivers for

their Successful Recruitment and Retention: A Data Mining Approach. Int. Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics management, 33 (2), 149-



133

162. [13] Paton, R.A. (2001). Developing businesses and people: an MBA

solution? Journal of Management Development, 20(3), 235-244. [14] SAS (2005). The Best and the Brightest: Baylor Relies on SAS for Cost-

Saving Strategic Enrollment Management, http://www.sas.com/success/baylor_sem.html, accessed on 6 March 2005.

[15] Spangler, W.E., Gal-Or, M., & May, J.H. (2003). Using Data Mining to

Profile TV Viewers. Communications of the ACM, 46(12), 66-72. [16] Universiti Utara Malaysia (2002). Annual Report. Sintok: UUM. [17] Universiti Utara Malaysia (2004). Annual Report. Sintok: UUM. [18] Yeo, C.Y., & Smith, K.A. (2003). Implementing a data mining solution for

an automobile insurance company: Reconciling theoretical benefits with practical considerations. Annals of Cases on Information Technology, 5, 63-73.



134

FACILITATING GRADUATE LEVEL-LEARNING: A CASE STUDY OF THE

“NEWFOUNDLAND STRATEGY”

Normah Haji Omar

Faculty of Accountancy Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia 40450 Shah Alam, MALAYSIA [email protected]


ABSTRACT - This paper is an examination of the author's experiences facilitating for the first time, an advanced graduate course of a new and niche Master program at her university. The course: Financial Criminology and Investigative Techniques; the program – Master in Forensic Accounting and Financial Criminology. Whilst the students comprise mainly of experienced, working adults; the author (though academically qualified) has very limited practical experience in the subject matter. The “Newfoundland Strategy” focuses on students-driven learning initiatives, which incorporates self-reflected case study approach, guest speakers from the industry, group presentations, seminars, forums, video clippings, simulated case defense (in a moot court) and written case reports. Both the facilitating role of the author and the multiple initiatives assumed by the students had successfully created a positive and interesting in-class environment for the course. The purpose of this paper is to share insights about this strategy, so that other educators who are considering implementing similar understand the challenges and ultimately experience success in their endeavors.

Every truth has four corners: as a teacher I give you one corner, and it is for you to find

the other three. Confucius



135

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The “Newfoundland Strategy” refers to the author’s own experience and discovery in finding the “best approach” in facilitating a graduate-level course at her university. “Newfoundland” is just a fictional term used in this paper to describe various new, exciting discoveries and experiences encountered by both the author and her students during the conduct of a new course of a new program. The university had just recently introduced a new and niche graduate program, Master in Forensic Accounting and Financial Criminology. Basically, the program was developed to fill the acute industry need for forensic accountants – a new breed of financial fraud investigators. Financial frauds that took place in business organizations such as Enron, Worldcom, Parmalet, Pewaja Steel, Transmile and Megan Media are just “tip of the iceberg” and had resulted in the increasing demand for forensic accounting programs. Forensic accounting is the application of investigative and analytical skills for the purpose of resolving financial issues in a manner that meets standards required by the courts of law [15]. The first cohort comprises twenty eight students who are mostly very experience in the investigative field, coming from various sectors such as banking, insurance, auditing, commerce & industry, the Inland Revenue board and the police.

The course Investigative Techniques and Financial Criminology represents the final core comprehensive paper where one needs to incorporate and integrate both theoretical knowledge and practical competencies. As such, the course requires more than just mere investigative experience to master it. At the end of the course, students are expected to display their ability and competency through two important roles: as a financial investigator and as an expert witness in litigation cases. The author, who was assigned to facilitate the course has the necessary academic and professional qualifications, but did not have the investigative experience to her credit. How best then should this course be conducted so that the students’ and the facilitator’s experiences can be optimally utilized?. Premised on the popular Chinese proverb “Tell me and I forget; Show me and I remember; Involve me and I understand”, the “Newfoundland Strategy” focuses on the need to actively involve the students during the conduct of the course. As propagated by the Constructivism learning theory perspective, this paper is written based on the understanding that students’ theories are attempts to describe how learning at its basic level is all self-taught.

2.0 THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS: CONSTRUCTIVISM LEARNING THEORY

As previously mentioned, the “Newfoundland Strategy” is premised on the Constructivism learning theory. The theory as propagated by Jean Piaget in the 1950s, is a set of assumptions about the nature of human learning that guide constructivist learning theories and teaching methods of education. He suggested that through processes of accommodation and assimilation, individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences. When individuals



136

assimilate, they incorporate the new experience into an already existing framework without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals' experiences are aligned with their internal representations of the world, but may also occur as a failure to change a faulty understanding; for example, they may not notice events, may misunderstand input from others, or may decide that an event is a fluke and is therefore unimportant as information about the world. In contrast, when individuals' experiences contradict their internal representations, they may change their perceptions of the experiences to fit their internal representations. According to the theory, accommodation is the process of reframing one's mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences. Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by which failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way and it violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others' failure.

2.1. The Role of the Learner

Constructivist views each learner as a unique individual with unique needs and backgrounds. The learner is also seen as complex and multidimensional [13]. Constructivism not only acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but actually encourages, utilises and rewards it as an integral part of the learning process [22].

[13]Also emphasizes the importance of the background and culture of the learner. Constructivism encourages the learner to arrive at his or her own version of the truth, influenced by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview. Historical developments and symbol systems, such as language, logic, and mathematical systems, are inherited by the learner as a member of a particular culture and these are learned throughout the learner's life. These symbol systems dictate how the learner learns and what is learned [13,3] . This also stresses the importance of the nature of the learner's social interaction with knowledgeable members of the society. Without the social interaction with other more knowledgeable people, it is impossible to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to utilize them. Young children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with other children, adults and the physical world. From the constructivist viewpoint, it is thus important to take into account the background and culture of the learner throughout the learning process, as this background also helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the learner creates, discovers and attains in the learning process [13, 22]

Furthermore, it is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the learner [21]. Social constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the learner being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive role. [21] Emphasizes that learners construct



137

their own understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information.

Another crucial assumption regarding the nature of the learner, concerns the level and source of motivation for learning. [21] sustaining motivation to learn is strongly dependent on the learner’s confidence in his or her potential for learning. These feelings of competence and belief in potential to solve new problems, are derived from first-hand experience of mastery of problems in the past and are much more powerful than any external acknowledgement and motivation [20].

Most approaches that have grown from constructivism suggest that learning is accomplished best using a hands-on approach. Learners learn by experimentation, and not by being told what will happen. They are left to make their own inferences, discoveries and conclusions. It also emphasizes that learning is not an "all or nothing" process but that students learn the new information that is presented to them by building upon knowledge that they already possess. It is therefore important that teachers constantly assess the knowledge their students have gained to make sure that the students perceptions of the new knowledge are what the teacher had intended.

2.2 The Role of the Facilitator

Instructors have to adapt to the role of facilitators and not teachers [1]. Where a teacher gives a didactic lecture which covers the subject matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his or her own understanding of the content. In the former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter scenario the learner plays an active role in the learning process. The emphasis thus turns away from the instructor and the content, and towards the learner [10]. This dramatic change of role implies that a facilitator needs to display a totally different set of skills than a teacher. A teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures from the front, a facilitator supports from the back; a teacher gives answers according to a set curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and creates the environment for the learner to arrive at his or her own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a monologue, a facilitator is in continuous dialogue with the learners (Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999). A facilitator should also be able to adapt the learning experience ‘in mid-air’ by using his or her own initiative in order to steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value.

The learning environment should also be designed to support and challenge the learner's thinking [6]. While it is advocated to give the learner ownership of the problem and solution process, it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical goal is to



138

support the learner in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by assuming multiple roles, such as consultant and coach.

2.3 The Newfoundland Strategy

For the “Newfoundland Strategy”, active student involvements are in the forms of case study presentations, students’ forums, case study write ups, expert witnessing and a moot court trial simulation. In addition, the students are also given practical feedbacks through video clippings and several guest speakers from the industry. At the end of the semester, a one-day student seminar is organized where students are required to present their cases in the university’s moot court. The moot court is deliberately chosen as the venue of the oral presentations to provide a simulated environment in litigation cases. Both the students’ final presentations and case reports are evaluated by expert panelist comprising lawyers, academics, enforcers and regulators. Though the final evaluation of the students’ works are not meant to be exhaustive and conclusive (in judging their level of competencies as investigators or expert witnesses), it is nevertheless possible at that point in time, to gauge whether or not they are ready to carry out their tasks professionally in the near future. As a new group of forensic accountant professionals in this country, the students ought to showcase their competencies and professionalism in a deliberate manner.

Figure 1 depicts the implementation process of the “Newfoundland Strategy”. Notice that the “Newfoundland Strategy” allows the teacher to undertakes a more meaningful facilitating role, shifting the responsibility for learning a new subject matter to the students – as depicted by the involve-me-and-I-will-understand concept. The facilitator then explains the theoretical aspects of the subject, moderates the forum and presentation, selects appropriate and relevant guest speakers, evaluates the examination and written assignments, and most importantly assumes the role of motivating the students. It is important to note that constructivism itself does not suggest one particular pedagogy. In fact, constructivism describes how learning should happen. Constructivism as a description of human cognition is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote learning by doing. As a result, the classroom environments become more conducive for learning [21, 7, 8, 9, 22, 18] ;. In a nutshell, the “Newfoundland Strategy” involves a transformation process that took place through seven distinct but related phases: (i) preliminary case presentations, (ii) first-batch guest speakers, (iii) student forum and second presentations, (iv) second-batch guest speakers, (v) third presentations, (vi) 30-page case study write up and (vii) moot court final case presentations. It is therefore expected that the different facets of learning would transform the students from passive learners to confident (and hopefully) competent professionals. To further facilitate learning, the facilitator is also responsible to identify suitable textbook and other related references.



139

Figure 1: Newfoundland Strategy

3.1 Preliminary Case Presentations

One of the most important pre-requisites of the “Newfoundland Strategy” is the identification of suitable resources (e.g. textbook, reference materials, websites and video clippings) for the course. Basically, students are required to acquire the main textbook: Forensic and Investigative Accounting

[5], which covers a comprehensive array of frenosic accounting topics such as financial fraud investigations, financial fraud detection, employee fraud, money laundering, evidence management, cybercrimes, business valuations and expert witnessing. Prior to the first meeting of this course, students have been notified on the requirement for them to present a preliminary case study on financial frauds. Within a span of 15 to 20 minutes, students worked in a group of four and they are to describe the facts of the cases and to identify the financial fraud acts as well as to identify the fraud perpetrators in the said cases. The aim of this learning phase is to allow the students to explore different financial fraud cases and to discuss these cases in class even before they are introduced to the syllabus, the textbook and the expected learning outcomes. Beside oral presentation, the students are also required to submit a 5-page written report of the selected cases. Also on the first day of the course, a preliminary set of student evaluation questionnaire was distributed to the students with the aim of assessing their expectation of the course and what they hope to achieve at the end

1st Presentation:

Understanding the

Facts of Financial

Fraud Cases

First Batch of Guest

Speakers: Lawyer, Auditor, SC

Investigator

Student Forums and

2nd Presentation on

Litigation Framework

& Procedures

Second Batch of Guest Speakers:

Police, ACA, Deputy

Public Prosecutor

from AG Chamber

3rd Presentation on

evidence gathering

and expert witnessing

protocols

Submission of a 30-page Case Report on

a Real-Life Financial

Fraud cases

Final Seminar

Presentations at the university’s Moot

Court

Teacher as a

FACILITATOR

:

• Theo

retica

Prescribed

Textbook

Assessmen

ts by

A



140

of the semester. With the case presentation and report, the students are started with something that they themselves initiated and researched. The course and its contents and requirements are introduced after the case presentations. It was then made known to them that the success of this course and the class would be very much dependent on their active participation and enthusiasm. The shift of learning from teacher-centred to student-centred is illustrated in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2: Student-Centred Learning

Teacher-centred Learning Student-centred Learning

Low level of student choice High level of student choice

Student passive Student active

Power is primarily with teacher Power primarily with the student

3.2 First-Batch Guest Speakers

As a facilitator to the course, the author identifies three speakers from the industry who would be invited to give separate talks on topics specified in the syllabus. The feedbacks and inputs from these practitioners are important aspects of learning for this course. Firstly, a defense lawyer from a renowned legal firm came to discuss litigation procedures in financial fraud cases. Students are introduced to various Laws, Bylaws, Acts, Pronouncements, codes and standards that must be reviewed and thoroughly understood when dealing with financial fraud cases. This includes among others, the Companies Act, The Industry Securities Act, Anti Money Laundering & Financing Terrorism Act, the Penal Code, Evidence Act, and the Financial Reporting Act. As a defense counsel, the lawyer shared various technicalities that are often used in courts to “break” the financial fraud cases. Students are therefore advised to be aware of these technicalities and to tackle them wisely when representing their clients either as expert witnesses or as fraud investigators.

The second speaker was a senior partner of a Big Four Accounting Firm in Malaysia. As an experience auditor, the speaker shared various audit procedures and protocols when conducting company audits. The identification of red flag indicators to evaluate fraudulent and suspect transactions is very commonly used during the course of audits. The students are also exposed to variables fraud risk indicators and tests used to assess the effectiveness of the companies’ internal control systems. Further, the students are advised to understand thoroughly elements related to fraud theories and transaction



141

cycles. These insights are valuable “secrets” that are not readily found in books or journal articles. Students are therefore expected to incorporate these feedbacks into their final report at the end of the semester.

The third speaker identified was from the Securities Commissions (SC). Specifically, the head of the Surveillance and Investigation unit at SC gave his agreement to talk to the students on financial fraud surveillance and investigation. The speaker shares his personal experiences in detecting and investigating financial frauds of public listed companies. The students were advised on the need for financial fraud investigators to keep abreast with the latest technologies in fraud detection and thorough knowledge and knowhow in audit trailing of financial transactions. As investigators, forensic accountants must always be in proactive modes and they should be able to effectively “read” and predict fraudsters’ behaviour and thinking.

The students’ enthusiasms and excitements are very much reflected through the highly interactive classroom sessions with all the guest speakers invited for the course. All the students participated actively in the questions and answers segments.

3.3 Forum and Second Case Presentations

The third phase of learning comprises the students’ forum and second case presentations. Five students with differing backgrounds were selected to lead the forum, with each respectively representing the Police Force, the Anti Corruption Agency, the Inland Revenue Board, the Banking & Finance sector and the Commerce and Industry group. One of the students was also appointed as a chairperson to moderate the forum. The rest of the students were to participate in the forum discussions. Specific issue on litigation framework and procedures was identified and to be addressed for the forum. At the end of the session, relevant resolutions are identified and tabulated. Again, feedbacks from the forum form valuable and useful input for the students’ forthcoming presentations and reports.

In line with the specified learning outcome of this course, the second case presentation focuses on soft skills requirements and other techniques that could be adopted when conducting a financial fraud investigation. Each group is to identify a specific financial fraud case and to propose an investigation framework for that said cases. They are also encouraged to share video clippings of their “investigation” techniques with other fellow students. In addition to the oral presentation, the students are also required to submit a five-page case report.

3.4 Second-Batch Guest Speakers

The fourth learning phase comprises talks by three different guest speakers over the next three class periods. The first speaker from



142

this phase was from the Commercial Crime Unit of the Royal Malaysian Police (PDRM). The speaker shared with the students on interrogation techniques, evidence gathering protocols, prosecution techniques, litigation charges and forensic investigation protocols when dealing with financial fraud cases. The students were also advised to work closely with either the police department or the SC or both on financial litigation cases.

The second speaker was from the Anti-Corruption Unit, a very experienced investigator who has been in the profession for more than 25 years. The focus of his talk was on interviewing techniques and soft skills in getting witnesses to divulge evidences and information before a prosecution could be carried out. At the end of his talk, there was a demonstration on interviewing techniques and students were invited to participate in the interviews. Students were advised on the need to be good with their soft skills as interviewees are from differing backgrounds and personalities.

The third speaker was a Deputy Public Prosecutor (DPP) from the Attorney General Chamber in Putrajaya. As a prosecutor, the DPP emphasizes on the importance of getting good and reliable evidences for the financial fraud cases. Very often, the class was told that financial fraud cases “get thrown out of court” due to insufficient evidences or due to the wrong choice of expert witnesses to help with the cases. Basically, the main job of a prosecutor is to develop cases for court proceedings. As such, one must be crystal clear on the facts of the cases and to ensure continuity of evidences. These are practical feedbacks that the students could use in their final project.

3.5 Third Presentations

One of the learning outcomes of this course is to produce graduates who are capable of conducting successful financial fraud investigation. As such, they should be able to

(i) choose and gather the “right” types of financial fraud evidences,

(ii) follow through the audit trails of financial transactions; (iii) critically analyse financial documents and (iv) possess relevant investigative soft skills (e.g.

communication, writing, working in teams etc).

Another important learning outcome of the course is for these graduates to be able to assume the role of competent expert witnesses. In assuming the role an expert witness, one must be knowledgeable and competent in various fields such as accounting, auditing, law and information technology.



143

The third presentation highlights on the ability of the students to showcase their knowledge and competency in gathering evidences, analysing financial and legal documents and the utilisation of information technology as an investigative tool. Each group selects a case on financial fraud. Whilst some group members act as investigators, others take the role of expert witnesses. All groups are required to showcase their evidences in a structured and organised, similar to the requirements in normal court proceedings.

Once the students have gone through the above five phases of learning, it is expected that they are now ready to precede to the next two higher levels namely a submission of a 30-page case study report and a final, comprehensive presentation at a simulated court.

3.6 30-page Case Study Write Ups

One very important learning outcome expected of the graduates is the ability to prepare a comprehensive financial fraud report that could be used and admissible in the court of law. For the preparation of the report, students need to incorporate both theoretical and practical feedbacks obtainable from the reference books, video clippings, guest speakers and other available sources. The case study report is divided into two parts: the first part comprises a summary highlighting the issues in hand, the violation, proposed charges and the proposed methodology to be adopted in conducting the investigation; the second part details out the investigation processes which include the planning and structuring of financial fraud investigation, document analysis, interviewing, evidence gathering, specific investigation techniques and report writing. Students are also encouraged to provide other relevant documents as appendices. As an academic requirement, the students are also required to furnish and cite at least fifteen reference articles in the report.

3.7 Moot Court Final Presentations

Another important learning outcome of this course is for the students to be able to present and defend their financial fraud cases comprehensively and convincingly. Their ability to communicate effectively is an important key success attribute for their profession either as a financial fraud investigator or as an expert witness. In a group of three to four students, each team is given one hour to present its case. A group of expert panelists comprising four academics, two lawyers and an industrialist are appointed to assess the presentations. A question and answer session is arranged at the end of each presentation. To give the students a simulated court environment, the university moot court has been chosen as the most suitable venue for this event. All in all, the students’ presentations are assessed based on specific criteria namely flow of thoughts, contents, discussions & critical analysis, interaction with panelists, the ability to “defend” their cases, ability to work in a team, conclusion and time management. In both the evaluations of case study



144

report and the oral presentation, specific assessment forms are used by the respective evaluators.

3.8 Examination

In addition to the various student-based learning initiatives, a mid term examination which is worth ten percent of the course’s overall assessment is also given. Premised on Bloom’s [2] six cognitive hierarchical taxonomies, the two-hour mid-term examination focuses on assessing the students’ learning effectiveness, particularly on the top three domains namely analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Applied-based examination questions are mainly constructed from reported financial fraud case studies, newspaper reports, guest speakers’ discussions and other similar sources. Students are then required to accordingly discuss, analyze, synthesize and evaluate the given scenarios and cases and propose a suitable investigation framework and procedure. The mid-term examination is necessary as it assesses an individual student’s level of cognitive domains. Understandably, competent financial fraud investigators are expected to acquire high level of investigative skills and as such they need to be very good with their analytical, synthesis and evaluation capabilities.

4.0 FINAL ASSESSMENT

[16, 13] Emphasize the concept of dynamic assessment, which is a way of assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional tests. Here the essentially interactive nature of learning is extended to the process of assessment. Rather than viewing assessment as a process carried out by one person, such as an instructor, it is seen as a two-way process involving interaction between both instructor and learners. For the in-class case presentations and forum, a peer-group assessment technique was also used. Basically, members of other teams get to evaluate the performance of the team that are presenting and vice versa. Table 1 depicts the percentage breakdown of the assessment items. The feedback created by the assessment process serves as a direct foundation for further development. It should not be an intimidating process that causes anxiety in the learner, but rather a supportive process that encourages the learner to want to be evaluated in order for future, more focused development to take place [14, 13, 17]. At the end of the course, an overall evaluation is obtained from the students. The evaluation scores at the end of the semester are gauged against an earlier assessment carried out at the beginning of the semester to establish whether the students had benefited from the different learning initiatives adopted for the course.



145

Table 1: Final Assessment Components

Assessment Items %

In-class case presentations (3 in total) & Forum 15

Three 5-page case study write ups 15

Mid-term examination 10 Moot Court case presentation 30

30-page case study write up 30

5.0 CONCLUSIONS

Whilst the “Newfoundland Strategy” adopted for this particular course seemed to work very well in achieving the stipulated learning outcomes, it is important to acknowledge the presence of various obstacles and challenges during its implementation phase. The most basic obstacle relates to the willingness for both students and the lecturer to undergo a change in mindset, from lecturer-centred to student-centred learning. Whilst lecturers are so used to giving lectures, the students find comfort in listening to the lectures with the “feed me expectation” syndrome. Under this learning strategy, a lecturer is no longer an “expert who knows it all”. Instead, there’s a very clear shift in responsibility where students are encouraged to initiate learning strategies. Students are no longer merely passive listeners; they participate actively in classroom discussions. The role of the lecturer is now reduced to that of a facilitator. He or she no longer gives long lectures, instead invites experts to give feedbacks, encourages students to give ideas and opinions and motivates students to think from “outside the box” perspective.

Another apparent challenge in implementing this strategy is in getting the right guest speakers to agree to participate in the program which is held during weekends. Therefore, there’s a great need for the author to plan well in advance to secure these speaking engagements. As a facilitator, the author needs to exercise a very high level of “people skills” when inviting the speakers. Equally important, the author has to convince the students that student-centered learning would benefit them in the long run.

It is also important to note that students have a variety of learning styles and no instructional approach can be optimal for everyone [4, 8, 12]. In the end, despite our best efforts, some students “fail” and some who pass continue to resent this strategy of putting so much of the burden of learning on their shoulders. On the other hand, for all their complaints about how hard this strategy had put so much strain on them, the students on the average do better work than they ever did in other courses when the instructors just lectured. Many more of them now indicated in their evaluation forms that after getting through this final course on Investigative Techniques and Financial Criminology they feel confident that they can do anything. In a nutshell, one may “lose” some students, but one can expect to win a lot more.



146

In short, the author is convinced that the benefits of properly implemented student-centered instruction more than compensate for any difficulties that may be encountered when implementing it. Facilitators who are prepared for initially negative student reactions, and who have the patience and the confidence to wait out these reactions, will reap their rewards in more and deeper student learning and more positive student attitudes toward their courses and toward themselves. It may take an effort to get there, but it is an effort well worth making.

REFERENCES

[1] Bauersfeld, H. (1995). “The Structuring of the Structures: Development and Function of Mathematizing as a Social Practice”. In L. P. Steffe & J. Gale (Eds.), Constructivism in Education. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

[2] Bloom, B., Englehart, M. Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York, Toronto: Longmans, Green.

[3] Bullard L.G. and Felder R.M. (2007), "A Student-Centered Approach to Teaching Material and Energy Balances. Part 2. Course Delivery and Assessment." Chem. Engr. Education, 41(3), 167-176.

[4] Claxton, C.S., and P.H. Murrell. (1987), Learning styles: Implications for improving educational practice. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 4. Washington, DC: George Washington University.

[5] Crumbley D.L.,Heitger, L.E. and Smith, G.S. (2005), Forensic and Investigative Accounting, Chicago: CCH Incorporated.

[6] Di Vesta, F. J. (1987), “The Cognitive Movement and Education”. In J. A. Glover & R. R. Ronning (Eds.), Historical Foundations of Educational Psychology (pp. 203-233). New York: Plenum Press.

[7] Duffy, T.M., & Jonassen, D.H. (eds.) (1992). Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation. Hillsdale, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum.

[8] Felder, R.M. (1993), “Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching Styles in College Science Education”, J. Coll. Science Teaching, 235, 286-290.

[9] Felder R.M. and Brent R. (2007), "Cooperative Learning." Chapter 4 of P.A. Mabrouk, ed., Active Learning: Models from the Analytical Sciences,



147

ACS Symposium Series 970. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.

[10] Gamoran, A. Secada, W. G. and Marrett, C. B. (2000), “The Organizational Context of Teaching and Learning”, In M. T. Hallinan (Ed), Handbook of the Sociology of Education, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

[11] Grasha, A.F. (1990), “The Naturalistic Approach to Learning Styles”, College Teaching, 38(3), 106-113.

[12] Grasha, A.F (1994), “A Matter of Style: The Teacher as Expert, Formal Authority, Personal Model, Facilitator, and Delegator”, College Teaching, 42(4), 142-149.

[13] Gredler, M.E (1997), Learning and Instruction: Theory into Practice (3rd ed), Upper Saddle River

[14] Green, S., & Gredler, M. (2002) “A Review and Analysis of Constructivism for School-based Practice”. School Psychology Review, 31(1), 53-70. Retrieved from host database on June 20, 2004

[15] Hopwood, W. S., Leiner, J. J. And Young, G. R. (2005), Forensic Accounting, McGraw-Hill: Boston.

[16] Holt, D. G. and C. Willard-Holt (2000). "Let's Get Real (TM) - Students solving authentic corporate problems." Phi Delta Kappan 82(3): 243-246.

[17] King, E.M. (2006), “Studio Classrooms and Student Centered Learning in Traditional Microscopic Courses”, Journal of Geoscience Education, 54(4), pp. 476-479.

[18] Mundhenk, L. G. (2004), “Toward an Understanding of What it Means to be Student Centered: A New Teacher’s Journey, Journal of Management Education, Vol. 28, No. 4, 447-462

[19] Piaget, J. (1950), The psychology, of intelligence. New York: Harcourt, Brace.

[20] Prawat, R. and Floden, R. (1994). Philosophical Perspectives on Constructivist Views of Learning. Educational Psychology, 29(1), 37-48.

[21] Von Glasersfeld, E. (1989). “Constructivism in Education”. In T. Husen & N. Postlewaite (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Education [Suppl.], (pp.162-163). Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.

[22] Wertsch, J.V (1997), Vygotsky and the Formation of the Mind, London: Cambridge Press.



148

PENILAIAN KEMAHIRAN TEKNIKAL BERASASKAN MODEL KOMPETENSI BAGI SUMBER GUNA TENAGA MENERUSI PENDEKATAN PENDIDIKAN

TEKNIKAL DAN VOKASIONAL DI MALAYSIA

KAHIROL BIN MOHD SALLEH NOR LISA BINTI SULAIMAN

Nor Lisa binti Sulaiman Fakulti Pendidikan Teknikal Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia


ABSTRAK - Sumber guna tenaga teknikal merupakan salah satu elemen dalam menentukan status sesebuah negara sama ada ia diiktiraf sebagai negara maju, membangun mahupun mundur. Dalam merealisasikan matlamat menuju ke arah negara maju, Malaysia telah merencana, melaksana serta membangunkan sumber guna tenaga teknikal melalui Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional (PTV) bagi memastikan status negara maju dicapai menjelang tahun 2020. Pelaksanaan Pendidikan berasaskan Kompetensi yang diperkenalkan dalam PTV merupakan pendekatan terbaru bagi melahirkan sumber guna tenaga teknikal yang bukan sahaja berkualiti dan mahir tetapi memiliki nilai kompeten yang tinggi dalam perlakuan dan pemikiran terhadap kerja teknikal. Bagi menilai kompetensi kerja sumber guna tenaga teknikal teknikal, beberapa model kompetensi boleh diaplikasikan sebagai sistem penilaian dan pentaksiran. Model for HRD Practice merupakan saranan dalam menentukan sistem penilaian dan pentaksiran yang boleh mengukur kompetensi individu dalam melaksanakan kerja berbentuk kemahiran teknikal.

1.0 PENGENALAN

Pertumbuhan ekonomi pada abad ke 21 dipengaruhi oleh ilmu pengetahuan yang mantap dan kemahiran yang tinggi. Bagi memastikan usaha dalam mengekalkan serta meningkatkan persaingan yang sihat dalam kalangan industri khususnya, keperluan kepakaran dan kemahiran manusia merupakan penyumbang utama dalam memastikan kejayaan sesebuah negara perindustrian. Sumber Guna Tenaga Teknikal melalui Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional merupakan salah satu kaedah dalam menyediakan pasaran kerja berasaskan teknikal pada masa hadapan (Holton & Trott, 1996).

Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional merupakan bidang pendidikan yang menyediakan sumber guna tenaga teknikal yang berkebolehan serta berkemahiran dalam pengkhususan teknikal dan vokasional apabila memasuki alam pekerjaan. Ini adalah kerana program persediaan awal seperti Tech Prep



149

dan pembelajaran secara kontekstual yang diterapkan dalam pendidikan teknikal dan vokasional mampu melatih sumber guna tenaga teknikal secara efektif dan dinamik selaras dengan perkembangan teknologi yang semakin pesat membangun.

Menurut Robiah (1998), Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional berperanan dalam membina masyarakat khususnya bagi menjadikan Malaysia salah sebuah negara industri yang mampan dan berdaya saing dalam kalangan negara-negara maju. Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional juga mampu melahirkan sumber guna tenaga teknikal yang mahir melaksanakan pekerjaan berasaskan kemahiran teknikal. Ini disokong oleh Dare dan Leach (1999), yang menyatakan Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional termasuk juga Pembangunan Sumber Manusia merupakan penyumbang utama kepada pasaran guna tenaga teknikal di Malaysia.

Ini membuktikan bahawa pendidikan teknikal dan vokasional memainkan peranan yang penting dalam menjana sumber guna tenaga teknikal yang yang berpengetahuan dan berkemahiran dalam menyediakan keperluan sumber guna tenaga teknikal bertaraf dunia selaras dengan hasrat Malaysia mencapai taraf negara maju menjelang tahun 2020. 2.0 LATAR BELAKANG

Dalam Laporan The Third Outline Perspective Plan 2001 – 2010, Unit Perancangan Ekonomi (EPU), Jabatan Perdana Menteri, Malaysia telah membuat unjuran seramai 227,900 pekerja profesional dan teknikal diperlukan oleh industri di Malaysia. Bagi merealisasikan keperluan tersebut, universiti dan pusat latihan memainkan peranan penting sebagai pengeluar dalam menghasilkan pasaran sumber guna tenaga tersebut (Malaysia Government, 2001).

Sistem pendidikan negara juga perlu dimantapkan bagi membolehkan ia mengeluarkan sumber guna tenaga yang bukan sahaja mempunyai pelbagai cabang kemahiran tetapi mempunyai pengetahuan serba boleh serta bersedia belajar secara berterusan. Sumber guna tenaga ini juga perlu memiliki kebolehan untuk mendapatkan dan menggunakan segala ilmu pengetahuan, teori dan praktikal terutamanya dalam teknologi yang serba maju (Malaysia Government, 2001).

Namun begitu, terdapat beberapa isu yang melibatkan pembangunan sumber guna tenaga teknikal yang kompetetif dan kompeten dalam melaksanakan tugas di tempat bekerja. Antaranya ialah bentuk penilaian yang dijalankan bagi mengukur tahap kompetensi sumber guna tenaga teknikal yang mempunyai latar belakang Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional.

Bentuk penilaian terhadap kompetensi kerja sumber guna tenaga teknikal perlu dikaji dengan lebih ekspisit kerana ia merupakan faktor terpenting dalam menentukan prestasi serta kualiti sumber guna tenaga teknikal. Model Rumler seperti yang diilustrasikan dalam Rajah 1 merupakan model situasi spesifik bagi prestasi individu di tempat kerja. Dalam model tersebut, individu



150

perlu memberi tindak balas atau tindakan terhadap situasi bekerja. Tindak balas atau tindakan tersebut wujud daripada kesan atau hasil kerja individu di mana segala maklumat yng diperolehi daripada hasil kerja disalurkan kepada individu bagi mengenal pasti sama ada individu tersebut menginterpretasikan maklumat tersebut merupakan kesan yang positif, negatif atau neutral (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1992). Ini bermakna prestasi dan kualiti sumber guna tenaga teknikal ditentukan oleh maklum balas yang berlaku hasil daripada kesan yang wujud dalam situasi pekerjaan.

Rajah 2 pula menunjukkan bagaimana prestasi sumber guna tenaga teknikal dapat dipertingkatkan melalui pengertian, pengetahuan serta asas tujuan individu terhadap kompetensi kerja dalam menjalankan satu-satu tugas.

Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa pestasi sumber guna tenaga teknikal mempunyai perkaitan yang signifikan terhadap kompetensi pekerja yang menjalankan kerja berasaskan kemahiran teknikal. Saranan bagi Penilaian Prestasi Sumber Guna Tenaga Teknikal

Hasil Kerja

Individu Korporat Tujuan

Piawaian dan Prestasi

Tanda Aras

� Prestasi � Objektif Asas

(Latihan)

Asas dalam pekerjaan

Pengetahuan, Kemahiran

serta Keupayaan

Kekuatan dalaman

� Perkara Utama � Pengisian

(Pendidikan)

Situasi Pekerjaan Individu Tindakan Kesan

Maklum Balas

Rajah 1: Model Rumler (Rothwell & Kazanaz, 1992 dalam Hoffmann, 1998)

Rajah 2: Perkaitan prestasi dan kompetensi (Hoffmann, 1998)



151

Pengetahuan dalam aspek penilaian terhadap tahap kompetensi sumber guna tenaga teknikal membantu pengurus organisasi dalam merancang dan melaksanakan pengurusan yang strategik dan berkesan ke arah pasaran kerja yang lebih berdaya saing. Tujuan utama pembangunan sumber guna tenaga teknikal menerusi pendekatan pendidikan teknikal dan vokasional adalah untuk menggilap potensi serta bakat dalam kemahiran teknikal yang dimiliki sumber guna tenaga teknikal bagi menjamin Malaysia memperolehi nilai pasaran kerja yang lebih kompetetif di masa hadapan.

Model kompetensi merupakan salah satu rujukan yang boleh menilai tahap kompetensi sumber guna tenaga teknikal dengan mengaplikasikan pendekatan pendidikan teknikal dan vokasional. Pendidikan Berasaskan Kompetensi merupakan satu alat ukur bagi pendidikan teknikal dan vokasional yang dilaksanakan dalam sistem pendidikan formal. Ia bertujuan bagi memudahkan pentaksiran terhadap kesesuaian sesuatu program yang dilaksanakan di peringkat sekolah, universiti dan pusat latihan. Rajah 3 menunjukkan prestasi pelajar dinilai melalui pentaksiran bercirikan kompetensi. Dalam pendidikan yang berasaskan kompetensi, pelajar perlu menguasai kemahiran, kebolehan dan pengetahuan dalam proses pembelajaran. Aspek ini akan membolehkan pelajar tersebut dinilai berdasarkan kepada perubahan ciri-ciri dan tingkah laku sebelum dan selepas pelajar melalui pembentukan proses pembelajaran.

Ciri-ciri dan Tingkah Laku Pelajar

Kemahiran, Kebolehan dan Pengetahuan Pelajar

Perubahan Ciri-ciri dan Tingkah Laku Pelajar

Demonstrasi Pentaksirsan bercirikan kompetensi terhadap prestasi pelajar

Keperluan terhadap kemahiran, kebolehan serta pengetahuan

Pembentukan Proses Pembelajaran

Asas

Pengalaman Belajar

Pengalaman Belajar

Pentaksiran

Rajah 3: Hirarki pencapaian serta kebolehan pelajar lepasan

universiti (Jones at. el., 2002)



152

Pendidikan Berasaskan Kompetensi

Ashworth dan Saxton (1990) menyatakan bahawa kompetensi bermaksud aspek deskriptif tentang aktiviti yang dilakukan oleh manusia, walau bagaimanapun ia masih lagi tidak merujuk kepada perlakuan yang spesifik. Aktiviti ini termasuklah sumbangan atau hasil daripada tindakan yang diambil dalam memenuhi perlakuan atau pemikiran. Aktiviti di tempat kerja yang dilakukan oleh sumber guna tenaga teknikal seringkali diukur mengikut kompetensi kerja berdasarkan kepada perlakuan atau pemikiran dalam menyempurnakan tugasan yang diberi.

Menurut Hoffmann (1999) kompetensi merujuk kepada perlakuan-perlakuan psikomotor atau tingkah laku yang perlu dipamerkan oleh individu serta ia boleh dinilai atau diukur. Kompetensi juga boleh dijadikan sebagai penanda aras atau alat ukur bagi menjamin hasil kerja yang berkualiti. Walau bagaimanapun kompetensi perlu dilihat sebagai satu bentuk yang mewakili prestasi keseluruhan organisasi dan tidak hanya tertumpu kepada individu sahaja kerana kompetensi individu dan kompetensi keseluruhan yang diwakili oleh organisasi mempunyai perkaitan yang sangat kuat. Homer (2001) pula menyatakan kompetensi ialah aras yang utama kepada organisasi kerana kesan berantai yang diwujudkan dan ia melibatkan proses, keuntungan, masa, latihan dan sebagainya.

Ini bermakna, Pendidikan Berasaskan Kompetensi boleh dijadikan sebagai tanda aras dalam mengenal pasti dan menilai keberkesanan dalam bekerja serta sebagai penambah baikan terhadap pendidikan atau latihan dengan keperluan yang diperlukan di tempat kerja (Kerka, 1998). Ini adalah kerana pendidikan bersaskan kompetensi merupakan pendekatan dalam menyatukan idea-idea yang bernas dan kreatif yang boleh dilaksanakan dalam alam pekerjaan. Ia juga simbol kepada pengiktirafan pendidikan yang diperolehi oleh sumber guna tenaga teknikal.

Rajah 4 menunjukan perkaitan kepada keperluan kompetensi pekerja dengan persekitaran organisasi dan juga keperluan kerja. Kesan yang positif dapat dilihat apabila seseorang pekerja memenuhi ketiga-tiga aspek yang berkaitan dengan mewujudkan tingkah laku yang lebih positif.



153

Penilaian Kemahiran Teknikal menggunakan Model Kompetensi

Terdapat beberapa model kompetensi yang boleh dijadikan rujukan atau tanda aras dalam menilai prestasi individu dalam melaksanakan kerja melalui pendekatan pendidikan teknikal dan vokasional. Antara model yang boleh dirujuk ialah model kompetensi yang diadaptasi dan diubahsuai daripada Model for HRD Practice (McLagan, 1989). Model for HRD Practice ini merupakan rujukan bagi memudahkan penilaian dijalankan terhadap individu atau organisasi (McLagan, 1991). Prinsip asas model kompetensi ini menerangkan bahawa prestasi individu akan meningkat sekiranya mereka memiliki semua ciri-ciri kompetensi yang diperlukan dalam melaksanakan tugas atau tanggung jawab yang diberikan.

Ciri kompetensi dalam penilaian model ini merujuk kepada pengetahuan, kemahiran dan tingkah laku yang perlu ada pada individu bagi melaksanakan sesuatu tugas atau tanggung jawab. Keberkesanan Model McLagan terhadap kompetensi ini telah dibuktikan oleh pengkaji terdahulu (Holton & Trott, 1996 ) yang telah mengkaji tahap kompetensi pelajar yang mengikuti program Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional di Lousiana State University Amerika Syarikat .

Model kompetensi McLagan dibahagikan kepada empat peringkat utama iaitu Kompetensi Teknikal, Kompetensi Perniagaan, Kompetensi Interpersonal dan Kompetensi Interlektual. Walau bagaimana pun tujuh daripada sepuluh sub

Kompetensi Individu

Keperluan Kerja

Persekitaran Organisasi

Tindakan serta Tingkah Laku

Spesifik yang Efektif

Rajah 4: Model Prestasi Kerja yang Efektif

(Boyatzis, 1982)



154

kompetensi yang melibatkan Kompetensi Teknikal dihuraikan secara eksplisit sebagai elemen saranan dalam kertas konsep ini. 1) Kompentensi Teknikal

i) Kefahaman Pembelajaran Dewasa Kompentensi ini menguji kefahaman pelajar dewasa

serta mengenal pasti tahap keperluan dan penggunaan kemahiran, pengetahuan, dan sikap dalam proses pembelajaran. Ia juga berkaitan dengan kefahaman pengajar atau ketua tentang kaedah memahami pelajar dewasa belajar dengan cara yang berbeza di antara satu sama lain. Pembelajaran dewasa lebih kepada self-directed learning. Oleh yang demikian, penilaian yang perlu dijalankan haruslah secara berterusan dan mengambil kira pengalaman yang telah dilalui oleh mereka.

ii) Teknik Kefahaman dan Teori Pembentukan Kerjaya

Pengetahuan adalah sesuatu yang berkaitan dalam pembentukan kerjaya. Ia juga menekankan aspek-aspek kefahaman individu dalam membentuk kerjaya masa hadapan. Secara keseluruhan ia merupakan penggabungan di antara kebolehan, teknik kefahaman dan kaedah yang digunakan dalam pembangunan kerjaya.

iii) Kemahiran Mengenal pasti Kompetensi

Mengenal pasti pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang diperlukan untuk menyelesaikan sesuatu pekerjaan, tugasan serta mengetahui fungsi sebenar kedudukan individu dalam organisasi. Ia melibatkan tugasan dan arahan yang diterima daripada majikan. Kebolehan pekerja dalam menyelesaikan sesuatu tugasan banyak dipengaruhi oleh kemahiran, pengetahuan dan pengalaman yang dimiliki. Ini dapat menunjukkan aras kompetensi yang dimiliki oleh seseorang pekerja.

iv) Kemahiran Penilaian

Menentukan keberkesanan sesuatu latihan dan kesannya terhadap organisasi. Peningkatan terhadap kualiti dan hasil kerja dipengaruhi oleh latihan yang diperolehi oleh pekerja. Walau bagaimanapun majikan kerap kali lupa untuk menilai kesan latihan atau kursus yang diberi kepada pekerja. Kemahiran penilaian akan membantu majikan untuk mengenalpasti latihan dan kursus yang sesuai dan juga latihan susulan yang berkesan bagi seseorang pekerja. Bagi organisasi yang berkesan setiap pekerja yang dihantar menjalani latihan atau berkursus haruslah memberi latihan semula atau sekurang-kurangnya menyediakan latihan kepada rakan-rakan sekerja yang lain.



155

v) Kemahiran Penyediaan Objektif

Menyediakan pernyataan yang lengkap dan spesifik yang berkaitan dengan hasil kerja yang ingin dicapai. Objektif yang disasarkan atau ditetapkan haruslah objektif yang boleh dicapai. Ia terdiri daripda objektif secara umum, objektif secara khusus dan juga penentuan latihan sekiranya perlu bagi mencapai setiap objektif khusus. Kemahiran ini juga melibatkan penyediaan objektif jangka pendek dan objektif jangka panjang. Kemahiran dalam menyediakan objektif akan menjadikan seseorang pekerja fokus dengan tugasan yang diberikan oleh majikan.

vi) Kemahiran Penyelidikan

Memilih, membangunkan dan menggunakan metodologi yang sesuai seperti statistik dan pengumpulan data bagi pertanyaan serta tugasan yang diberikan dalam bentuk formal. Kemahiran penyelidikan akan membantu meningkatkan tanda aras yang telah ditetapkan. Ia adalah sebahagian daripada penambahbaikan pada sistem yang sedia ada. Kemahiran ini akan memudahkan majikan melihat peningkatan atau keperluan kompetensi berdasarkan penyelidikan yang telah dijalankan. Ia juga menyediakan ruang bagi melihat dan mengkaji trend pekerja dalam melaksanakan tugasan yang diberi.

vii) Teori Latihan dan Pembangunan dan Teknik Pemahaman

Mengetahui teori dan kaedah yang sesuai digunakan dalam latihan dan pembangunan sesebuah organisasi serta menggunakan teknik pemahaman yang sesuai dan tepat. Ini dapat menjimatkan masa dan kos apabila seseorang pekerja memerlukan latihan tambahan kepada pengetahuan dan kemahiran sedia ada. Teknik ini juga merupakan suatu keperluan kepada menyediakan latihan dan kursus yang sesuai kepada pekerja. Majikan boleh menyediakan perancangan bagi latihan dan pembangunan staf dengan mengambil kira peningkatan yang disasarkan pada tahun penilaian.

RUMUSAN 1) Secara umumnya pengetahuan, kemahiran dan tingkah laku merupakan

ciri utama kepada penilaian kompetensi seperti yang dikemukakan oleh Model Kompetensi di dalam Model for HRD Practice (McLagan, 1989). Dalam hubungan ini, kompetensi boleh dibahagikan kepada dua iaitu kompetensi individu yang melibatkan penilaian terhadap pekerja khususnya kompetensi teknikal bagi sumber guna tenaga teknikal dan kompetensi organisasi untuk pembangunan sumber guna tenaga teknikal. Kedua-dua bentuk kompetensi ini saling memerlukan antara satu sama lain kerana kualiti organisasi dinilai berdasarkan prestasi pekerja dan produktiviti organisasi.



156

2) Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional perlu bergerak seiring kerana ia lebih relevan dengan kehendak pasaran. Industri memerlukan sumber guna tenaga teknikal yang bukan sahaja mempunyai kemahiran dalam bidang teknikal dan vokasional tetapi memiliki nilai prestasi kerja yang tinggi dan berkualiti. Justeru. industri masa kini perlu mempunyai penilaian kompetensi dalam kalangan sumber guna tenaga teknikal yang membolehkan mereka kompeten dengan tugas yang diberi serta lebih berdaya saing.

Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional bukan sahaja memberi sumbangan

kepada peningkatan ekonomi negara tetapi ia juga mempamerkan ciri-ciri individu dalam organisasi. Ia mempunyai ciri-ciri sustainable development melalui penawaran program, perkembangan kurikulum dan pelaksanaan proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang akan menjadikan sumber guna tenaga teknikal yang dihasilkan kompeten, dinamik dan lebih berdaya saing. RUJUKAN [1] Ab. Aziz Yusof (2006) Pengurusan Sumber Manusia; Konsep, Isu dan

Pelakasanaan. Prentice Hall: Selangor [2] Ashworth, P.D. & Saxton, J. (1990) On ‘Competence’. Journal of Further

and Higher Education Volume 14 [3] Boyatzis, R.E. (1982) The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective

Performance. John Wiley & Sons: New York [4] Dare, D.E. & Leach, J.A. (1999) Preparing Tomorrow’s HRD

Professionals: Perceived Relevance of the 1989 Competency Model. Journal of Vocational and Technical Education Volume 15.

[6] Hoffmann, T. (1999) The Meaning of Competency. Journal of European

Industrial Training Volume 23/6 [7] Holton III, E.F. & Trott Jr, J.W. (1996) Trends Toward a Closer Integration

of Vocational Education and Human Resource Development. Journal of Vocational and Technical Education Volume 12.

[8] Homer, M. (2001) Skills and Competency Management. Journal of

Industrial and Commercial Training Volume 33 [9] Jones, E., Voorhees, R. & Paulson, K. (2002) Defining and Assessing

Learning: Exploring Competency-based Initiatives. Council of the National Postsecondary Education Coopertive: Washington D.C.

[10] Kerka, S. (1998) Competency-Based Education and Training Myths and

Realities ACVE Publication Archives [11] Malaysia Goverment (2001) The Third Outline Perspective Plan 2001-



157

2010 of Malaysia. Government Press, Malaysia. [12] Robiah Sidin (1998) Pemikiran Dalam Pendidikan. Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd.:

Selangor [13] Robotham, D. (2004) Developing the Competent Learner. Journal of

Industrial and Commercial Training Volume 36. [14] Stenberg, A. (2007) Comprehensive Education Or Vocational Training For

The Unemployed? International Journal of Manpower Volume 28



158

PERSEPSI PELAJAR TERHADAP PEMBELAJARAN AKSES KENDIRI

MELALUI PENGGUNAAN LAMAN WEB DAN KESANNYA TERHADAP MATA PELAJARAN SEJARAH

AHMAD RAFAAI BIN AYUDIN NORHASNI BINTI ZAINAL ABIDDIN Jabatan Pemajuan Profesional dan Pendidikan Lanjutan, Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan, Universiti Putra Malaysia [email protected] © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRAK - Pembelajaran akses kendiri merujuk kepada usaha dan inisiatif dalam kalangan pelajar bagi mendapatkan maklumat dan sekaligus menjadi tapak pembelajaran. Pembelajaran bentuk ini menggerakkan pelajar menjadi pro-aktif dan produktif. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti persepsi pelajar terhadap pembelajaran melalui penggunaan laman web (website) dan kesannya terhadap mata pelajaran Sejarah. Seramai 105 pelajar Tingkatan 4 di Sekolah Agama Menengah Hulu Langat, Kajang Selangor telah dipilih sebagai responden. Manakala 3 orang guru mata pelajaran Sejarah terlibat dalam temubual bagi menjawab persoalan kajian. Data soalselidik dianalisis dengan menggunakan SPSS untuk mendapatkan statistik deskriptif dan temubual dianalisis secara manual. Adalah dikenalpasti pelajar-pelajar yang memperkayakan maklumat tambahan dengan bahan-bahan daripada laman web, menjadi lebih yakin, berpengetahuan dan lebih berminat dalam mata pelajaran Sejarah. Penemuan ini membuktikan pembelajaran Sejarah menerusi penggunaan laman web adalah sebagai kaedah berkesan yang dapat membantu meningkatkan pemahaman pelajar terhadap bahan pelajaran yang disampaikan oleh guru di dalam kelas dan mengurangkan kebosanan pelajar terhadap mata pelajaran yang melibatkan penghafalan fakta yang berterusan. Kata kunci: Laman Web, Pembelajaran, Pembelajaran Akses Kendiri, Sejarah, Teknologi.



159

1.0 PENDAHULUAN

Isu-isu pedagogi berkaitan pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang membabitkan pengajaran pasif dan sehala memang telah lama diperkayakan. Cara tradisional dalam proses instruksional memang tidak lagi sesuai dan relevan pada masa kini kerana ianya tadak dapat memberi peranan kepada pelajar dalam proses belajar, pelajar hanya menjadi pendengar manakala guru menjadi satu-satunya sumber maklumat yang perlu dipatuhi [1]. Konteks masa kini mengkehendaki mutu dan kualiti pengajaran dan pembelajaran diperbaiki. Proses instruksional bukan lagi berorientasikan guru tetapi berorientasikan bahan dan pelajar. Menurut Perkins [2], potensi pelajar tidak akan dapat dikembangkan manakala peranan pendidikan dalam membina peribadi pelajar tidak akan dirasai jika pelajar seperti tong kosong yang hanya minta disuap atau diberikan maklumat oleh guru. Pelajar perlu memainkan peranan aktif mendapatkan maklumat pembelajaran melalui sumber-sumber yang tidak terhad dan berasaskan teknologi. Perhatian Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia dalam memanfaatkan teknologi untuk tujuan pemerolehan ilmu bukan sahaja ditekankan dalam mana-mana LDP (Latihan Dalam Perkhidmatan) yang diberikan kepada guru-guru ketika kursus atau bengkel yang dilaksanakan, malahan hampir keseluruhan bilik darjah di sekolah-sekolah telah dilengkapkan dengan layar lebar dan projektor untuk memudahkan proses implementasi dalam proses instruksional. Pelajar-pelajar kini boleh menggunakan pen drive yang terus dapat dipasang dan dipaparkan dalam bilik darjah ketika proses pembelajaran berlangsung, ertinya konsep pengajaran dan pembelajaran telah berubah, guru menjadi pemantau dan fasilitator, usaha pemerolehan ilmu dan pengetahuan dikendalikan oleh pelajar melalui teknologi yang dibekalkan. Melalui maklumat yang pelbagai dan skop yang luas, memberi peluang kepada pelajar bertukar-tukar fikiran dan mewujudkan percambahan pemikiran baru. Secara umumnya, kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti persepsi pelajar terhadap pembelajaran menggunakan laman web bagi mata pelajaran Sejarah. Manakala, objektif khususnya adalah untuk mengenalpasti: (1) minat dan kesediaan pelajar untuk belajar Sejarah; (2) interaksi pelajar dengan rakan sekelas semasa pembelajaran berlangsung; (3) kesukaran capaian maklumat yang ingin diperolehi; (4) pengupayaan pemerolehan maklumat berkaitan; dan (5) prestasi pelajar dalam mata pelajaran Sejarah. 2.0 SOROTAN LITERATUR

Pembelajaran Akses Kendiri telah bermula di Eropah dan Amerika sejak internet menjadi sebahagian daripada medium instruksional, cuma di Malaysia masih agak baru setelah wujudnya MSC (Malaysia Super Corridor) dan program School Net dibudayakan pada awal 2000. Kini, Pembelajaran Akses Kendiri menjadi sebahagian daripada unsur pedagogi. Pembelajaran akan berlaku apabila wujudnya tindak balas terhadap sesuatu rangsangan. Akses merujuk



160

kepada jalur, saluran atau laluan dalam konteks ini yang dimaksudkan ialah teknologi yang menjadi sumber maklumat yang boleh diterima atau diperoleh dengan cepat, pantas dan mudah. Manakala, kendiri pula merujuk diri peribadi. Oleh itu, Pembelajaran Akses Kendiri secara penuhnya membawa maksud ‘usaha secara sengaja yang dilakukan oleh seseorang untuk mendapatkan maklumat melalui saluran yang tersedia menggunakan teknologi’. Kendiri bagi Al Ghazali merangkumi tiga entiti iaitu minda, hati dan jasad. Penyatuan ketiga-tiga unsur akan mewujudkan usaha pembelajaran yang paling cemerlang [3]. Menurut Chall [4], negara-negara di Eropah pada telah mengeluarkan polisi pendidikan yang mengarahkan penggunaan teknologi maklumat dalam bidang pendidikan. Era perkomputeran dalam pendidikan di banyak negara membangun khasnya di Amerika Latin dan Asia mulai berkembang dan dirasakan kepentingannya kepada pelajar dalam pemerolehan ilmu dan maklumat berbanding cara tradisional. Dunia pada hari ini dengan cepat terus mengalami perubahan yang ketara, demikian juga dalam arena pendidikan. Perkembangan teknologi membawa banyak perubahan dalam konsep pendidikan dan gaya pembelajaran. Pelajaran bukan lagi diperoleh daripada sumber terhad dan sehala seperti fasa tradisional tetapi sumber maklumat telah beralih menjadi pelbagai dengan bantuan teknologi. Antaranya laman web yang merupakan halaman maklumat yang disediakan secara khusus untuk memperkayakan maklumat tentang sesuatu topik atau perkara. Laman web boleh diakses melalui alamat yang menjadi identiti secara luas, komprehensif, pantas dan merangkumi skop yang luas dan dapat diterima oleh ramai orang. Untuk menunjukkan prestasi pembelajaran yang baik sememangnya memerlukan usaha-usaha khusus iaitu pembacaan, latih tubi, gerak gempur minda, usaha pengayaan dan pemulihan dan penggunaan medium audio visual. Prestasi juga boleh dilihat melalui perlakuan belajar dan tindak tanduk pembelajaran seperti menunjukkan rasa ingin tahu, berminat, memberikan tumpuan, aktif dalam perbincangan, kemas dalam menyelesaikan kertas projek dan mempunyai banyak maklumat tambahan [5]. Gaya belajar bagi pembelajaran akses kendiri tidak lagi bergantung kepada maklumat guru, pelajar berkeupayaan mentafsir dan menganalisis maklumat yang dibentangkan oleh rakan-rakan dan menimbulkan reaksi ingin tahu apabila penggunaan teknologi diaplikasikan [6]. 3.0 METODOLOGI

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti beberapa aspek perlakuan belajar yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan teknologi iaitu carian web bagi pembelajaran mata pelajaran Sejarah. Terdapat 105 pelajar Tingkatan 4 di Sekolah Agama Menengah Hulu Langat, Kajang Selangor yang terlibat sebagai responden kajian. 105 pelajar ini diambil daripada 3 buah kelas yang berlainan di mana setiap kelas mempunyai 35 orang pelajar yang semuanya terdiri daripada pelajar Melayu. Pembelajaran berlangsung di makmal komputer di mana setiap seorang pelajar dapat menggunakan komputer tanpa perlu berkongsi dengan pelajar lain. Ini dilakukan bagi melihat sejauh mana pembelajaran akses kendiri itu dapat dilaksanakan dalam pembelajaran mata pelajaran Sejarah. Walau bagaimanapun, tugasan yang diberikan adalah berbentuk kumpulan.



161

Pembelajaran akses kendiri dengan menggunakan teknologi laman web ini hanya tertumpu kepada Bab 1, Bab 3 dan Bab 8 sahaja merujuk kepada Buku Teks Sejarah Tingkatan 4, manakala bab-bab lain di dalam Buku Teks Sejarah diajar dengan tidak menggunakan capaian laman web. Pembelajaran untuk ketiga-tiga bab ini telah berlaku dalam beberapa perjumpaan dan soal selidik hanya diedarkan setelah kesemua bab tersebut telah sempurna diajar. Soalan berbentuk Skala Likert dibentuk bagi mendapatkan persetujuan pelajar mengenai item yang dibentuk bagi mencapai objektif kajian. Data soal selidik dianalisis dengan SPSS untuk mendapatkan statistik deskriptif. Manakala temubual dianalisis secara manual. Seramai 3 orang guru dipilih sebagai responden dan ditemubual bagi mendapatkan maklumat berkenaan dengan pemerhatian mereka terhadap pelajar ketika pembelajaran berlangsung dan juga prestasi pelajar terhadap mata pelajaran Sejarah apabila menggunakan kaedah carian maklumat berbanding dengan kaedah pembelajaran yang hanya merujuk kepada Buku Teks Sejarah sahaja. Guru tersebut merupakan guru mata pelajaran kepada 3 kelas yang berlainan. Prestasi pelajar terhadap mata pelajaran Sejarah diukur daripada beberapa indikator antaranya ialah penguasaan fakta, kronologi peristiwa, sumbangan tokoh, peranan agensi dan sebab akibat bagi sesuatu tindakan atau kejadian. 4.0 HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Pada peringkat awal, guru secara perlahan-lahan mengalihkan cara dan gaya belajar daripada pembelajaran pasif yang didominasi oleh guru kepada pembelajaran aktif yang berorientasikan bahan, pelajar dan teknologi. Ketika induksi set, guru meminta pelajar menganalisis maklumat yang diberikan daripada laman web yang berkaitan. Langkah-langkah pengajaran dan pembelajaran seterusnya memberikan peranan sepenuhnya kepada pelajar untuk membincangkan sesama rakan dalam kumpulan yang telah ditetapkan. Guru memantau dan memberikan bimbingan kepada perkara-perkara yang menimbulkan kekeliruan. Tajuk-tajuk Sejarah Dunia yang dipilih untuk tujuan kajian ini ialah tajuk-tajuk yang dianggap oleh guru dan pelajar sebagai tajuk-tajuk mencabar dan sukar dikuasai, iaitu merangkumi tajuk-tajuk di dalam Bab 1, Bab 3 dan Bab 8 sahaja seperti di dalam Buku Teks Sejarah. Bagi Bab 1 ia merangkumi tajuk Tamadun Zaman Purba, Mesopotamia, Sejarah Penulisan, Mesir Purba, China Purba. Manakala bagi Bab 3 pula merangkumi tajuk Srivijaya, Angkor Wat, Lembah Bujang dan Bab 8 pula berkenaan dengan tajuk Renaissance, Kuiz Renaissance dan Dunia Moden Awal sepertimana yang tertera dalam Jadual 1. Laman web yang dicadangkan untuk pembelajaran bagi tajuk tertentu adalah seperti di Jadual 1, tetapi pelajar digalakkan untuk mendapatkan maklumat berkaitan dengan sesuatu tajuk dengan mendapatkan sumber daripada laman web yang lain.



162

Jadual 1: Laman Web yang Digunakan Dalam Pembelajaran Bil.

Bab Tajuk Laman Web

1 1 Tamadun Zaman Purba

http://eawc.evansville.edu/

Mesopotamia http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/ Sejarah

Penulisan http://www.historian.net/hxwrite.htm

Mesir Purba http://ancienthistory.miningco.com/cs/ China Purba http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/ancient1.html 2 3 Srivijaya http://user.skynet.be/network.indonesia/ni4001c4.ht

m Angkor Wat http://www.leidenuniv.nl/pun/ubhtm/mjk/angkorwa Lembah

Bujang http://www.gtitec.com.my/museums/bujang.htm

3 8 Renaissance http://www.twingroves.district96.k12.il.us/ Kuiz

Renaissance http://library.thinkquest.org/C005356/activities.htm

Dunia Moden Awal

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook.html

Dapatan menunjukkan, penggunaan laman web bagi mata pelajaran Sejarah dalam pembelajaran menunjukkan persetujuan yang tinggi dalam kesemua 16 item seperti yang dinyatakan dalam Jadual 2. Jadual 2: Persepsi Pelajar terhadap Penggunaan Web dalam Mata Pelajaran Sejarah (N=105 Responden) No

Penggunaan laman web dalam pembelajaran mata pelajaran Sejarah dapat:

Sangat Tidak Setuju

Tidak Setuju

Tidak Pasti Setuju Sangat

Setuju

N % N % N % N % N %

1 Meningkatkan minat saya untuk belajar Sejarah.

0

0 2 1.9 0 0 4 3.8 99 94.3

2 Kesediaan saya untuk mengikuti mata pelajaran Sejarah menjadi lebih tinggi.

0

0 0 0 0 0 15 14.3 90 85.7

3 Memberikan lebih kefahaman tentang tajuk pelajaran.

0

0 4 3.8 3 2.85 9 8.57 89 84.8

4 Mendekatkan lagi jiwa saya tentang peristiwa Sejarah.

0

0 1 1.0 4 3.8 10 9.5 90 85.7



163

5 Membolehkan saya melihat Sejarah dalam konteks yang mencabar.

0

0 1 1.0 0 0 7 6.67 97 92.4

6 Memenuhi rasa ingin tahu dan menjawab banyak persoalan yang muncul.

0

0 4 3.8 6 5.7 8 7.61 87 82.9

7 Meningkatkan interaksi sesama pelajar dalam kelas.

0

0 0 0 6 5.7 10 9.5 89 84.8

8 Membentuk sikap saling bantu membantu di kalangan pelajar.

0

0 0 0 6 5.7 12 11.4 87 82.9

9 Menyingkatkan masa untuk mendapatkan maklumat.

0

0 0 0 4 3.8 25 23.8 76 72.4

10 Capaian maklumat dapat dilakukan dengan pantas dan cepat.

0

0 25 23.8 3 2.86 0 0 77 73.3

11 Maklumat yang ingin diperolehi adalah pelbagai dan banyak.

0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 105 100

12 Menambahkan pengetahuan pelajar apabila dapat merujuk pelbagai sumber.

0

0 1 1.0 0 0 4 3.8 100 95.2

13 Memberi peluang kepada saya untuk mendapatkan maklumat dengan usaha sendiri.

0

0 0 0 8 7.61 10 9.5 87 82.9

14 Menjadikan pembelajaran Sejarah lebih menarik dan menyeronokkan.

0

0 0 0 2 1.9 6 5.7 97 92.4

15 Memudahkan lagi untuk mengingati fakta Sejarah.

0

0 0 0 6 5.7 12 11.4 87 82.9

16 Menjadikan saya lebih berkeyakinan terhadap kemampuan diri sendiri.

0

0 0 0 4 3.8 12 11.4 89 84.8

Jadual 2 di atas telah menunjukkan hasil kajian mendapati 100% pelajar sangat bersetuju dengan kenyataan nombor 11 yang merujuk kepada maklumat yang diperolehi daripada laman web tentang tajuk Sejarah Dunia adalah pelbagai dan banyak. Seramai 95.2% responden daripada kategori pelajar juga menunjukkan persetujuan yang tinggi bagi kenyataan nombor 12 iaitu pencarian bahan bagi mata pelajaran Sejarah melalui laman web dapat menambahkan pengetahuan mereka. Seramai 94.3% responden juga menyatakan mereka sangat bersetuju dengan penggunaan laman web bagi mata pelajaran Sejarah dapat meningkatkan minat mereka untuk mempelajari mata pelajaran tersebut. Ini juga memandangkan bagi kebanyakan pelajar menghafal fakta Sejarah adalah



164

sesuatu yang membosankan dan merumitkan. Dengan kaedah pencarian maklumat secara sendiri atau pembelajaran akses kendiri dengan menggunakan laman web juga dapat meningkatkan minat pelajar untuk mempelajari mata pelajaran tersebut. Manakala, 92.4% responden menyatakan relajar Sejarah menjadi lebih seronok dan lebih menarik dengan penggunaan laman web bagi dalam pembelajaran. Manakala, seramai 23.8% responden melahirkan ketidaksetujuan terhadap kenyataan nombor 10, iaitu capaian maklumat dapat dilakukan dengan pantas dan cepat. Kenyataan ini mendapat peratusan tertinggi bagi ketidaksetujuan berbanding dengan kenyataan lain. Ketidaksetujuan ini berkemungkinan berkaitan dengan kelancaran internet. Ada ketika, apabila jaringan internet tidak begitu lancar, maka kelancaran capaian laman web juga akan mengambil masa yang agak lama. Secara umumnya, persepsi pelajar tentang penggunaan laman web dalam mata pelajaran Sejarah adalah pembelajaran Sejarah menjadi lebih menarik. Mereka juga berpendapat pembelajaran akses kendiri dapat menjadikan mereka lebih berdikari, yakin dan sentiasa ingin mencuba. Penilaian pelajar tentang pembelajaran Sejarah turut berubah daripada mata pelajaran yang bosan kepada yang mencabar dan menyeronokkan. Maka dengan itu akan wujud percambahan pemikiran tentang pengetahuan Sejarah. Pelajar juga dapat mentafsir maklumat sejarah secara bebas melalui laman web yang diberikan. Pelajar dalam masa yang sama dapat menambah pengalaman dan maklumat baru di samping pengetahuan pelajar juga lebih terbuka dan luas. Laman web yang dicari pelajar dan dibentang dalam bilik darjah mampu membangkitkan minat pelajar dalam proses instruksional, di mana pelajar bersifat interaktif dengan bahan dan membentuk pemikiran baru tentang Sejarah Dunia. Sepertimana Anita [5] yang mendapati penggunaan teknologi dapat meningkatkan prestasi pelajar di mana pelajar menunjukkan rasa ingin tahu dan lebih berminat terdapat sesuatu yang ingin dipelajari. Gaya belajar bagi pembelajaran akses kendiri tidak lagi bergantung kepada maklumat guru, pelajar berkeupayaan mentafsir dan menganalisis maklumat yang dibentangkan oleh rakan-rakan dan menimbulkan reaksi ingin tahu apabila penggunaan teknologi diaplikasikan [6]. Makala, hasil temubual dengan 3 orang guru mata pelajaran Sejarah pula mendapati kesemua pelajar menunjukkan minat yang ketara terhadap mata pelajaran Sejarah terutamanya bagi Bab 1, 3 dan 8. Bagi bab-bab lain yang tidak menggunakan laman web sebagai kaedah pembelajaran, prestasi pelajar adalah rendah. Prestasi pelajar bagi mata pelajaran Sejarah telah diukur daripada beberapa indikator antaranya ialah penguasaan fakta, kronologi peristiwa, sumbangan tokoh, peranan agensi dan sebab akibat bagi sesuatu tindakan atau kejadian. Ketiga-tiga guru mata pelajaran Sejarah ini bersetuju bahawa pelajar menunjukkan kesediaan belajar yang tinggi terhadap bab yang diajar dengan menggunakan teknologi dan pembelajaran akses kendiri. Selepas setiap bab itu selepas diajar, setiap kumpulan yang terdiri daripada beberapa orang pelajar dikehendaki membentangkan hasil tugasan



165

mereka kepada rakan-rakan lain di dalam kelas, ketiga-tiga guru mata pelajaran Sejarah ini juga bersetuju bahawa pembentangan pelajar juga menunjukkan kesungguhan mereka untuk menyampaikan maklumat dan mereka benar-benar memahami apa yang cuba disampaikan. Maklumat yang disampaikan adalah menjangkau apa yang terdapat dalam Buku Teks Sejarah Tingkatan 4. Pelajar juga menunjukkan minat yang ketara apabila masing-masing pelajar daripada setiap kumpulan berdebat untuk menambahkan fakta sedia ada. Keadaan ini menjadikan mata pelajaran Sejarah lebih menarik dan penghafalan fakta Sejarah dapat dilakukan dengan lebih efektif. Secara keseluruhannya, hasil pembelajaran yang dapat diperhatikan oleh ketiga-tiga orang guru ini adalah: (1) wujudnya kumpulan perbincangan aktif dalam kalangan pelajar tentang bahan edaran; (2) pelajar berusaha mendapatkan sebanyak mungkin maklumat dan ilmu berkaitan tajuk; (3) pelajar menganalisis maklumat-maklumat tambahan daripada pelbagai laman web; (4) pelajar merujuk buku teks untuk tujuan mengenalpasti skop silibus; (5) pelajar dapat menyiapkan tugasan ringkas dalam kelas dan menyediakan tugasan baru yang diberikan melalui pembelajaran kendiri; dan (6) pelajar membuat pembentangan secara kumpulan dengan lebih yakin. 5.0 KESIMPULAN

Senario pendidikan masa kini di Malaysia telah mengarah ke arah pemanfaatan teknologi tambahan pula melalui proses pembestarian yang sedang dilaksanakan dan proses memperkasakan sistem pendidikan. Penggunaan teknologi tidak lagi satu alternatif masa kini tetapi menjadi satu yang perlu dan penting untuk memansuhkan sistem pembelajaran cara lama chalk and talk yang banyak didominasi oleh guru yang berorientasikan peperiksaan sehingga potensi kognitif, afektif dan psikomotor pelajar tidak dikembangkan secara jelas, sehingga kesannya pemerolehan ilmu hanya bersifat sementara untuk memenuhi keperluan peperiksaan semata-mata. Melalui akses maklumat secara sendiri dengan menggunakan laman web, pelajar lebih terdedah kepada maklumat baru yang terkini dan setanding dengan pelajar-pelajar lain di seluruh dunia. Pelajar dapat memperolehi maklumat dan pengetahuan tentang sejarah daripada sumber interaktif yang menarik, bahan yang sistematik dan rangsangan yang benar-benar bermakna. Malahan bahan-bahan yang diperolehi boleh dijadikan asas kepada percambahan pemikiran dan perkongsian pengalaman. Persepsi terhadap mata pelajaran Sejarah yang dahulunya satu mata pelajaran yang membosankan telah dapat diperbaiki dengan penggunaan kaedah pembelajaran melalui laman web ini. Pembelajaran akses kendiri juga dapat menimbulkan sifat berdikari, yakin dan sifat ingin tahu yang tinggi tentang sesuatu perkara.



166

6. RUJUKAN [1] Farrant, J. S (1981). Prinsip dan amali pendidikan (terj.). Dewan

Bahasa dan Pustaka: Kuala Lumpur. [2] Perkins H. V. (1998). Teaching methods for today schools:

Collaboration and Inclusions. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. [3] Mok Soon Sang (2004). Ilmu pendidikan untuk KPLI. Subang Jaya:

Kumpulan Budiman Sdn. Bhd. [4] Chall, J. S. (1978). Education and the brain- the seventy seventh

yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

[5] Anita, E. W. (2000). Educational Psychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. [6] Fitzgerald, M. (2000). Individual learning styles. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.



167

FACILITATOR AND LEARNER’S UNDERSTANDING ON ROGER’S CORE CONDITIONS OF A PERSON CENTERED COUNSELING (AND LEARNING)

IN THE STUDENT CENTERED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

MANSOR B ABU TALIB

Department of Human Development and Family Studies Faculty of Human Ecology Universiti Putra Malayia [email protected]


ABSTRACT - Student Centered Learning (SCL) focuses on the need, abilities, interest and learning styles of the students then of others involve in the educational process. Being students centered engages instructors in a humanistic approach to education in which they function as facilitators of learning (Nuckles, 2000). In counseling and psychotherapy, Person Centered Counseling (PCC) center to the client as a person, not his or her problem. PCC belongs to the humanistic theory of counseling that focuses on the potential of individuals to actively choose and purposely decide about matters related to themselves and their environments. Rogers (1980) emphasized hat people need to be assisted in learning how to cope with situations and to become a fully-functioning person. Roger believes that the principles of PCC could be applied outside counseling situation, thus the Person Centered Leaning (PCL) was developed. Relationship between facilitator/counselor and learner is the central criteria hat signified CC and PCL. Evidently, PCC strongly believes hat significant positive changes could not occur except in relationships. In addition, Rogers specified the necessary core conditions in PCC and PCL, i.e. realness, congruence, genuine or transparency in the client/facilitator, acceptance or respect towards the client/learner or unconditional positive regard, and the striving for empathic understanding of the client/learner. These three core conditions are the prerequisite in PCC and PCL for change and effective learning to take place. This paper discusses lived experiences of facilitators and learners in SCL on their understanding of Roger’s core conditions. It will give suggestion on methods and others ways to promote PCL as another approach in SCL.



168

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Student-centered learning (SCL) is an approach to education focusing on the needs of the students relatively than those of others concerned in the educational process. In SCL, students construct their own meaning by talking through group or team discussion, listening to explanation or presentation, writing for assignment, reading different resources assigned by facilitator or chosen by learner, and reflecting on content, ideas, issues and concerns especially the one that are relevant for their future undertakings or in real world of work. Therefore, SCL course typically addresses the needs of a particular student to learn how to solve problems using some aspects of course content. SCL is usually compared with Teacher Centered Learning where teachers serve as the centre of knowledge, directing the learning process and controlling student's access to information. As such, students are viewed as 'empty vessels’ and learning is viewed as a complimentary process only. Thus, as a result, lectures or instructions are geared for the 'average' student and each student is required to show improvement at the same rate. In the context of pedagogy, SCL has many implications for the design of curriculum, development of course content and activity of courses as it focuses on the individual student's needs, abilities, interests, learning styles with the facilitator as a facilitator of learning. Student-centred learning requires students to be active, responsible participants in their own learning. In contrast, facilitator-centred learning has the facilitator at its' centre in an active role and students in a passive, receptive role.

One approach in SCL is the model of Person-Centered Learning (PCL) and teaching. PCL focuses on the facilitation of learning and teaching between active learner and facilitator. It is based on the work of humanistic educators and psychologist, Carl Rogers. PCL was developed from the Client-Centered Counseling theory introduced by Rogers which emphasized on the client and not on the problem. Counseling itself is a student centered activity, based on the principles that the counselor’s goal is to be a student advocate and to help each students achieve success to the best of their ability. Similarly, the PCL is based on the students by giving the learners or students the freedom to not only chooses the methods of learning, but to engage in the discussion of the content. In practical terms, the PCL can be implemented within limits. PCL educators believe that making choices is an integral aspect of being a human, and at the heart of learning. Secondly, Rogers advocated trusting the individual to make choices, and that it was the only way to help them understand the consequences of their choices. In term of learning, students need to decide whether they want to learn and how much lesson should be acquired to achieve goals that they have decide earlier. Nevertheless, decision had to be made together with the facilitator.

Conceptually, there are several aspects of the PCL that appeal to the facilitator, namely, the role of the facilitator in the learning process, and the creation of a conducive learning environment to inquiry learning or learning through self investigation. According to Rogers, the relationship between the facilitator and learner is important in bringing about the positive effects of learning



169

by the learners. In order to do this, three elements seemed to characterize the facilitator who assumes the role of learning facilitator. The three elements are termed as Rogers’s core condition, namely realness, acceptance, and empathy. This paper discusses how these there significant criteria or Roger’s core conditions are understood by both the facilitators and learners in the SCL classes.

2.0 METHOD Five students were interviewed in two separate groups to share experience and expectation on SCL. Two facilitators who used SCL in their courses were individually interviewed. They were asked questions pertaining to (1) what are personal qualities or attributes of facilitator in SCL that would contribute to effective learning, and (2) what meaning they attached from their understanding about SCL. PCL concept was not mentioned throughout the interviews as to not confuse the respondents. Information gathered were analyzed thematically to look at themes or distinguishable patterns that can be used in the discussion. 3.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION Information gathered from both the learners and facilitators involved in SCL pointed that Roger’s three conditions of client or student centered learning were minimally present. Even though respondents were unable to use the exact terminology described by Roger’s core conditions, they seemed to agree that genuineness, positive regard or acceptance and empathic understanding are crucial in SCL. This is in line with PCL criteria as suggested by Rogers. Student’s respondents hypothesized that they could achieve superior results along with personal growth. Areas of improvement included in terms of higher self-confidence, greater creativity, and openness to their new learning experience, enhancing self-respect, and respect towards others. This was possible if only they are able to learn in an atmosphere or climate in which the facilitator holds the three core attitudinal conditions as suggested in PCL. All students understood that SCL put them as centre of attention and they have certain responsibility in this academic partnership. Rogers’s theory stressed on the self actualizing tendency that drive the individual or ‘organism’ to strive toward making the best and developing their fullest potential to the fullest. This tendency unfolds best in an atmosphere that is characterized by the three core conditions.

Respondents shared some personal qualities of facilitators that they recommended as necessary in order to have significance impact on the learning and teaching process. However, only criteria related to Roger’s core condition were discussed in this paper.

a. Genuineness or congruence or realness in the facilitator

In counseling, according to Rogers,



170

When the therapist is experiencing a positive, acceptant attitude toward whatever the client is at that moment, therapeutic movement or change is more likely to occur. The therapist is willing for the client to be whatever immediate feeling is going on--confusion, resentment, fear, anger, courage, love, or pride. Such caring on the part of the therapist is non possessive. The therapist prizes the client in a total rather than a conditional way. (Rogers,1980, p.115-116)

Rogers claimed that the dynamics of counseling especially the counselor-client relationship outlined by his Client-Centered counseling can be taken into classroom setting and practiced by teacher. However, none of the student’s respondents and facilitators talked about the important of relationship whereas this is a central construct of PCC and PCL. However, both groups of respondents were able to deliberate on the importance of being genuine or real in facilitating role of the facilitator. According to PCL, the most basic of these essential attitudes or core conditions for learning process to take place is realness or genuineness.

When the facilitator is a real person and being what s/he is, the facilitator will enter into a relationship with the learner without presenting a façade or pretending. As a result, s/he is much more likely to be effective. This means that the feelings that s/he is experiencing are available to her and that s/he is able to live these feelings. Likewise, the facilitator will be able to communicate to the students if appropriate. Intrinsically, realness denotes coming into a direct personal encounter with the learners through meeting them on a person-to-person basis. In doing so, facilitator is being him or herself and not denying his/her own feeling and emotion and shares it with the students appropriately. As a result, students can feel the realness brought about by the facilitator in the teacher-students relationship. My lecturer showed us the right way to answer the questions and she showed all our assignment and why we deserved such a grade or mark

(Student 1, Female) Somehow I felt understood and I have a feeling that he trust me without any doubt not like some other classes where we might be penalized because our lecturer have some preconceived ideas about students …. then we were taken for granted..

(Student 3, Female) think my lecturer knows a lot about psychology. She seemed to feel what I feel and we could speak in a same wavelength. I felt heard and understood

(Student 4, Male) … shared what I felt and I think this is a partnership between me and my students. They need to know how I feel about them and what my expectations are …



171

(Facilitator 1, Male) I want to make it personal with my students. I know it is important but how could I make it personal to hundred of them. I have to be fair

(Facilitator 2, Female)) Clearly, in the SCL and especially PCL, the facilitator must take on the role of a facilitator of student learning rather than a dispenser of knowledge or information. In the PCL model, for the facilitator to show realness they must be genuine and willing to express feelings. This is important because in the PCL model, the facilitator acts as counselor, guide and coach, and in order to be effective, he or she must be real with his or her students.

b. Acceptance, trust or unconditional positive regards

In general, there is an essential attitude that stands out in those who are doing well in facilitating learning i.e. accepting the learners without any conditions. Thus, in PCL, facilitator is encouraged to continuously prizing the learner, honoring learner’s feelings, his/her opinions and crediting an individual student as a person. It is an acceptance of this other individual as a person who is having worth in her own right. Facilitator acts in such a way that could instill a basic trust i.e. a belief that this other person is somehow fundamentally trustworthy. The facilitator’s prizing or acceptance of the learner is an operational expression of his/her essential confidence and trust in the capacity of the human organism. Clearly, PCL highly advocated and stressed the importance of accepting the other person or indeed prizing the learners and acknowledging that they are trustworthy and can be held responsible for their behavior.

Facilitator acts as motivator and does not ‘membebel’. He or she help to build my confidence and feeling good about myself (Student 5, Male)

I think all lecturers must value and respect their students. They need to accept the student differences with open mind. They shouldn’t judge them…

(Student 1. Female)

I try my best to give students my full, caring attention without judging or evaluating them. They all have their own unique strengths

(Facilitator 1, Male)"

c. Empathic understanding

As stated by Rogers (1980), students feel deeply appreciative when they are simply understood, not evaluated, not judged, and that



172

they are simply understood from their own point of view and not the facilitator’s.

A further element that establishes a climate for self-initiated

experiential learning is emphatic understanding. When the facilitator has the ability to understand the learner’s reactions from the inside, has a sensitive awareness of the way the process of education and learning seems to the learner, then again the likelihood of significant learning is increased. To PCL, empathy is the most important element in this triad of Roger’s core conditions. Empathy is a form of understanding without judgment or evaluation. Empathy shown by facilitators in the lecture room is especially important in developing positive attitudes among the learners.

Facilitator asks lots of questions. He makes me curious and enhances my desire to know more. If I cannot give the right answer he sort of understood and didn’t make a judgment on me

(Student 3, Female)

I know some lecturer ‘give face’ to their students. I want to do the same but I am not sure where the limit. I feel for them for having too many assignments but isn’t that part of the learning process?

(Facilitator 2, Female)

My lecturer understands me and my situations and does not compare me with the others. I can tell without having prejudice and he listens and acknowledges

(Student 1, Female)

Naturally there are more than these three elements to being a learning facilitator. Technical aspects such as setting up a classroom environment conducive to learning, providing learning materials, and structuring lessons that encourage person-centered learning are involved as well. These were also shared by both the students and facilitators involved in this study. Their feedback are presented in Table 1



173

Table 1 Technical aspect of PCL

Facilitator/Learner’s account Meaning

I got very excited by the way he discussed the lecture. He had us played ‘musical chair’ and we have to answer questions on the paper when we pick. Then he had us tried to answer it and then he presented the exact answers. So we knew where we went wrong or how to approach the questions

(Student 5, Male)

Setting a positive climate for learning

Groups discussion in small teams. Most student like this and they thought this is SCL already. I do like small group but students need to be told that they must bring materials to discuss in class

(Facilitator 1, Male)

Group work and dynamics of discussion

I asked questions as prompts, lots of them. This is like to open their inquiry mind. But I realized I am the one ended up answering them ….


Ask questions that foster inquiry

We now need to enhance students soft skill (kemahiran Insaniah), so I really have to encourage students to discuss during lecture but it is hard work and difficult. Not many student want to speak up so a lot of us end up having student to do presentation

(Facilitator 2, Female)

Encouraging participation

I let student choose their own topic of interest in completing their assignment and for them to choose their own content. However, I told them what are expected from the assignment In student centered, we need to focus on the students and have them decide actions to take but not all…for example … I cannot let students to form their own group because they will only work with friend that they already know …so I make a requirement that it should be a mixed group between gender and ethnicity. So is this student centered?


Freedom to decide method and choose content (guided by facilitator)

Students understand expectations



174

Respondents in this study articulated that they have experienced SCL differently as compared to traditional method of teaching. However, student-respondents equated SCL as small group learning and students doing the presentation. Nevertheless, they agreed that SCL could easily promote personal change and growth. They listed some personal criteria of the facilitator and learning environment that could contributed to positive learning experiences such as (a) facilitating the learning and discovery process rather than merely telling or teaching, this is achieved by setting a mood for the environment (b) varied approaches of deliveries beside traditional lectures where students act as passive partner, (c) variety of learning resources were used to uphold students interest such as guest speaker, movie, role play and quizzes. This is similar as suggested by Rogers whereby the role of the teacher is to facilitate learning as all human beings have a natural propensity to learn. In addition, student’s criteria of a good SCL are similar with Rogers’s prerequisite of a good PCL. This includes: (1) situating a constructive climate for learning, (2) clarifying the purposes of the learner(s), (3) organizing and making available learning resources, (4) complementing intellectual and emotional components of learning as balanced, and (5) sharing feelings and thoughts with learners.

A conflicting theme developed from this study is around participation. According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction. Student-respondents seemed to want this but information gathered from the facilitator pointed different scenarios. Even though facilitators in this study understood that SCL need continuous participation from their students, their involvement is minimal and it is difficult to motivate students to participate on their own freewill. 4.0 CONCLUSION

This paper had discussed a brief understanding of students and facilitators of SCL about the existence of PCL approach and three Roger’s core conditions necessary for changes and learning process to take place. Since PCL can be considered as learning or teaching model in the SCL environments, its criteria and nature are similar to SCL. Basically in PCL, the teacher takes over the role of a facilitator holding the three Rogers core or attitudinal conditions. Therefore, facilitator should be aware of the attitudes he or she holds. The facilitator needs to feel acceptance of his or her own feeling thus becoming a real person in relationship with the students. In doing so, students will also feel that are being accepted as they are.

In the PCL classroom, students are encouraged to ask questions, decide on content, choose upon methods and resources, look at concepts and theories, and find out things on their own discovery and working in small teams. In addition, an atmosphere of trust is established in the classroom, in which curiosity and the accepted aspiration to learn can be nourished. A participatory mode of decision-making is applied to all aspects of learning, and students, facilitators, and administrators each have a part in it. Students are encouraged to prize themselves, to build their confidence and self-esteem. In conclusion, the core concepts of PCC used in PCL were found to be applicable to SCL, as evident by this study



175

Similar to SCL, PCL connotes the important of students and facilitators of learning to share the responsibility of meeting curriculum requirements. In addition, students are continuously encouraged to participate in all aspects of learning and decision making. Variety of delivery styles are encouraged and engaging different learning materials and resources. Resources are suggested by both facilitator and learners. Case study was suggested as method to be used more often and must used real life scenario or on the job cases so that student could see the relevance of lessons learnt in lecture room. Learning takes on several dimensions. It proceeds both individually and cooperatively in small teams and the large group, along the content- as well as the process dimension, and cognitively as well as socially and personally, intuitively or emotionally, learning strategies, evaluation procedures. Students are free to suggest or to choose topics, aspects, processes within the context preset by the curriculum. Nevertheless this must be guided by the facilitator and curriculum set by the faculty. Finally, students participate in the evaluation of learning by conducting self-evaluation based on their learning objectives outlined in the course synopsis or learning contract with the facilitators. REFERENCES [1] Nuckles, C. R.(2000) "Student-Centered Teaching: Making It Work."

Adult Learning 11, 4

[2] Rogers, C. R. (1961). On Becoming a Person - A Psychotherapists View of Psychotherapy. London: Constable.

[3] Rogers, Carl (1980). A Way of Being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin

[4] Rogers, C. R. (1983). Freedom to Learn for the 80's. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company.



176

MANAGING DIVERSITY TRAINING FOR MEDICAL STUDENTS

HARLINA HS, RUZANNA Z, JURIZA I, SITI MARIAM B, NABISHAH M, LOKMAN S.

Department of Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine UKM © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRACT - Medical doctors are required to provide equal treatment and care to all patients, regardless of their age, gender, ethnicity, religion, social position and financial standing. The basic precepts of medical ethics clearly illustrate the importance of medical practitioners to be fair, neutral and unbiased in treating their patients. In a multi-racial, multi-cultural country like Malaysia, it is extremely important for medical practitioners to have a sound understanding on diversified elements of their patients’ culture, religious convictions, values and attitudes - before they can proceed to treat their patients with respect and dignity. Faculty of Medicine UKM has included a sub-module of Managing Diversity under the module of Personal and Professional Development (PPD) in the new integrated curriculum for the medical programme since the academic year of 2005-2006. The sub-module is first introduced to the second year medical students through an hour of interactive concept lecture, followed by a two-hour small group discussion (SGD) session. In this facilitated session, students are given three short games designed to explore the similarities and differences existing within the group. Students are also facilitated to discuss on topics such as prejudice, bias, stereotyping and discrimination. Further training is conducted during the outdoor camp activities held in the beginning of the third year, whereby the groups will debate on controversial topics related to the patients in the clinics and wards. In the clinical postings, the students’ professional conduct which include the skill on managing diversity is observed and assessed by their clinical supervisors. It is hoped that the introduction of such a module will facilitate the medical students to be more caring, sensitive and aware of the diversity existing around them, which should lead them to manage the differences appropriately. A group of highly culturally-competent medical practitioners would be able to be the agents of



177

change for a more harmonious multicultural, multi-religious society of Malaysia.

1.0 INTRODUCTION Medical doctors are required to provide fair treatment and care to all patients, regardless of their age, gender, ethnicity, religion, social position and financial standing. The basic precepts of medical ethics clearly illustrate the importance of medical practitioners to be just, neutral and unbiased in treating their patients. It is extremely important for medical practitioners to have a sound understanding on the diversified elements of their patients’ culture, religious convictions, values and attitudes - before they can proceed to treat their patients with respect and dignity. The need to train medical undergraduates to be comfortable and familiar with the diversified profiles of their patients, become more apparent now. British General Medical Council paper on `Tomorrow’s Doctors’ states that "students should have acquired respect for

patients and colleagues that encompasses,

without prejudice, diversity of background and opportunity, language, culture and

way of life.” [1] Sub-module on Managing Diversity in Faculty of Medicine, UKM In the new integrated curriculum for medical programme, the Faculty of Medicine UKM has included a sub-module of Managing Diversity under the module of Personal and Professional Development (PPD). The sub-module is first introduced to the second year medical students through an hour of interactive concept lecture, followed by a two-hour small group discussion (SGD) session. The objectives of the sub-module during this introductory phase are as follows:

• To appreciate the importance of handling diversity in human relationship • To describe types of individual choices in responding to diversity

The concept lecture entitled : Celebrating Similarities & Managing Diversity covers the area on :

• The definition of diversity • The components of diversity • The benefits and disadvantages of diversity • The attitudes towards diversity and factors influencing them • The definitions of stereotypes, prejudice, bias and discrimination • Video clips from movies such as `Ghandi’, `Mother Theresa’ and

`Kingdom of Heavens’ – which illustrate the importance of managing diversity that can be learned in history.

In this facilitated session, students participate in three short games

designed to explore the similarities and differences existing within the group. Students are also facilitated to discuss on topics such as prejudice, bias, stereotyping and discrimination.



178

At the end of the second semester in Year Two, the PPD unit organizes an interfaith discussion on the topic of ` Practises of Medicine : What does your religion say?’. During this two-hour forum, four medical practitioners are invited to represent the views of Muslims, Christians, Buddhists and Hindus on the practices of medicine. In the post-forum evaluation, about 70% of students regarded the program as ` informative’ as well as `interesting’.

During the outdoor PPD camp 2, held in the beginning of the third year, the sub-module is delivered through small group discussion (SGD) sessions on medical ethics. The students are required to watch a movie entitled `Something the Lord Made’, which highlights the issue of managing diversity in the context of ethnicity and gender. In an another session, students are given topics of debate on controversial issues related to the patients’ gender, age, ethnicity and sexual orientation.

In the clinical postings, the students’ professional conduct which include the skill on managing diversity is observed and assessed by their clinical supervisors. In the recent end-semester exam, a key feature question (KFQ) was constructed to assess the students’ understanding and response towards a clinical situation in a gynaecological clinic involving a single college student with a sexually-transmitted infection. Out of 232 students, only three students failed the KFQ segment. The students who failed the managing diversity component were given personal feedback sessions with the lecturers in the PPD unit. 2.0 DISCUSSION Teaching cultural diversity in medical schools remains to be somewhat fragmented, with uncertainty towards what actually constitutes diversity teaching. About 72% of forty medical schools in Great Britain which responded to a survey reported that they are currently teaching and assessing cultural diversity among their undergraduates [2]. Countries such as the US and Canada seem to be in the forefront in promoting diversity teaching in undergraduate schools [3]. It is hoped that the introduction of such a module will facilitate medical students to become more aware and sensitive towards the diversified elements existing around them. Following a sound understanding on diversity, it is expected that the students would be able to develop appropriate professional conduct and respect in dealing with patients coming from all walks of life. It is the aspiration of UKM to produce a group of culturally-competent medical practitioners, who would then be the best agents of change for a more harmonious multi-cultural, multi-religious society of Malaysia.



179

REFERENCES :

[1] General Medical Council. Tomorrow's Doctors. London: General Medical Council, 1993

[2] Nisha D, Conning S,Gill P,Spencer J, Turner M. Teaching of cultural diversity in medical schools in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland: cross sectional questionnaire survey . BMJ 2005;330:403-404

[3] Flores G, Gee D, Kastner B. The teaching of cultural issues in US and Canadian medical schools. Acad Med 2000;75: 451-5



180

INSTILLING MORAL VALUES IN REPORT WRITING COURSE

HAJAH SITI AKMAR ABU SAMAH

Institute of Leadership & Quality Management Universiti Teknologi MARA 40 450 Shah Alam Selangor MALAYSIA [email protected]


ABSTRACT This topic may raise eyebrows of its relevance, significance and approaches. Very often than not several soft skills initiatives have been put forward by the top leaders of the country, of which are very commonly known as, for example, Rukun Negara, Pelan Integriti Negara (PIN) , and the recent one – Kemahiran Insaniah. All these are targeted to the working population of the country. However, these are noble values that need to be instilled at much tender age of our youths. Being teachers at tertiary level, do we play a part in this work of nurturing the nature. If we are not obligated to, is our teaching merely facts dissemination and completing the syllabus? If we have the sense of responsibility being citizens with these noble values, do we impart them to our students? And just how do we do that? In a small area of focus, teaching Report Writing entails much trust in the choice of topic, data collection, researching for literature, drafting and writing. These are the tasks that need to be carried out by the students. They are the process owner of their project and in conducting so, the trustworthiness sometimes may swerve to plagiarized work, cut-paste practice or copying from others in carrying out their assignment. Can we inculcate values in every juncture of progress that they make? This paper attempts to address so by providing pertinent teaching-learning strategies. Keywords: moral values, soft skills initiatives, nurturing, teaching-learning strategies



181

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The original title of this paper was intended to read “In Paper We Write, In Values We Rely”. Being a language educator in an institution of higher education, much has been experienced in imparting knowledge and information via reading, writing, listening and speaking. Also, much has been seen in the types of students that are admitted into the university. These are the raw resources that need to be nurtured and refined to provide for the country in terms of economic returns. Many of them that come for further studies are intellectually ready. They are the products of various levels of the national examinations that are held throughout their lives within the education system. However, being equipped with intellectual capital may not necessarily deem them fit to create a holistic society. It is not sufficient for a total person to become, with only intellectual capital, as two other elements are necessary to make one a total person and these are social and spiritual capitals. (Ary G. Agustian , 2005).

Thus, in the attempt to create a healthy society, every educational

curriculum lauds to be effective. In Malaysia, from the beginning of the schooling age, the education system has placed emphasis on creating a holistic person in preparation to be a desirable citizen. This is clearly stated in the National Education Philosophy,

Education in Malaysia is an ongoing process towards further effort in developing the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner; so as to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards, and who are responsible and capable of

achieving a high level of personal well being as well as being able to contribute to the betterment of the society and the nation at large.

in which much emphasis is placed on character building of every learning individual. The education system has not failed to provide learning experiences in moulding the character of the young people. As part of the philosophy, there is a place for value education that every young learner has to undertake in the system. Values which have been widely defined in literature encompass all things from eternal concepts to behavioural actions. They are criteria that determine the levels of goodness, worth and beauty. These important elements which include responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, integrity and honesty are important to ensure that they act as filter for the selection of inputs involving the choices of right-and-wrong, ethical-and-non ethical and desirable-and-undesirable.

Nevertheless, many initiatives are planned, accepted, launched and recorded on paper. These sets of values, after being found appropriate, are ready for inclusion in the curriculum via various relevant subjects. The next issue is the imparting process so that this values education takes place in the learning process. The next important issue proposed in this paper is how do language educators play their role in contributing to nurturing the resources, in particular



182

the students. Needless to say, these are the raw resources that need to be instilled with those values propagated in the initiatives. Thus, the writer intends to share some highlighted national soft skills initiatives and suggest ways in which values inculcation can be incorporated in one of the language courses offered by an academy of language studies of a local university and that is Report Writing Course.

2.0 SOFT SKILLS INITIATIVES

In support of the already existing educational curriculum, other initiatives supplement the inculcation of values not only among the young learners in institutions of learning, but also for working community in the society. Several attempts have been made by the authority to put forth the requirements of churning desirable citizens. These initiatives carry noblest aims as they intend to nurture the ambition of a developing nation as perfected in the National Education Philosophy. In this paper only three commonly highlighted ones : the Rukun Negara, Pelan Integriti Negara and Kemahiran Insaniah are cited for discussion purposes.

1. RUKUN NEGARA

In 1969, May 13, a serious race riot took place in the country. This incident has evident the fragility of a multi-racial Malaysia which in turn will endanger the country stability. In its reaction a Malaysian Pledge of Alliance was instituted [2] and thus Rukun Negara. It is not necessarily a soft skill initiative but a philosophy and national ideology. The objectives of the allegiance include: • Achieving a more perfect unity amongst the whole of the Malaysian

society

• Preserving a democratic way of life

• Creating a just society where the prosperity of the country can be enjoyed together in a fair and equitable manner

• Guaranteeing a liberal approach towards her rich and varied cultural tradition and

• Building a progressive society that will make use of science and modern technology

However, to achieve these ambitions there are mission statements that need to be pulled up in order to meet the ends. These are the five principles that entail the philosophy and they warrant every citizen to embrace: • Believe in God

• Loyalty to king and country

• Upholding the Constitution

• Rule of law



183

• Good behavior and morality

In providing the intellectual input and equipping them with the knowledge to these young people, more often than not, teachers may notice that there is an absence or lack of effort in imparting the desirable social elements when they display social misconduct. Some of these behaviours warrant the provision for input from the teachers through inculcation and action learning in which these students by chance or choice may commit academic misconduct in their learning process.

For this paper the focus is on the Report Writing Course as there are strategies adopted by students which may amount to academic dishonesty such as plagiarizing, cut-paste strategy and editing exercise by content expert, just to name a few. Nonetheless, these coupled with undesirable social behaviours like absenteeism, unpunctuality and defiance may cause ripple of undesirable characters among the young people. These are some of the observed behaviours in the classes taught at the university.

2.0 PELAN INTEGRITI NEGARA (National Integrity Plan)

The National Integrity Plan is another noble strategy to create a holistic society. In upholding the aspiration of the country’s leader, Malaysia is forging ahead to become a developed nation in its own mould (Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, 2005). To achieve this, the nation has to address the shortcomings amongst its citizens and thus the need to strengthen ethics and integrity. In the Prime Minister’s words, he states that “The government has implemented the PM Directive No. 1 of 1998 which aims to enhance the integrity of the government administration. There is also the needs to involve other sectors too, such as the private sector, political parties, non-government organizations, mass media, women, youth and students. The formulation of the National integrity Plan has been based on the spirit and principles of the Federal Constitution, the philosophy of the Rukun Negara and the aspiration of Vision 2020. With its objective “to establish a fully moral and ethical society whose citizens are strong in religious and spiritual capitals imbued with the highest ethical standards”, this initiative will only remain on paper if efforts to develop desirable character amongst the citizens, particularly the young ones are not implemented.

This initiative should not remain so if it were to be successfully

manifested in the society commitment for a healthy nation. The cooperation and coordination programmes have to start from the grass roots right up to the highest level of the society. These include the family, community civil society and socio-culture including the education sector. Thus, being in one of the comprehensive sectors, teachers have a definite role to play. In the objective, this presentation attempts to share the teaching experiences where ethics and integrity can be part of the mechanism not only to produce academic work that goes through ethical process, but also to nurture future leaders to achieve national aspiration.



184

3.0 KEMAHIRAN INSANIAH

As proposed in the paper, the author attempts to present another noble initiative launched by the authority, with the effort of developing the young people with skills that make them fit for the society. These soft skills are requirements that every student must possess. This particular initiative is targeted to the young people, especially to those studying in the university. These skills are integrated into the teaching-and-learning system. The students need to conduct self-evaluation and self-improvement to find out the level they have achieved in the development of these important skills that they need in life.

The Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia has made the acquisition and

mastery of these soft skills mandatory for every university student when they graduate. These skills include communication skills, critical thinking and problem solving skills, entrepreneurial skills, team working skills, lifelong learning and information management, professional ethics and moral and leadership skills. Thus, for these skills to be acquired, inculcation should proceed on even at tertiary level as students are exposed to the learning process that they may not have gone through at primary and secondary levels. In the multitude of duties, a teacher can play his role through his lessons, to infuse these skills during the class hours. To teach these skills per se is possible, but that requires supplementary programmes like those organised by Universiti Teknologi MARA Department of Student Affairs in which a systematic curriculum exists in these programmes and they are separated from the normal teaching hours. This indicates extra commitment is required by the teacher and learner associated with these programmes. TEACHER’S ROLE IN INCORPORATING VALUES DURING REPORT WRITING EXERCISE 3.1 ACADEMIC CHALLENGES IN REPORT WRITING CLASS

An earlier task undertaken by the students during the Report Writing Course is the choice of report topic for approval by the lecturers. For this first step, lecturers suggest themes of areas for students to report so that students are not given the liberty to pick up a topic which may have been worked on in previous semesters by other students. As an example, teaching students from the Faculty of Business and Management, topic scope involves investigation on business entities. With the advent of technology, there are wide chances of undesirable academic activities such as plagiarizing, cut-and-paste practices (read malpractice) and using unauthorized content editor in carrying out the assignment.

It is during this class session that students are made aware of various

practices of academic dishonesty with the intention that they know what they are and how to inculcate the awareness of the repercussion of committing so. One of the acts is plagiarizing. The question as to whether plagiarism is on the rise, at Yale University and perhaps elsewhere, the answer is “maybe”. However, the administration is not taking any chances (Yale Alumni



185

Magazine January/February 2007). Plagiarising involves the practice of directly quoting published or unpublished work of another person without clearly stating the author with footnote, citations or bibliographical reference and this act can be addressed through examples from previous students’ work.

During the recent marking of an examinable project , a student’s report

has displayed a case of cut-and-paste malpractice. In doing so, the acknowledgement page of the report carries not the name of his own lecturer but another who is not teaching him. This typical case has been reported in previous semesters.

3.2 TEACHING-LEARNING STRATEGIES

In every teacher’s attempt to complete the Report Writing syllabus which is a mandatory English Language course at first degree level, some teaching strategies that assist in the inculcation of values helps to train students to observe rules and procedures in order to keep them in check from committing academic dishonesty. In terms of language proficiency level, students are taught different techniques of editing strategies. These techniques like paraphrasing, different approaches in the technique of acknowledging, making use of collocations in report writing and editing may help the students handle the writing process well during the course.

Therefore, teachers do have a role to play and perhaps they need to

‘cooperate and coordinate’ their teaching duties during lecture and tutorials to make these initiatives not only to remain on paper, but also to be embraced by the students under their tutelage. The provision for the effort is there and is readily available. In teaching a language course, students are exposed to some strategies that can assist them in the development process. This is interrelated with the demand of higher education in which young people got admitted to the university are then exposed to the needs far beyond their self-expectation as to what entails in higher education, particularly in the subjects that they may not be too familiar with.

The following teaching-learning strategy is adapted from the typology

proposed by Huitt (2004). The value laden elements are laced with the methods used in carrying out the report writing assignments. Huitt (2004) includes five basic approaches to values education: inculcation, moral (ethics) development, analysis, value clarification and action learning. Using these elements, this presentation attempts to incorporate the tasks involved in carrying out the report writing exercise using both knowledge input as well as value laden elements that intend to keep students in check of any malpractices.



186

Overview of Values Education Approaches in Report Writing Class

Approach Purpose Methods Inculcation To introduce to the

students the kinds of topics relevant within the scope of research. To introduce the use of individual portfolio (final grade given) To teach students that comments, feedback , problems or complaints are best addressed though writing

To discuss the different issues that students encounter on and outside campus campus. Guidance is provided so that topics chosen are not taken from previous students’ report. Topics are recorded in the portfolio for continuity of discussion throughout the semester.

Analysis To help students pick up relevant issue to design questionnaire/interview protocol To help students use objective and analytical process in relating questions with the problems that may be observed or found

Discussion on the topic scope and pertinent, relevant issues that need to be asked during data collection process.

Values clarification To practise writing of acknowledgements To assist student in writing conclusion and recommendation remarks for the report assignment

Students are directed in group to collect 3 – 5 published books to scrutinize the language use in writing sections of report e.g. Acknowledgement The students learn to incorporate phrases, clauses and collocations that are relevant in writing acknowledgements, statements for conclusion and recommendation.

Action Learning To train students in In writing component,



187

writing students are taught the technique of paraphrasing. It is writing in own words what someone else has said or written. The ability to paraphrase helps students to recognize when another writer has restated his ideas. When writing reports, paraphrasing helps to avoid using direct quotes.

Ethics Development To help students develop regularity and reliability in time management

Students keep an individual portfolio that requires them to present to lecturer on regular meeting appointments outside class hours. Time management skill is applied where students keep to their appointments and meetings. Written tasks are presented to the lecturer. Early drafts are checked and filed. Using the amended draft, the next portfolio presentation is conducted on another meeting.

4. CONCLUSION

In summary, teaching involves disseminating information both of knowledge as well as values. When students are clearly informed of the different types of academic dishonesty, lecturers are providing favours for these young people not to commit those practices. Having been in the university for almost two decades, the author is aware of the wide diversity of social and cultural background these students come from. Being a university student requires one to ideally uphold righteousness to be successful both on paper and simultaneously



188

in ‘spirituality’ too. From the above picture, the author throughout her years of teaching

experience has always believed that apart from teaching and completing the syllabus, inculcation of good behaviour and moral values to strengthen ethics and integrity and developing the young people’s soft skills should be incorporated during teaching, no matter how tight class time is. This is not a research paper but a teaching experience which intends to be shared with other aspiring teachers/lecturers who believe that they play a small, if not, significant role to help students develop holistically.

And finally as a reminder to all Malaysians, if not all humankind, these

words of Father of the Indian Nation, M.K. Gandhi, should act as the bastion of survival in the journey of life towards excellence, glory and distinction:

If wealth is lost, nothing is lost If health is lost something is lost If character is lost, everything is lost. 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praises to the Almighty for giving this great opportunity in producing a paper which may just pass as academically attenuated. Endless gratitude goes to all my family members – my husband and five awesome children for ‘leaving me alone in preparing this paper’. Last but not least, to my academic inspirer for his guidance and belief, Prof Dr Hj Kamaruzaman Jusoff, and to my alma mater UPM for calling me for submission of the paper, my special thanks. REFERENCES [1] http://www.iim.com.my/v2/pin/eng/index.htm [2] http://www.fksg.utm.my/?q=kemahiran-insaniah-pelajar [3] http://en,wikipedia.org/wiki/Rukun_Negara [4] Ary Ginanjar Agustian (2005) The ESQ Way 165, Penerbit Arga, Jakarta,

Indonesia [5] Charanjit S Nee Gurcharn (2003) English for Occupational Purposes

Federal Publication Singapore [6] Dato Seri Mohd Najib Tun Abdul Razak (2005) “Reinventing the Future

Through Good Governance” Seminar on the National Integrity Plan 8 August 2005, Kuala Lumpur

[7] Huitt, W. (2004) Values Educational Psychology Interactive Valdosta State University

[8] Lim Peck Choo et al (2001) Mainstream English II Second Edition Pearson Education Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. Malaysia Yale Alumni Magazine January/February 2007



189

PERSEPSI PELAJAR TERHADAP AKTIVITI DI DALAM KELAS BAHASA ARAB: TINJAUAN DI USIM

LUBNA ABD RAHMAN WAN AZURA WAN AHMAD ARNIDA A.BAKAR Fakulti Pengajian Bahasa Utama Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, Bandar Baru Nilai, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]


ABSTRAK-Pengajaran dan pembelajaran (P&P) bahasa merupakan perkara asas di sesebuah institusi pengajian. Ini bermakna P&P bahasa tidak sepatutnya diabaikan sama sekali walaupun bahasa tersebut adalah bahasa ibunda. P&P bahasa memerlukan kepelbagaian aktiviti bagi merangsang minat pelajar, apatah lagi sekiranya bahasa yang dipelajari adalah bahasa asing. Antara aktiviti yang lazimnya dilakukan adalah lakonan, perbualan, debat dan menonton video. Kertas kerja ini meninjau persepsi pelajar terhadap aktiviti yang dilaksanakan di dalam kelas bahasa Arab di Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM) serta meninjau peranan aktiviti tersebut dalam menarik minat untuk mengikuti pembelajaran bahasa tersebut. Borang soal selidik dijadikan medium untuk memperolehi maklumat berkaitan tajuk ini. Responden kajian terdiri daripada 100 orang pelajar USIM yang mengikuti pembelajaran bahasa Arab. Kertas kerja ini diharap dapat memberi input berguna kepada para pendidik bahasa Arab dan membantu mereka meningkatkan mutu dan strategi pengajaran serta mempelbagaikan aktiviti di dalam kelas agar dapat membantu pelajar mengikuti pembelajaran bahasa Arab dengan penuh minat dan berkesan. Kata kunci: kepelbagaian aktiviti, merangsang minat, bahasa asing.

1.0 PENDAHULUAN

Pembelajaran bahasa terutamanya bahasa asing memerlukan pendekatan yang sesuai dan menarik agar pelajar tidak mudah merasa bosan dan menganggap bahasa tersebut susah dipelajari. Bahasa Arab, umpamanya, merupakan salah satu bahasa yang dianggap sukar untuk dikuasai oleh sesetengah pelajar. Oleh yang demikian, untuk menangani tanggapan negatif ini, guru-guru perlu berfikiran kreatif dan bersaing hebat untuk mewujudkan pelbagai bentuk tarikan yang menarik minat dan perhatian pelajar. Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa Arab ini memerlukan pendekatan yang sesuai dan betul serta bentuk penyampaian yang kreatif daripada pihak guru. Salah satu pendekatan yang boleh diketengahkan ialah mempelbagaikan aktiviti menarik di dalam kelas, bukan hanya melalui syarahan dan penyampaian satu hala.



190

Dalam hal ini, guru perlu mengaplikasikan kaedah ini iaitu melaksanakan pelbagai aktiviti di dalam kelas supaya proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran lebih memberansangkan, seterusnya merangsang pelajar untuk mengikuti subjek bahasa Arab dengan penuh ceria dan mudah. Pelbagai aktiviti boleh dilaksanakan, antaranya perbualan antara pelajar, pembentangan dalam kumpulan, lakonan, tayangan video, permainan bahasa dan sebagainya. Kertas kerja ini membincangkan aktiviti-aktiviti yang diadakan di dalam kelas bahasa Arab di USIM. Objektif kertas kerja ini adalah untuk meninjau persepsi pelajar USIM mengenai aktiviti di dalam kelas bahasa Arab dan melihat peranannya dalam meningkatkan minat pelajar terhadap pembelajaran bahasa Arab di universiti tersebut. Kertas kerja ini diharap dapat dijadikan panduan untuk penambahbaikan proses P&P bahasa Arab di USIM khasnya dan di institusi-institusi pendidikan lain di Malaysia amnya.

2.0 KEPENTINGAN AKTIVITI DI DALAM KELAS DALAM PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA ASING

Kelas merupakan tempat pertemuan antara guru dan pelajar di mana

aktiviti tertentu dijalankan untuk mewujudkan suasana pembelajaran. Dalam pembelajaran bahasa, guru dan pelajar kedua-duanya memainkan peranan untuk membentuk suasana pembelajaran yang memberansangkan. Pembelajaran bahasa berlaku sekiranya terdapat interaksi daripada kedua-dua pihak di dalam kelas iaitu guru dan pelajar. Walaupun, guru memainkan peranan utama untuk menggerakkan sesuatu pembelajaran di dalam kelas, namun hakikatnya kejayaan sebenar sesuatu pembelajaran bahasa di dalam kelas juga bergantung kepada kerjasama yang diberikan oleh pelajar. Dalam erti kata lain, proses P&P bahasa ini perlu disertai oleh semua pelajar dan bukannya guru sahaja. Hal ini kerana interaksi bukan hanya merupakan sesuatu yang seseorang individu lakukan terhadap orang lain, tetapi ia merupakan sesuatu yang dilakukan bersama (Allwright, D & Bailey, K.M, 1991). Pembelajaran bahasa memerlukan kemahiran dari pihak guru terutamanya dari segi kaedah penyampaian yang baik dan kreatif, pendekatan yang menarik dan mampu menarik minat dan perhatian pelajar. Bahasa memerlukan interaksi antara beberapa individu atau kumpulan tertentu kerana ia berfungsi dalam interaksi masyarakat atau budaya. Oleh itu, kaedah yang digunapakai di dalam kelas mestilah berteraskan kepada strategi sosiolinguistik dan tugasan komunikatif (Brown, H.D, 2000). Ini bermakna, dalam pembelajaran bahasa, guru perlu mewujudkan komunikasi atau interaksi dua hala iaiatu antara pelajar dan guru atau sesama pelajar sendiri, dan bukannya satu hala iaitu pihak guru sahaja yang memberi input manakala pelajar hanya menerimanya. Aktiviti di dalam kelas amat penting untuk menjana kemahiran pelajar dalam pembelajaran bahasa terutamanya bahasa asing. Aktiviti-aktiviti ini boleh membentuk satu kursus intensif jangka pendek bertujuan untuk menjadikan pelajar lebih fasih, memperkaya perbendaharaan kata mereka dan menjadikan suasana pembelajaran lebih ceria serta mempunyai banyak peluang untuk berinteraksi sesama sendiri. Aktiviti berbentuk komunikatif adalah lebih sesuai



191

diterapkan di dalam kelas pembelajaran bahasa. Dengan cara ini, ia menggalakkan pelajar mengemukakan pandangan, pengalaman selain membina keyakinan mereka untuk berinteraksi dalam bahasa tersebut (Lindstromberg, S, 1997). Dalam pembelajaran bahasa Arab, melaksanakan aktiviti di dalam kelas merupakan salah satu pendekatan yang perlu dititik beratkan oleh guru untuk menarik perhatian pelajar dan merangsang minat mereka terhadap bahasa tersebut. Dalam konteks Malaysia, untuk mempelajari bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa asing, penekanan diberikan kepada kemahiran berbahasa seperti petah bertutur, membaca dengan betul, menulis ayat dengan betul, mampu menghuraikan pendapat dan memberi rasioanal. Untuk mencapai matlamat ini pelbagai aktiviti menarik perlu diketengahkan untuk menarik minat pelajar mengikuti subjek bahasa Arab. Hal ini kerana ramai pelajar beranggapan bahawa bahasa Arab sukar dikuasai dan subjek tersebut susah untuk lulus dengan cemerlang (Zarina Kasbon, 2005). Justeru, guru perlu mengenengahkan kaedah yang boleh menjadikan pelajar mengikuti subjek bahasa Arab dengan penuh minat tanpa rasa jemu. Antara aktiviti yang boleh dilakukan di dalam kelas adalah seperti permainan bahasa. Dalam satu kajian yang dilakukan, menurut Zarina Kasbon (2005), permainan bahasa (al-lu’bah al--lughawiyyah) merupakan satu aktiviti yang diterima pakai dan boleh diaplikasikan oleh guru khususnya dalam tajuk yang agak sukar. Aktiviti ini terbukti berkesan kerana dapat mewujudkan pelajar yang aktif, menjana idea yang kreatif dan kritis, memupuk sifat berani tampil di khalayak ramai dan menimbulkan perasaan ingin bersaing sesama pelajar. Penemuan ini membuktikan bahawa aktiviti yang sesuai dan menarik mampu menjadikan pelajar menguasai bahasa Arab dengan lebih mudah dan memupuk minat mereka terhadap subjek tersebut. Contoh di atas jelas menunjukkan bahawa mempelajari bahasa Arab akan menjadi lebih berkesan dan bermakna sekiranya guru dapat melaksanakan aktiviti yang menarik dan sesuai. Pelajar merasakan pembelajaran bahasa ini menyeronokkan dan tidak membosankan. Sekiranya guru hanya menggunakan buku teks sahaja dalam proses P&P, sudah tentu suasana di dalam kelas tersebut akan menjadi hambar dan pelajar mudah merasa jemu dan akhirnya menjurus kepada tanggapan negatif terhadap pembelajaran bahasa Arab. Perkara seumpama ini perlu dielakkan oleh guru dengan mengadakan pelbagai aktiviti di dalam kelas agar pembelajaran ini sentiasa memberangsangkan dan mendorong pelajar untuk terus meminati dan mempelajari bahasa al-Quran ini.

3.0 METODE KAJIAN

Kajian ini melibatkan kaedah analisa data soal selidik. Untuk mendapatkan input mengenai aktiviti yang dijalankan di dalam kelas bahasa Arab dan keberkesanannya dalam meningkatkan minat pelajar dalam bahasa tersebut, penyelidik mengaplikasikan metode kuantitatif iaitu melalui borang soal selidik yang diedarkan secara rawak kepada 100 orang pelajar Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM) dari beberapa buah fakulti dan tahap pengajian yang berbeza. Para pelajar tersebut telah dan sedang mengikuti kursus-kursus



192

kemahiran bahasa Arab yang ditawarkan oleh oleh pihak universiti.

Soal selidik tersebut mengandungi 2 bahagian utama iaitu:

Bahagian pertama: Bahagian ini mengandungi maklumat peribadi responden dan latar belakang akademik mereka. Bahagian kedua: Bahagian ini mengandungi kenyataan dan soalan mengenai aktiviti di dalam kelas bahasa Arab. Ia merupakan persepsi pelajar terhadap aktiviti yang dijalankan di dalam kelas bahasa Arab. Selain dari itu, bahagian ini juga mengandungi cadangan pelajar untuk aktiviti bagi kelas bahasa Arab yang diikuti di USIM.

Analisis data dari borang soal selidik dilakukan menerusi proses taburan kekerapan (frequency distribution). Bahagian seterusnya merupakan analisis data yang diperolehi daripada responden serta dapatan kajian dan kesimpulan daripada analisa tersebut. 4.0 ANALISIS DATA DAN DAPATAN KAJIAN

4.1 Analisa data borang soal selidik

4.1.1 BAHAGIAN PERTAMA:

Responden terdiri daripada 24 orang pelajar lelaki dan 76 orang pelajar

perempuan dari empat buah fakulti iaitu Fakulti Pengajian Bahasa Utama (FPBU), Fakulti Syariah dan Undang-undang (FSU), Fakulti Quran dan Sunnah (FPQS) dan Fakulti Kepimpinan dan Pengurusan (FKP). Taburan kekerapan pelajar tersebut mengikut fakulti adalah seperti berikut: Jadual 1 Bilangan pelajar mengikut fakulti Frekuensi Peratus

FPBU 21 21 FSU 21 21 FPQS 35 35 FKP 23 23 Jumlah 100 100.0

49 orang daripada mereka merupakan pelajar tahun satu, manakala 50 orang lagi pelajar tahun dua dan hanya seorang pelajar tahun tiga. Majoriti daripada responden iaitu seramai 70 orang (70%) mempunyai pengalaman mempelajari bahasa Arab antara 6-10 tahun. Ini bermakna kebanyakan mereka telah mula didedahkan dengan bahasa Arab semenjak di peringkat menengah lagi.

4.1.2 BAHAGIAN KEDUA

Dalam bahagian ini, penyelidik mendapati bahawa majoriti besar responden -iaitu seramai 97 orang- bersetuju bahawa aktiviti di dalam kelas bahasa Arab perlu dipelbagaikan untuk menarik minat pelajar.



193

Selain daripada itu, berikut adalah analisis data yang diperolehi:

Jadual 2 Guru kelas b.Arab mempelbagaikan aktiviti di dalam kelas

Frekuensi Peratus

Ya 80 80 Tidak 20 20 Jumlah 100 100.0

Pernyataan: Guru kelas bahasa Arab anda sekarang mempelbagaikan aktiviti di dalam kelas. Berdasarkan Jadual 2, didapati majoriti responden (80%) bersetuju dengan pernyataan di atas.Terdapat seramai 20 orang responden (20%) tidak bersetuju dengan pernyataan tersebut.

Jadual 3 Bentuk aktiviti yang sering dilakukan di dalam kelas

Frekuensi Peratus

Aktiviti berkumpulan 94 94 Tugasan individu 6 6 Jumlah 100 100.0 Soalan: Apakah bentuk aktiviti yang sering dilakukan di dalam kelas? Berdasarkan Jadual 3, didapati majoriti responden iaitu seramai 94 orang (94%) menyatakan bahawa bentuk aktiviti yang sering dilakukan di dalam kelas bahasa Arab adalah aktiviti berkumpulan, manakala 6 orang responden lagi menyatakan bahawa bentuk aktiviti yang sering dilakukan adalah tugasan individu.

Jadual 4 Aktiviti berkumpulan yang sering dilakukan di dalam kelas

Frekuensi Peratus

Perbualan 33 33 Lakonan 17 17 Kuiz 8 8 Debat 2 2 Tayangan video 4 4 Aktiviti mendengar kaset/CD 3 3 Perbincangan dalam kump mengenai tajuk yang dipelajari

90 90

Penyampaian cerita 9 9 Pidato 0 0 Aktiviti lain 0 0 Pernyataan: Nyatakan aktiviti berkumpulan yang sering dilakukan di dalam kelas bahasa Arab anda. Jadual 4 menunjukkan bahawa taburan kekerapan aktiviti berkumpulan yang sering dilakukan di dalam kelas bahasa Arab responden. Didapati daripada jadual di atas bahawa perbincangan di dalam kumplan mengenai tajuk yang dipelajari merupakan aktiviti yang paling banyak dilakukan di dalam kelas tersebut iaitu 90%. Manakala aktiviti yang paling kurang dilakukan di dalam kelas adalah debat (2%), mendengar kaset atau CD Arab (3%) dan



194

tayangan video (4%). Jadual 5 Aktiviti tersebut mampu meningkatkan minat

Frekuensi Peratus

Ya 94 94 Tidak 6 6 Jumlah 100 100.0 Soalan: Pada pendapat anda, adakah aktiviti berkumpulan tersebut mampu meningkatkan minat anda terhadap bahasa Arab? Dalam Jadual 5, sebahagian besar responden iaitu seramai 94 orang (94%) mengiakan pernyataan di atas. Manakala 6 orang responden (6%) menidakkan pernyataan tersebut. Ini menunjukkan bahawa aktiviti di dalam kelas memainkan peranan yang besar dalam meningkatkan minat pelajar terhadap bahasa tersebut.

Jadual 6 Aktiviti tersebut berkesan meningkatkan kemahiran b.Arab

Frekuensi Peratus

Ya 89 89 Tidak 11 11 Jumlah 100 100.0 Soalan: Pada pendapat anda, adakah aktiviti ini berkesan untuk meningkatkan kemahiran bahasa Arab anda. Berdasarkan Jadual 6, didapati sebilangan responden iaitu seramai 89 orang (89%) menyatakan (Ya), manakala 11 orang responden lagi (11%) menyatakan (Tidak). Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa aktiviti di dalam kelas mampu meningkatkan minat pelajar terhadap pembelajaran bahasa Arab.

Jadual 7 Minat terhadap b.Arab bertambah setelah memasuki USIM

Frekuensi Peratus

Ya 88 88 Tidak 12 12 Jumlah 100 100.0 Pernyataan: Minat anda terhadap bahasa Arab bertambah selepas anda mengikuti pembelajaran bahasa Arab di USIM. Berdasarkan Jadual 7, majoriti responden (24%) mengiakan pernyataan tersebut, manakala 12% daripada mereka menidakkan pernyataan tersebut. Perkara ini menjelaskan bahawa kaedah pengajaran yang digunapakai di USIM berkesan menambah minat pelajar terhadap bahasa Arab. Namun para responden yang menyatakan (Ya) memberikan sebab berlainan bertambahnya minat mereka terhadap bahasa tersebut seperti yang ditujukkan di dalam jadual 8 di bawah:

Jadual 8



195

Sebab utama minat bertambah Frekuensi Peratus

Banyak aktiviti dilakukan dlm kelas 30 30 Penggunaan teknologi pengajaran yang berkesan

12 12

Kandungan silibus yang menarik 11 11 Pendekatan guru yang menarik 51 51 Sebab lain 2 2 Berdasarkan Jadual 8, didapati majoriti responden iaitu seramai 51 orang responden menyatakan bahawa minat mereka terhadap bahasa Arab bertambah disebabkan pendekatan guru yang menarik. Ini diikuti dengan aktiviti yang dilakukan di dalam kelas (30%), Penggunaan teknologi pengajaran yang berkesan (12%) dan kandungan silibus yang menarik (11%). Jadual 9 Aktiviti di dalam kelas faktor dominan Frekuensi Peratus

Ya 75 75 Tidak 25 25 Jumlah 100 100.0 Soalan: Pada pendapat anda, adakah aktiviti di dalam kelas merupakan faktor dominan (utama) yang membantu meningkatkan prestasi bahasa Arab anda di USIM? Merujuk kepada Jadual 9, didapati seramai 75 orang responden (75%) menyatakan bahawa aktiviti di dalam kelas merupakan faktor dominan yang membantu meningkatkan prestasi bahasa Arab mereka, manakala 25 orang responden lagi menidakkan soalan tersebut. Bagi responden yang menyatakan (tidak), mereka berpendapat bahawa terdapat faktor lain yang menjadi faktor utama perkara di atas, antaranya persekitaran atau biah Arabiyyah (15%), pendekatan guru (9%) dan subjek yang ditawarkan (1%). Jadual 10 Aktiviti berkumpulan yang sering dilakukan di dalam kelas

Frekuensi Peratus

Perbualan 29 29 Lakonan 25 25 Kuiz 7 7 Debat 7 7 Tayangan video 12 12 Aktiviti mendengar kaset/CD 5 5 Perbincangan dalam kump mengenai tajuk yang dipelajari

38 38

Penyampaian cerita 4 4 Pidato 0 0 Aktiviti lain 1 1 Soalan: Apakah aktiviti yang paling anda sukai di dalam kelas bahasa Arab. Berdasarkan Jadual 10, didapati bahawa perbincangan di dalam kumpulan mengenai tajuk yang dipelajari (38%) merupakan salah satu aktiviti yang paling mereka sukai, diikuti dengan perbualan (29%) dan lakonan (25%). Aktiviti seperti



196

penyampaian cerita (4%) dan mendengar kaset atau CD Arab (5%) pula kurang digemari pelajar.

4.2 Dapatan kajian dan kesimpulan

Daripada analisis di atas, didapati bahawa kepelbagaian aktiviti yang dijalankan di dalam kelas memainkan peranan yang besar untuk menarik minat pelajar mengikuti pembelajaran bahasa Arab. Aktiviti yang dilakukan dapat mengelakkan pelajar merasa bosan atau merasakan bahawa bahasa Arab itu susah. Tinjauan ini mendapati bahawa terdapat juga pensyarah yang tidak mempelbagaikan aktiviti di dalam kelas bahasa Arab yang dibimbing. Hal ini boleh akan menyebabkan pembelajaran bahasa tersebut tidak menyeronokkan, sekaligus menimbulkan kebosanan dan tidak merangsang minat pelajar untuk mengikuti pembelajaran mereka di dalam kelas.

Berdasarkan kepada tinjauan ini, bentuk aktiviti yang sering

dilakukan di dalam kelas bahasa Arab di universiti ini adalah aktiviti berkumpulan. Hanya sedikit sahaja tugasan individu yang diberikan kepada pelajar. Ini menunjukkan bahawa guru atau pensyarah lebih gemar menggunakan bentuk aktiviti ini di dalam kelas berbanding memberikan tugasan kepada setiap pelajar. Hal ini boleh meransang minat pelajar terhadap pembelajaran kerana pelajar lebih gemar berbincang dengan rakan-rakan daripada melakukan tugasan secara individu.

Daripada tinjauan ini juga, didapati guru atau pensyarah USIM

lebih cenderung melakukan perbincangan di dalam kumpulan mengenai tajuk yang dipelajari seperti menjawab soalan kefahaman, membina ayat dan mencari makna sesuatu perkataan. Pelajar dipecahkan kepada beberapa kumpulan dan diminta membincangkan jawapan bagi soalan-soalan di dalam buku teks. Terdapat juga guru yang meminta pelajar mengadakan sesi perbualan (hiwar) atau lakonan di dalam kelas. Aktiviti-aktiviti lain amat kurang dilaksanakan di dalam kelas. Ini menunjukkan bahawa terdapat guru yang kurang mempelbagaikan aktiviti di dalam kelas.

Ramai pelajar berpendapat bahawa aktiviti-aktiviti yang

diadakan di dalam kelas mampu meningkatkan minat mereka terhadap bahasa Arab. Selain daripada itu, ia juga boleh meningkatkan kemahiran bahasa Arab mereka. Tinjauan ini juga mendapati bahawa majoriti pelajar berpendapat bahawa minat mereka terhadap bahasa Arab semakin bertambah selepas mengikuti pembelajaran di USIM. Hal ini disebabkan oleh beberapa faktor antaranya pendekatan guru yang menarik dan aktiviti yang banyak dilakukan di dalam kelas. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa guru memainkan peranan yang penting untuk menarik minat pelajar. Tidak dinafikan juga bahawa aktiviti yang banyak di dalam kelas turut menyumbang kepada percambahan dan pertambahan minat pelajar terhadap pembelajaran bahasa ini. Malah sebahagian besar pelajar berpendapat bahawa mengadakan pelbagai



197

aktiviti di dalam kelas menjadi faktor utama yang membantu meningkatkan prestasi bahasa Arab mereka di USIM. Faktor lain yang turut diketengahkan mereka adalah persekitaran (biah Arabiyyah) dan pendekatan guru yang menarik. Persekitaran universiti yang menitik beratkan penggunaan bahasa ini sememangnya membantu memupuk minat pelajar terhadap bahasa Arab.

Tinjauan ini mendapati bahawa aktiviti di dalam kelas yang

paling pelajar sukai ialah perbincangan di dalam kumpulan mengenai tajuk yang dipelajari. Aktiviti lain yang paling mereka sukai adalah perbualan dan lakonan. Ketiga-tiga aktiviti ini perlu dilakukan secara berkumpulan. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa pelajar gemar melakukan sesuatu tugasan secara berkumpulan. Perkara ini dapat membina sikap kerjasama pelajar dalam pembelajaran di samping mewujudkan interaksi antara mereka dalam bahasa tersebut di dalam kelas.

Seperti yang telah dinyatakan, guru atau pensyarah bahasa

Arab di USIM lebih gemar mengadakan aktiviti perbincangan mengenai tajuk yang dipelajari. Oleh yang demikian, terdapat pelajar yang memberikan cadangan agar memperbanyakkan aktiviti di dalam kelas seperti tayangan video, kuiz, drama, permainan bahasa dan juga pembentangan secara individu. Cadangan seumpama ini wajar dipertimbang dan diambil berat oleh guru yang membimbing mereka. Tayangan video umpamanya, boleh disertakan dengan kuiz untuk menguji kefahaman pelajar terhadap filem Arab yang ditonton. Secara tidak langsung, pelajar akan terus merasa teruja setiap kali mengikuti kelas tersebut.

Secara kesimpulannya, tinjauan ini mendapati bahawa

menjalankan pelbagai aktiviti di dalam kelas bahasa Arab mampu menarik minat pelajar mengikuti pembelajaran bahasa ini. Sekiranya minat pelajar dapat dipupuk, secara tidak langsung ia akan meningkatkan prestasi mereka dalam kursus bahasa yang diikuti. Selain daripada itu, pendekatan guru yang menarik disertai dengan dengan pelbagai aktiviti yang sesuai juga mampu merangsang minat pelajar dan mengelakkan mereka merasa jemu dan bosan terhadap bahasa Arab.

PENUTUP

Para guru dan pensyarah perlu sentiasa mencari pendekatan pengajaran yang memberi kesan positif dalam pembelajaran pelajar. Pelbagai pendekatan boleh diaplikasikan mengikut kesesuaian sifat subjek yang dipelajari. Antara pendekatan tersebut adalah mempelbagaikan aktiviti di dalam kelas yang mampu menarik minat pelajar dan meningkatkan kemahiran bahasa mereka. Dalam tinjauan ini, penyelidik mendapati bahawa kepelbagaian aktiviti yang dilakukan di dalam kelas memainkan peranan yang penting untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut. Guru yang hanya menggunakan kaedah “talk and chalk” boleh melemahkan semangat pelajar dan mengurangkan minat mereka terhadap bahasa Arab, sekaligus menyemai tanggapan yang negatif dalam diri pelajar terhadap pembelajaran bahasa tersebut.



198

Dalam bidang bahasa, khususnya dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa Arab, kerap melakukan pelbagai aktiviti di dalam kelas dilihat sebagai satu kaedah yang efektif untuk membantu pelajar menggarap kemahiran berbahasa mereka. Melalui pendekatan ini, minat dan prestasi pelajar dapat dirangsang dan dipertingkatkan. Aktiviti yang lazimnya dilakukan di dalam kumpulan dapat menjadikan pembelajaran bahasa Arab yang dianggap sukar oleh pelajar lebih menarik dan tidak membosankan. Perbincangan dan interaksi sesama pelajar ini harus dipantau oleh guru agar mereka menggunakan bahasa Arab sepenuhnya. Hal ini menggalakkan komunikasi bahasa Arab sesama pelajar dan memupuk keyakinan mereka untuk menggunakan bahasa tersebut. Pendekatan ini dilihat mampu menjadikan suasana kelas lebih ceria dan menggembirakan. Justeru, adalah wajar bagi pihak guru atau pensyarah melaksanakan pelbagai aktiviti menarik di dalam kelas dalam pengajaran bahasa Arab untuk membantu pelajar meningkatkan kemahiran bahasa Arab. Kesimpulannya, mood dan minat pelajar dalam pembelajaran bahasa dapat dipupuk dan disemai melalui aktiviti yang menarik di dalam kelas. Hakikatnya, sekiranya aktiviti di dalam kelas dapat dipelbagaikan ia sudah memadai untuk menggarap kemahiran pelajar dalam bahasa tersebut. Aktiviti di luar kelas hanya sebagai aktiviti sokongan untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut kerana pelajar universiti banyak meluangkan masa belajarnya di dalam kelas dan kampus berbanding di luar. RUJUKAN [1] Allwright, D & Bailey, K.M. 1991. Focus on the language classroom.

United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. [2] Brown, H.D. 2000. Principles of language learning and teaching. New

York: Pearson Education. Lindstromberg, S. 1997. The standby book: Activities for the language

classroom. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. [4] Zarina Kasbon . 2005. Meningkatkan pemahaman pelajar dalam tajuk

Jamak taksir melalui kaedah lu’batul-lughawiah (permainan bahasa). Dicapai pada 10 Oktober 2007 dari http://apps.emoe.gov.my/jpnperak/kajian/2005/laporan/bahasa/7_hilir_perak_bahasa_arab_zarina_kasbon.pdf



199

WRITING A CASE AS A TEACHING TOOL.

ZAINAL ABIDIN MOHAMED,

Management and Marketing Department, Universiti Putra Malaysia, E-mail: [email protected]


ABSTRACT - The use of cases has been recognised as an effective mode of imparting knowledge. The effectiveness of this impartation process will not only depend on the lecturer (style, confidence, knowledge, experiences, and many more) but also on the quality of the case itself. Of course it requires that the case must meet the necessary qualities that enable it to impart the knowledge that it meant to deliver. Academicians, having gone through the process of writing umpteen times of lecture notes and seminar papers who strongly believe that writing a case would be another of those routine chores then they are in for some surprises. This paper will discuss and share some of the common defaults that academicians (not familiar with the art of case writing), make in writing a case. A short case sample will be used for illustrations. Keywords: heuristic

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The theme of this conference is towards increasing the quality of human capital through the improvement of the overall teaching and learning system in Institutes of Higher Learning. While there are several modes and types of pedagogy that have been identified as possible tools for effective impartation of knowledge, it all boils down to only a few key critical components namely the highly motivated recipient, the knowledge imparter, the effective methodology, the valuable content and the conducive environment. If all these five components are at its optimum, then theoretically the teaching and learning process will be at its best. Cases have now been used increasingly to satisfy several of the said components. The use of cases in making the teaching and learning process effective has been deliberated many times and its effectiveness has also been subjected to quite a number of factors. On one extreme is its extensive use by



200

Harvard Business School and on the other, not even a single case is used. The latter would be more of “no suitable cases” and/or no skill facilitator to conduct a case method. Between these two, the former need to be initiated first and once readily available, the facilitators can be trained and coached.

This paper looks at the need for making available a large pool of local cases that could be selected by personnel to be used during the training sessions. Now that many are aware of the value of student-centred learning as well as problem-based learning, then using a case as a problem based or student-centred material is definitely an appropriate choice. 2.0 THERE ARE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WRITING A CASE AS A

REPORT/THESIS AND FOR TRAINING PURPOSES.

Many of us have written cases before but perhaps under a different objective. Perhaps many write cases in the form of a report because of an official visit, or as a result of a research being done on the company or agency, a report on students doing practical training or attachment, part of a thesis to apply certain findings of models on the said agency or as a result of an advisory/consultancy engagement. These are definitely reports in the form of a case because as defined, a case report is confined within the boundary of the said entity (company). So the report needs to contain all the required facts and analysis describing the entity and the work done as well as recommendations made on it.

This particular case is not yet a case written to be used for training purposes which is the concern and purpose of this paper.

To write a case for training purpose require additional efforts and an available case document or material written for the above purpose (report form) could be a good starting point. Basically the source of data is already available and they need to be scrutinised for its relevancy for training. There are two basic pathways to begin writing a case for training purposes. They are as explained below:

2.1 From an Existing Available Document as a Result of a Research (thesis) findings or a Written Report as a Result of an Advisory Work or Visit.

If the writer of the report himself is the one that wants to write a

case as a teaching tool, then this will be most appropriate as he is aware of all the content that was written and therefore would know what is available (in the document) or not (in his tacit knowledge form as he might not have written all the facts that he already know). Converting the document into a training material form would then be easier. The subsequent steps to follow will then be as follows:

a. Identify the knowledge that can be imparted on the trainee

based from the facts available in the document.



201

b. Are all the required facts necessary for the learning process available in the document? If no then effort need to be made by the writer to get the extra information to be incorporated into the document.

c. There need to be made clear an issue(s) or problem(s) that

will result in the trainee having to mine all the relevant information in the document to come up with specific recommendations in overcoming the issue(s) or problem(s).

d. Remove all analysis and recommendations made by the

author in the document if that is what we want the trainee to do.

2.2 If the Case Writer is not the Original Writer of the Document.

Then he has to make sure that all the facts that are necessary for the knowledge/skill acquisition by the trainee are available in the document. If not than he has to search and gather the required information from the company in study. If the original author is around then this can be done easily; if not then the whole process of getting connected and in communication, acquaintance, visits and recording the data and filling in the gaps need to be done. The above (a, b, c and d) steps can then be applied. 2.3 Starting from zero information.

This is the common mode and the most difficult where the writer has to start from zero. Then he needs to follow the following procedures:

a. what knowledge/principles/theory/skills/concepts that he wants the trainee to acquire out of the case.

b. Identify the kinds of data that are necessary for the trainee to comprehend and analyse and come up with a solution,

c. Identify where are the possible agencies that he believe could have these information and where he can have access to (his networking, alumni, friend, acquaintances, and permission to write about.

Thus basically for training purpose, the solution and the analysis need to be removed as that is what the trainee needs to acquire. The fact that the case document as in 2.1 and 2.2 have already been analysed indicate that the case is solvable.

But for the case of 2.3 the case then need to be tested as whether the principle/knowledge/skill to be acquired by the trainee can actually be realised and this can only be done if the case is solved and solved as required by the author. A sure litmus test is if the case is given to a few trainees and all of them were able to solve the case and come up with similar solutions.



202

3.0 MAIN CRITERIA OF A GOOD CASE.

The criteria of a good case are that it meets the expectation of the user (lecturer/trainer) and succeed in imparting the knowledge to the trainees. There are so many criteria that could be listed down and are almost similar to any document that is to be used for training purposes. These include:

a. Language is understandable and therefore the case is

comprehensible. Again this depends on the level of the trainees (first or final year undergraduate or graduate students or matured executives). Thus depending on the level, jargons, difficult and technical phrases need to be appropriately used and if necessary explanation provided to remove the possible varied interpretation.

b. All cases are written in the past tense. Since cases are written

based on the facts gathered in the past then the moment it is written, it is history. Imagine that the case is written today and yes it is true that all the facts are current but if it is printed and used a year from today then all the facts already history. The CEO might not be the same anymore. A specific time or date need to be embedded in the case to indicate the period when the case was written.

Present tense can only be used if there are direct speeches.

c. Length of the case must also be appropriate depending on the objective of the writer and the trainer. If the trainer have got no say on the length than he has to provide the appropriate time for the effective use of the case.

d. Level of difficulty and complexity is also a criterion and again it

must be appropriate for the occasion. If it is meant for the matured students (3rd year) then the level of complexity is expected to be higher.

e. Problems are embedded in the case for the trainee to identify and

solve. How the problem is to be laid down is also at the prerogative of the writer and target audience that he has in mind. A straight forward problem clearly laid down is meant for first level students as compared to a more sophisticated problem not clearly identified and hidden in the text? (As in CSI! Crime Scene Investigations).

f. There are several alternative solutions possible depending on the

angle that the trainees look from or from the models used to analyse the situation. This would qualify to be a good one as a single solution case is not encouraged. In fact the latter is also classified as a mathematical problem and not a case if all the trainees can come up with the same answer.



203

4.0 OTHER CRITERIA TO BE CONSIDERED. There are still several other criteria that can be considered but are contingent on several other factors. These are

a. Is the case interesting? b. Is it challenging? c. Is the level of realism high? d. What is going on here? e. Is there a problem at all? f. What precisely is the problem? g. What has caused it? h. Are we looking at causes or symptoms? i. What are the main issues? j. Why are these issues important? k. Whose problem is it? l. What precisely are his objectives? m. What should he try to do now? n. What possible courses of action are open? o. How realistic is each of the actions/solutions proposed? p. What are their possible effects?

5.0 THE DATA COLLECTION PROCESS.

Briefly, the process of gathering the data can be done in 5 steps:

5.1 Select the Type of Problem and the Enterprise from which the Material will be Obtained

The type of case required will normally determine the kind of enterprise in which to seek the material. Within this range, it is preferable to select an organisation in which the case-writer is already known and accepted, particularly when it may be necessary to dig deep and to obtain confidential data.

There is some evidence that mature students in particular learn more from problem situations in industries other then their own. While they may be more interested and find it easier to deal with a case written about a problem in a familiar environment, students often display ‘blind’ spots working with such material; consequently, learning is slowed down.

5.2 Observe and collect the data

The fundamental need is for objectivity. By the time you start collecting data, you know what you want. Once you get into the collecting process, you will almost certainly find that the facts vary from any preconceived pattern you may have formed. In fact, you may find that the data will not serve as useful teaching material in the



204

area you had envisaged, but could be valuable in another area. Irrespective of such findings, the facts, situations and events must be observed and recorded objectively and as completely as the situations. They must not be forced to fit your anticipations.

A good case is well documented and contains all the information which is available to the executive concerned. Accordingly, the case writer must make detailed notes and collect statistics, operating statements and other exhibits containing information about the organisation he is studying. In some situations the case writer may include some data which, in his opinion, is somewhat irrelevant.

It is, of course, impossible to observe and record a total picture, even if you are on the spot as the events happen. (If you are in this last happy position, try to record as many of the facts as possible immediately afterwards and before the abstraction process commences in you own memory system). The general rule is, within the practical limitation, make notes or collect exhibits of every situation or event bearing on the case and then arranges these in a logical structure and order for examination and selection before writing the case.

5.3 Write the Case Within the above, and once you have obtained permission to prepare the case from the appropriate executive, the following notes may assist:

a. Select the detail: you originally set out to write the case for a particular purpose. Clarify your objective in relation to the particular purpose or purposes for which you wish to use the case;

b. Have a “prologue section” the first few sentences should enable the student to grasp the main issue of the case usually in the form of a critical incident so much so that there is a need to act quickly within a short time and by somebody clearly identified.

c. Write in the past tense: if your case is a useful one, it is likely to be used over

a long period. d. Decide on disguises: Malaysians are reluctant to have the

mistakes that they and their colleagues made be exposed to others. Thus more often than not the personnel through whom the data were obtained would not like to have their real name mentioned in the case. Thus names and agencies or even location might need to be disguised but it is usually better to develop your case to the final draft stage using the real names, places and figures. It is essential that alterations made in the interest of disguise shall not alter the basic facts and relationships. Large changes of scale are particularly dangerous (as in the case to disguise the financial statements). For similar reasons, changes in the type industry or product should be avoided unless use of the real one would break the disguise. If



205

such changes are made, the replacements must be selected with great care so that essential relationships are not destroyed.

5.4 Clear the Case

It is ethical that changes and disguises be cleared with the appropriate executive of the enterprise concerned. Using true names and figures would be more appreciated by the trainees but getting clearance is advisable.

5.5 Confirm the Usefulness of the Case as Teaching Material

This can be done by testing the case initially amongst colleagues but more valuable is to give it a trial run amongst trainees and the following considered:

- correct visualisation of the broad picture and understanding of the details by students;

- data which could be omitted without reducing effective teaching, or data which should be added (re-clearing the case as required);

- subject matter which should be discussed prior to or following the case;

- improved methods of conducting the case; more or less time in preparation or discussion, the desirability of syndicate work, the need for charts or diagrams, etc.

5.6 Prepare Teaching Guides for the Potential Trainers.

Finally, the case writer and case leader (preferably the same person) should prepare “leader’s notes” which will guide others who wish to use the material in the future.

6.0 COMMON REASONS/EXCUSUES FOR NOT WRITING CASES FOR TRAINING

In December 2007, a short and simple survey was done on 80 lecturers in three well- established universities at Klang Valley. Only 59 questionnaires were returned and from the results shown a lot more need to be done in promoting the writing of cases. Once the number of qualified writers increased then the number of cases can be expected to increase if there are enough incentives and rewards in place. But the fact still remain that the number of qualified writers is still very small. Table 1: Reasons for not Writing Cases No REASONS FOR NOT WANTING TO WRITE CASES FOR TRAININ

G. %

1 Difficult to have access to data about the companies 78 2 Have no experience to write cases 62 3 Not trained to write cases 60 4 Not sure about the quality of cases that have been written 60



206

5 Academic value not as high as journal article 60 6 Difficult to get research funding 56 7 Not strong in the use of the English language 56 8 The number of case writers is small to form a working team 54 9 Do not know where to publish 54 10 Not many companies know about case writing 54 11 Do not know how to get case writing trainers 48 12 Do not see how it can be commercialised 42 13 Not sure about the value of local cases when used in class as

compared to the textbook cases 42

14 No clear incentives to write cases from the university authorities 40 Perhaps the effectiveness of the use of cases in teaching need to be highlighted again. There are several methods suggested when trying to increase the soft skills of our graduates. One of them is the use of cases. Cases when used in training can help trainees increase the following:

a. comprehension skills b. critical thinking, c. time management, d. group work, e. team building, f. respect and recognise other member’s opinion, g. appreciate the real world situation, h. improve discussion skills i. delegation and empowerment if case is long, j. improve leadership qualities, k. improve presentation and public speaking l. it is a simulation of a kind and thus is almost real and more

interesting 7. CLOSINGREMARKS

There are still a few more things that need to be said about writing cases as a teaching tool. but because of the space and time constraints, the following table would suffice. Academically, some local universities have given case writing a boost when it is recognised as a research, included as part of the university’s KPI, and recognised as an academic activity. Hopefully, more will be attracted to write cases as there are Annual case writing competition organised by the Case Writer’s Association of Malaysia, there are journals specifically for cases in Singapore and Hong Kong (and one coming soon in Malaysia) and Annual Case Conferences organised by NACRA (North American Case Writers Association).



207

Table 2: CASE DIFFICULTY MATRIX

Case Types: A1, C1, P1 - simplest type. A3, C3, P3 - most difficult type. Source: Economic Development Institute APPENDIX A: Extracts from the Economic Development Institute training material) 1. CASE CLASSIFICATION:

The Economic Development Institute (EDI) has classified cases into 5

Level of Difficulty

Simple to Complex

Dimensions Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Problem clarity Analytical (A)

Here is the problem, Here is the situation. A1

Here is the problem, Give a reasonable solution. A2

Here is the situation: What are the problems? What are the solutions? A3

Conceptual (Tools) (C)

Students will understand the concept on their own. C1

Students may require further clarifications through class discussion and may need repetition for reinforcement. C2

Involves a combination of concepts or a single difficult concept with requires repeated effort to students to understand. This also requires time in class. C3

Presentation Simplicity (P)

All relevant information is nicely organized and presented in a straightforward manner. P1

Involves a mix-up of information where some data is left out, and other irrelevant information is added. P2

Involves a large amount of extraneous information and may be less organized. P3



208

different categories. They are:

a) Qualitative b) Quantitative c) Simulation d) Critical Incidents e) Multi Stage

2. THE THREE DIMENSIONS OF THE CASE STUDY1

These three dimensions or sometimes referred to as the “case difficulty cube (matrix)” is explained below:- A. The Analytical Dimension (Problem Clarity)

“What is the analytical task you wish the student to perform?” Level 1 -Here is the problem, here is the solution. Do you think the problem fits the solution? Are there some alternatives that might be considered? Level 2 -Here is a problem. Give me a reasonable solution. Level 3 -Here is situation. What are the problems? What are the solutions?.

B. The Conceptual Dimension “How difficult is the concept or problem I am trying to address? Is it simple and straight forward? What theory/concepts do students have to learn? Level 1 -Students will understand the concept on their own.

Level 2 -Students may require further clarification through class discussion and may need repetition for reinforcement.

Level 3 - Involves a combination of concepts or a single difficult concept which requires repeated effort to students understand. This also requires time in class.

C. The Presentation Dimension Level 1- All relevant information is nicely organized and presented in a straightforward manner.

Level 2- Involves a mix-up of information where some data is left out, and irrelevant information is added.

Level 3 -Involves a large amount of extraneous information and may be less organized. Normally a long case requiring extensive data sorting in preparation for analysis.

APPENDIX B: CRITERIA TO ASSESS THE QUALITY OF CASE STUDIES 1. GENERAL CHECKLIST

a. Clarity of the objective b. Easy to read and understand c. Depicts a realistic situation



209

d. Written in past tense e. Not too long (not more than 10 pages) unless the case is

written for a specific purpose, i.e. to illustrate a number of techniques in a sequential order. Multi-stage case studies may also be longer than the above limit.

g. It to be used for imparting some practical skills or teaching techniques in training sessions. h. Presents facts and figures in such a way that a logical analysis of the situation is facilitated. i. Free from typographical errors and factual inconsistencies. j. Contains opening and closing paragraphs which motivate the reader to read the case and work on it. k. Sets the sense of urgency about the problem or decision. l. Gives clues about the causes of the problem. m. Presents a set of questions which are related to the

objectives of the writer but can be adapted to meet the needs of users.

2. CRITERIA FOR AN OPENING PARAGRAPH1

a. Short and to point, introduce the nature of the issue of the case. b. Sets the scene for the reader in term of characters and their

roles. c. Establishes the context of where and when, and the

degree of urgency of the problem. d. Provides clues to the reader about the level of difficulty of

the case. e. Attracts the attention of the reader. f. The reader knows what he/she is expected to do.

3. CRITERIA FOR A CLOSING PARAGRAPH

1

a. Sets the sense of urgency about the problem or decision. b. Summarize the key issues implicity or explicitly. c. Leads the reader to think about the problem and solution. d. Presents a set of questions which are related to the objectives of

the writer but can be changed to meet the needs of the use. e. Does not close the case but opens the discussion.

4. CRITERIA FOR A WELL WRITTEN CASE STUDY

a. Well written, clear, easy to read and to understand. b. The objective of the case study is clear to the reader. c. A stimulating style which provides discussion and motivates the participant. d. The situation appears realistic with enough pertinent information to solve the problem. e. Serves as a vehicle to teach the subject, skills and/or techniques required for the specific session in a specific course.



210

f. Sometimes a case should be precisely ambiguous to reflect the diversity of real life.

g. Not too long for participant to read in one night (10 – 12 pages). APPENDIX C: EXMPLE OF A RELEASE CARD

UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

Case Release Card

Title of Case: __________________________________________________________

Prepared by: ___________________________________________________________

Gentlemen:

We have read and reviewed the above case study and hereby authorize its use for

teaching purposes in university classrooms, printed case books, and

management/supervisory development programs.

Signature: ______________________________

Position: _______________________________

Company: ______________________________

Date: __________________________________

Note: The above release authorizes the use of a CASE for all types of use.

Sources may authorize more restricted use, as “for classroom Use Only” in the

institution where the CASE was written, or may impose restrictions to be observed

for a stipulated period of time.

School or professors, too, may impose restriction for a time even though release by

the Source was not restrictive.

In any CASE, the exact nature of its permissible use should be indicated in the

Control records.



211

ANALISIS GAYA PEMBELAJARAN PELAJAR BARU

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA TERENGGANU

NUR AMIRAH AMIRUDDIN FAUZIAH ABU HASAN ABD AZIZ WAN MOHD AMIN

Pusat Penjaminan Kualiti Universiti Malaysia Terengganu [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]


ABSTRAK - Pembelajaran merupakan suatu proses yang berterusan bagi seorang pelajar. Terdapat tiga perkara yang menjadi ukuran kepelbagaian pelajar iaitu cara atau gaya belajar, pendekatan dan orientasi pembelajaran dan pembangunan intelektual (Felder: 2005) . Gaya pembelajaran adalah “ciri kognitif, afektif, dan psikologi kelakuan yang mempengaruhi bagaimana seorang pelajar melihat, berinteraksi bertindak balas terhadap persekitaran pembelajaran. Terdapat pelbagai gaya pembelajaran yang menjadi amalan pelajar. Gaya pembelajaran yang dipilih adalah berdasarkan keselesaan dan kesesuaian diri seseorang pelajar terbabit. Gaya belajar ini mungkin bertukar mengikut masa, contohnya gaya belajar yang digemari semasa pelajar di sekolah rendah mungkin berbeza apabila mereka berada di sekolah menengah atau di peringkat universiti. Gaya belajar juga secara tidak langsung memberi kesan kepada gaya pengajaran guru atau pensyarah. Oleh itu, kajian ini memfokuskan kepada taburan indeks gaya pembelajaran pelajar baru Universiti Malaysia Terengganu. Kajian ini menggunakan instrumen daripada model gaya pembelajaran Felder-Silverman ( Index Learning Style ). Secara keseluruhannya, pelajar baru UMT bagi dua sesi kemasukan iaitu Julai 2006/2007 dan Julai 2007/2008 mendominasi gaya pembelajaran jenis reflective, sensing, sequential dan visual .

1.0 PENGENALAN Universiti merupakan suatu medan untuk para pelajar menimba ilmu pengetahuan dan membina jati diri untuk berdaya saing dalam arus globalisasi. Manakala pelajar pula merupakan modal insan negara yang paling berharga di masa hadapan. Menyedari hakikat ini, kedua-dua pihak perlu bergerak seiring dan berganding bahu untuk mencapai matlamat yang sama dalam memenuhi aspirasi negara.



212

Pelajar yang baru melangkah ke alam menara gading ini terdiri daripada pelbagai lapisan sama ada lepasan SPM, STPM, Diploma atau Matrikulasi. Pelajar ber kemungkinan mengalami beberapa masalah terutama dalam menyesuaikan diri dengan situasi yang baru. Masalah yang paling ketara menghantui pelajar baru ialah penyesuaian kendiri dari aspek gaya pembelajaran. Gaya pembelajaran adalah “ciri kognitif, afektif, dan psikologi kelakuan yang mempengaruhi bagaimana seorang pelajar melihat, berinteraksi bertindak balas terhadap persekitaran pembelajaran. Terdapat pelbagai gaya pembelajaran yang menjadi amalan pelajar. Gaya pembelajaran yang dipilih berdasarkan keselesaan dan kesesuaian diri seseorang pelajar terbabit. Gaya belajar ini mungkin bertukar mengikut masa, contohnya gaya belajar yang digemari semasa pelajar di sekolah rendah mungkin berbeza apabila mereka berada di sekolah menengah atau di peringkat universiti. Gaya belajar juga secara tidak langsung memberi kesan kepada gaya pengajaran guru atau pensyarah. Didapati terdapat pelbagai instrumen yang telah dibina untuk mengenal pasti gaya pembelajaran. Antaranya ialah The Centre for Innovative Teaching Experience (CITE) Learning Style Instrument oleh Babich, Burdine, Allbright

& Randol (1975), Learning Style Inventory oleh Dunn, Dunn & Price (1975), Learning

Style Inventory oleh Renzulli & Smith (1978) dan Transaction Ability Inventory oleh

Gregorc (1979).

Di samping itu terdapat juga Indeks Gaya Pembelajaran Felder-Silverman yang telah digunakan dengan begitu meluas untuk tujuan penyelidikan. Indeks gaya pembelajaran (ILS) ini dibina oleh Richard M. Felder dan Barbara Soloman (koordinator penasihat First-Year College di North Carolina State University) yang terdiri daripada empat puluh empat (44) soalan yang mengklasifikasikan pelajar kepada empat daripada lima dimensi gaya pembelajaran Felder-Silverman. Empat dimensi tersebut ialah active/reflective, sensing/intuitive, sequential/global dan visual/verbal. Soalan soal selidik yang disediakan oleh Felder dan Soloman tidak mengambil kira dimensi organisasi (induktif/deduktif). Jadual 1 hingga 4 memberikan definisi dan ciri-ciri bagi dimensi tersebut. [8] dan [16].

Jadual 1 : Ciri-ciri Dimensi Aktif / Reflektif

AKTIF REFLEKTIF

Mengingat dan memahami maklumat dengan aksi - membincang, mengaplikasikan atau menerangkan

Memikirkan maklumat itu terlebih dahulu

Fasa kegemaran: "Biar kita cuba dulu dan lihat bagaimana ia beroperasi"

Fasa kegemaran: "Biar kita memikirkannya secara mendalam"

Suka kerja dalam kumpulan Suka kerja berseorangan

Jadual 2 : Ciri-ciri Dimensi Sensing/ Intuitive

SENSING INTUITIVE

Lebih realistik dan praktikal Lebih imaginatif dan abstrak Lebih bersabar dan tenang Suka cabaran baru dan kerja mengikut

mood Gunakan pengalaman dan kewarasan Mempercayai rasa hati (ikut diri



213

menurut kebiasaan sendiri) Suka rutin dan ketetapan Tidak suka rutin dan kerja-kerja teliti Lebih terfokus kepada perkara yang sebenar

Lebih terfokus kepada yang berpotensi dan yang mempunyai kemungkinan

Hidup di sini dan kini Hidup ke arah masa akan datang mengikut visi sendiri

Jadual 3 : Ciri-ciri Dimensi Visual/ Verbal

VISUAL VERBAL

Mengingati dengan baik maklumat yang berbentuk gambar, rajah, carta alir, filem dan demonstrasi

Mengingati dengan baik maklumat dalam bentuk penerangan - lisan dan secara bertulis.

Jadual 4 : Ciri-ciri Dimensi Sequential/ Global

SEQUENTIAL GLOBAL

Memahami sesuatu dalam turutan linear, satu langkah demi satu langkah secara logik. Setiap langkah dikaitkan dengan langkah yang seterusnya.

Belajar sesuatu mengikut gambaran yang luas dan rambang tanpa meneliti hubungan antara maklumat-maklumat.

Pelajar sequential biasanya menyelesaikan masalah dengan langkah-langkah yang sistematik dan logik.

Pelajar berkemungkinan menyelesaikan masalah rumit dengan cepat atau menyusun semula sesuatu dengan cara-cara baru tetapi menghadapi masalah menjelaskan bagaimana penyelesaian itu diperolehi.

Boleh bertindak berasaskan maklumat yang kecil dan terasing

Perlu mendapatkan gambaran menyeluruh sebelum memahami sesuatu dengan mendalam

2.0 KAJIAN INDEKS GAYA PEMBELAJARAN Sorotan karya menunjukkan Indeks Gaya Pembelajaran telah digunakan secara meluas kerana keupayaannya mengukur dengan efisen. Instrumen kajian telah diuji kesahan dan kebolehpercayaannya. Banyak kajian telah dijalankan dengan menggunakan instrumen tersebut, Antaranya ialah kajian ke atas 156 pelajar pelajar jurusan perniagaan di University of South Dakota, Vermillion. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti gaya pembelajaran pelajar terhadap subjek statistik di samping membantu pensyarah menyesuaikan gaya pengajaran mereka berpandukan analisis gaya pembelajaran tersebut. Hasil kajian menunjukkan kira-kira 90 orang pelajar dari sampel kajian yang memiliki gaya pembelajaran visual, aktif, sequential dan sensing [1], Di samping itu kajian juga yang telah dilaksanakan ke atas 129 pelajar jurusan Kejuruteraan di Universiti Iowa, menunjukkan 63% daripada responden kajian ialah pelajar yang aktif dan 67% memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis sensing. Dapatan S. Mongomery (1995) dalam Gian (1999) menunjukkan gaya sekumpulan pelajar yang dikaji oleh beliau menunjukkan 67% daripada pelajar



214

tersebut ialah pelajar aktif, 57% ialah pelajar sensing, 69% ialah pelajar visual dan 28% ialah pelajar global [4]. Keadaan yang sama juga berlaku pada 301 pelajar yang sedang mengikuti matapelajaran Bahasa Pengaturcaraan C bagi kursus Sarjana Muda Teknologi Maklumat di Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Hasil kajian mendapati kebanyakan pelajar mempunyai gabungan gaya pembelajaran daripada ciri aktif, sensing, visual dan sequential iaitu masing-masing dengan peratusan 72.8%, 60.9%, 92.8% dan 74.7%. Manakala bagi ciri reflektif, intuitif, verbal dan global masing-masing memperolehi 27.2%, 39.1%, 7.2% dan 25.3%. [10], Namun begitu bagi kajian yang telah dijalankan ke atas pelajar tahun satu jurusan kejuruteraan di Universiti Teknologi Malaysia , walaupun pelajar–pelajar memiliki gaya pembelajaran yang seimbang bagi gaya pembelajaran aktif dan reflektif serta gaya pembelajaran sequential dan global tetapi mereka kurang menguasai gaya pembelajaran jenis intuitif dan verbal berbanding gaya pembelajaran sensing dan visual [9],. Dalam masa yang sama juga, hasil kajian berkaitan telah menunjukkan hubungan gaya pembelajaran seseorang pelajar dengan bidang pengajian yang diikuti. Sebagai contoh pelajar jurusan sains makanan dan kejuruteraan memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis visual, sensing, active dan sequential [2], Manakala pelajar daripada fakulti pendidikan memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis visual yang lebih dominan berbanding pelajar jurusan seni [6] Dapatan kajian oleh Lopes (2002) dalam R. Felder(2005) juga menunjukkan pelajar daripada jurusan sains memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis active, sensing, visual dan sequential berbanding pelajar jurusan sains kemanusiaan. Pelajar daripada jurusan tersebut memiliki kecenderungan menguasai gaya pembelajaran jenis verbal [3]. Kajian–kajian terdahulu juga menunjukkan gaya pembelajaran pelajar akan mempengaruhi gaya pengajaran pensyarah. Ini dibuktikan oleh kajian yang pernah dijalankan ke atas pelajar dan pensyarah Michigan State University’s Construction Management Program. Hasil kajian mendapati wujud ketidakseimbangan gaya pembelajaran pelajar dengan gaya pengajaran pensyarah. Contohnya pensyarah suka menggunakan pendekatan pengajaran sehala tanpa mengambil inisiatif untuk merangsang minat dan kecenderungan pelajar agar wujud interaksi positif bagi kedua-dua pihak. Ini memberi kesan negatif kepada pelajar. Pelajar cepat merasa bosan dan jemu serta aktiviti pembelajaran menjadi kurang menyeronokkan [11]. 3.0 OBJEKTIF KAJIAN Di antara objektif utama kajian ini adalah:

1. Mengenal pasti gaya pembelajaran pelajar baru UMT secara keseluruhan

2. Mengenal pasti gaya pembelajaran pelajar baru mengikut fakulti.



215

4.0 METODOLOGI KAJIAN Kajian ini dijalankan ke atas semua pelajar baru yang mendaftar di UMT pada sesi pengajian Julai 2006/2007 dan sesi Julai 2007/2008. Pelajar-pelajar tersebut mengikuti pelbagai program yang ditawarkan daripada empat fakulti iaitu Fakulti Pengurusan dan Ekonomi (FPE), Fakulti Sains dan Teknologi (FST), Fakulti Agroteknologi dan Sains Makanan (FASM) dan Fakulti Pengajian Maritim dan Sains Marin (FMSM). Pelajar dikehendaki menjawab soal selidik yang mengandungi 44 soalan yang berkaitan dengan empat dimensi gaya pembelajaran Felder-Silverman. 5.0 HASIL KAJIAN Secara keseluruhannya, pelajar baru yang mendaftar di UMT bagi sesi pengajian Julai 2006/2007 memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis reflective (67.8%), sensing (76.2%), sequential (72.4%), dan visual (88.5%). Situasi yang sama juga berlaku bagi pelajar baru kemasukan sesi Julai 2007/2008. Majoriti pelajar baru sesi tersebut memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis reflective (65%), sensing (76%), sequential (71%) dan visual (90%). Keadaan ini tidak menyokong beberapa kajian terdahulu yang menunjukkan majoriti pelajar memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis aktif [1][4][9] dan [10].

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200Reflective

Sensing

Sequential

Visual

Active

Intuitive

Global

Verbal

Julai 2006/2007

Julai 2007/2008

Rajah 1 : Gaya Pembelajaran pelajar baru UMT bagi sesi Julai 2006/2007 dan Julai 2007/2008 5.1 Analisis Gaya Pembelajaran Pelajar Baru Mengikut Fakulti Pelajar baru Fakulti Sains dan Teknologi (FST) bagi sesi

kemasukan Julai 2006/2007 lebih mendominasi gaya pembelajaran reflective (70.9%), intuitive (25.9%) dan global (29.2%) jika dibandingkan



216

dengan fakulti yang lain. Manakala bagi pelajar baru FST bagi sesi kemasukan Julai 2007/2008 pula hanya mendominasi gaya pembelajaran reflective (67%) berbanding pelajar dari fakulti yang lain.

Hasil kajian juga mendapati pelajar daripada Fakulti Pengurusan

Ekonomi (FPE) bagi sesi kemasukan Julai 2006/2007 memiliki gaya pembelajaran seperti sensing ( 78 %) dan verbal (14.3%). Keadaan yang sama juga berlaku bagi pelajar baru FPE bagi sesi Julai 2007/2008 yang lebih memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis sensing (82%), verbal (13%) dan sequential (74%) berbanding pelajar dari fakulti yang lain.

Manakala bagi pelajar Fakulti Agroteknologi dan Sains Makanan

(FASM) pada sesi kemasukan Julai 2006/2007, mereka lebih memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis visual (93%) berbanding fakulti lain. Pelajar baru FASM sesi Julai 2007/2008 juga mendominasi gaya pembelajaran jenis visual ( 93% ) di samping gaya pembelajaran jenis global (38%).

Daripada analisis yang telah dijalankan juga, didapati pelajar

daripada Fakulti Pengajian Maritim dan Sains Marin (FMSM) pada sesi kemasukan Julai 2006/2007, mendominasi gaya pembelajaran jenis sequential (74.6%) dan active (37.4%) berbanding fakulti lain. Namun begitu bagi pelajar baru sesi kemasukan Julai 2007/2008 memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis active (39%) dan intuitive (30%). (rujuk jadual 5 dan 6).

Hasil kajian ini menyokong dapatan kajian terdahulu yang

menunjukkan pelajar yang berlainan jurusan memiliki gaya pembelajaran yang berbeza di antara satu sama lain [2], [3] dan [6]. Bagi pelajar FST, FASM dan FMSM , didapati pelajar baru kurang memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis aktif. Ini bertentangan dengan dapatan kajian terdahulu yang merumuskan kepentingan pelajar jurusan sains dalam menguasai gaya pembelajaran jenis aktif. Namun begitu dapatan kajian bagi pelajar FPE menyokong kajian terdahulu yang menunjukkan yang pelajar jurusan sains sosial yang mendominasi gaya pembelajaran jenis sensing. Di samping itu dapatan daripada kajian terdahulu juga merumuskan pelajar jurusan sains mempunyai gaya pembelajaran yang lebih menjurus kepada aplikasi manakala pelajar daripada jurusan sains sosial memiliki gaya pembelajaran jenis konseptual [7]. Justeru itu perlu satu mekanisme yang sesuai dan menyeluruh bagi memastikan pelajar dapat menguasai gaya pembelajaran yang bersesuaian dengan bidang pengajian yang diikuti.



217

0

100

200

300

400

500Reflective

Sensing

Sequential

Visual

Active

Intuitive

Global

Verbal

Julai 2006/2007

Julai 2007/2008

Rajah 2 : Gaya Pembelajaran Pelajar Fakulti Sains Dan Teknologi Bagi Sesi

Julai 2006/2007 dan Julai 2007/2008

0

100

200

300

400Reflective

Sensing

Sequential

Visual

Active

Intuitive

Global

Verbal

Julai 2006/2007

Julai 2007/2008

Rajah 3 : Gaya Pembelajaran Pelajar Fakulti Pengurusan Ekonomi bagi sesi

Julai 2006/2007 dan Julai 2007/



218

0

50

100

150

200

250Reflective

Sensing

Sequential

Visual

Active

Intuitive

Global

Verbal

Julai 2006/2007

Julai 2007/2008

Rajah 4 : Gaya Pembelajaran Pelajar Fakulti Agroteknologi Dan Sains Makanan bagi sesi Julai 2006/2007 dan Julai 2007/2008

0

50

100

150

200

250Reflective

Sensing

Sequential

Visual

Active

Intuitive

Global

Verbal

Julai 2006/2007

Julai 2007/2008

Rajah 5 : Gaya pembelajaran Pelajar Fakulti Pengajian Maritim dan Sains Marin bagi sesi Julai 2006/2007 dan sesi Julai 2007/2008 Jadual 5 : Analisis Gaya Pembelajaran Pelajar Bagi Sesi Julai 2006/2007 Mengikut Fakulti

Fakulti Active Reflective Sensing Intuitive Visual Verbal Sequential Global FST 29% 71% 74% 26% 87% 13% 71% 29%

FPE 33% 67% 78% 22% 86% 14% 74% 26% FASM 33% 67% 75% 25% 93% 7% 72% 28% FMSM 37% 63% 80% 20% 90% 10% 75% 25%



219

Jadual 6 : Analisis Gaya Pembelajaran Pelajar Bagi Sesi Julai 2007/2008 Mengikut Fakulti

Fakulti Active Reflective Sensing Intuitive Visual Verbal Sequential Global FST 33% 67% 75% 25% 92% 8% 71% 29%

FPE 34% 66% 82% 18% 87% 13% 74% 26% FASM 35% 65% 74% 26% 93% 7% 62% 38% FMSM 39% 61% 70% 30% 92% 8% 69% 31%

4.0 Kesimpulan Setiap individu mengamalkan gaya pembelajaran yang berbeza dan tersendiri. Gaya pembelajaran bergantung kepada ciri-ciri biologi dan perkembangan sahsiah pelajar. Ia juga dipengaruhi oleh persekitaran, emosi , pengaruh sosial serta perasaan individu. Kajian-kajian dalam bidang ini juga menunjukkan kepelbagaian gaya pembelajaran seseorang individu yang mempunyai kaitan dengan jurusan pengajian seseorang pelajar. Di samping itu juga, ramai penyelidik berpendapat gaya pembelajaran akan mempengaruhi gaya pengajaran pensyarah. Justeru itu menjadi satu keperluan kepada pensyarah untuk mengenal pasti gaya pembelajaran pelajar bagi memastikan proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran berada dalam suasana yang kondusif dan memberikan impak positif kepada dua-dua pihak terutama dalam meningkatkan pencapaian akademik pelajar. Berdasarkan dapatan kajian ini, beberapa cadangan dikemukakan :

i) Pihak universiti dan fakulti perlu mempunyai garis panduan khusus mengenai kemasukan pelajar agar gaya pembelajaran yang dimiliki oleh pelajar baru menepati kehendak kursus dan program yang ditawarkan.

ii) Pihak fakulti perlu memberi penekanan kepada pelajar untuk

menguasai gaya pembelajaran yang selari dengan keperluan kursus yang ditawarkan. Pelajar perlu diberi pendedahan mengenai kepentingan menguasai gaya pembelajaran yang sesuai kerana ia secara tidak langsung akan mempengaruhi pencapaian akademik mereka.

iii) Bagi Fakulti Sains dan Teknologi (FST), Fakulti Agroteknologi dan

Sains Makanan (FASM) dan Fakulti Pengajian Maritim dan Sains Marin (FMSM), pensyarah-pensyarah perlu membantu pelajar menguasai gaya pembelajaran aktif dengan menerapkan pembelajaran kolaboratif iaitu satu pendekatan yang melibatkan kumpulan atau pasukan pelajar. Ini disebabkan oleh bidang pengajian yang ditawarkan oleh fakulti berkenaan menekankan keperluan kepada pelajar untuk menjana pemikiran yang lebih kreatif dan inovatif.

iv) Bagi pelajar daripada Fakulti Pengurusan dan Ekonomi, mereka

juga perlu diberi penekanan gaya pembelajaran jenis verbal



220

sebagai keperluan dalam menguasai subjek yang ditawarkan di fakulti berkenaan. Walaubagaimanapun, menjadi satu kepentingan kepada pelajar untuk memiliki gaya pembelajaran yang seimbang untuk membolehkan mereka menyesuaikan diri dengan keperluan subjek yang diambil serta bidang pengajian yang diikuti.

v) Bahan-bahan pengajaran perlu disediakan lebih banyak dalam

bentuk visual (contohnya menggunakan aplikasi multimedia yang interaktif) berbanding penerangan secara lisan ( verbal).

vi) Gaya pengajaran pensyarah juga perlu mengambil kira keseimbangan di antara sensing dan intuitive. Sebagai contoh dalam menerangkan sesuatu teori atau model bagi sesuatu subjek, pensyarah perlu mempunyai kemampuan mengaitkannya dengan aplikasi harian yang lebih realistik.

vii) Pensyarah juga digalakkan menggabungkan gaya sequential dan

global dalam pengajaran. Contohnya, pensyarah memberikan penerangan dan definisi konsep sesuatu subjek secara satu persatu agar pelajar memahami kepentingan mempelajari subjek berkenaan. Manakala sewaktu sesi pengajaran pensyarah boleh menggunakan pendekatan secara global untuk merangsang daya berfikir kritis dan inovatif pelajar.

Kesuaian dan keserasian gaya pengajaran pensyarah dan gaya

pembelajaran pelajar secara tidak langsung akan membantu meningkatkan kecemerlangan akademik pelajar. Namun begitu, sekiranya pensyarah tidak mampu menukar gaya pengajarannya, mereka sepatutnya membantu pelajar mengadaptasikan diri dengan gaya tersebut. Ia amat penting terutama dalam usaha menjamin kemantapan kualiti akademik. RUJUKAN :

[1] Bijayananda Naik ( 2003) “Learning Styles of Business Students.”, Proceedings of the 2003 Annual Conference of the Decision Sciences Institute, Washington, D. C., November 22-26, 2003. (Presented at the conference) www.usd.edu/~bnaik/research/LEARN.pdf

[2] Enrique Palou (2006) Learning Styles of Mexican Food Science and Engineering Students Journal of Food Science EducationVolume 5 Issue 3 Page 51-57, July 2006

[3] Felder RM, Spurlin J (2005). Applications, reliability, and validity of the Index of Learning Styles©. International Journal of Engineering Education 21(1):103–112.



221

[4] Gian Kah How (1999) Gaya Pembelajaran dan Penggunaan Multimedia dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Jurnal Pendidikan Ting ENF 1999/2000 Jil 2 (3) : 57-63

[5] Joseph Gomez (1999) Gaya Pembelajaran : Satu Tinjauan LIteratur. Jurnal Pendidikan Ting ENF 1999/2000 Jil 2 (3) : 40-49 [6] Litzinger TA, Lee SH, Wise JC, Felder RM. 2005. A study of the

reliability and validity of the Felder-Soloman Index of Learning Styles©. Proceedings of the 2005 ASEE Annual Conference, American Society for Engineering Education

[7] Matthews, Doris B (1994) . An investigation of students' learning styles

in various disciplines in colleges and universities, Journal of Humanistic Education & Development, Dec94, Vol. 33, Issue 2

[8] M. Felder and R. Brent (2005)., "Understanding Student Differences." J. Engr. Education, 94(1), 57-72 (2005). An exploration of differences in student learning styles, approaches to learning (deep, surface, and strategic), and levels of intellectual development http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/Papers/Understanding_Differences.pdf

[9] M. Z. Kamsah, M. S. Abu and A. K. Idris, “The First Step of Being

an Effective Engineering Educator: Know Your Students’ Learning Styles. http://www.ctl.utm.my/research/pdf/rtl04.pdf

[10] Ruzi Bachok, Zarina Shukur, Noor Faezah Mohd. Yatim dan Mohd

Hazali Mohamed Halip (2003) Isu Kesepadanan Gaya Pembelajaran dan GayaPengajaran Matapelajaran Bahasa Pengaturcaraan C , Prosiding Bengkel Sains Pengaturcaraan : Pembelajaran & Pengajaran Pengaturcaraan di Malaysia , 27 Ogos 2003 http://www.ftsm.ukm.my/irpa/programming/bengkelC/20-RuziFPsv-7(180 186).pdf

[11] Tariq S. Abdelhamid (2003) “Evaluation of Teacher-Student Learning Style Disparity in Construction Management Education” International Journal of Construction Education and Research Fall 2003 vol 8, 3, Michigan State University East Lansing, MI.http://www.ascjournal.ascweb.org/journal/2003/no3/V8N3p124-145.pdf

[12] Index Learning Style Instrument

http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html

[13] Learning Styles and Strategies http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/ILSdir/styles.htm

[14] Learning Styles Assessment Instruments http://www.brevard.edu/fyc/resources/Learningstyles.htm#Approaches

[15] Pengurusan Masa dan Gaya Pembelajaran



222

http://myschoolnet.ppk.kpm.my/bhn_pnp/modul/bcb9.pdf http://www.teachersrock.net/explain_active.htm http://www.teachersrock.net/explain_sensing.htm http://www.teachersrock.net/explain_visual.htm [16] http://www.teachersrock.net/explain_sequential.htm



223

A STUDY OF VISUAL ABILITY BASED ON GENDER DIFFERENCES WITH FIRST- YEAR UITM SCIENCE STUDENTS

S. R. SYED ARIS, N. V. KANTASAMY M. DOMAT SHAHARUDIN B. ABU BAKAR

Faculty of Applied Sciences Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor


ABSTRACT - In most schools as well as tertiary educational institutions, 2-dimensional models are frequently used to describe 3-dimensional science concepts. It is therefore essential for science students to use as well as develop this visualization skill. Visual ability has now become a prerequisite and essential aid in learning and understanding science concepts especially in tertiary educational institutions. This study examines the visual ability based on gender differences of first-year science students, in the Applied Sciences Faculty of Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM). A total of 196 first-year students participated in this study. Purdue Visualization Rotation Test was used to assess students’ visual ability. This test assessed participants’ mental rotation ability in 2-dimensional space. Current findings indicate gender differences in visual spatial ability among first-year Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) science students from the Applied Sciences Faculty. Keywords: Visual Ability, Purdue Visual Rotation Test, Gender Differences, Mental Rotation Ability

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There are two components of spatial ability: spatial relations and spatial visualization [1]. Spatial relations tasks involve 2D and 3D rotations of an object as a whole body, while spatial visualization is the ability to imagine rotations of objects or their parts in 3D space. In other words, spatial ability involves mental manipulation of visual images of an object and their parts in 2D and 3D space [2]. Several researches indicated that visualization or imagery ability is a prerequisite and an essential task in learning process [3 −10]. Keigh and Rubba (1993) have proved significant correlation between students’ ability to visualize representations and their understanding of the underlying concepts. Their findings show the importance of students having the ability to visualize as a means to enhance understanding. However, there are studies reporting gender differences in spatial ability [12−14]. Researchers like Paivio, Clark as well as Maccoby and Jacklin attribute gender differences in spatial ability to the



224

probability that most males can generate dynamic images more quickly [15] and impulsively [16] than females.

2.0 OBJECTIVE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The objective of the study was to explore gender differences in visual ability among first year science students at Faculty of Applied Sciences UiTM Shah Alam. The following research questions and null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. Research question 1: Is there any significant difference between male and female students in the mean score of Purdue Visual Rotation Test (PVRT)? Null hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between male and female students in mean score of Purdue Visual Rotation Test (PVRT).

Research question 2: Is there any significant difference between male

and female students from different programs in the mean score of Purdue Visual Rotation Test (PVRT)?

Null hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between male and

female students from different programs in the mean score of Purdue Visual Rotation Test (PVRT).

3.0 RESEARCH DESIGN

The study used a quantitative, descriptive survey questionnaire to compare visual rotation test to gender and programs.

3.1 Sample

The study was conducted at Faculty of Applied Sciences, where 196 first year degree students participated in the study. The students involved in the study came from six different programmes which were Biocomposite (36), Physics Industry (25), Chemistry (85), Biology (22) and Forensic (28). The following Figure 1 illustrates the percentage of students in each programme. Out of the total numbers, 54 were male students and 142 were female students.



225

18.37%

12.76%

43.37%

11.22%

14.29%

Programmes

biocomposite

physics industry

chemistry

biology

forensic

Figure 1: Percentages of Students in different Programmes

3.2 Instrument : The Purdue Visual Of Rotation Test (Pvrt)

Students’ visual ability was measured using Purdue Visualization of Rotations test (PVRT). This test is widely used to measure visual rotation ability particularly in the context of chemistry and engineering. The instrument consists of 20 items with each correct response receiving one point while incorrect response receives 0 point. The total or full point is 20 and the lowest total point is zero. PVRT possesses a high internal consistency. The value for Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-20) is between .78 to .80. While split half reliability coefficients are between .78 to .85 (Bodner et al., 1997).

3.2.1 Validity Of Pvrt

Two lecturers were chosen to validate the instrument. No major adjustment was done except in the format and the font size of the letters. Twenty minutes were given to students to complete the visual rotation test.

3.2.2 RELIABILITY OF PVRT

A pilot study was done to obtain the reliability of the instrument to be used in the present study. Test-retest was conducted to



226

determine the reliability of the instruments. The sample for the pilot study was different from the sample in the actual study. However, cohort sample was used in the present study, which consisted of 32 science students from other UiTM branch. The PVRT was conducted twice with three weeks gap in between. The scores of the two tests then were computed using SPSS and bivariate Pearson correlation coefficient was run to test the reliability of the instruments. The value obtained was r = .89. The high correlation obtained indicates that the PVRT possesses high reliability and can be used in the study context.

4.0 RESULTS AND FINDINGS

This section will present the results of the study.

0 5 10 15 20 25

score

0

5

10

15

20

25

Frequency

Mean = 12.99Std. Dev. = 3.789N = 196

score

Figure 2: Histogram of the mean score of the students

Descriptive statistic found that the mean score of Purdue Visual Rotation Test for 196 students was M=12.99, SD = 3.89. The results indicate that the first year degree students possessed medium level of visual ability.

Research question 1: Is there any significant difference between male and female students in the mean score of Purdue Visual Rotation Test (PVRT)?


female students in mean score of Purdue Visual Rotation Test (PVRT). The results from Table 1 show that male students gained a mean score,

M=15.91, SD=2.80 and female students achieved a mean score, M=11.88, SD=3.52. The results indicate that male students possessed higher score in visual ability test as compared to female students.

Table 1 : Mean and Standard Deviation of the PVRT scores via gender



227

Gender Mean N Std. Deviation Male 15.91 54 2.80

Female 11.88 142 3.52 Total 12.99 196 3.79

Furthermore, Independent samples t test was performed on the data. The score was found to be significantly different between male and female students, t(194) = 7.54, p<.05. From the result obtained, null hypothesis 1 is rejected. Results from descriptive statistics (Table 2) imply that students from Physics industry program gained the highest mean score, M=14.16, SD=4.03, followed by Forensic (M=14.11, SD= 3.38), Biocomposite (M=13.92, SD=3.38), Chemistry (M=12.44, SD=3.71) and Biology (M=10.86, SD=3.64). Table 2: Mean Score and Standard Deviation of PVRT based on Gender and Programmes

Group Gender Mean Std. Deviation N

Biocomposite male 16.42 2.31 12 female 12.67 3.16 24 Total 13.92 3.38 36

Physics industry

male 17.36 2.54 11

female 11.64 3.08 14 Total 14.16 4.03 25

Chemistry male 15.00 2.86 21 female 11.59 3.59 64 Total 12.44 3.71 85

Biology male 13.00 .000 3 female 10.53 3.82 19 Total 10.86 3.64 22

Forensic male 16.71 3.04 7 female 13.24 3.38 21 Total 14.11 3.58 28

Total male 15.91 2.80 54 female 11.88 3.52 142 Total 12.99 3.79 196

Two-Way ANOVA was utilized to answer the following research question.

Research question 2: Is there any significant difference between male and female students among different programs in the mean scores of Purdue Visual Rotation Test (PVRT)?



228


female students among different programmes in the mean scores of Purdue Visual Rotation Test (PVRT). Table 3: Results of ANOVA (Tests of Between-Subjects Effects)

Computed using alpha = .05 The tests of between-subjects effects (Table 3) show that there is a significant main effect for group. Results show that students from Physics Industry programme scored higher in PVRT test than students in other programmes. However, there is no significant gender by group interaction, F(4,186) = 0.71, p= 0.59. These data are illustrated in the graph below (Figure 3).

Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model

802.56(b) 9 89.17 8.3 .00

Intercept 20591.56 1 20591.52 1917.53 .00 Group 116.76 4 29.19 2.72 .03 Gender 382.36 1 382.36 35.60 .00 group * gender

30.31 4 7.58 .706 .59

Error 1997.42 186 10.74 Total 35872.00 196 Corrected Total

2799.98 195



229

biocomposite

physics industry

chemistry

biology

forensic

Programmes

10

12

14

16

18Estimated Marginal Means

gendermale

female

Gender by Programmes Interaction

Figure 3: Graph of Gender by Programmes Interaction

From the results obtained it can be concluded that there is no significant difference between male and female students from different programmes in the mean scores of Purdue Visual Rotation Test (PVRT). Therefore, the null hypothesis 2 is accepted.

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The first finding demonstrates that there is significant gender difference in visual spatial ability especially in mental rotation. The results clearly show that male outperformed female in Purdue Visual Rotation test. The finding of the study is consistent with past studies on gender [12−14]. There are several assumptions to this; females accumulates less previous experience in spatial tasks than males [17], females have low levels of confidence in their ability to solve spatial problems [18], and males played a lot of activities requiring hand-eye coordination during their school time like playing in sports, playing three-



230

dimensional computer games and drafting [in [19], p.24].

To cater the problem, curriculum developers could come out with appropriate spatial ability syllabus or training programme integrated in the academic curriculum. Educators can also plan some activities mainly for female students like guided imagery and visual mnemonics which have been proven to help students enhance their visual spatial ability [20]. Perhaps in future, researchers should study how each gender processes visual information as this might show a better picture and understanding why male outperforms female in visual spatial tasks.

The second finding however shows no significant difference between gender across different programmes. This might be due to students being freshmen and had just graduated from their secondary education, where they were trained basically in the same curricular. The score possibly might be different if students were to test their ability two years after studying in their university level programme. This is because each programme has its own specific curricular which might enhance different parts of student’s ability. Prior to this, longitudinal study should be carried out to explore whether student’s visual ability increases over a period of time across programmes.

Educators should consider alternative teaching techniques that could help and guide students in improving their visualization ability or imagery in order for them to succeed in their learning. Most researchers believes that designing a proper instruction with appropriate visualization tools and approach would give opportunities for students to understand science subject much better in their own way.

6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to extend our thanks to all first-year students (April-October 2007) who have participated in the study. Special thanks to our faculty for allowing us to conduct and present the findings. REFERENCES [1] Clements, D. H., & Battista, M. T. (1992). Geometry and spatial reasoning. In D. A. Grouws (ed). Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning (420-464). New York: MacMillan. [2] Olkun, S. (2003). Making connections: Improving spatial abilities

with engineering drawing activities. International Journal of Mathematics Teaching and Learning. (Retrieved October, 20, 2004), from: http://www.ex.ac.uk/cimt/ijmtl/ijabout.htm

[3] Moore, J. W. (2005). Imagination. Journal of Chemical Education, 82(5), 663.[4] Grabow, R. (2003). The relationship of visual spatial ability to performance in solving stoichiometric problems in a high school chemistry class. Unpublished Master thesis, California State University, Fallerton.

[5] Coleman, S. L., & Gotch, A. J. (1998). Spatial perception skills of



231

chemistry students. Journal of Chemical Education, 75( 2), 206. [6] Furio, C., & Catalayud, M. L. (1996). Difficulties with the geometry and

polarity of molecules: Beyond misconception. Journal of Chemical Education, 73(1), 36. Proquest Database.

[7] Barke, H. D. (1993). Chemical education and spatial ability. Journal of Chemical Education, 70(12), 968-971.

[9] Shubber, K. E., & Al-Mudaifa, H. S. (1991). Understanding the diagramatic representation of rotation in diagrams of 3-D structures. Research in Science and Technological Education, 9(1), 87.

[10] Bodner, G. M., Greenbowe, T. J., & Robinson, W.R. (1980). The introduction of crystallographic concept using lap-dissolve slide techniques. Journal of Chemical Education, 57(8), 555-556.

[11] Keig, P. F., & Rubba, P. A. (1993). Translation of representations of the structure of matter and its relationship to reasoning, gender, spatial reasoning and specific prior knowledge. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30(8), 883-903. [12] Contreras, M.J., Rubio, V.J., Pena, D., Colom, R. & Santacreu, J. (2007).

Sex differences in dynbamic spatial ability: The unsolved question of performance factors. Memory and Cognition. 35(2),297-303.

[13] Flaherty, M. (2005). Gender differences in mental rotation ability in three cultures: Ireland, Ecuador and Japan. Psychlogia. 48(1), 31- 38. [14] Collins D.W. & Kimura D. (1997). A large sex difference on a two dimensional mental rotation task. Behavioural Neuroscience, 111, 845-849. [15] Paivio, A. & Clark, J.M. (1991). Static versus dynamic imagery. In C. Cornoldi & M. A. McDaniels (Eds.), Imagery and cognition (pp. 221-245). New York: Springer-Verlag. [16] Maccoby E.E. & Jacklin, C.N. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford: Stanford University Press. [17] Fennema, E. & Sherman, J. (1977). Sex related differences in

mathematics achievement, spatial visualization and affective factors. American Educational Research Journal, 14, 51-71.

[18] Parsons, J.E., Adler, T.F. & Kaczala, C.M. (1982). Socialization of achievement attitudes and beliefs:Parenthal influences. Child Development, 53,310-321. [19] Sorby, S.A. (1999). Developing 3-D spatial visualization skills. Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 63(2), 21-32. [20] Sharipah Ruzaina S. A. & Siow H. L. (2006). The Effect of iALA on

Visual Ability among Electrical Engineering Students at UiTM Shah Alam. Paper presented at National Conference on Science Technology and Social Science 2006, 30-31 May 2006, Kuantan



232

APPENDIX

SAMPLE OF QUESTIONS FROM PURDUE VISUALIZATION AND ROTATION TEST



233

PEMBELAJARAN KOLABORATIF: BEKERJA SEBAGAI “SATU KUMPULAN” ATAU “BEKERJA DALAM KUMPULAN”?

WAN ZAH WAN ALI AHMAD FAUZI MOHD.AYUB ROSNAINI MAHMUD MOKHTAR HJ.NAWAWI

Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan Universiti Putra Malaysia

Rusli Abdullah Fakulti Sains Komputer dan Teknologi Maklumat Universiti Putra Malaysia [email protected]


ABSTRAK - Pembelajaran kolaboratif adalah satu proses yang menggalakkan pelajar melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti yang diadakan secara langsung atau secara berurutan dengan beberapa orang rakan pelajar yang lain. Pembelajaran ini menekankan kepada konsep bahawa “setiap pelajar belajar dari pelajar yang lain.” Justeru, ia menggalakkan pelajar untuk menyumbang idea dan buah fikiran serta menghargai idea dan buah fikiran orang lain. Dasar pembelajaran kolaboratif ini membenarkan pelajar memegang peranan sebagai “knowledge provider” dimana pengetahuan itu dapat dikongsi dengan rakan dan pengajar agar sesuatu pengetahuan itu dapat difahami dari perspektif yang lebih luas dan mendalam. Disamping itu, pendekatan ini digunakan untuk menyelesaikan masalah dalam konteks sebenar atau konteks yang kompleks. Satu faktor yang dominan bagi kejayaan sesuatu pembelajaran kolaboratif ialah interaksi sosial antara pelajar dalam kumpulan. Interaksi sosial yang berkesan akan mewujudkan struktur afektif yang bercirikan hubungan sosial, kesepaduan sosial dan rasa tanggungjawab terhadap komuniti. Ketiga-tiga ciri ini merupakan atribut ruang sosial yang membenarkan komunikasi berlaku secara terbuka serta memanfaatkan aktiviti kolaboratif dan perkongsian maklumat penting. Kajian ini bertujuan meninjau persepsi pelajar kursus Teknologi Pendidikan di Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan, Universiti Putra Malaysia terhadap interaksi sosial dalam suasana pembelajaran kolaboratif.

Kata kunci: Pembelajaran kolaboratif, interaksi sosial, persekitaran pembelajaran



234

1.0 PENGENALAN

Pembelajaran kolaboratif telah dikenal pasti sebagai satu persekitaran pembelajaran yang berupaya meningkatkan pembelajaran pelajar (Jonhson & Johnson, 1999). Dalam pembelajaran kolaboratif, pelajar dalam satu kumpulan kecil bekerja bersama-sama bagi menyelesaikan satu masalah tertentu (Khandaker, Soh, & Jiang, 2006). Mereka dikehendaki melibatkan diri secara langsung dan berurutan - berinteraksi secara bersemuka dan bergaul sesama ahli kumpulan bagi mencapai satu matlamat tertentu yang dipersetujui bersama (Yacine & Tahar, 2007). Mereka juga perlu berusaha untuk menyumbang idea dan buah fikiran serta menghargai idea dan buah fikiran orang lain. Dalam konteks pembelajaran kolaboratif, pelajar memegang peranan sebagai “knowledge provider” dimana pengetahuan itu dapat dikongsi dengan rakan dan pengajar agar sesuatu pengetahuan itu dapat difahami dari perpektif yang lebih luas dan mendalam (Gerlanch, 1994). Pembelajaran cara ini menurut Jonhson dan Johnson (1999), dapat menyuburkan pemikiran kreatif berikutan daripada aktiviti melahirkan idea baru, strategi dan penyelesaian masalah yang lebih kerap berbanding kerja bersendirian.

Walaupun pembelajaran kolaboratif dipuji kerana kelebihannya, namun kejayaan sesuatu pembelajaran bergantung kepada sejauhmana kumpulan kecil pelajar itu berfungsi dengan baik dan berkesan (Salomon & Globerson, 1989). Berdasarkan kajian Solomon (1992), pelbagai masalah telah dikesan berlaku dalam kumpulan kecil yang menjejaskan keberkesanan pembelajaran jenis ini seperti ahli kumpulan langsung tidak melaksanakan tugas yang diberikan kepada kumpulan mereka (Kerr,1983), ahli kumpulan tidak menjalankan tugas yang telah diagihkan oleh kumpulan (Kerr & Bruun,1983), berpuak-puak dalam kumpulan (Dembo & McAuliffe,1987) dan pembahagian tugasan antara ahli kumpulan yang rigid. Kesemua masalah ini menyebabkan tidak banyak pembelajaran secara kolaboratif berlaku (Salomon & Globerson,1987) dan puncanya dikaitkan dengan kualiti interaksi sosial yang wujud dalam kumpulan tersebut.

Menurut Staton, et al (2001) dan Dillenbourg (1999), interaksi sosial yang positif bersama rakan adalah asas kepada pencapaian pembelajaran berkesan dalam pembelajaran kolaboratif. Pandangan ini seiring dengan pandangan Vygotsky (1978) yang menegaskan bahawa pengetahuan dapat dibina dalam satu komuniti pelajar andainya wujud interaksi sosial yang mampan antara ahli kumpulan. Justeru, adalah penting kesan interaksi sosial diberi perhatian dalam menentukan keberkesanan aktiviti kolaboratif daripada hanya menitikberatkan hasil pembelajaran pelajar yang terlibat (Wood & O’Malley, 1996). Ini kerana dalam aktiviti pembelajaran tersebut, tiga atau lima orang pelajar yang mengambil bahagian dalam mempelajari sesuatu perkara khusus dan secara bersepadu ini diletakkan dalam konteks interaksi sosial yang sebenar.

Dalam meneliti interaksi sosial ini, Kreijns, Kirchner, Jochems dan Buuren (2007), menegaskan adalah penting perhatian ditumpukan ke arah mengkaji interaksi sosial yang berteraskan proses sosio-emosi atau sosial-



235

psikologi. Menurut para penyelidik ini, setakat ini para penyelidik lebih menumpukan perhatian ke arah membina persekitaran interaksi sosial dalam pembelajaran kolaboratif yang berteraskan proses kognitif. Keadaan ini berlaku disebabkan para penyelidik tersebut berpandangan bahawa dalam pembelajaran kolaboratif, apa yang perlu dilakukan oleh pelajar hanyalah “belajar” (apa yang menjadi objektif pembelajaran) dan apa sahaja yang tidak berkaitan dengannya perlu diketepikan. Sedangkan, semasa proses pembelajaran, pelajar turut dipengaruhi oleh suasana atau persekitaran dalam pembelajaran kolaboratif tersebut. Andainya persekitaran itu memupuk perasaan setia kawan, maka kesannya kepada pembelajaran adalah berlainan berbanding persekitaran yang sebaliknya. Dengan kata lain, dalam pembelajaran kolaboratif, pelajar bukan hanya mempelajari isi pelajaran tetapi juga makna persahabatan, tanggungjawab, kerjasama, hormat-menghormati, saling menyokong, kesepakatan dan sebagainya.

Justeru adalah penting persekitaran sedemikian dipupuk demi memastikan pembelajaran berjaya dicapai. Dalam konteks penulisan ini, persekitaran tersebut digelarkan sebagai sosiabiliti, meminjam istilah yang digunakan oleh Kreijns, Kirchner, Jochems dan Buuren (2007). Ia didefinisikan sebagai sejauhmana persekitaran pembelajaran kolaboratif ditanggap berupaya membantu pembinaan ruang sosial yang baik yakni satu ruang yang bercirikan hubungan kerja yang afektif, kesepakatan yang kukuh, saling mempercayai, saling menghormati, rasa kepunyaan, kepuasan dan perasaan kekitaan yang kukuh. Seterusnya, sosiabiliti diandaikan mempengaruhi interaksi sosial. Semakin meningkat sosiabiliti, maka lebih banyak interaksi sosial berlaku dan sekali gus mewujudkan ruang sosial yang baik.

Berdasarkan perbincangan di atas, satu kajian telah dijalankan bagi mengenalpasti sejauhmana wujudnya sosiabiliti dan ruang sosial menurut pandangan pelajar yang mengalami persekitaran pembelajaran kolaboratif dalam kursus Teknologi Pendidikan di Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Secara khusus, kajian ini bertujuan untuk mencapai objektif berikut.

1. Mengenal pasti persepsi pelajar terhadap sosiabiliti dan ruang sosial. 2. Mengenal pasti tahap sosiabiliti. 3. Mengenal pasti hubungan antara sosibiliti dengan ruang positif 4. Mengenal pasti hubungan antara sosibiliti dengan ruang negatif.

2.0 METODOLOGI KAJIAN

Kajian yang dijalankan ini merupakan kajian kuantitatif yang dijalankan secara tinjauan. Data-data yang diperlukan dalam kajian ini dikumpulkan melalui borang soal selidik.

2.1 Sampel Kajian

Sampel kajian adalah terdiri daripada 320 pelajar di Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan, Universiti Putra Malaysia yang sedang mengikuti



236

kursus Teknologi Pendidikan. Kursus ini merupakan kursus teras program bacelor pendidikan yang bertujuan menyediakan pelajar dengan pengetahuan dan kemahiran melaksanakan pengajaran yang berteraskan prinsip teknologi pendidikan. Bagi mencapai tujuan ini, satu projek utama telah digariskan untuk dilaksanakan oleh pelajar secara berkumpulan. Dalam projek ini, pelajar perlu merancang dan melaksanakan pengajaran yang mengintegrasikan pelbagai media pengajaran secara berkumpulan. Mereka dikehendaki menyediakan senerio pengajaran yang menjelaskan siapakah pelajar sasaran dan masalah yang mereka hadapi, pelan pengajaran yang lengkap serta sekurang-kurangnya tiga jenis media yang akan digunakan dalam pengajaran tersebut. Tiga jenis media tersebut ialah pakej pengajaran berasaskan komputer, transparensi dan carta atau buku skrap. Setelah itu, mereka perlu melaksanakan pengajaran berdasarkan perancangan yang telah dibuat dalam kelas. Semasa persembahan pengajaran, ketiga-tiga ahli diwajibkan melibatkan diri. Satu tarikh ditetapkan bagi penghantaran dan persembahan tugasan ini.

Markah bagi tugasan ini adalah 60% daripada jumlah markah

penuh. Pelajar dimaklumkan dari awal lagi bahawa markah yang diberikan adalah sama bagi semua ahli kumpulan kecil. Tindakan ini dilakukan supaya pelajar sedar bahawa baik atau buruknya markah yang akan mereka perolehi bergantung kepada usaha yang dicurahkan oleh setiap ahli dalam kumpulan.

Dari segi pelaksanaannya, setiap pelajar dibenarkan membentuk

kumpulan kecil yang terdiri daripada maksimum 3 orang rakan yang dipilih oleh mereka sendiri. Setiap kumpulan perlu berbincang dalam kumpulan bagi menghasilkan tugasan berdasarkan garispanduan yang disediakan oleh pensyarah. Disamping itu, pelajar juga diberi bimbingan dan tunjuk ajar semasa kuliah dan sesi amali.

Berdasarkan analisis data, didapati 320 orang pelajar tersebut

adalah dari 6 program pengajian telah ditawarkan oleh Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan iaitu Bacelor Pendidikan (Teknologi Maklumat), Bacelor Pendidikan (PBMP), Bacelor Pendidikan (TESL), Bacelor Pendidikan (Sains Rumah Tangga), Bacelor Pendidikan (Pendidikan Jasmani) dan Bacelor Sains dengan Pendidikan pengkhususan dalam Matematik, Fizik, Biologi dan Kimia. Agihan pelajar adalah seperti dalam Jadual 1.

Jadual 1 : Agihan pelajar mengikut Program Pengajian

No

Program Pengajian

Bilangan

Peratus

1 Bacelor Pendidikan (Teknologi Maklumat) 15 4.7

2 Bacelor Pendidikan (PBMP) 100 31.3

3 Bacelor Pendidikan (TESL) 82 25.6

4 Bacelor Pendidikan (Sains Rumah 1 0.3



237

Tangga)

5 Bacelor Pendidikan (Pendidikan Jasmani) 42 13.1

6 Bacelor Sains dengan Pendidikan pengkhususan Fizik, Kimia, Biologi dan Matematik

80 25

3.0 INSTRUMEN KAJIAN

Instrumen kajian yang digunakan dalam kajian ini diubahsuai daripada Kreijns, Kirchner, Jochems dan Buuren (2007). Ia merupakan satu set soal selidik yang terdiri daripada 4 bahagian. Walau bagaimanapun hanya 2 bahagian yang relevan untuk dibincangan di sini. Penerangan bagi setiap bahagian ini adalah seperti berikut.

(a) Bahagian A merupakan bahagian untuk mendapatkan maklumat peribadi sampel kajian. Maklumat peribadi yang dikumpul terdiri daripada program pengajian, jantina, semester pengajian, umur, bangsa dan kemasukan ke peringkat ijazah.

(b) Bahagian B pula bertujuan mengukur interaksi sosial pelajar

semasa melaksanakan projek utama kursus secara berkumpulan. Dalam bahagian ini, tiga aspek diukur iaitu skala sosialibiliti (socialibility scale) sebanyak 8 item, skala ruang sosial bagi mengukur kelakuan positif kumpulan (positive group behaviour) sebanyak 11 item dan skala ruang social bagi mengukur kelakuan negatif kumpulan (negative group behaviour) sebanyak 10 item.

Respon yang diberi oleh pelajar ditandakan mengunakan skala likert 5 iaitu sangat tidak setuju (STS), tidak setuju (TS), kurang setuju (KS), setuju (S) dan sangat setuju (SS).

Bagi memastikan instrumen kajian sesuai digunakan, dua kajian rintis telah dijalankan. Kajian pertama melibatkan 39 pelajar, manakala kajian rintis kedua melibatkan 40 orang pelajar yang sedang mengikuti kursus yang sama. Berdasarkan kajian rintis kedua, nilai pekali Alpha Cronbach bagi setiap dimensi dalam bahagian B adalah seperti dalam Jadual 2.

Jadual 2 : Pekali Aplha Cronbach bagi Bahagian B

Dimensi Pekali Alpha Cronbach

Skala Sosiabiliti 0.852 Skala ruang sosial bagi mengukur kelakuan positif kumpulan

0.837

Skala ruang sosial bagi



238

mengukur kelakuan negatif kumpulan

0.958

3.2 ANALISIS DATA

Data yang dikumpulkan dikodkan, direkodkan dan dianalisis

mengunakan Statistical Package For Science Sosial (SPSS). Data dianalisis secara deskriptif yang melibatkan min dan sisihan piawai. Disamping itu, ujian korelasi turut dijalankan.

4.0 DAPATAN KAJIAN

Dalam kajian ini, interaksi sosial diukur berdasarkan 3 dimensi iaitu sosiabiliti, ruang sosial bagi kelakuan positif kumpulan dan ruang sosial bagi kelakuan negatif kumpulan. Berikut dipaparkan dapatan kajian ini.

4.1 SKALA SOSIABILITI

Dalam kajian ini, skala sosiabiliti merujuk kepada sejauhmana pelajar-pelajar ini bekerja sebagai satu kumpulan semasa menyiapkan tugasan yang disediakan. Ini merujuk kepada kemampuan pelajar tersebut menyesuaikan diri dengan ahli-ahli lain dalam kumpulan tersebut. Jadual 3 menunjukkan nilai min dan sisihan piawai yang diperolehi. Min keseluruhan bagi skala sosiabiliti adalah 4.26 dengan kesemua item mencapai min melebih 3.5. Ini menunjukkan bahawa pelajar-pelajar ini boleh bekerjasama dalam satu pasukan dan tahap sosiabiliti bagi responden kajian ini juga adalah tinggi. Penentuan tahap ini berdasarkan peraturan umum oleh Nugent, Sieppert and Hudsan (2001) yang menyatakan skor-skor ini boleh digunakan untuk menggambarkan satu magnitud yang bersifat kontinium. Skor yang tinggi menunjukkan magnitud yang besar, manakala skor yang rendah menunjukkan magnitud yang kecil. Dalam kajian ini, skor 3.33 hingga 5 menunjukkan tahap sosiobiliti yang tinggi, manakala skor 1.67 hingga 3.32 menunjukkan tahap yang sederhana.

Jadual 3 juga menunjukkan bahawa persetujuan tertinggi skala

sosiabiliti terletak pada persekitaran yang membolehkan pembinaan hubungan akrab (min = 4.31, SD = 0.646) serta perbualan spontan secara tidak formal (min = 4.31, SD = 584). Ini bermakna, dua aspek ini boleh dianggap lebih penting di mata responden kajian dalam mewujudkan sosiabiliti berbanding aspek lain. Manakala, rasa selesa dengan persekitaran kerja berkumpulan dikira aspek yang paling kurang menyumbang kepada mewujudkan sosiabiliti kerana nilai min yang dicapai adalah yang terendah (min = 4.15, SD = 0.71).



239

Jadual 3 : Analisa Terhadap Skala Sosialibiliti

ITEM

STS

TS

KS

S

SS

Min

SP

Kerja berkumpulan memudahkan saya berkomunikasi dengan ahli kumpulan saya.

1

(0.3%)

5

(1.6%)

21

(6.6%)

174

(54.4%)

119

(37.2%)

4.27

0.677

Saya tidak berasa keseorangan bekerja dalam kumpulan.

4

(1.3%)

4

(1.3%)

23

(7.2%)

161

(50.3%)

128 (40%)

4.27

0.752

Kerja berkumpulan membolehkan saya mendapat pandangan yang positif mengenai ahli kumpulan.

0

3

(0.9%)

30

(9.4%)

181

(56.6%)

105

(32.8%)

4.22

0.644

Kerja berkumpulan membenarkan perbualan spontan secara tidak formal.

0

1

(0.3%)

17

(5.3%)

183

(57.2%)

119

(37.2%)

4.31

0.584

Kerja berkumpulan membolehkan kami membentuk pasukan berprestasi cemerlang.

0

5

(1.6%)

28

(8.8%)

174

(54.4%)

113

(35.3%)

4.23

0.671

Kerja berkumpulan membolehkan saya membentuk hubungan kerja yang baik dengan ahli kumpulan.

0

4

(1.3%)

28

(8.8%)

169

(52.8%)

118

(36.9%)

4.26

0.66

Saya selesa dengan persekitaran kerja berkumpulan.

2

(0.6%)

5

(1.6%)

33

(10.3%)

183

(57.2%)

97

(30.3%)

4.15

0.71



240

Purata Min = 4.26, Putara Sisihan Piawai = 0.54 4.2 RUANG SOSIAL POSITIF

Sosiabiliti kumpulan dicorakkan oleh ruang sosial yang wujud

dalam sesuatu kumpulan kolaboratif. Terdapat dua jenis ruang sosial; pertama, ruang sosial yang positif dan kedua, ruang sosial negatif. Ruang sosial positif merujuk kepada sejauhmana setiap ahli kumpulan menunjukkan sikap yang positif apabila menerima dan memberi kritikan, sentiasa bersefahaman dalam perhubungan dan menyempurnakan tugasan, berkongsi maklumat dan berkomunikasi dalam kumpulan. Kajian ini mendapati min keseluruhan bagi 11 item yang terdapat dalam ruang positif adalah 4.19 dengan min terendah adalah berkaitan dengan perkongsian maklumat peribadi (min = 3.78, SD = 0.883). Tiga puluh empat perpuluhan satu peratus (34.1%) pelajar tidak berminat untuk berkongsi maklumat peribadi dengan ahli kumpulan. Bagaimanapun, mereka ingin terus mengekalkan hubungan dengan ahli kumpulan (min=4.34, SD=0.55). Secara keseluruhannya pelajar bersetuju bahawa kumpulan mereka menunjukkan kelakukan yang positif.

Jadual 4 : Analisa Terhadap Ruang Sosial Positif

ITEM

STS

TS

KS

S

SS

Min

P

Ahli kumpulan saya bebas mengkritik idea, kenyataan ataupun pendapat ahli kumpulan.

0 6 (1.9%) 20

(6.3%) 179

(55.9%) 115

(35.9%) 4.26 0.656

Ahli kumpulan saya mencapai persefahaman bagaimana kami perlu berfungsi melaksanakan tugasan.

2 (0.6%)

6 (1.9%) 23

(7.2%) 184

(57.5%) 105

(32.8%) 4.2 0.702

Persekitaran kerja berkumpulan membolehkan saya mewujudkan hubungan yang lebih akrab dengan ahli-ahli dalam kumpulan saya.

1

(0.3%)

2

(0.6%)

20

(6.3%)

169

(52.8%)

127

(39.7%)

4.31

0.646



241

Ahli kumpulan saya mempastikan kami sentiasa saling berhubungan antara satu sama lain.

2 (0.6%)

2 (0.6%) 27

(8.4%) 182

(56.9%) 107

(33.4%) 4.22 0.673

Setiap ahli kumpulan saya bekerja kuat untuk menyempurnakan tugasan.

1 (0.3%)

4 (1.3%) 37

(11.6%) 162

(50.6%) 116

(36.3%) 4.21 0.716

Saya mengekalkan hubungan dengan ahli dalam kumpulan saya.

0 0 13

(4.1%) 186

(58.1%) 121

(37.8%) 4.34 0.553

Setiap ahli kumpulan saya berkongsi maklumat peribadi masing-masing.

6 (1.9%)

14 (4.4%)

89 (27.8%)

146 (45.6%)

65 (20.3%)

3.78 0.883

Perbincangan dalam kumpulan dilakukan secara terbuka dan 'hidup'.

1 (0.3%)

3 (0.9%) 17

(5.3%) 193

(60.3%) 106

(33.1%) 4.25 0.623

Semua ahli kumpulan berusaha untuk berhubung antara satu sama lain.

1 (0.3%)

1 (0.3%) 24

(7.5%) 201

(62.8%) 93

(29.1%) 4.2 0.606

Ahli kumpulan tidak teragak-agak untuk memulakan komunikasi.

1 (0.3%)

2 (0.6%) 16 (5%)

185 (57.8%)

115 (35.9%)

4.29

0.618

Saya berasa dihargai oleh ahli kumpulan saya.

1 (0.3%)

6 (1.9%) 25

(7.8%) 183

(57.2%) 105

(32.8%)

4.2

0.685

Ahli kumpulan sentiasa

2 (0.6%)

6 (1.9%) 33

(10.3%) 176 (55%)

100 (31.3%)

4.15 0.728



242

bertanya perkembangan semasa tugasan yang sedang dibuat.

Purata Min = 4.19, Purata Sisihan Piawai = 0.52

4.3 RUANG SOSIAL NEGATIF

Bagi ruang sosial negatif, pelajar diminta memberi pandangan mereka mengenai kelakuan negatif yang terdapat dalam kalangan ahli kumpulan. Min keseluruhan bagi item ruang sosial negatif kumpulan adalah 3.42 dan min ini lebih rendah daripada min keseluruhan bagi ruang sosial positif. Item yang mempunyai nilai min terendah adalah item yang berkaitan dengan ahli kumpulan berasa diserang secara peribadi apabila idea, pernyataan dan pandangan mereka dikritik (min = 3.03) dimana 23.7% bersetuju dengan pernyataan tersebut. Dapatan juga menunjukkan bahawa masih lagi terdapat masalah berhubung dengan pengagihan tugas (min = 3.39) dengan 26.3% merasakan pengagihan tugas tidak dilakukan secara adil dan saksama. Disamping itu, terdapat juga ahli kumpulan tidak bersefahaman dan bercanggah pendapat antara satu sama lain (min = 3.42; 22.5% bersetuju). Jadual 5 menunjukkan hasil analisis yang sepenuhnya.

Jadual 5 : Analisa Terhadap Ruang Sosial Negatif

ITEM

SS

S

KS

TS

STS

Min

SP

Ahli kumpulan berasa diserang secara peribadi apabila idea, pernyataan dan pandangan mereka dikritik.

33 (10.3%)

75 (23.4%)

106 (33.1%)

59 (18.4%)

45 (14.1%)

3.03 1.186

Ahli kumpulan berasa syak wasangka antara satu sama lain.

17 (5.3%)

55 (17.2%)

94 (29.4%)

82 (25.6%)

72 (22.5%)

3.43 1.167

Ahli kumpulan semakin tidak menyukai antara satu sama lain.

22 (6.9%)

48 (15 %)

81 (25.3%)

78 (24.4%)

89 (27.8%)

3.52 1.237



243

Ahli kumpulan menjadi penghalang kepada kemajuan pelaksanaan tugasan.

23 (7.2%)

52 (16.3%)

77 (24.1%)

78 (24.4%)

90 (28.1%)

3.5 1.254

Ahli kumpulan tidak bertindak secara wajar.

23 (7.2%)

56 (17.5%)

77 (24.1%)

83 (25.9%)

81

(25.3%)

3.45

1.241

Ahli kumpulan tidak bersefahaman dan bercanggah pendapat antara satu sama lain.

21 (6.6%)

51 (15.9%)

95 (29.7%)

77 (24.1%)

74 (23.1%)

3.42 1.196

Kumpulan saya menghadapi konflik.

22 (6.9%)

49 (15.3%)

85 (26.6%)

80

(25%)

84 (26.3%)

3.48

1.224

Ahli kumpulan saling mengata (gosip) antara satu sama lain.

24 (7.5%)

48 (15%)

87 (27.2%)

76 (23.8%)

83 (25.9%)

3.46 1.237

Ahli kumpulan tidak memandang serius ahli sekumpulan.

25 (7.8%)

49 (15.3%)

82 (25.6%)

80 (25%)

84 (26.3%)

3.47 1.246

Kumpulan saya menghadapi masalah pengagihan tugas sesama ahli.

22 (6.9%)

62 (19.4%)

78 (24.4%)

86 (26.9%)

72 (22.5%)

3.39 1.221

Purata Min = 3.42, Purata Sisihan Piawai = 1.08



244

4.4 HUBUNGAN ANTARA SOSIABILITI DENGAN RUANG SOSIAL

POSITIF DAN NEGATIF

Walaupun telah ditunjukkan bahawa tahap sosiabiliti yang tinggi wujud dalam pembelajaran kolaboratif pelajar yang dikaji, namun adalah penting untuk meneliti sama ada ruang sosial benar-benar menyumbang ke arah pembentukkan sosiabiliti ini. Justeru ujian korelasi telah dilakukan. Jadual 6 menunjukkan hasil ujian ini.

Jadual 6: Hubungan antara sosiabiliti dengan ruang sosial positif dan negatif

Pembolehubah

Korelasi Paras Keertian

Ruang sosial positif 0.826** 0.01 Ruang sosial negatif 0.321** 0.01

Jadual 6 di atas menunjukkan terdapat korelasi pada tahap signifikan

antara sosiabiliti pelajar dengan ruang sosial positif [r = 0.826; p<0.01] dan ruang sosial negatif [0.321; p<0.01]. Jika dapatan ini ditafsirkan berdasarkan pandangan Cohen (1988), ia bermakna terdapat hubungan yang kuat antara sosiabiliti dengan ruang sosial positif dan hubungan yang sederhana antara sosiabiliti dengan ruang sosial negatif. 5.0 PERBINCANGAN

Kajian deskriptif ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti sejauhmana kewujudan sosiabiliti dan ruang sosial menurut pandangan pelajar yang melaksanakan satu projek utama kursus Teknologi Pendidikan yang dijalankan secara kolaboratif. Berdasarkan dapatan kajian, jelas menunjukkan min bagi kesemua aspek sosiabiliti adalah tinggi dan tahap sosiabiliti pun juga tinggi. Ini menunjukkan pelajar berupaya berinteraksi sesama rakan sekumpulan serta dapat bekerjasama sebagai satu pasukan. Apa yang menarik lagi, terdapat dua elemen yang menonjol dalam sosiabiliti pelajar iaitu interaksi sosial yang mewujudkan hubungan akrab dan perbualan secara spontan dan tidak formal. Penonjolan elemen ini mengatasi keselesaan persekitaran kerja berkumpulan. Justeru, mungkin dapat dirumuskan di sini bahawa dalam pembinaan sosiabiliti, hubungan yang akrab dan terbuka adalah lebih penting daripada persekitaran yang selesa.

Menurut Kreijns, Kirchner, Jochems dan Buuren (2007), atribut bagi sesuatu sosiabiliti terletak pada ruang sosial yang wujud dalam sesuatu persekitaran pembelajaran kolaboratif sama ada positif atau negatif. Ruang sosial positif menggambarkan tanggapan pelajar terhadap kelakuan setiap ahli kumpulan menyumbang ke arah pembinaan tahap sosiabiliti yang tinggi. Dalam ruang sosial ini, mereka berupaya berkomunikasi, berkongsi maklumat, menerima dan memberi kritikan dan sentiasa bersahaman sesama sendiri. Berdasarkan dapatan kajian menunjukkan ruang positif ini wujud dalam kursus Teknologi Pendidikan. Bagaimanapun, pelajar masih agak ragu untuk berkongsi



245

hal-hal peribadi dengan rakan sekumpulan. Hal ini mungkin disebabkan rakan sekumpulan masih belum dianggap teman rapat yang boleh dibawa berkongsi cerita peribadi. Namun, batasan ini tidak menghalang mereka untuk terus mengekalkan persahabatan yang telah wujud.

Dari segi ruang sosial yang negatif pula, kewujudannya dilihat kurang menonjol berbanding ruang sosial positif. Namun, beberapa elemen kelakuan negatif ahli kumpulan yang agak ketara telah ditemui. Ia berkaitan dengan ahli kumpulan berasa diserang secara peribadi apabila idea, pernyataan dan pandangan mereka dikritik, pengagihan tugas yang tidak adil dan saksama serta percanggahan pendapat antara ahli kumpulan. Dapatan ini didapati sepadan dengan kajian Saloman (1992) yang mendapati masalah sedemikian seringkali wujud dan menggangu keberkesanan pembelajaran kolaboratif.

Kajian ini juga mendapati hubungan yang kuat antara sosiabiliti dengan ruang sosial positif. Dapatan ini menyokong dakwaan Kreijns, Kirchner,Jochems dan Buuren (2007) bahawa ruang sosial positif dapat menentukan tahap sosiabiliti atau interaksi sosial dalam kalangan pelajar. Keputusan ini pastinya menunjukkan pelajar kursus Teknologi Pendidikan telah berjaya memikul tugas diberikan bersama-sama sehingga ke akhir semester. Bagaimanapun, hubungan yang sederhana antara sosiabiliti dengan ruang sosial negatif mengundang perhatian agar satu tindakan dilakukan. Kewujudan keadaan ini menunjukkan masih ada kekurangan dalam interaksi sosial pelajar kursus ini.

Dapatan ini bukanlah sesuatu di luar jangkaan memandangkan tidak ada opsyen lain yang disediakan untuk membolehkan pelajar berhubung antara satu sama lain dengan lebih selesa, kerap dan pada bila-bila masa yang mereka perlukan. Justeru, keadaan yang sedia ada membataskan pelajar untuk memupuk persafahaman yang mendalam terutama bagi pelajar yang tinggal jauh dan berasingan dengan ahli kumpulan. Pada pandangan penyelidik, masalah ini bukan sahaja membuatkan ikatan kerjasama antara mereka menjadi longgar tetapi turut memberi kesan terhadap pencapaian dalam kursus ini. Pembangunan pengetahuan yang diharapkan juga didapati agak begitu perlahan.

Bagi mengatasinya, adalah wajar pembelajaran kolaboratif berasaskan web dan sistem rangkaian yang dikenali sebagai computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) diberi perhatian dan diadaptasikan. Pendekatan yang semakin popular ini menyediakan persekitaran untuk pelajar berinteraksi melalui pesanan teks dan visual tanpa perlu berdepan mata dalam melaksanakan tugasan yang memerlukan kemahiran berfikir di peringkat tinggi. Kajian lepas menunjukkan konteks yang sebegini membuka ruang untuk pelajar menyatakan idea dengan lebih bebas khususnya bagi pelajar yang pendiam atau pemalu. Dengan yang demikian, ia menggalakkan lebih banyak pertumbuhan pengetahuan dibina dan dicerna daripada interaksi yang aktif ini. Pada masa yang sama, pengajar dapat mengetahui apakah rupa interaksi yang terjalin antara pelajar, sejauhmana pembangunan pengetahuan telah terbina dan sejauhmana CSCL menyumbang ke arah pencapaian mereka.



246

Bagaimanapun dalam pelaksanaan sistem ini, aspek ruang sosial dan

sosiabiliti haruslah terus diberi perhatian agar pembelajaran yang diharapkan dapat dicapai dengan cemerlang. KESIMPULAN Berbalik kepada persoalan sama ada pelajar dalam kursus ini “bekerja sebagai satu kumpulan” atau “bekerja dalam kumpulan”, dapatan kajian ini jelas menunjukkan pelajar lebih cenderung untuk bekerja sebagai satu kumpulan. Bagaimanapun, masih ada sudut-sudut yang perlu dibaiki agar tahap sosiabiliti dapat dipertingkatkan lagi. Ruang sosial negatif pula perlu dikurangkan hingga sekecil-kecilnya. Dalam mencari penyelesaian masalah ini, CSCL dilihat sebagai satu alternatif. RUJUKAN

[1] Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power for The Behavioural Sciences.

Hillsdalle, HJ: Erlbaum. [2] Dembo, M.H., & McAuliffe, T.J. (1987). Effects of perceived ability and

grade status on social interaction and influence in cooperative groups. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 415-423

[3] Dillenbourg, P. (Ed.) (1999). Collaborative Learning: Cognitive and

Computational Approaches. Oxford, England: Pergamon, Elsevier Science Ltd

[4] Gerlach, J.M. (1994). Is this Collaboration? In Bosworth, K dan Hamilton,

S.J. (Eds). Collaboration Learning: Underlying Process and Effective Technique, New Directions For Teaching and Learning No.59.

[5] Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1999). Cooperation and Competition: Theory

and Research. Edina MN: Interaction Book Company. [6] Khandaker, N., Soh, L.K, Jiang, H. (2006). Student learning and team

formation in a structured CSCL enviroment. Riichiro, M, Pirrre, D, Zhiting Zhu (Ed) in Learning Effectiveness Utilization of Technologies: Facilitating Intercultural Understanding. Amsterdam: IOS Press.

[7] Salomon, G. (1992). What does the design of effective CSCL require and

how do we study its effects. ACM Conference on Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, 21(3). New York:ACM Press.

[8] Salomon, G., & Globerson, T. (1987). What teams do not function the way

they ought to. International Journal of Educational Research, 13, 89-100. [9] Kreijns, K., Kirschner, P.A., Jochems, W., & Van Buuren, H. (2007).

Computer & Education, 49, 176-192.



247

[10] Kerr, N.L. (1983). Motivation Losses in small groups: A social dilemma analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 819-828.

[11] Kerr, N.L., & Bruun, S.E. (1983). Dispensability of member effort and group

motivation losses: Free rider effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,44, 78-94

[12] Nugent, W., Sieppert, J., & Hudson, W. (2001). Practice evaluation fot the

21st century. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole

[13] Staton, D., Bayon, V., Neale, H., Ghali, A., Benford, S., Cobb, S. et al.

(2001). Classroom collaboration in the design of tangible interfaces for storytelling. Proceedings of the SIGCHI 2001 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, San Franscisco, CA, 482-489.

[14] Yacine, L., & Tahar, B. (2007). Learner’s Assessment in a Collaborative

Learning System. Asian Journal of Information Technology, 6(2), 145-153. [15] Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher

psychological processes. Cambrige, MA: Harvard University Press. [16] Wood, D., & O’Malley, C. (1996). Collaborative learning between peers: an

overview. Educational Psychology in Practice, 11, 4, 4-9.



248

PENGGUNAAN KAMUS ARAB-MELAYU DALAM PENGAJARAN DAN

PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA ARAB TASNIM BINTI MOHD ANNUAR

Fakulti Pengajian Kontemporari Islam, Universiti Darul Iman Malaysia, Kampus KUSZA, Gong Badak, 21300 Kuala Terengganu [email protected] © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRAK - Salah satu rintangan dalam mengajar bahasa Arab ialah memahamkan pelajar makna-makna perkataan dalam teks berbahasa Arab dan seterusnya memahamkan maksud yang disampaikan oleh setiap ayat bagi membolehkan pelajar memahami keseluruhan teks tersebut. Kecenderungan menterjemah perkataan Arab ke bahasa Melayu secara langsung merupakan satu kelemahan dalam pengajaran bahasa Arab. Di samping itu, ia menyebabkan pelajar tidak mampu berdikari untuk memahami pelajaran serta teks-teks lain yang berbahasa Arab tanpa bergantung sepenuhnya kepada guru. Pelajar harus diberi tunjuk ajar bagi mendapat makna perkataan tanpa bergantung kepada terjemahan guru semata-mata. Oleh itu, kertas kerja ini cuba meninjau sejauh mana kemampuan penggunaan kamus Arab-Melayu membantu proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa Arab dari sudut memahami teks berbahasa Arab. Ia juga bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti kelemahan yang mungkin timbul dalam penggunaannya untuk tujuan pengajaran dan pembelajaran.. Penggunaan kamus Arab-Melayu dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa Arab dapat membantu pelajar memahami teks berbahasa Arab tanpa perlu bergantung sepenuhnya kepada terjemahan secara langsung daripada guru. Namun begitu, terdapat juga beberapa kelemahan seperti proses mencari perkataan yang mengambil masa mengganggu tempoh pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang diperuntukkan, ketiadaan perkataan yang dicari maknanya di dalam kamus Arab-Melayu serta kelemahan pelajar sendiri dalam menggunakan kamus bagi tujuan mencari makna tersebut.

1.0 PENDAHULUAN

Kertas kerja ini merupakan rangkuman pengalaman melaksanakan pengajaran subjek al-Muthala’ah wa al-Ta’bir kepada pelajar tahun satu, peringkat diploma di Universiti Darul Iman Malaysia, Terengganu. Subjek ini menggunakan petikan perbualan dalam bahasa Arab sebagai teks untuk proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Penekanan subjek ini adalah kepada empat



249

kemahiran bahasa, iaitu mendengar, bertutur, membaca dan menulis. Namun begitu, kertas kerja ini hanya memberi fokus kepada pemahaman teks dalam kemahiran membaca. Setelah mengajar subjek ini selama lebih kurang tiga tahun, didapati terdapat kesukaran dalam memahamkan pelajar teks berbahasa Arab tanpa melalui proses penterjemahan. Ini adalah masalah yang biasa dihadapi oleh kebanyakan pensyarah yang mengajar bahasa Arab dan subjek lain yang teksnya dalam bahasa Arab. Satu kajian yang telah dilakukankan terhadap pelajar Diploma Pengajian Islam (Bahasa Arab) di Kolej Universiti Islam Antara bangsa Selangor (KUIS) mendapati lebih separuh daripada pelajar (iaitu 54.5%) lebih suka kalau pensyarah menyampaikan kuliah dengan cara menterjemahkannya ke bahasa ibunda (Nasimah, 2006 : 205).

Kaedah terjemahan kepada bahasa ibunda mendorong pelajar malas berusaha untuk memahami makna perkataan baru dan bergantung sepenuhnya kepada guru atau pensyarah untuk memahami teks. Ini adalah berdasarkan pengalaman menggunakan kaedah terjemahan dalam pengajaran subjek al-Muthala’ah wa al-Ta’bir pada semester satu sesi pengajian 2006/2007. Dalam proses pengajaran tersebut, sebahagian kecil teks tidak diterjemah dan pelajar diminta supaya merujuk kepada kamus untuk perbincangan. Namun begitu, hasilnya amat mengecewakan kerana sebahagian pelajar tidak berusaha untuk merujuk kamus dan hanya menunggu untuk mendapatkan makna perkataan dalam perbincangan.

Untuk mengelakkan daripada menggunakan kaedah terjemahan dalam pengajaran, penggunaan kamus Arab–Melayu dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi subjek al-Muthala’ah wa al-Ta’bir pada semester satu sesi pengajian 2007/2008 cuba diaplikasikan. Pengajaran juga dijalankan dalam bahasa Arab tidak kurang daripada 90% peratus. Hasil daripada pemerhatian terhadap penggunaan kamus Arab-Melayu dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran dan maklum balas pelajar terhadap proses tersebut dibentangkan dalam kertas kerja ringkas ini. 2.0 PENGAJARAN BAHASA ARAB Terdapat pelbagai kaedah pengajaran bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa kedua. Namun begitu, terdapat dua kaedah yang telah digunakan oleh penulis dalam proses pengajaran, iaitu kaedah nahu-terjemahan dan kaedah secara langsung (mubasyarah). Kaedah nahu-terjemahan dikenali juga sebagai kaedah lama atau kaedah taqlidiyyah (Ismail Hassanain Ahmad Thulaiyb, 2003 : 24-26). Dalam kaedah ini, pengajaran dilaksanakan dengan guru mengajar pelajar membaca teks dan kemudiannya menterjemahkan teks tersebut ke dalam bahasa ibunda pelajar.

Menurut Dr.Abu Said Muhammad Abdul Majid (2007), kelemahan kaedah ini ialah sikap para pelajar menjadi negatif dari sudut menggunakan kemahiran berfikir kerana mereka bergantung sepenuhnya kepada guru. Di samping itu, penggunaan bahasa pertama pelajar dalam pengajaran menjadi penghalang untuk pelajar menguasai bahasa kedua yang dipelajari.



250

Kaedah secara langsung (mubasyarah) pula menggunakan bahasa kedua yang dipelajari oleh pelajar tanpa menterjemahkannya ke dalam bahasa ibunda pelajar. Dalam kaedah ini guru akan menggunakan pelbagai cara seperti isyarat dan lakonan serta bahan bantu mengajar untuk memahamkan pelajar perkataan-perkataan dalam bahasa kedua. Dari satu sudut, kaedah ini mempunyai kebaikan kerana ia membiasakan pelajar dengan bahasa kedua yang dipelajari serta menjadikan mereka berfikir secara aktif untuk memahami makna-makna perkataan.

Dari segi lain pula, kaedah ini juga mempunyai beberapa kelemahan. Penggunaan bahasa kedua secara langsung tanpa menterjemah ada ketikanya menyebabkan pelajar tidak dapat memahami teks ataupun mereka tersalah faham teks tersebut. Selain itu, kaedah ini tidak mengambil kira perbezaan antara kemampuan para pelajar yang berbeza-beza. Pelajar yang cerdik mungkin dapat mengikuti pelajaran dengan baik manakala pelajar yang lemah akan ketinggalan. Penggunaan kaedah terjemahan adalah satu kelemahan yang besar dalam pengajaran bahasa Arab lebih-lebih lagi dalam suasana “persekitaran yang tidak berbahasa Arab”. Oleh itu, penggunaan kaedah ini perlulah dielakkan terutamanya di peringkat pengajian tinggi. Kaedah kedua pula amat sesuai dilaksanakan diperingkat pengajian tinggi dengan sokongan kemudahan pengajaran seperti makmal bahasa dan pusat sumber yang lengkap serta penggunaan bahan bantu mengajar (BBM) yang sesuai.

Namun begitu, cara yang lebih baik ialah menggunakan bahasa Arab secara maksimum dan menggalakkan pelajar menggunakan kamus bagi mendapatkan makna perkataan yang sukar di samping guru menerangkan makna dalam bahasa Arab. Guru atau pensyarah hanya menerangkan makna perkataan atau rangkai kata yang tidak dapat difahami pelajar dalam bahasa Melayu setelah pelajar tidak mendapati perkataan tersebut di dalam kamus dan tidak memahami penerangan dalam bahasa Arab.

3.0 KAMUS DAN PROSES PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA ARAB

Kamus merupakan rujukan penting bagi pelajar yang mempelajari bahasa kedua atau bahasa asing. Hal ini demikian kerana kamus dapat membantu pelajar memahami makna perkataan-perkataan yang tidak dapat difahami olehnya. Dalam konteks bahasa Arab, kamus bukan sahaja berperanan dalam subjek bahasa Arab, malah ia juga menjadi rujukan penting bagi semua subjek yang diajar dalam bahasa Arab.

Menurut Rosni Samah (2006 : 274), proses pembelajaran dengan menggunakan pelbagai kamus bahasa dapat membantu pelajar menguasai kosa kata dengan baik. Pelajar tidak akan dapat mengetahui makna perkataan baru yang ditemuinya melainkan dengan cara melihat kamus. Menurut beliau juga, kamus hendaklah dipelbagaikan bagi menambah makna perkataan yang dicari dan pelajar boleh menggunakan kamus Arab-Melayu sebagai asas utama atau kamus Arab-Inggeris dan kamus Arab-Arab.



251

Selain itu, kamus juga memainkan peranan sebagai salah satu strategi

pembelajaran bahasa (SPB). Strategi pembelajaran bahasa menurut Oxford (1989: 8) ialah “tindakan-tindakan tertentu yang diambil oleh pelajar untuk menjadikan pembelajaran lebih mudah, lebih cepat, lebih menyeronokkan, lebih berbentuk kendiri, lebih efektif dan lebih mudah disesuaikan kepada situasi baru”. Beliau membahagikan (SPB) kepada strategi langsung dan strategi tidak langsung. Strategi langsung terdiri daripada strategi memori, strategi kognitif dan strategi tampungan; manakala strategi tidak langsung ialah strategi metakognitif, strategi afektif dan strategi sosial (Oxford, 1989 : 16).

Penggunaan kamus dalam SPB termasuk dalam strategi kognitif. Satu kajian yang dijalankan oleh Nurazan (2006: 245) terhadap pelajar daripada pelbagai jurusan di KUSZA, Kuala Terengganu yang mengikuti kursus bahasa Arab mendapati dari segi kekerapan penggunaan SPB, buku nahu dan kamus menduduki tempat kedua daripada 73 SPB yang disenaraikan. Ini menunjukkan pelajar cenderung kepada menggunakan kamus dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa Arab.

Satu penyelidikan mengenai pendekatan pengajaran bahasa Arab di sekolah-sekolah agama mendapati bahawa proses pengajaran hanya berpusat kepada guru semata-mata dan tertumpu kepada sudut terjemahan. Beberapa pandangan dan cadangan diminta daripada pelajar untuk aktiviti mempelajari bahasa Arab. Salah satu cadangan yang diberikan ialah merujuk terjemahan dan mencari makna dalam kamus. (Rosni Samah, 2007 : 320-321 & 325). Ini menunjukkan bahawa pelajar berpendapat kamus dapat membantu mereka dalam memahami makna perkataan. 4.0 PENGGUNAAN KAMUS ARAB-MELAYU DALAM PENGAJARAN

SUBJEK AL- MUTHALA’AH WA AL-TA’BIR

Subjek al-Muthala’ah wa al-Ta’bir menggunakan buku teks dalam bahasa Arab. Dalam proses pengajaran subjek ini, buku teks merupakan bahan utama yang digunakan, manakala kamus Arab-Melayu hanya sebagai bahan rujukan bagi membantu melancarkan proses tersebut.

Pemilihan kamus Arab-Melayu untuk digunakan oleh pelajar adalah kerana ia menterjemahkan makna ke dalam bahasa ibunda yang mudah difahami oleh mereka. Selain itu, kebanyakan pelajar tidak biasa menggunakan kamus Arab-Arab dan tidak dapat memahami makna yang diberikan dalam bahasa Arab. Memandangkan kebanyakan pelajar telah mempunyai kamus Arab-Melayu, maka mereka diberi kebebasan untuk menggunakan kamus yang sedia ada tanpa ditetapkan penggunaan kamus tertentu. Oleh itu, terdapat pelbagai keluaran kamus yang digunakan termasuk kamus al-Marbawi yang telah lama berada di pasaran dan juga kamus dwibahsa Oxford-Fajar yang agak terkini. Selain itu, terdapat juga pelajar yang menggunakan kamus Arab-Indonesia, susunan Profesor Haji Mahmud Yunus.



252

Teks bagi subjek al-Muthala’ah wa al-Ta’bir ini semuanya adalah dalam bentuk perbualan dalam bahasa Arab. Oleh itu, terdapat ayat-ayat yang tidak sesuai diterjemahkan secara terus ke dalam bahasa Melayu seperti ucapan salam, kata-kata aluan, ucapan perpisahan dan beberapa bentuk doa yang menjadi kebiasaan bagi orang-orang Arab. Ayat- ayat tersebut difahamkan kepada pelajar berdasarkan situasi penggunaan dan tidak diterjemahkan secara harfiyyah. Dalam keadaan seperti ini ada ketikanya terjemahan terpaksa dilakukan kerana penggunaan kamus semata-mata tidak dapat memberikan makna yang sesuai.

Bagi perkataan-perkataan lain yang boleh dirujuk maknanya di dalam kamus Arab -Melayu, pelajar diminta supaya merujuk kepada kamus tersebut setelah penerangan makna dalam bahasa Arab tidak dapat menjelaskan maksud perkataan. Pensyarah tidak menterjemah perkataan yang tidak difahami ke dalam bahasa Melayu tetapi menyebut “sahih” apabila makna perkataan yang disebut oleh pelajar setelah merujuk kamus Arab-Melayu menepati maksud dalam ayat. Dalam proses mencari makna perkataan di dalam kelas, pelajar diberi tunjuk ajar cara mencari perkataan yang tidak diketahui maknanya. Namun begitu, pada peringkat permulaan mereka dibiarkan berusaha mendapatkan makna perkataan tanpa panduan. Setelah mereka menyatakan bahawa mereka tidak tahu di mana hendak mencari perkataan yang tidak diketahui maknanya itu ataupun mereka tidak menemui perkataan tersebut, panduan diberikan. Daripada proses ini dapat dikesan beberapa kelemahan penggunaan kamus Arab-Melayu dalam menjalankan pengajaran. Antara kelemahan yang dapat dikesan sepanjang proses mencari makna di dalam kelas ini ialah tempoh masa yang lama diambil untuk mencari makna dan memahami keseluruhan teks. Ini mengganggu proses pengajaran yang perlu melibatkan kemahiran-kemahiran lain dalam tempoh yang telah ditetapkan. Dari sudut pelajar pula, ada di kalangan mereka yang tidak mengetahui usul perkataan yang terdiri daripada tiga huruf asal, iaitu )fgh( yang menjadi asas untuk mencari makna perkataan berbahasa Arab dalam kamus. Ini menyukarkan mereka untuk mencari makna sesuatu perkataan dalam bahasa Arab di dalam kamus Arab-Melayu yang mereka gunakan. Selain itu, mereka tidak mengetahu asal huruf alif dalam perkataan yang ain kalimahnya adalah huruf ‘illah (ajwaf) adalah waw atau ya. Ini menyebabkan mereka mencari makna perkataan tersebut di bahagian permulaan setiap huruf sedangkan berdasarkan susunan asal ia terletak di bahagian akhir huruf. Akibatnya, mereka tidak menemui perkataan seperti دار dan نmn di dalam kamus Arab-Melayu tersebut. Setelah dijelaskan beberapa panduan untuk mencari perkataan di dalam kamus Arab-Melayu, didapati mereka dapat mencari makna perkataan di bahagian yang betul dan dapat membantu mereka mendapatkan makna dengan lebih cepat. Namun begitu keseluruhan proses mencari makna dalam kelas adalah memakan masa yang lama. Untuk mencari makna satu perenggan yang



253

mengandungi kira-kira 20 patah perkataan baru memerlukan lebih daripada 20 minit. Ini bererti satu minit tidak mencukupi untuk mencari makna satu patah perkataan. Jika kaedah ini digunakan untuk keseluruhan teks tanpa penerangan daripada guru atau pensyarah, ia akan mengganggu keseluruhan proses pengajaran yang telah dihadkan tempohnya. Oleh itu, penggunaan kamus dalam pengajaran untuk tujuan memahami teks perlulah difokuskan untuk perkataan yang tidak dapat difahami setelah guru memberi penerangan sahaja. 5.0 PENGGUNAAN KAMUS ARAB-MELAYU DALAM PEMBELAJARAN

BAHASA ARAB

Untuk meninjau sama ada penggunaan kamus Arab-Melayu dapat membantu pelajar dalam pembelajaran di luar kelas, mereka diminta menterjemahkan satu perenggan yang dipetik daripada pelajaran yang belum diajarkan kepada mereka. Latihan ini bertujuan untuk menggalakkan pelajar membuat persediaan awal sebelum mengikuti kelas al-Muthala’ah wa al-Ta’bir serta memberi keyakinan kepada mereka bahawa kamus Arab-Melayu dapat membantu mereka memahami makna perkataan baru yang asing bagi mereka.

Berdasarkan penterjemahan yang mereka lakukan dalam latihan tersebut didapati pelajar dapat memahami teks dengan lebih baik apabila mereka menggunakan kamus Arab-Melayu. Malahan kebanyakan mereka dapat menterjemah dengan baik berbantukan kamus Arab-Melayu.

Sebagai contoh, rangkai kata تmqّrsgtا uhvw dalam ayat ) uhvw فvyأ f{د) اmqّrsgtت diterjemahkan sebagai bilik amali, wad, bilik sakit, bilik ujian dan bilik

tunggu, sebelum merujuk kepada kamus Arab-Melayu. Setelah merujuk kamus tersebut mereka menterjemahkannya sebagai bilik bedah atau bilik pembedahan, iaitu maknanya yang dimaksudkan dalam ayat. Dalam ayat ) ءm}~tm� فvy� رج و��انm�tا �h وو�{� ا�م وا�ب( , perkataan ءm}~tا diterjemahkan kepada makna selamat, sihat, rawatan dan berubat. Selepas menggunakan kamus, Pelajar telah mendapat makna yang lebih tepat, iaitu sembuh. Dalam ayat yang agak panjang, ) �~stm� �r�tا utmn �� m�v�� و�ن أنm�� ان�tا�tن اmوآ) vّs� �hات ا��st~{� و�v��tm إ�t اun�rt ا�r� u�rّgst ا��tا�� , terdapat beberapa perkataan

yang sukar difahami oleh pelajar. Antaranya, ا��tا ,u�rّgstا , un�rtات , اvّs� , �r�tا utmn , m��. Antara terjemahan yang dilakukan oleh pelajar untuk ayat ini sebelum danو�نselepas menggunakan kamus ialah :



254

SEBELUM RUJUKAN SELEPAS RUJUKAN

a. Kedua ibubapanya berharap agar Ashraf dapat keluar dari hospital dengan keadaan yang baik

Ibu dan bapa tidak dapat mengelak daripada keadaan risau dan bimbang, maka kedua-dua mereka berjalan-jalan di laluan hospital sambil melihat gambar-gambar yang tergantung di dinding

b. Dengan menghilangkan rasa risau, mereka keluar dan melihat di papan kenyataan

Dan kedua ibubapa keluar dalam keadaan risau dan berjalan di laluan hospital sambil melihat kenyataan yang tergantung di dinding.

c. Sesungguhnya kedua ibubapanya mengetahui hal ini dan mereka keluar pada waktu pagi dengan berjalan ke hospital dan untuk melihat keadaan anaknya

Kedua ibubapanya di sekitarnya keluar dari keadaan bimbang berjalan pada laluan hospital dan melihat gambar yang tergantung atas dinding.

d. Dan keluar ibubapanya daripada keadaan _________ dengan berjalan sekeliling hospital dan terlihat kepada satu kenyataan

Dan kedua ibubapanya cuba untuk keluar dari perasaan bimbang dengan berjalan keliling hospital dan melihat ke satu kenyataan yang bergantungan di dinding

Terjemahan yang sepatutnya untuk ayat tersebut ialah “ Kedua ibubapa tersebut cuba untuk keluar daripada (menghilangkan) perasaan bimbang/risau dengan berjalan-jalan di laluan (koridor) hospital dan dengan melihat gambar-gambar yang tergantung di dinding”. Dalam contoh terjemahan (a), didapati terdapat perbezaan yang amat ketara antara terjemahan sebelum dan selepas merujuk kamus Arab-Melayu. Terjemahan selepas rujukan adalah lebih menghampiri terjemahan yang sepatutnya. Begitu juga dengan contoh (c), yang menunjukkan terjemahan selepas rujukan lebih baik berbanding sebelumnya yang tidak menepati sama sekali maksud ayat. Terjemahan dalam contoh (b) pula menunjukkan terdapat sedikit persamaan antara terjemahan sebelum dan selepas rujukan kamus Arab-Melayu. Namun begitu, didapati dalam terjemahan ini sebahagiannya tidak menepati maksud ayat. Dalam contoh (d) pula, pelajar telah meninggalkan ruang kosong untuk perkataan yang tidak difahaminya sebelum merujuk kamus Arab-Melayu. Namun begitu, beliau dapat melakukan terjemahan yang hampir tepat dengan maksud ayat setelah merujuk kamus tersebut.



255

Daripada contoh-contoh di atas, dapat disimpulkan bahawa penggunaan kamus Arab-Melayu dapat membantu proses pembelajaran pelajar untuk memahami makna teks berbahasa Arab walaupun tidak sampai ke tahap 100%. 6.0 MAKLUMBALAS PELAJAR

Untuk menguatkan lagi hasil pemerhatian, maklum balas daripada pelajar juga dikumpul. Antara perkara yang dibangkitkan berkaitan penggunaan kamus Arab-Melayu ialah :

1. Sama ada pelajar menggunakan kamus Arab-Melayu dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa Arab di dalam kelas atau tidak.

2. Sama ada kamus Arab-Melayu membantu pelajar memahami teks berbahasa Arab tanpa bantuan guru atau tidak .

3. Sama ada pelajar menggunakan kamus Arab-Melayu untuk memahami subjek lain yang diajar dalam bahasa Arab (teksnya berbahasa Arab) atau tidak.

4. Peratusan kamus Arab-Melayu membantu pelajar dalam memahami kandungan teks.

Hasil maklum balas tersebut didapati seramai 38 orang pelajar, iaitu

(92.7%) daripada 41 orang yang terlibat dengan maklum balas tersebut menggunakan kamus Arab-Melayu dalam dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa Arab di dalam kelas . 24 orang pelajar, iaitu (58.5%) daripada mereka mengakui bahawa kamus Arab-Melayu dapat membantu mereka memahami teks berbahasa Arab tanpa bantuan guru, manakala 38 orang daripada mereka, iaitu (92.7%) menggunakan kamus Arab-Melayu untuk memahami subjek lain yang diajar dalam bahasa Arab (teksnya berbahasa Arab).

Seramai 16 orang pelajar, iaitu (39%) daripada 41 orang pelajar

menyatakan bahawa kamus Arab-Melayu membantu mereka dalam memahami kandungan teks sebanyak 80% ke atas. 18 orang daripada mereka pula, iaitu (44%) mengakui bahawa kamus Arab-Melayu membantu mereka dalam memahami kandungan teks sebanyak 60% -79%. Manakala yang baki sebanyak tujuh orang pula memberi jawapan tidak kurang daripada 40%. Ini menandakan bahawa kamus Arab-Melayu mampu membantu pelajar untuk memahami teks dalam bahasa Arab dengan baik.

Masalah yang dihadapi oleh pelajar semasa menggunakan kamus Arab-

Melayu dalam pembelajaran ditinjau dari sudut : 1. Kalimah yang dicari sering tidak ditemui di dalam kamus. 2. Pelajar tidak mengetahui tiga huruf asal bagi perkataan Arab yang

dicari. 3. Pelajar tidak mahir ilmu sorof 4. Proses mencari makna menggunakan kamus Arab-Melayu

mengambil masa/lambat.

Sebanyak 41.5% daripada 41 orang pelajar, iaitu 17 orang bersetuju



256

bahawa kalimah yang dicari sering tidak ditemui di dalam kamus. Masalah ini timbul mungkin disebabkan oleh dua faktor utama , iaitu kekurangan kosa kata dalam kamus yang digunakan oleh pelajar dengan erti kata lain kamus tidak lengkap dan kelemahan pelajar dalam menggunakan kamus utuk mencari makna perkataan tersebut.

Terdapat seramai 25 orang pelajar, iaitu kira-kira 61% menyatakan

bahawa mereka mengetahu tiga huruf asal bagi perkataan Arab yang dicari. Pelajar-pelajar ini mungkin mempunyai asas ilmu sorof yang agak baik. Namun begitu, majoriti pelajar, iaitu seramai 35 orang (85%) mengakui bahawa mereka tidak mahir ilmu sorof. Kemahiran ilmu sorof adalah perlu untuk memudahkan pencarian makna perkataan kerana perkataan Arab banyak berlaku perubahan apabila melibatkan huruf ‘llah, iaitu alif, waw dan ya dalam perkataan tersebut. Begitu juga, masalah huruf-huruf tambahan yang perlu dibuang bagi mendapatkan tiga huruf asal perkataan.

Mengenai proses mencari makna menggunakan kamus Arab-Melayu

yang lambat, seramai 31 orang pelajar, iaitu (75.6%) bersetuju bahawa ia menjadi satu masalah kepada mereka.

Dapatan daripada maklumbalas pelajar ini adalah selari dengan hasil

pemerhatian yang dilakukan sepanjang proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran berlangsung.

7. 0 PENUTUP

Kamus merupakan rujukan yang penting dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa kedua. Ia dapat dijadikan sebagai bahan bantu mengajar ketika menjalankan aktiviti bahasa di dalam kelas seperti perbincangan, perdebatan dan kuiz. Dengan mengeksploitasi kamus sebagai sumber untuk menarik perhatian pelajar dapat membantu untuk mempertingkatkan keyakinan diri mereka sebagai pengguna kamus. Di samping itu, melalui penggunaan kamus pelajar akan terdedah kepada banyak data bahasa yang dapat membantu mereka menerokai bahasa sebagai satu sistem. Guru juga akan mendapat manfaat apabila pelajar dapat meningkatkan kemahiran meggunakan kamus. Kamus juga membekalkan satu sumber maklumat tambahan dan menambahkan kepelbagaian kepada pelajaran (Wright, 1998 : 7).

Penggunaan kamus Arab-Melayu dapat membantu guru atau pensyarah yang ingin menggunakan kaedah langsung dalam pengajaran bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa kedua. Namun begitu, mereka perlulah mengawal penggunaan tersebut dan menghadkannya untuk perkataan yang tidak dapat difahami dengan sekadar memberi penerangan sahaja. Tujuannya ialah supaya penggunaan kamus Arab-Melayu dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam kelas tidak mengganggu masa yang diperlukan untuk melaksanakan aktiviti-aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa yang lain. Pelajar yang mempelajari bahasa Arab perlu menjadikan kamus Arab-Melayu sebagai rujukan mereka untuk peringkat permulaan. Namun begitu, mereka juga harus cuba menggunakan kamus Arab-Arab dan Arab-Inggeris



257

untuk meluaskan lagi sumber rujukan dan kosa kata mereka. Masalah yang dihadapi dapat diatasi dengan penggunaan kamus yang berterusan sehingga mereka menjadi mahir. RUJUKAN [1] Nasimah Haji Abdullah. “Permasalahan Dalam Pembelajaran Bagi Pelajar

Diploma Pengajian Islam (Bahasa Arab) Di Kuis Dan Cara Mengatasinya”. Prosiding Wacana Pendidikan Islam Siri 5, UKM. 2006

[2] Ismail Hassanayn Ahmad Thulaiyb. “Al-Mursyid al-Wajiz Li Mu’allimi al-Lughah al-‘Arabiyyah Li al-Nathiqin Bighayriha Fi al-Mustawayat al-Mutawassithah wa al-Mutaqaddimah. Kuala Lumpur : Univision Press Sdn. Bhd. 2003

[3] Dr.Abu Said Muhammad Abdul Majid. “Thuruq Tadris al-Lughah al-”Arabiyyah Biwasfiha Lughatan Tsaniyatan”. Prosiding Seminar Kebangsaan Pengajaran Bahasa Arab, UIAM. 2007

[4] Rosni Samah. “ Pembelajaran Bahasa Arab Sebagai Bahasa Kedua Melalui Pendekatan Kosa Kata Dan Bina Ayat” Prosiding Wacana Pedidikan Islam Siri 5 , UKM. 2006

[5] Oxford, R. L.Alnguage Learning Strategies :What Every Teacher Should Know”. Boston : Heinle & Heinle Publishers. 1989

[6] Nur Azan Mohmad Rouyan. “Penggunaan Strategi Pembelajaran Bahasa (SPB) Di Kalangan Pelajar Bahasa Arab Di KUSZA”. Prosiding Wacana Pendidikan Islam Siri 5, UKM. 2006

[7] Rosni Samah, “Pendekatan Pengajaran Bahasa Arab di Sekolah-sekolah Agama”. Prosiding Seminar Penyelidikan Dalam Pengajian Islam Ke-4, UKM. 2007

[8] Wright, J. “Dictionaries”. Oxford : Oxford University Press. 1998



258

KNOWLEDGE AND INTEREST ON TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AMONG UiTM

PHARMACY STUDENTS

I. ABDUL WAHAB, A. H. JAHIDIN N. A. RAMLI

Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan. [email protected]


ABSTRACT - Traditional Medicine (TM) is an elective course for second year pharmacy undergraduates in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM). It was expected that most of the students have used or tried TM before. A survey was conducted to find out 1) which area of TM that students would like to learn and 2) their perception towards TM. A total of 117 students participated out of 119 registered students (response rate = 98.3%). They were 22 years on average (SD=1.0) ranging from 20-29 years (male=27, female=90). Majority of the students recognized TM as an “alternative medicine or alternative to medical services” (n=109). Equal perceptions were made to TM as “complementary traditional medicine” (n=35), “holistic medicine providing a more complete medical system” (n=34) and “integrative medicine or integrated with clinical pathways” (n=34). Majority would like to study aromatherapy, herbal medicine, massage therapy, acupuncture, homeopathy, reflexology, yoga and tai chi/qi gong (range n=79–110). The topic of chiropractic was found to be the most unpopular (n=77). When the students were posed on the challenges faced in consuming TM, majority were due to the “lacking of internal expertise” (n=99), followed by “lacking of evidence-based studies” (n=73), “information from research” (n=68), “budgetary constraints” (n=53) and “physician resistance” (n=44). The students considered that having “state license” and “national certification in TM practice” (both n=81) were the minimum criteria for recruiting TM practitioner. Others include “physician recommendations” (n=60). Almost equal perceptions on the minimum TM practitioner criteria were observed on the “educational standard 2- to 4-year degree”, “professional association membership”, “city/local license” and “pharmacy” (n=51, 50, 49, 47, respectively), however “Nursing or other healthcare professional” turned to be the least (n=27). Findings generally indicated that



259

various descriptions of TM will still allow the possible generations of “alternative medicine pharmacist” since the students were aware of their position in channeling the information on TM to the public. Keywords:traditional medicine, pharmacy

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Pharmacy is an integration of the knowledge of both traditional and modern medicine. In Faculty of Pharmacy, University Teknologi MARA (UiTM), pharmacy covers an introduction of three disciplines: Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Clinical Pharmacy. The faculty successfully produced its’ first cohort of Bachelor of Pharmacy (Hons.) graduates last 2006. Ninety six percent of the twenty nine registered students were able to complete the pharmacy program in eight semesters. They are now serving community in pharmacies at government hospitals. UiTM international students are also having the experience of learning Malaysian pharmaceutical health-care system.

A comprehensive curriculum incorporating Traditional Medicine (TM) syllabus for professional pharmacy undergraduates is reported to be highly necessary [1]. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), however, is more common in nursing, than in medical education [2, 3]. In UiTM, TM is categorized as a compulsory, none-core course, under Pharmaceutical Sciences. The students were in their second year of the pharmacy degree program. They should take this course in the forth semester, as this was the only curriculum schedule for the degree program (2002 - 2006). However, TM was later opted as a non-compulsory elective course, resulting from the curriculum revamp in July 2006. Recently, Muhsain et al. [5] suggested that UiTM Diploma of Pharmacy curriculum should also include components on complimentary and alternative medicines (CAM) after discovering that most of the students’ views towards CAM were positive. Lua et al. [5] found out that TM has an important role to UiTM pharmacy undergraduates, although many of them were not aware of its side effects. Their survey outcomes have also shown that exposure to TM syllabus could partly influence pharmacy undergraduates’ perception towards its usage in society. Positive feedbacks on the TM course signaled its importance in pharmacy curriculum to ensure that future pharmacists are well-equipped with the knowledge in order to provide comprehensive pharmaceutical advice. Favorable attitudes towards complementary therapies were also initiated elsewhere [6] and many choose to use CAM as part of their normal health care.

Owen et al. [7] mentioned that there is not much information on how to teach TM course to pharmacy students. Therefore, a series of clear CAM educational objectives were defined by consensus, between students and



260

teachers. After the establishment of the course, the authors were still concerned about its sustainability [8]. However, recent report stated on the absence of global standardized criteria on course duration, content, assessment method and accreditation process in traditional and complimentary medicine education, in spite of the growing interest in the training and education process [9]. A modernized TM education, on the other hand, was reported to have generated similar level of students’ professional socialization, as seen in Western medicine students [10].

We have prepared a report on how to design students’ assignment for TM. It is hoped that by collaborative learning, various areas of TM could be introduced to the students [11]. In this paper, we would like to present our findings about the knowledge and interest on TM among UiTM pharmacy students. 2.0 OBJECTIVES

It was expected that most of the students have used or tried TM before. This paper is presented to report 1) which area of TM that students would like to learn and 2) their perception towards TM. 3.0 METHODOLOGY

A survey was administered in the first week of the semester to all Year 2, PH210 Bachelor of Pharmacy (Hons.) students. The students’ knowledge and interest on TM were observed. The frequencies (n) of the results/data were displayed. 4.0 RESULT

A total of 117 students participated out of 119 registered students (response rate = 98.3%). They were 22 years on average (SD=1.0) ranging from 20-29 years (male=27, female=90). The students were asked on several ideas of Traditional Medicine (TM). These included the identification of TM itself. It was found out that majority of the students recognized TM as an “alternative medicine or alternative to medical services” (n=109). Equal perceptions were made to TM as “complementary traditional medicine” (n=35), “holistic medicine providing a more complete medical system” (n=34) and “integrative medicine or integrated with clinical pathways” (n=34).

Several areas of TM were outlined in the questionnaire. This is to identify which area the students would like to know more. It was found out that majority would like to study aromatherapy, herbal medicine, massage therapy, acupuncture, homeopathy, reflexology, yoga and tai chi/qi gong (range n=79–110). The topic of chiropractic was found to be the most unpopular (n=77).

When the students were posed on the challenges faced in consuming TM, majority were due to the “lacking of internal expertise” (n=99), followed by “lacking of evidence-based studies” (n=73), “information from research” (n=68), “budgetary constraints” (n=53) and “physician resistance” (n=44).



261

The students also considered that having “state license” and “national

certification in TM practice” (both n=81) were the minimum criteria for recruiting TM practitioner. Others include “physician recommendations” (n=60). Almost equal perceptions on the minimum TM practitioner criteria were observed on the “educational standard 2- to 4-year degree”, “professional association membership”, “city/local license” and “pharmacy” (n=51, 50, 49, 47, respectively), however “Nursing or other healthcare professional” turned to be the least (n=27). 5.0 DISCUSSION

We observe those pharmacy students own general knowledge and have interest on Traditional medicine (TM). The students could identify TM, though this survey was given in their introductory TM class. According to World Health Organization [12], TM refers to health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being. Complementary medicine also sometimes referred to as non-conventional or parallel, is used to refer to a broad set of heath care practices that are not part of a country’s own tradition, or not integrated into its dominant health care system [13]. The Ministry of Health of Malaysia in 2001, defined T/CM as practices other than that of medicine or surgery, by registered medical practitioners as defined in Medical Act 1971 [14]. Therefore, the recognition of TM as complimentary and alternative medicines (CAM) were seen as appropriate to the students and this has been well accepted.

However, a more thorough study should be undertaken to know whether the students could just ignore the increasing contributions by practitioners in both modern and traditional systems of medicine. On the other hand, we could also study whether TM would systematically contribute to the prevention of human disease, e.g. HIV/AIDS, from the students’ perceptions.

Both traditional herbs and practices were acknowledged by the students (aromatherapy, herbal medicine, massage therapy, acupuncture, homeopathy, reflexology, yoga, tai chi/qi gong and chiropractic). Ayurvedic and cupping (bekam) were mentioned as Others. This implies that the students need to be informed on there topics and hence, be included as part of their group presentation/subject of TM study.

To maximize the potential of TM/CAM as a source of health care, a number of issues must be tackled. These issues are related to policy, safety, efficacy and quality, access and the rational uses [13]. The students’ challenges in consuming TM were majority due to the “lacking of internal expertise”. From a larger perspective, this challenge could be tackled within a national policy concerning safety and quality, licensing of providers and standards of training, and priorities for research. TM has already been integrated into the Malaysia health care system. The students might not aware of the information on health policies. In achieving our national healthcare vision, multi-disciplinary collaboration is crucial. In fact, Malaysia has established its own National Policy



262

on Traditional/Complementary Medicine (T/CM) in 1999 [14]. Thus, this issue should be highlighted during the management of this TM course for the coming semesters.

Traditional/Complementary Medicine (T/CM) Division, Ministry of Health Malaysia had recognized and listed five main local T/CM practice and their practitioner bodies (Table 1, Ministry of Health Malaysia [14]). Table 1: Five main T/CM practice and their practitioner bodies (Ministry of Health Malaysia).

No. Traditional & / Complementary Medicine Practice

Practitioner bodies

1 Traditional Malay Medicine Persekutuan Perubatan Tradisional Melayu Malaysia (PUTRAMAS)

2 Traditional Chinese Medicine i. Federation of Chinese Physicians and Medicine-Dealers Associations of Malaysia (FCPMDAM)

ii. Federation of Chinese Physicians & Acupuncturists Association of Malaysia (FCPAAM)

iii. Chinese Physician’s Association of Malaysia (MCPA)

3 Traditional India Medicine Pertubuhan Perubatan Tradisional India Malaysia (PEPTIM)

4 Complementary Medicine The Malaysian Society for Complementary Therapies (MSCT)

5 Homeopathy Medicine Majlis Perubatan Homeopathy Malaysia (MPHM)

At present, the T/CM Division monitors entry of foreign T/CM

practitioners and is in the process of listing all the T/CM practitioners in the country. A T/CM Act is being prepared to ensure that T/CM practitioners are registered with the government, based on standards and code of ethics, set up by the Ministry of Health [15]. With the T/CM Act coming in force in 2007, all local and foreign practitioners will be required to join their respective practitioner bodies and with T/CM Division.

A check list for the application of foreign practitioners for T/CM has been prepared [14]. These include a comment from the Practitioner Body, certified copies of academic certificate (certificate / diploma / degree / others), company registration certificate and a business license. A testimony / recommendation letter on working experience, together with birth / citizenship certificate / passport are required. In addition, three advertisements in the local newspapers should be attached with the application form.



263

Referring to the students’ response, most of them considered that having

“state license” and “national certification in TM practice” (both n=81) were the minimum criteria for recruiting TM practitioner. This is a good reflection on the students’ knowledge on how and whom to seek information of TM.

In addition, almost equal students’ perceptions on the minimum TM practitioner criteria were observed on the “educational standard 2- to 4-year degree”, “professional association membership”, “city/local license” and “pharmacy” (n=51, 50, 49, 47, respectively). This understanding is timely, by referring to the several efforts performed recently. Malaysian delegation to China, comprising officials from the Higher Education and Health ministries, visited Beijing, Shanghai and Nanking universities. They were in a mission to seek information for their proposal to Malaysia government for considering the recognition of China universities, so that Malaysian students can pursue degree programmes in traditional Chinese medicine [16]. Some of UiTM pharmacy students from East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia might recognize The Faculty of Homeopathy Malaysia & Hospital, located at Kelantan [17]. They might have understood the importance of having a professional degree in TM (e.g. homeopathy). However, some of them might not hear about the Degree of Bachelor of Pharmacy in Chinese Medicine (BPharm in Chin Med) program, offered at The University of Hong Kong [18]. Finally, the students’ least perception on the minimum TM practitioner criteria were observed on the “Nursing or other healthcare professional”. Small percentage of UiTM pharmacy students might not notice on the nurses’ significant role in health-caretaker. In China, School of Traditional Chinese Nursing, at Beijing University of Chinese Medicine is offering the Program of Chinese Medicine Nursing [19]. Beside this, other TM practices could be informed to the students, in order to enhance their knowledge. Referring to the approved total foreign practitioners by T/CM Division from Jan – July 2006 [14], topics such as Podiatri, Myotheraphy and Tuinalogist, have been introduced into our health care system. The awareness of pharmacy students towards these subjects are left for further study. CONCLUSION Findings generally indicated that various descriptions of TM will still allow the possible generations of “alternative medicine pharmacist” since the students were aware of their position in channeling the information on TM to the public. This study has also given the educators/lecturers on the updated information of TM in their task to disseminate the knowledge and instill the interests of TM among the students. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to thank the students of Faculty of Pharmacy, UiTM Shah Alam for their support.



264

REFERENCES [1] Hon, E. K. L., Lee, K., Tse, H. M., Lam, L. N., Tam, K. C., Chu, K. M.,

Lee, V., Lau, C. & Leung, T. F. 2004. A survey of attitudes to Traditional Chinese Medicine in Hong Kong pharmacy students. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 12, 51 – 56.

[2] Furnham, A., Hanna, D. & Vincent, C. A. 1995. Medical students'

attitudes to complementary medical therapies. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 3, 212-219.

[3] Morgan, D., Glanville, H., Mars, S. & Nathanson, V. 1998. Education and

training in complementary and alternative medicine: a postal survey of UK universities, medical schools and faculties of nurse education. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 6, 64-70.

[4] Muhsain, S. N. F., Dianita, R. & Farooqui, M. 2007. Attitudes towards

Complimentary and Alternative Medicines: a Survey amongst Diploma of Pharmacy Students. The 7th Malaysian Pharmaceutical Society Pharmacy Scientific Conference & 9th Commonwealth Pharmaceutical Association Conference, Kuala Lumpur, 1st – 5th August 2007.

[5] Lua, P. L. & Abdul Wahab, I. 2006. Perception towards Traditional

Medicine: A Survey among UiTM Pharmacy Students. The 6th National Symposium on Health Sciences, Kuala Lumpur, 6th - 7th June 2006.

[6] Wilkinson, J. M. and Simpson, M. D. 2001. Complementary therapy use

by nursing, pharmacy and biomedical science students. Nursing and Health Sciences, 3, 19 – 27.

[7] Owen, D. & Lewith, G. T. 2001. Complementary and alternative

medicine (CAM) in the undergraduate medical curriculum: the Southampton experience. Medical Education, 35, 73 – 77.

[8] Lewith, G.T. & Owen, D. 2000. Complementary medicine: the

Southampton undergraduate experience. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 8, 202 – 206.

[9] Abdul Rahman, A. R. 2007. Traditional and complimentary Medicine:

Education and access. Proceedings of 6th International Traditional Complementary Medicine Conference (INTRACOM) / 3rd International Congress on Traditional Medicine & Material Medica (ICT MMM), in conjunction with Traditional & Complimentary Medicine Exhibition (TCME 2007), 17th – 19th July 2007, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pg. 45.

[10] Kim, C.-Y., Lim, B. (2004). Modernized education of traditional medicine



265

in Korea: is it contributing to the same type of professionalization seen in Western medicine? Social Science & Medicine, 58, 1999 – 2008.

[11] Abdul Wahab, I., Ariffin, S. A. & Jahidin, A. H. 2007. Traditional Medicine

Teaching For Pharmacy Undergraduates at Universiti Teknologi MARA. Women’s Health & Asian Traditional Medicine Conference, 16th – 18th November 2007, Kuala Lumpur (abstract accepted).

[12] World Health Organization (WHO), 2007. http://www.who.int/en/

(accessed September 2007). [13] World Health Organization (WHO) Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002–

2005 (2002). World Health Organization (WHO) http://www.who.int/en/ (accessed September 2007).

[14] Traditional And Complementary Medicine (T/CM) Division, Ministry Of

Health Malaysia. http://tcm.moh.gov.my (accessed September 2007). [15] Merican, I. 2002. Traditional/Complementary Medicine: The Way Ahead.

The Medical Journal of Malaysia, Malaysian Medical Association. http://mma.org.my/mjm/mmj.htm (accessed on September 2007).

[16] The New Straits Times. Traditional Chinese medicine degree in

accreditation process. 23rd September 2007. [17] Fakulti Homeopathy Malaysia, Pasir Mas, Kelantan.

http://kelantan.xaper.com/ (accessed on September 2007). [18] The University of Hong Kong. http://www.hku.hk/ (accessed on

September 2007). [19] Beijing University of Chinese Medicine.

http://www.bjucmp.edu.cn/english/newpage1.htm (accessed on September 2007).



266

TAHAP KEFAHAMAN KEMAHIRAN MEREKA BENTUK EKSPERIMEN DAN KEMAHIRAN MENGEKSPERIMEN DI KALANGAN PELAJAR TAHUN DUA

PROGRAM PENDIDIKAN FIZIK MERENTAS JANTINA

Noor Anita Binti Ali(1)

Shaharom Bin Noordin (2)

Fakulti Pendidikan,(1)

Jabatan Pendidikan Sains (2)

dan Matematik, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, [email protected] (1)

[email protected](2)


ABSTRAK - Tahap kefahaman KPS di kalangan pelajar tahun dua Program Pendidikan Fizik di UTM Skudai telah mendapat perhatian penyelidik. Kajian ini menumpukan kepada dua kemahiran, iaitu kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen. Pemboleh ubah manipulasi yang terlibat dalam kajian ini ialah jantina dan program pengajian. Seramai 38 orang pelajar 2SPF dan 2SPP di Fakulti Pendidikan UTM Skudai terlibat dalam kajian ini. Alat kajian yang digunakan untuk mengukur tahap kefahaman kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen ialah Ujian Penilaian Kemahiran Mereka Bentuk Eksperimen Dan Kemahiran Mengeksperimen (UPKMBEM). Alat kajian mengandungi 40 item yang berbentuk objektif. Kebolehpercayaan alat kajian ini ialah α = .82. Analisis data bagi kajian ini menggunakan statistik deskriptif dalam bentuk min, sisihan lazim, peratusan, maksimum dan minimum. Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan tahap kefahaman bagi kedua – dua kemahiran di kalangan pelajar tahun dua Program Pendidikan Fizik adalah baik (71.98%). Dapatan kajian juga mendapati tidak terdapat perbezaan tahap kefahaman bagi kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen merentas jantina. Tahap kefahaman merentas jantina adalah baik dengan (70.95%) bagi lelaki dan (72.50%) bagi perempuan. Secara keseluruhan, dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa tahap kefahaman kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen di kalangan pelajar tahun dua Program Pendidikan Fizik di UTM Skudai berada pada tahap yang baik. Ini memberi gambaran bahawa penekanan KPS dalam P&P sains di UTM telah meningkatkan tahap kefahaman pelajar dalam KPS.



267

1.0 PENGENALAN

Dalam usaha negara untuk merealisasikan matlamat menjadi sebuah negara maju pada tahun 2020, bidang pendidikan di Malaysia kini dianggap sebagai satu bidang yang amat penting untuk melahirkan insan yang seimbang, harmonis dan bermoral tinggi seperti yang dinyatakan dalam Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan (FPK).Selain itu, pendidikan sains juga telah diberikan tumpuan oleh negara ini supaya warganegaranya dapat menguasai ilmu sains dan seterusnya berupaya untuk menangani cabaran dalam dunia sains dan teknologi yang kian mencabar kini. Sehubungan dengan itu, pendidikan sains dalam Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah (KBSR) dan Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menegah (KBSM) telah diwacanakan oleh negara agar dapat memperkembangkan lagi potensi individu [1].

Menurut Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (PPK), kurikulum sains di negara ini telah memberi penekanan kepada proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran (P&P) secara berfikrah yang berteraskan Kemahiran Saintifik (KS) dan juga Kemahiran Berfikir (KB). KS yang dinyatakan dalam kurikulum sains terbahagi kepada dua iaitu Kemahiran Proses Sains (KPS) dan juga Kemahiran Manipulatif (KM). KPS telah dimasukkan dalam kurikulum kerana kemahiran ini merupakan kemahiran yang perlu dikuasai oleh pelajar supaya mereka dapat mencari jawapan kepada sesuatu masalah dan mampu membuat keputusan secara bersistem [1].

Laporan yang dikeluarkan oleh Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia (2004) menunjukkan antara kesilapan yang sering ditemui dalam Peperiksaan Kertas 3 bagi mata pelajaran Fizik ialah terdapat pelajar yang tersilap menulis pemboleh ubah seperti pemboleh ubah dimanipulasi (PUM) dan pemboleh ubah bergerak balas (PUB) dalam menghuraikan rangka kerja eksperimen. Dua penyebab utama telah dikenal pasti sebagai penyebab kepada masalah ini.

1.1 Masalah Dalam Penguasaan Konsep ( Fizik )

Masalah dalam penguasaan konsep Fizik bukan sahaja berlaku kepada pelajar tetapi ia juga berlaku kepada guru. LPM telah memberi saranan kepada guru agar menguasai konsep fizik dengan betul dan mendalam. Selain itu, guru juga perlu memberi penekanan kepada KPS dan juga KB dalam P&P [2].

Seterusnya, pengetahuan sedia ada pelajar turut mempengaruhi tentang sesuatu konsep. Maka salah satu cara yang berkesan bagi guru untuk menghapuskan konsep fizik yang salah ini adalah melalui mengeksperimen. Dengan melakukan eksperimen, ia boleh mendedahkan salah konsep pelajar. 1.2 Masalah Penguasaan KS yang Lemah di kalangan Guru dan

Bakal Guru

Dalam satu kajian awal yang dilakukan oleh Mohamed Isa dari Maktab Perguruan Perlis beliau mendapati penguasaan KPS dikalangan bakal guru yang mengikuti pengkhususan sains adalah lemah. Dua



268

aspek yang amat lemah dikalangan bakal guru ialah mengenali pemboleh ubah dan menyatakan hipotesis [3]. Selain itu satu kajian telah dijalankan oleh Tan (2000) [4] terhadap guru sains di Negeri Sarawak yang sedang mengikuti Program Khas Pensiswazahan Guru (PKPG) menunjukkan bahawa separuh daripada guru sains tersebut masih belum mempunyai KS yang mantap dalam mereka bentuk eksperimen dan mengekperimen terutama yang berkaitan dengan aspek – aspek seperti pengulangan, mentafsir data, dan kebolehpercayaan eksperimen.

Sehubungan dengan itu guru dan bakal guru perlu menguasai

kurikulum fizik kerana mereka bertanggungjawab untuk merealisasikan objektif yang ketiga dalam kurikulum fizik yang mahukan supaya pelajar dapat menyelesaikan masalah secara bersistem dan seterusnya berupaya berfikir secara berkesan. Justeru,bakal guru khususnya perlu mempersiapkan diri mereka dengan kemahiran saintifik (KS). Hal ini kerana guru perlu lebih pengetahuan dan maklumat berkenaan KS sebagai persediaan untuk mengajar kelak.

Untuk memastikan objektif kurikulum fizik tercapai, kurikulum mata pelajaran sains telah dibuat di maktab atau di universiti. Contohnya seperti di Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), pelajar yang mengambil program pendidikan fizik telah diwajibkan untuk mengikuti Kursus Pendidikan Amali Fizik I, Kursus Pendidikan Amali Fizik II. Justeru itu, satu kajian perlu dijalankan untuk mengukur tahap kefahaman KS, dalam aspek kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen di kalangan pelajar tahun dua Program Pendidikan Fizik.



269

1.3 Rangka Kerja Konsep

KS

Kemahiran Mereka Bentuk Eksperimen

- Menyatakan inferens - Menyatakan hipotesis - Menyatakan tujuan

eksperimen - Menyatakan pemboleh

ubah - Menyatakan senarai

radas dan bahan - Menerangkan

pemasangan radas - Menyatakan

pengkaedahan - Menunjukkan kaedah

penjadualan data

Kemahiran Mengeksperimen

- Menyusun dan memasang radas mengikut prosedur.

- Mengendalikan radas, bahan, dan alatan mengikut prosedur yang ditetapkan

- Mengambil dan membaca ukuran dengan kaedah dan teknik yang betul

Tahap Kefahaman (Dalam bentuk ujian

pencapaian)

Tahap Kefahaman ( Dalam bentuk ujian

pencapaian )

Sangatbaik, Baik, Sederhana, Lemah, Sangat Lemah

HASIL

Sangatbaik, Baik, Sederhana, Lemah, Sangat Lemah



270

Rajah 1 : Rangka Kerja Konsep

2.0 PENGKAEDAHAN

2.1 Reka Bentuk Kajian

Penyelidikan yang dijalankan ini merupakan penyelidikan kuantitatif. Hasil kajian akan dibentangkan dengan menggunakan statistik deskriptif kerana daripada objektif kajian, kajian yang dijalankan ini adalah bertujuan untuk menilai tahap kefahaman pelajar tahun dua Program Pendidikan Fizik di UTM Skudai dalam kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen. Selain itu kajian ini juga bertujuan untuk membandingkan tahap kefahaman mereka bentuk eksperimen dan mengeksperimen merentas jantina.

2.2 Subjek Kajian

Dalam kajian ini, subjek kajian adalah 38 daripada 43 orang pelajar tahun dua Program Pendidikan Fizik di UTM Skudai yang mempunyai julat umur di antara 20 tahun hingga 21 tahun. 5 orang Pelajar lepasan diploma yang mengikuti Program Pendidikan Fizik tidak dilibatkan. Oleh kerana populasi kajian ini adalah pelajar tahun dua Program Pendidikan Fizik yang mempunyai julat umur antara 20 hingga 21 maka cara pemilihan sampel adalah melalui cara persampelan bertujuan iaitu penyelidik sengaja memilih sampel dengan tujuan mendapatkan jumlah sampel yang mewakili populasi.

2.3 Alat Kajian

Alat kajian yang digunakan dalam kajian ini adalah ujian pencapaian yang dinamakan sebagai Ujian Pencapaian Kemahiran Mereka Bentuk Eksperimen dan Mengeksperimen (UPKMBEM) dan pengesahan bagi alat kajian ini telah dilakukan oleh dua orang pakar bidang di Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

Ujian ini mengandungi dua bahagian iaitu Bahagian A dan

Bahagian B. Bahagian A mengandungi maklumat pelajar seperti jantina, dan program pengajian. Bahagian B pula mengandungi 40 item yang digunakan untuk mengenal pasti tahap kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan mengeksperimen. Terdapat 20 item yang digunakan untuk mengukur tahap kefahaman kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan 20 item lagi digunakan untuk mengukur tahap kefahaman kemahiran mengeksperimen. UPKMBEM ini merupakan ujian yang berbentuk objektif yang mengandungi empat pilihan jawapan iaitu A, B, C, dan D.

Berikut merupakan subskala bagi kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen yang akan digunakan sebagai panduan untuk membina item bagi UPKMBEM.



271

Jadual 2.1 : Item – item Kemahiran Mereka Bentuk Eksperimen Mengikut Aspek Penilaian Kemahiran Aspek Nombor Item

Mereka Bentuk

Eksperimen

Menyatakan Inferens 3, 8, 11, Menyatakan hipotesis 2, 33, 38 Menyatakan tujuan eksperimen

18, 28,

Menyatakan pemboleh ubah

1, 19, 10, 27,

Menyatakan senarai radas dan bahan

20, 23,

Menerangkan pemasangan radas

21, 36

Menyatakan pengkaedahan

17, 12

Menunjukkan kaedah penjadualan data

35, 39

Jadual 2.2 : Item – item Kemahiran Mengeksperimen Mengikut Aspek Penilaian Kemahiran Aspek Nombor Item

Mengeksperimen

Menyusun dan memasang radas mengikut pengkaedahan

7, 13, 37

Mengendalikan radas, bahan, dan alatan mengikut pengkaedahan yang ditetapkan

24, 29, 32, 40

Mengambil dan membaca ukuran serta membuat pertukaran unit dengan kaedah dan teknik yang betul

4, 5, 6, 9, 14, 15, 16, 22, 25, 26, 30, 31, 34,

2.4 Tatacara Kajian

Penyelidik sendiri telah mentadbirkan UPKMH bagi memastikan proses pengumpulan data dijalankan dengan lancar. Masa secukupnya telah diberikan untuk para pelajar menjawab soalan UPKMBEM.

2.5 Analisis Data

Analisis data bagi kajian ini menggunakan statistik deskriptif dalam bentuk markat min, sisihan lazim, peratusan, maksimum dan minimum. Data yang diperoleh melalui UPKMBEM dianalisis dengan menggunakan perisian Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Min dan sisihan lazim yang diperoleh daripada analisis



272

digunakan untuk menentukan tahap kefahaman kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan mengeksperimen bagi pelajar 2SPF dan 2SPP merentas jantina. Nilai peratusan yang diperolehi telah dibahagikan kepada lima tahap iaitu sangat baik (80% - 100%), baik (65% - 79%), sederhana (50% - 64%), lemah (40% - 49%) dan sangat lemah (0%-39%).

3.0 KEPUTUSAN DAN PERBINCANGAN

Tahap kefahaman kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen dan keseluruhan ditentukan berdasarkan pada nilai markat min.

3.1 Tahap Kefahaman Kemahiran Mereka Bentuk Eksperimen dan Kemahiran Mengeksperimen Secara Keseluruhan

Berikut adalah analisis statistik deskriptif tentang tahap kefahaman kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen secara keseluruhan. Jadual 3.1: Analisis Statistik Deskriptif Tahap Kefahaman Kemahiran

Mereka Bentuk Eksperimen Dan Kemahiran Mengeksperimen

Kemahiran

N = 38

Bilangan

Subjek

Min Sisihan

Lazim

Maksimum

(Minimum)

Tahap

Kefahaman

Mereka Bentuk Eksperimen (20 Item)

38 13.34 2.35 18.00

(7.00)

Baik

Mengeksperimen (20 Item)

38 15.45 1.70 19.00

(13.00)

Baik

Keseluruhan (40 Item)

38 28.79 3.46 35.00

(21.00)

Baik

Berdasarkan Jadual 3.1, dapatan kajian mendapati tahap kefahaman pelajar tahun dua Program Pendidikan Fizik terhadap kemahiran mereka bentuk penyiasatan dan kemahiran mengeksperimen adalah baik, ( M = 28.79, SL = 3.46) dan peratusannya adalah 71.98%.

40 item telah digunakan untuk mengukur tahap kefahaman kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen di kalangan pelajar tahun dua Program Pendidikan Fizik di UTM Skudai. Setiap kemahiran tersebut telah diuji dengan 20 item setiap satu. Julat bagi kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen masing – masing adalah 11.00 dan 6.00. Min bagi setiap kemahiran masing – masing adalah 13.34 (66.70%) dan 15.45 (77.25%). Peratus taburan serakan bagi setiap kemahiran masing –



273

masing adalah 17.69% dan 11.00%. Julat bagi kedua - dua kemahiran (mereka bentuk eksperimen dan mengeksperimen) bagi 40 item ialah 14.00. markat min keseluruhan kemahiran adalah 28.79 (71.98%). Peratus taburan serakannya pula adalah 12.02%. 3.2 Tahap Kefahaman Kemahiran Mereka Bentuk Eksperimen Dan Kemahiran Mengeksperimen Merentas Jantina Jadual 3.2 menunjukkan keputusan kajian terhadap tahap kefahaman kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen merentas aliran.

Kemahiran

N = 38

Jantina Min Sisihan

Lazim

Maksimum

(Minimum)

Tahap

Kefahaman

Mereka Bentuk Eksperimen (20 Item)

Lelaki (N = 13)

13.31 2.69 17.00

(7.00)

Baik

Perempuan (N= 25)

13.36 2.23 18.00

(9.00)

Baik

Mengeksperimen (20 Item)

Lelaki (N= 13)

15.08 1.26 17.00

(13.00)

Baik

Perempuan (N = 25)

15.64 1.89 19.00

(13.00)

Baik

Keseluruhan Lelaki (N = 13)

28.38 3.52 33.00

(21.00)

Baik

Perempuan (N = 25)

29.00 3.48 35.00

(23.00)

Baik

Dapatan kajian mendapati tidak terdapat perbezaan terhadap tahap

kemahiran mereka bentuk penyiasatan dan mengeksperimen merentas jantina di mana kedua – dua kelompok jantina berada pada tahap yang baik iaitu (M = 28.38 , SL = 3.52) dan peratusannya bernilai 70.95% bagi jantina lelaki dan (M = 29.00 , SL = 3.48) bagi jantina perempuan dengan nilai peratusan 72.50%. Julat kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen bagi jantina lelaki masing – masing adalah 10.00 dan 4.00. Markat min masing – masing adalah 13.31 (66.55%) dan 15.08 (75.40%) Peratus taburan serakannya pula masing – masing adalah 20.21% dan 8.36%. Julat kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen bagi pemboleh ubah perempuan, masing – masing adalah 9.00 dan 6.00. Markat min masing – masing adalah 13.36 (66.80%) dan 15.64



274

(78.20%) manakala peratus taburan serakannya masing – masing adalah 16.69% dan 12.08%. Julat keseluruhan kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen bagi pemboleh ubah lelaki ialah 12.00, dengan peratus min 70.95% dan peratus taburan serakannya ialah 12.40%. Manakala julat keseluruhan kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen bagi pemboleh ubah perempuan ialah 12.00, peratus min berjumlah 72.50% dan peratus taburan serakan bernilai 12.00%.

4.0 IMPLIKASI

Penekanan terhadap bidang sains dan teknologi juga turut dinyatakan

dalam falsafah pendidikan sains negara iaitu untuk memupuk budaya sains dan teknologi dengan memberi tumpuan kepada perkembangan individu supaya menguasai ilmu sains dan ketrampilan teknologi. Seterusnya penekanan terhadap ilmu sains dan ketrampilan teknologi ini dijelmakan melalui kurikulum fizik yang dilaksanakan di sekolah. Manakala bagi peringkat pengajian tinggi khususnya di UTM, ia dijelmakan melalui Kursus Pendidikan Amali Fizik I (SPN 2221) dan Kursus Pendidikan Amali Fizik II (SPN 3231) yang menjadi medium untuk menghasilkan bakal guru yang dapat mengaplikasikan pengetahuan dan kemahiran dalam bidang sains dan pendidikan. Sehubungan itu, bakal guru perlu mempunyai tahap kefahaman yang baik dalam KPS khususnya bagi kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen.

Untuk membentuk masyarakat yang bersifat progresif serta mengamalkan budaya sains dan teknologi moden, bakal guru perlu mempelajari dan menguasai bidang sains yang mengutamakan kaedah inkuiri dan penyelesaian masalah. Sehubungan itu, kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen yang terkandung dalam KPS merupakan antara aspek yang perlu dikuasai oleh bakal guru untuk melakukan sebarang aktiviti mengikut kaedah saintifik [1].

Seterusnya, KPS merupakan kemahiran yang perlu dikuasai bukan sahaja oleh pelajar tetapi juga oleh guru. Guru perlu mengenal pasti bagaimana kemahiran ini akan digunakan dalam P&P di dalam kelas [5]. Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia, 2004 juga menyarankan kepada guru untuk memberi penekanan kepada KPS dalam P&P disamping memberikan perhatian yang serius dalam PEKA terutamanya dalam aspek kemahiran mengeksperimen dan KPS yang lain [2]. Sehubungan itu, adalah relevan jika KPS diajar kepada bakal guru di peringkat pengajian tinggi supaya mereka benar – benar menguasai kemahiran ini dan seterusnya dapat digunakan dalam P&P fizik di sekolah nanti.

Selain itu, implikasi kajian ini kepada UTM khususnya kepada pihak Fakulti Pendidikan ialah, ianya dapat menggambarkan tahap penguasaan kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen di kalangan pelajar tahun dua Program Pendidikan Fizik sebelum kumpulan pelajar ini melakukan latihan mengajar. Memandangkan UTM merupakan sebuah universiti yang menitik beratkan sains dan teknologi maka sewajarnya kesemua pelajar UTM terutamanya pelajar Program Pendidikan Fizik menguasai KPS



275

terutamanya bagi kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen. UTM perlu memastikan graduan yang dihasilkan menguasai ilmu sains dan ketrampilan teknologi sejajar dengan falsafah pendidikan sains. KESIMPULAN

Secara keseluruhan, tahap kefahaman kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen merentas jantina tidak menunjukkan sebarang perbezaan tahap kefahaman kerana kedua –dua jantina mencatatkan tahap kefahaman yang baik dengan keputusan masing – masing ialah (70.95%) bagi lelaki dan (72.50%) bagi perempuan.

KPS membolehkan pelajar untuk memperolehi pengetahuan dalam bidang sains dengan lebih berkesan. Ini kerana melalui KPS pelajar dapat melihat bahawa sains merupakan satu bidang yang mempunyai pelbagai disiplin dan ia bukan hanya mengumpul fakta semata – mata [6]. Oleh itu, nyata bahawa kemahiran mereka bentuk eksperimen dan kemahiran mengeksperimen yang terkandung dalam KPS merupakan satu alat yang membolehkan bakal guru untuk mendapatkan pengetahuan selain daripada fakta semata – mata tetapi ia membolehkan bakal guru untuk memahami dan mengetahui dengan lebih mendalam tentang konsep, prinsip, hukum dan teori fizik yang telah dipelajari.

RUJUKAN

[1] Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (2003). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Fizik.

Kuala Lumpur Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. [2] Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia (2004). Laporan Prestasi SPM 2003

Jilid II. Kuala Lumpur:Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. [3] Mohamed Isa Khalid (1999). Kemahiran Proses Sains Di Kalangan Guru

PelatihDiploma Pendidikan Maktab Perguruan: Satu Kajian Awal. Maktab Perguruan Perlis.

[4] Tan,M.T.(2000). Mengenal Pasti Pengetahuan Kemahiran Prosedural Sains Di Kalangan Guru Sains PKPG 14 Minggu Di Maktab Perguruan Batu Lintang.http://www.mpbl.edu.my/inter/penyelidikan/2001/2001_tan.pdf

[5] Wan,Y.K. et al.(2004). Process Skills in Teaching – Learning Primary Science. In Yap, K.C. et al. Teaching Primary Science. Singapore: Pearson Prentice Hall.31-40.

[6] Burns,J.C., Okey, J.R., dan Wise, K.C.(1985). Development Of An Integrated Process Skill Test: TIPSII. Journal Of Research In Science Teaching. 22(2):169 – 177.



276

NUN-FORECASTER - FAST FORWARD INTO THE CORPORATE FUTURE

WHAT LIES AHEAD OF YOU?

ROZAINUN ABDUL AZIZ

Faculty of Accountancy, Universiti Teknologi MARA 40450 Shah Alam [email protected] © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRACT - This paper is presented to support our poster presentation which the approach is two-fold; firstly to introduce the board game, nun-forecaster, and secondly, the spill-over from the game into proposing concepts in forecasting.Nun-forecaster is an educational board game, just like the most familiar ‘snake and ladder’. This idea symbolizes the importance of forecasting in business, also in our everyday life. The board game takes us through a journey of ups and downs as well as uncertainties where we are not sure what lies ahead. So, we are forced to accept events and circumstances here, nevertheless we must proceed till we finish. This game tests perseverance, patience and it educates us. The board game camouflages the academic value of forecasting, researched from an observation of a scenario in a U.K. university, which in this paper, we offer further concepts to be applied onto practice. This paper proposes the use of poster presentation, and discusses highlights of identifying events that lie ahead of a business. We use the board game and mathematical modelling to support forecasting function in order to narrow the gap between actual and forecast performance. An insight into the mathematical model proposed is given in concept with the hope that both academicians and practitioners will progress in achieving forecast accuracy. The model explains the use of probability distribution against point forecasts, the cost function and fundamentals of Bayesian methodology in approach. In this case, the emphasis is to index the cost of under and over-forecast of figures that the business predicts. The paper attempts to give explanations for and cost effects of imperfect forecasts, an oversight which frequently occurs to management. It is hoped that readers acknowledge this approach as an interesting method to attract ‘investors’ of teaching and learning fraternity for future purposes. Keywords: board game, forecasting, mathematical model.



277

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This paper extends the findings of a postal survey and case study on practices and perceptions of forecasting [1], which addresses modelling issues for forecasting scenarios. Its intention is to raise awareness of various modelling approaches that can be used to enhance the quality of forecasting processes, rather than to identify specific models, which tend to be user-specific.

It has been noted that organisations make forecasts and that forecasting accurately is rarely achieved. As many business decisions involve forecasting, successful forecasting practice is crucial to reduce or close the gaps in this process [2]; [3]. This failure is due to the behaviour of forecasters. Three reasons are offered here, namely, the process of interpreting data, forecaster bias and forecaster preferences [4].

Using a Bayesian approach to understand and interpret the above, subjective probabilities for the likelihood of an event are elicited and revised as new information is received. In support of this approach, there is also a need to emphasise to consider the individual’s role in the forecasting process [4].

Observing the practice, and learning about the perceptions, of forecasting from the study samples are not complete if the practice and perceptions are not represented by models. Ultimately, an organisation or a unit could forecasts for profits, sales, investments, cash flow surplus, student numbers, teaching loads and other resources using such models and, depending on the nature of its activities.

Forecasts are prepared based on estimates, which, in practice, correspond with point predictions. Typically, a single estimate is obtained as a result of group decision-making in predicting future performance. This group decision-making is done through members offering their expert opinions with regard to a particular issue. Forecasts are said to be imperfect when actual performances do not turn out as predicted. This paper offers some mathematical modelling and consideration of cost implications for this forecasting scenario [5]; [6]; [7].

2.0 THE ISSUE OF MODELLING

How and why modelling comes into play for forecasting functions in commercial and service industries were highlighted in the literature [1]; [4]; [9]. One particular situation identified is where the reactions of the forecasting team towards a set of available information can affect the initial forecast predictions, which are usually inaccurate.

A case study observation was conducted that uses Fisher’s exact test to delineate significant associations in order to identify important variables [7]. We observe the weakness in estimating forecasts using single point predictions, and our study should offer possible and reliable solutions to overcome this weakness. What interests us are issues relating to the outcome of the forecasting teamwork and what forecast estimates are involved. Three parts contribute to our analysis, namely:



278

1) mathematical modelling involving establishing a suitable probability distribution and loss function in order to apply Bayesian decision theory;

2) cost implications with respect to imperfect forecasts;

3) differential equations involving rates of change among variables, to describe and explain the underlying structural behaviour.

3.0 BAYESIAN APPROACH FOR ENHANCING POINT PREDICTIONS

From the investigations carried out, we observed that targets or single point predictions determined by an organisation, or particular unit within an organisation, become the platform towards which actual performances are inclined [10]. Even at the setting stage of targets and forecasts, the process of decision-making can be demanding to ensure crucial factors are not excluded. Single point predictions also add to the mood and motivation of people involved with the forecasts, be they preparers or users. These single point predictions do not allow for variations in case the outcomes of the actual performances turn out different from planned due to uncontrollable factors. Once the actual results are noted, the management will look back at their forecasts to identify what and why are the differences. By looking at just one figure, any deviation may incur costs and thereafter affect the people involved.

A previous study indicated that an essential aspect of decision-making involves consulting experts, who usually give differing opinions of information [7]; [8]. A considerable volume of literature is available to provide solutions addressing this problem. It is recommended that expert opinions be treated as data for further analysis in arriving at more reliable point predictions. In this analytical part of the research, three aspects of modelling, namely a probability distribution, cost function and Bayesian decision analysis are described.

3.1 Probability distribution

At a university in United Kingdom, the current forecasting situation is that point predictions are prepared and then passed on to users [1]. As these are invariably inaccurate, we regard this as a flaw and now propose that forecasts should consist of probability distributions rather than point predictions to allow for this in accuracy. Our emphasis is on the outcome from the interaction of people, not only on the results achieved. We believe that there must be a build up of managerial structures and communication networks to increase and improve stability in the forecasting function. On the basis of extensions to the central limit theorem, the normal distribution is deemed appropriate here. This choice is supported by general theory relating to the laws of error [11].

Adopting the normal distribution, we assume X| σµ, ~N ),( 2σµ

where X is the actual profit, which is an unknown random variable at the time of preparing a forecast, x̂=µ is a point forecast for the value of X

and σ is the standard deviation which measures the uncertainty of our point forecast.

The benefits of establishing variations from point predictions and



279

assigning normal distributions to these point predictions are now given. Firstly, as forecast accuracy is unexpected, the variation will improve motivation and drive. As such, management is better prepared in all kinds of possible situations and this does not affect forecasters’ capability as a measure of improving the accuracy of forecasts.

3.2 Cost function

The element of costs is introduced and illustrated here as funding and money are important sources of running the business. When actual performance conflicts against forecasts, there is a loss involved and this results in a cost to the organisation [10]. This aspect of loss may take the form of functional relationships which, in their simplest but most common form, are bilinear. The following illustration explains this situation:

Let the forecast be x̂ and the actual be x; when the actual conflicts with the forecast, there is a difference and an element of cost is involved. Therefore, for example,

if x̂ = RM1000; x = RM500 cost is 5 units

if break-even i.e. x̂ = RM1000 and x = RM1000 cost is 0 units

if x̂ = RM1000; x = RM1200 cost is 2 units or less

Figure 1 shows a graph depicting the above effects. We measure cost in units to indicate that the costs involved are not just monetary, but include time and effort wasted. Therefore, a measurement for these must be devised collectively by the people involved. This may mean that the cost involved is less when actual is more than forecast rather than when actual is less than forecast. This difference may be due to intangibles and may represent the hidden costs. As long as the difference between actual and forecast results is material, further breakdown of the costs involved must be scrutinised and addressed to find solutions to improve future forecasts. For example, when x̂ = RM1000 and x = RM500, this is a situation of over-forecasting. Among the consequences of this condition are:

1) employees will be demotivated as their high expectation of the company to perform is diminished. As a result, this might lead to a high turnover of employees;

2) resources will be over-utilised as unrealised provisions are used;

3) the reliability of forecasts will be in question;.

4) the forecasting exercise will not be cost-effective.



280

1

2

3

4

500 600 700 800

Cost

(unit)

5

900 1000 1100 1200

)ˆ(1 xxcy −=

)ˆ(2 xxcy −=

Similarly, when x̂ = RM1000 and x = RM1200, this is a situation of under-forecasting. The consequences of this condition are:

1) under-utilisation of resources;

2) potential investments will be withdrawn;

3) doubts about the reliability and cost effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of forecasting will arise.

Figure 1 - GRAPH SHOWING THE COST OF UNDER- AND OVER- FORECAST OF PROFITS

3.3 Bayesian methodology

The classical, or frequentist, approach to estimation corresponds here to the generation of point predictions enhanced by prediction intervals, though managerial decisions are usually based on the point predictions only. Regarding the observed profit as arising from a normal distribution, however one can establish a subjective predictive distribution by looking at the chances or likelihoods of achieving various targets away from this point prediction. This variation provides an indication of how the actual outcome evolves around its forecast. This explains and allows for the differences between the actual and forecast values.

For example, we might present forecasts in terms of relative likelihoods like this: it is twice as likely to achieve a profit of RM10,000

Profit (RM)

x̂



281

than a profit of RM15,000. Better still, we could present quantiles or even the full distribution for profit. Bayesian decision theory allows distributions of predictions to model possible departures from point forecasts like this to make sure that the uncertainty of achieving them is considered. This uncertainty is here expressed using a normal distribution of relative likelihoods for the probability density function of profits. As for any density, the area under the normal curve is one. For a simplified analysis, one could consider a two-phased outcome, or binary response, so that if there is two-thirds of a chance that the profit is at least RM10,000, then the chance of not making that amount of profit is one third. This enhances the quality of forecasts but ignores system feedback, which we consider shortly.

The distribution for the variation of profits can be obtained in two ways: subjectively or objectively. For example, we might establish a normal distribution with associated loss function objectively. Using an ARIMA model requires no subjective devising, revising and adjusting. At this point, the expected cost of a poor forecast can be calculated. If profits are more than RM2500, for example, the cost involved is proportional to the difference between the point prediction and the actual profit achieved.

Applying the recommendation given by [9], the mathematical functions involved in this modelling of imperfect forecasts take the following forms for this application, where x̂ is a point prediction and x is the actual profit:

1. Normal distribution function for profits

2)(2

1

2

1)( σ

µ

πσ

−−

=x

exf ; ∞<<∞− x (1)

2. Cost function for this application is the bilinear form

where c(x) =

>−

<−

µµµµ

xxc

xx

);(

);(c

2

1 (2)

which is illustrated in Figure 1.

This means that there is a cost involved when the actual profit is more or less than the forecast profit. This cost refers to the cost associated with imperfect forecasting. The costs in this study may include time, effort wasted, opportunity loss, penalty loss, and also not being able to invest in fixed assets, projects and profitable contracts.



282

Then, decision analysis is based on minimising the expected cost

E(c(X)) = ∫∞

∞−dxxfxc )()(

= ∫ ∞−−

−+−

µσµ

πσµ dxexc

x 2)(2

1

12

1)( ∫

∞−

−−

µσµ

πσµ dxexc

x 2)(2

1

22

1)( (3)

The loss function c(x) can be bilinear, as in our analysis, or of some other unspecified form. The bilinear cost function shows a proportionate increase in cost with the difference between actual and forecast performances. This is true for both sides of the relationship, x > µ and µ > x. However, it does not assume

symmetry unless 21 cc = above.

To evaluate equation (3), we make the substitution

y = )(22

2

µσσ

µ−=⇒

−xdy

x dx

(4)

in both integrals, so that

E{c(X)} = 2

20

12

1

2

y

ec−

∞∫ − πσ

σ dy + 2

2

02

2

1

2

y

ec−∞

∫ πσσ

dy

= π

σ

22

)( 21 cc +2

0

y

e−∞

∫ dy

= π

σ

22

)( 21 cc +∞

−

−

0

22

y

e

= π

σ

2

)( 21 cc +

(5)

where c(x) =

>−

<−

µµµµ

xxc

xxc

);(

);(

2

1 and X| σµ, ~N ),( 2σµ

(6)

This clearly illustrates how, under the assumption of a normal distribution and bilinear loss function, the expected cost of inaccurate forecasting is directly proportional to the standard deviation of the predictive distribution.

Since forecasting considers the future, which is usually unpredictable, any



283

incidences of unexpected outcomes should be precautioned and any remedial actions should be recommended. These initiatives are taken so that organisations will be ready to face the future. Any strong form of information, available at the last minute, may force the organisation to change forecasts abruptly. It is at this point that top management intervenes to allow forecasts to reflect reality. As events like this may be difficult to measure, the use of modelling will be a helpful support tool for guiding calculations.

4.0 EXPLANATIONS FOR AND COST EFFECTS OF IMPERFECT FORECASTS

To explain the cost implications of imperfect forecasts, we now consider these in the context of service industries. There are various indicators that can be used to measure performance, such as patients per day for hospitals, customers per hour of service utilities and passengers per destination for the flight industry, to name a few. In our case, we consider the university scenario in terms of student numbers as a performance measure. If the actual number of students is more than the forecast number of students, there is a need for extra logistics, including space, rooms, lecturers, time-tabling, accommodation, computer facilities and administration. The quality of teaching and success of graduates might be compromised because of mass production. There will be more drop-outs and a higher failure rate which will affect the image of the university.

While universities commit themselves to provide facilities for the extra students, it may be for the short-term only. There will be insufficient budget available to sustain over-capacity as a result of inefficiency on the part of management not being able to forecast and cater for extra students.

However, if the actual number of students is less than the forecast number, these results in under-capacity, as facilities are under-utilised or idle. The university over-pays the lecturers in terms of salary per student and so the marginal cost per student is higher.

The whole idea of this modelling is to arrive at not just effective and efficient solutions to account for and minimise the total loss, but also to be aware of situations and consequences arising from inaccurate forecasting.

5.0 CONCLUSION

Modelling in our case attempts to describe the mechanism of relationships between variables that operate in practice; an extension we offer to integrate with management accounting. In demarking the selected variables, we use the law of parsimony or Occam’s Razor in that the model includes only required and important variables and does not include all reasonable predictor variables automatically. It should also be noted that parsimony is a principle in science where the simplest answer is always preferred.

Several aspects constitute the modelling process. We first saw how single point estimates or predictions can be improved by assigning probability distributions to describe variations that may be possible, hence increasing the reliability and credibility of the forecasts. Then, we saw the measure of loss functions as a result of imperfect forecasts and how it can be quantified, using



284

Bayesian decision theory, according to whether actual results are less than forecast or vice-versa [2]; [4]; [7].

The effects of imperfect forecasts were also explained for both service industries, and manufacturing and trading industries. The cost factor came in as a break-even analysis and differential equations were introduced to render the whole modelling aspect complete. They give a clearer perspective of empirical evidence cultured with mathematics and functional relationships objectively. It can be seen that outcomes of improved teamwork and decision making, for example, are related in this way.

Last but not least, in order to get a total picture of the whole research implication onto practice, future study to reflect impact is recommended.

REFERENCES

[1] Aziz-Khairulfazi, R. (2004). An empirical and analytical investigation of forecasting practices and perceptions: a case study on University of Salford, United Kingdom. Unpublished Thesis. University of Salford, U.K.

[2] Drury, D. H. (1990). "Issues in Forecasting Management." Management

International Review 30(4): 317-329. [3] Moon, M. A., T. M., John and C. D. Smith (2003). "Conducting A Sales

Forecasting Audit,." International Journal of Forecasting 19: 5-25. [4] Stekler, H. O. (2003). "Improving Our Ability to Predict the Unusual

Event." International Journal of Forecasting 19(Editorial): 161-163. [5] Armstrong, J. (2001). Principles of Forecasting: A Handbook for

Researchers and Practitioners, Kluwer Academic Publishers. [6] Clemen, R. T., S.K. Jones and R.L. Winkler (1996). Aggregating

Forecasts: an Empirical Evaluation of some Bayesian Methods. Bayesian Analysis in Statistics and Econometrics. D. A. Berry, Chaloner, K.M. and Geweke, J.K.: 3.

[7] Aziz-Khairulfazi, R. and D.Percy (2003). Postal survey on forecasting.

Technical Report. School of AEMS. University of Salford, U.K. [8] Edwards, M. and R. Aziz (2000). Forecasting: Meeting 21st Century

Challenges. Asian Accounting Academics Association (AAAA) World Inaugural Conference, Proceeding, Singapore.

[9] Moon, M. A (2005) Demand: What Drives It and How It Impacts

Forecasting,” presented at the Materials Handling and Logistics Conference, Park City, UT, September 20.

[10] Goodwin, P. (2002). "Integrating Management Judgement and Statistical

Advice About Empirical Research Methods to Improve Short-term Forecasts." International Journal of Management Science 30: 127-135.



285

[11] Eisenhart, C. (1983). Laws of Error II: the Gaussian Distribution.

Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences. S. Kotz and N. L. Johnson, Wiley, New York. 4: 547-562.



286

PERLAKSANAAN KAEDAH SCL DALAM PENGAJARAN DAN

PEMBELAJARAN KURSUS KENEGARAAN MALAYSIA DI UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA DAN KESANNYA KE ATAS PELAJAR DAN GRED

PENCAPAIAN PELAJAR ZARINA BINTI MUHAMMAD

Jabatan Pengajian Kenegaraan dan Ketamadunan Fakulti Ekologi Manusia Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor [email protected] © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRAK - SCL atau kaedah pembelajaran berpusatkan pelajar adalah kaedah pengajaran terkini yang diterapkan dan digunapakai dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran di UPM. Berbeza dengan kaedah berpusatkan pengajar, kaedah SCL yang bersifat focus on students, constructivism, active learning, ownership of the experience, dan encourage students to search and research dilihat mampu untuk mendapatkan hasil pembelajaran sepertimana yang disasarkan khususnya dalam menghasilkan pelajar yang berilmu, aktif, produktif, berkebolehan dan berketerampilan. Sehubungan dengan itu, kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengenalpasti kaedah pengajaran berasaskan SCL yang digunakan oleh pengajar-pengajar kursus umum UPM khususnya pengajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia serta menilai keberkesanannya melalui persepsi pelajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia terhadap hasil pembelajaran dan melalui pencapaian gred pelajar sebelum dan selepas perlaksanaan kaedah SCL. Menerusi kajian yang telah dijalankan didapati kaedah SCL telah dilaksanakan di dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia oleh tenaga pengajar yang terlibat. Segelintir pensyarah dikesan mempelbagaikan kaedah, pendekatan pengajaran dan penilaian. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa persepsi pelajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia kesan pengajaran dan pembelajaran berasaskan SCL adalah postitif dan berada pada tahap yang tinggi. Perbandingan pencapaian gred pelajar sebelum dan selepas perlaksanaan kaedah SCL juga menunjukkan kepelbagaian kaedah, pendekatan pengajaran dan penilaian yang dilaksanakan oleh pensyarah memberi kesan positif kepada keputusan gred pelajar daripada kaedah, pendekatan pengajaran dan penilaian yang lazim digunakan

Kata kunci: Student Centered Learning (SCL);



287

Kaedah Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran; Kursus Umum Universiti; Perbandingan Gred; Kenegaraan Malaysia

1.0 PENGENALAN

Kursus kenegaraan Malaysia merupakan antara kursus wajib universiti yang ditawarkan di UPM semenjak awal tahun 80an lagi di samping kursus Tamadun Islam. kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia yang juga dikenali sebagai Pengajian Malaysia di Institusi Pengajian Tinggi lain di Malaysia ditawarkan dengan nilai 3 kredit. Kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia tidak melalui sebarang perubahan sejak ia mula diperkenalkan khususnya di UPM bagi meneruskan matlamat asas ia ditawarkan iaitu memperkukuh pengalaman dan penghayatan pelajar mengenai ciri dan sifat kenegaraan serta pengetahuan mengenai sejarah, pembangunan dan cabaran yang dilalui oleh negara (Asnarulkhadi dan Jayum Jawan 1996).

Selain itu, kursus ini juga merupakan kesinambungan usaha untuk memperkukuhkan lagi keperibadian pelajar di IPT supaya menjadi rakyat Malaysia yang lebih menghayati peranan sebagai warganegara yang taat kepada agama, bangsa dan negara. Usaha penerapan nilai murni menerusi kursus ini diteruskan demi kelangsungan proses pembinaan negara bangsa. Walaupun sebahagian aspek dalam kursus KM melibatkan pensejarahan Malaysia yang telah disentuh dalam subjek Sejarah di peringkat sekolah menengah, misalnya sejarah zaman purba hingga zaman moden, tetapi pendekatan dan penekanan yang diberikan di peringkat universiti adalah berbeza. Ini kerana aspek penghayatan, penilaian dan kebebasan berfikir didedahkan kepada pelajar sebagai mekanisme untuk memahami sejarah dan sistem negara. Ini menjadikan kursus ini lebih luas dan mendalam sifatnya sesuai dengan nilai yang telah diperuntukkan iaitu tiga jam kredit. (Zatul Himmah 2005). Persekitaran pengajaran dan pembelajaran di Malaysia pada masa kini termasuklah pengajaran kursus Kenegaraan malaysia telah banyak mengalami perubahan. Jika sebelum tahun 1990an, pengajar bergantung sepenuhnya kepada kaedah ‘chalk and talk’, kini dengan wujudnya teknologi cetakan, alat bantu pandang dengar, media, sistem berasaskan komputer, pelbagai strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran dapat dilaksanakan (Norhani dan lain-lain 2006). Selain daripada kaedah dan strategi pengajaran yang digunakan, Keberkesanan sesebuah kursus juga bergantung kepada bentuk penilaian kursus yang dilaksanakan. Sistem penilaian yang masih berorientasikan peperiksaan dan peperiksaan yang berbentuk objektif sebagaimana didedahkan akhbar Utusan Malaysia pada 9 September 2004, dikatakan menjadi satu punca kepada kebergantungan pelajar kepada sesuatu perkara tanpa meransang fikiran mereka untuk berfikir secara kreatif dan ia juga dikatakan sebagai punca kenapa lepasan ijazah kini dianggap kurang kreatif, kurang kemahiran komunikasi, kurang keaslian pemikiran , sukar menganalisis, tiada imaginatif dan



288

tidak inovatif. Sistem penilaian ini juga pernah mengungguli perlaksanaan kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia.

2.0 METODOLOGI

Kajian ini dijalankan bagi mengenalpasti kaedah pengajaran berasaskan SCL yang digunakan oleh pengajar-pengajar kursus umum UPM khususnya pengajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia serta menilai keberkesanannya melalui persepsi pelajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia terhadap hasil pembelajaran dan melalui pencapaian gred pelajar sebelum dan selepas perlaksanaan kaedah SCL.

Kajian ini menggunakan pendekatan pengumpulan maklumat melalui 2 cara iaitu pertama soalselidik kepada responden yang terdiri daripada pelajar dan pengajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia. Seramai 11 pengajar dan seramai 426 pelajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia yang terlibat dalam kajian ini. Data dianalisis menggunakan statistik deskriptif. Kedua, data keputusan gred pelajar sebelum dan selepas perlaksanaan SCL. Data diambil dari keputusan semester pertama 04/05 dan keputusan semester kedua 04/05 yang terdapat di Jabatan Pengajian Kenegaraan dan Ketamadunan, Fakulti Ekologi Manusia.

3.0. DAPATAN KAJIAN

3.1 Kaedah Pengajaran Kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia di UPM Sebelum dan Selepas Perlaksanaan SCL

1

Kaedah pengajaran yang mewarnai kursus ini pada kebanyakan masa adalah melalui penyampaian kuliah yang berpusatkan kepada pensyarah. Walaubagaimanapun kerana masalah-masalah dari segi kekurangan pensyarah dan bilangan pelajar yang besar maka terdapat usaha-usaha untuk menggunakan apparatus elektronik dan multimedia bagi membantu menyelesaikan masalah perlaksanaan kursus ini. Antaranya adalah sistem kuliah online, telekuliah dan e-learning. Namun begitu perlaksanaan menggunakan apparatus elektronik dan multimedia ini menjadikan kursus ini tidak ‘hidup’ dan tidak menyuburkan penghayatan dan interaksi pengajar-pelajar sehingga boleh menjejaskan objektif perlaksanaannya, maka bermula tahun 2002, UPM kembali mengambil pendekatan menjalankan kuliah secara konvensional (Zaid, Ahmad Tarmizi & Sri Rahayu, 2004).

1 Pembelajaran berpusatkan pelajar (SCL) adalah strategi pengajaran di mana pelajar menjadi pemain utama dalam sesuatu sesi pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Pelajar digalakkan melibatkan diri secara aktif dalam setiap sesi pembelajaran mereka. Lebih banyak masa diperuntukkan kepada pelajar meneroka dan menyelesaikan masalah pembelajaran dengan bantuan pengajar yang bertindak sebagai pemudahcara. (Shahabudin, Rohizani & Mohd Zohir, 2003). Secara ringkasnya SCL adalah sebarang suasana pembelajaran yang efektif di mana perancangan, pengajaran dan penilaian menumpu kepada pelajar dan kepada hasil pembelajaran yang diperlukan oleh pelajar. Antara kaedah yang boleh digunakan adalah pembelajaran koperatif, projek pelajar, kerja khusus, sesi penyisatan di makmal, persembahan pelajar, kajian kes dan pembelajaran melalui penyelesaian masalah. (Hamdan Noor, 2004)



289

Strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran Kenegaraan Malaysia bersama-sama dengan kursus Tamadun Islam dan Tamadun Asia yang ditawarkan di bawah jabatan yang sama iaitu Jabatan Pengajian Kenegaraan dan Ketamadunan berubah lagi apabila UPM melalui pusat pembangunan akademiknya (CADE) mengambil langkah melaksanakan kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran berpusatkan pelajar (SCL). Ianya bersesuai dengan matlamat pertama yang disasarkan UPM iaitu bagi melahirkan graduan berkualiti yang berdaya saing dan bersemangat waja melalui pembelajaran sepanjang hayat. Maka bermula semester kedua sesi 2004-2005 pengajaran dan pembelajaran kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia bersama-sama kursus Tamadun Islam dan Tamadun Asia telah memasukkan elemen kerja berkumpulan (tugasan) dalam pendekatannya pengajaran bagi menyahut langkah pihak universiti melaksanakan kaedah SCL.

Berdasarkan soal selidik yang telah diedarkan kepada 11 orang pensyarah kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia yang terlibat dengan pengajaran Kenegaraan Malaysia pada semester pertama dan kedua 2005/2006 (lihat jadual 1) menunjukkan bahawa seratus peratus pengajar memahami apa yang di maksudkan dengan SCL dan 72.7 peratus pengajar telah menghadiri taklimat dan bengkel-bengkel penerangan mengenai kaedah SCL. Kajian juga mendapati responden bersikap positif terhadap langkah UPM melaksanakan kaedah ini di UPM apabila 100 peratus telah mengaplikasikannya di dalam pengajaran mereka sebagaimana yang telah disarankan. Bagi memantapkan lagi pengetahuan dan pengaplikasian kaedah ini 100 peratus pengajar bersetuju bahawa mereka memerlukan lebih banyak pendedahan bagi membolehkan mereka melaksanakan kaedah SCL secara menyeluruh dalam pengajaran pada semester-semester akan datang.

Jadual 1.: Taburan Pengajar Kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia Berdasarkan

Semester Sem 2 04/05 Sem 1 05/06 Sem 2 05/06 K. Malaysia 14 orang 14 orang 12 orang Jumlah 14 orang 14 orang 12 orang

Sumber: Jabatan Pengajian Kenegaraan dan Ketamadunan Tinjauan terhadap kaedah pengajaran berbentuk SCL yang telah digunakan oleh pengajar dalam semester yang pertama dan kedua 2005/2006 pula menunjukkan semua pengajar menggunakan strategi pengajaran sebagaimana disarankan iaitu kaedah mensyarah dan tugasan berkumpulan (Lihat jadual 2). Keadaan ini wujud kerana wujudnya sistem pelarasan, penyeragaman dan pemantauan perlaksanaan dan perjalanan kursus oleh pihak jabatan. Disamping kedua-dua kaedah utama ini, di dapati pengajar telah bertindak kreatif dan telah berusaha mengaktifkan suasana kuliah dengan mengadakan sesi perbincangan yang berkaitan dengan tajuk kuliah samada secara umum (81.8 peratus) mahupun secara berkumpulan berkumpulan (100 peratus). Bagi memastikan pelajar memahami tajuk kuliah dengan lebih mendalam, di dapati satu per empat



290

responden telah menggunakan tugasan individu, kajian lapangan dan kajian kes sebagai kaedah tambahan. Medium elektronik juga telah dimanfaatkan oleh pengajar di mana 9.1 peratus pengajar menggunakan e-sprint bagi menyalurkan maklumat kepada pelajar khususnya nota-nota ringkas berkaitan kuliah. Ini menunjukkan walaupun pengajaran melibatkan jumlah pelajar yang besar, wujud kehendak dan usaha dari para pensyarah untuk mempelbagaikan kaedah pengajaran.

Jadual 2 : Kaedah pengajaran yang digunakan oleh pengajar kursus K. Malaysia

KAEDAH BIL PERATUS Mensyarah 11 100 Tugasan Berkumpulan 11 100 Tugasan individu 3 27.3 Perbincangan umum 9 81.8 Perbincangan berkumpulan 11 100 Lawatan 0 0 Kajian Lapangan 3 27.3 Kajian kes 3 27.3 E-Sprint 1 9.1 Menonton video 1 9.1

Dapatlah dirumuskan di sini bahawa SCL telah dilaksanakan di dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia oleh tenaga pengajar yang terlibat. Kaedah utama yang digunakan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran adalah mensyarah dan tugasan berkumpulan.

3.2 Kaedah Penilaian Kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia di UPM Sebelum dan Selepas Perlaksanaan SCL

Kaedah penilaian pelajar merupakan satu aspek yang penting dan seharusnya diberikan perhatian yang sewajarnya di dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Ianya merupakan pengukuran kepada pencapaian hasil pembelajaran dan merupakan antara petunjuk kepada peningkatan pengetahuan dan kemahiran pelajar.

Bentuk penilaian kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia sebelum SCL

dilaksanakan adalah seratus peratus berbentuk objektif (Lihat jadual 3). Penilaian seratus peratus berdasarkan ujian ini dibahagikan kepada 30 peratus ujian 1, 30 peratus ujian 2 dan 40 peratus peperiksaan akhir. Format ini digunapakai secara menyeluruh bermula tahun 2002 apabila saiz kuliah dikecilkan dari 300 orang bagi satu kumpulan kuliah kepada 150 orang pelajar. Pengecilan jumlah pelajar bagi satu kumpulan kuliah ini membawa kepada implikasi perlunya jumlah tenaga pengajar yang ramai. Jumlah pensyarah di jabatan terbabit tidak dapat menampung pertambahan bilangan kumpulan kuliah pelajar ini. Maka pensyarah sambilan diambil di kalangan pensyarah luar fakulti dan luar UPM. Berdasarkan situasi pada ketika itu dirasakan perlunya satu bentuk



291

penyeragaman dari segi isi kandungan kuliah dan penilaian kursus yang sekaligus bertindak sebagai pemantau perlaksanaan kursus ini.

Satu modul bahan pengajaran atau buku rujukan utama dibekalkan kepada setiap pensyarah bagi memastikan berlaku penyeragaman dari segi isi kandungan kuliah. Walaubagaimanapun pengajar boleh mempelbagaikan pendekatan mensyarah mengikut kreativiti masing-masing bagi meningkatkan kefahaman pelajar mahupun membantu pelajar memahami modul yang telah disediakan dengan lebih baik lagi. Penyeragaman isi kandungan kuliah ini membolehkan set-set soalan standard digubal dan digunakan kepada semua pelajar. Soalan ujian mahupun soalan peperiksaan akhir akan di gubal oleh semua pensyarah dan dipilih oleh jawatankuasa peperiksaan yang diketuai oleh penyelaras kursus.

Apabila SCL dilaksanakan pendekatan pengajaran seratus peratus

mensyarah telah bertukar kepada mensyarah dan kerja-kerja berkumpulan. Maka penilaian bagi kerja-kerja berkumpulan ini ditetapkan sebanyak 30 peratus manakala 70 peratus bentuk penilaian lagi kekal sepertimana pendekatan awal iaitu ujian 1 sebanyak 30 peratus dan peperiksaan akhir sebanyak 40 peratus (Lihat jadual 3). Hanya 30 peratus sahaja peruntukan penilaian diberikan kepada kerja-kerja berkumpulan dan pelbagai pendekatan penilaian yang berpusatkan pelajar yang diatur oleh pengajar. Perlaksanaan pendekatan penilaian yang berpusatkan pelajar pada asasnya diseragamkan kepada hasil kerja berkumpulan dalam bentuk tugasan dan pembentangan. Walaubagaimanapun terdapat segelintir pengajar yang mempelbagaikan kaedah penilaian tetapi masih tertakluk kepada 30 peratus markah yang telah diperuntukkan.

Jadual 3 : Bentuk penilaian dan wajaran penilaian peratusan kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia

30 peratus 30 peratus 40 peratus T.Islam, T.Asia dan K.Malaysia sebelum SCL

Ujian 1 (objektif)

Ujian 2 (objektif)

Peperiksaan akhir (objektif)

T.Islam, T.Asia dan K.Malaysia Selepas SCL

Ujian 1 (objektif)

Hasil kerja berkumpulan dan aktiviti pelajar

Peperiksaan akhir (objektif)

Kajian terhadap pengajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia mendapati wajaran 30 peratus penilaian kepada hasil kerja berkumpulan bagi kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia memperlihatkan percambahan kaedah penilaian oleh pengajar. Sekiranya sebelum perlaksanaan SCL, penilaian seratus peratus bertumpu kepada ujian dan peperiksaan, maka dalam semester pertama dan kedua perlaksanaan SCL menyaksikan 100 peratus pengajar turut menilai pembentangan pelajar selain hasil kerja kumpulan mereka. (Lihat jadual 4)



292

Walaupun masa terhad dan jumlah kumpulan adakalanya mencecah 30 kumpulan kecil dalam satu kumpulan kuliah, responden tetap berusaha menilai pelajar dari sudut lain juga. Ini jelas apabila 72.7 peratus daripada 11 responden telah membuat penilaian terhadap penyertaan pelajar dalam perbincangan dan 63.6 peratus pengajar menilai kerjasama relajar terhadap kumpulan mereka. 36.4 peratus daripada pengajar membuat penilaian terhadap kehadiran, 27.3 peratus melalui kuiz dan 18.2 peratus melalui pembenbentangan individu. Akan tetapi elemen-elemen tambahan ini tidak dijadikan sebagai elemen standard penilaian bagi semua kumpulan kuliah. Jadual 4 : Kaedah penilaian yang digunakan oleh pengajar kursus K. Malaysia

KAEDAH PENILAIAN BIL PERATUS Ujian/ peperiksaan 11 100 Hasil kerja kumpulan 11 100 Pembentangan berkumpulan 11 100 Kerjasama kumpulan 7 63.6 Penyertaan dalam perbincangan 8 72.7 Kuiz 3 27.3 Kehadiran 4 36.4 Pembentangan individu 2 18.2 Penilaian rakan 0 0

Dapatlah dirumuskan di sini bahawa hasil kerja kumpulan dan aktiviti

pelajar merupakan aspek SCL dengan wajaran sebanyak 30 peratus telah dilaksanakan di dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia oleh tenaga pengajar yang terlibat. Walaubagaimanapun terdapat segelintir pengajar yang mempelbagaikan kaedah penilaian tetapi masih tertakluk kepada 30 peratus markah yang telah diperuntukkan.

3.3 Persepsi Pelajar Kenegaraan Malaysia Terhadap Hasil Pembelajaran Selepas Kaedah SCL Dilaksanakan

Soal selidik yang menggunakan 15 item bagi mengukur persepsi

pelajar Kenegaraan Malaysia terhadap hasil pembelajaran setelah pengajar menggunakan pendekatan SCL di dalam pengajaran didapati berada pada tahap tinggi dengan nilai min 3.84. Sokongan yang tinggi ini dan persepsi yang positif terhadap hasil pembelajaran yang mereka peroleh menunjukkan pelajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia mendapat faedah dan manfaat daripada kaedah pengajaran yang digunakan oleh pengajar dalam hal-hal berkaitan pembelajaran, kerja-kerja berkumpulan, pencarian dan pengurusan maklumat serta interaksi dan komunikasi. Walaubagaimanapun dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapat 1 item iaitu item 15, berkaitan persepsi pelajar terhadap bebanan pada kerja kursus berada pada tahap sederhana dengan nilai min 3.33 (lihat jadual 5)

Dapatan kajian ini juga menjurus kepada bahawa kaedah SCL yang telah digunakan oleh pensyarah telah menjadikan pelajar lebih menghayati ilmu dan bertanggungjawab kepada ilmu yang mereka timba, aktif, produktif, berkebolehan dan berketerampilan. Elemen keseragaman yang telah



293

diwujudkan di dalam proses menguruskan kursus ini yang telah menggariskan tugasan dan pembentangan adalah sebahagian daripada penilaian kursus merupakan antara factor penyumbang kepada kejayaan perlaksanaan kaedah ini.

Jadual 5 : Item persepsi pelajar kursus K. Malaysia terhadap kesan kaedah pengajaran

Bil Item Min keseluruhan 1. Menjadikan pemahaman dan pengetahuan

berkaitan kursus lebih mendalam 4.00

2. Membantu menambah kemahiran berkomunikasi 3.81 3. Memupuk kerjasama berkumpulan 3.96 4. Meningkatkan pembelajaran melalui pengalaman 3.95 5. Menambah kemahiran menguruskan ahli

kumpulan 3.77

6. Menambah kemahiran menguruskan maklumat 3.87 7. Menjadikan pembelajaran lebih mencabar 3.83 8. Mencetuskan idea dan pandangan baharu 3.95 9. Mengekalkan maklumat di dalam ingatan 3.70 10.

Memupuk semangat bantu membantu 3.88

11.

Menggalakkan pencarian maklumat dan penyelidikan secara individu

3.85

12.

Menggalakan pencarian maklumat dan penyelidikan secara berkumpulan

3.95

13.

Mewujudkan interaksi 2 hala 4.02

14.

Memerlukan persediaan awal sebelum hadiri kuliah

3.76

15.

Menambahkan bebanan kerja kursus 3.33

Purata min 3.84

Kesimpulannya, persepsi pelajar terhadap hasil pembelajaran kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia selepas SCL dilaksanakan adalah positif dan berada pada tahap tinggi.

3.4 Kesan penggunaan kaedah SCL terhadap pelajar dan Keputusan Pencapaian Gred Pelajar Kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia

Perbandingan keputusan gred pelajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia

ini melibatkan pelajar semester pertama 2004/2005 yang mewakili gred sebelum perlaksanaan SCL iaitu seramai 3310 orang manakala pelajar semester kedua 2004/2005 yang mewakili gred selepas perlaksanaan SCL adalah seramai 2180 orang. Perbandingan ini tidak menggunakan



294

sampel dan pelajar yang sama kerana kursus-kursus ini hanya ditawarkan sekali sahaja sepanjang pengajian mereka kecuali bagi pelajar yang tidak lulus. Maka dapatan kajian ini bolehlah disifatkan sebagai dapatan umum.

Gred pelajar yang digunakan di dalam perbandingan ini adalah mengikut pengukuran prestasi yang telah ditetapkan oleh Universiti Putra Malaysia dan gred dianalisis berdasarkan keterangan abjad A sebagai amat cemerlang, A- dan B+ sebagai amat baik, B da B- sebagai baik, C+ dan C sebagai memuaskan, C- dan D+ sebagai lemah, D dan D+ sebagai amat lemah dan F sebagai gagal. (Lihat jadual 6)

Jadual 6: Taburan gred dan keterangan gred di UPM Abjad Keterangan gred pelajar Abjad Keterangan gred

pelajar A Amat cemerlang C- dan D+ Lemah A- dan B+ Amat baik D dan D- Amat lemah B dan B- Baik F Gagal C+ dan C Memuaskan Melalui perbandingan yang dilakukan di dapati selepas perlaksanaan SCL, terdapat penurunan peratusan keputusan gred dengan julat 6.1 peratus hingga 0.2 peratus bagi gred pelajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia yang berada pada tahap amat cemerlang, memuaskan, lemah, sangat lemah dan gagal. Manakala terdapat peningkatan peratusan keputusan gred dengan julat dari 0.8 peratus hingga 13.1 peratus bagi gred pelajar yang berada pada tahap sangat baik dan baik (lihat carta 1). Carta 1 : Perbandingan Keputusan Gred Pelajar Kenegaraan Malaysia

8

28

34.3

23.2

4.3

0.71.5

4.5

28.9

47.4

17.1

0.8 0.4 0.9

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Amat cemerlang sangat baik baik memuaskan lemah sangat lemah gagal

GRED

PERATUS

SBLM SCL

SLPS SCL

Sumber: Jabatan Pengajian Kenegaraan dan Ketamadunan, Fakulti

EkologiManusia, UPM



295

Hasil perbandingan juga menunjukkan selepas perlaksanaan SCL tumpuan peratusan tahap tertinggi pelajar kenegaraan Malaysia tidak berubah iaitu kekal pada gred baik walaupun mengalami peningkatan melebihi 10 peratus. Peningkatan dan pengekalan ini boleh ditafsirkan sebagai kejayaan objektif kaedah ini yang mengalihkan tumpuan pelajar daripada menghafal semata-mata kepada peningkatan kemahiran dan kebolehan pelajar itu sendiri. Kesan daripada perlaksanaan SCL ke atas keputusan gred pelajar juga adalah positif apabila peratusan pelajar yang mendapat gred lemah, sangat lemah dan gagal berkurangan dan adalah kurang daripada 1.1 peratus. Maka aspek kerja-kerja berkumpulan bolehlah dikatakan membantu mengurangkan peratusan pelajar yang mendapat gred C-, D+, D, D- dan F. dan menambahkan jumlah pelajar yang mendapat gred baik. Walaupun perbandingan keputusan gred pelajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia menunjukkan keberkesanan kaedah SCL namun begitu keberkesanan sesuatu kaedah sebenarnya dipengaruhi juga oleh banyak faktor lain seperti jumlah pelajar, minat pelajar, latarbelakang pengajian dan lain-lain lagi . Maka pengkaji mencadangkan satu kajian lanjut dijalankan tentang faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan gred pelajarbagi kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia dan lain-lain kursus.

RUMUSAN

Secara keseluruhannya kajian mendapati perlaksanaan kaedah SCL telah memberi kesan ke atas hasil pembelajaran dan gred pencapaian pelajar kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia di UPM. Hasil kajian dapat diringkaskan seperti berikut:

1. Kajian mendapati kaedah SCL telah dilaksanakan di dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia oleh tenaga pengajar yang terlibat. Kaedah utama yang digunakan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran adalah mensyarah dan tugasan berkumpulan.

2. Kajian mendapati kaedah penilaian berbentuk hasil kerja

kumpulan dan aktiviti pelajar merupakan kaedah penialaian SCL telah dilaksanakan di dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia oleh tenaga pengajar yang terlibat dengan wajaran sebanyak 30 peratus. Walaubagaimanapun terdapat segelintir pengajar yang mempelbagaikan kaedah penilaian tetapi masih tertakluk kepada 30 peratus markah yang telah diperuntukkan.

3. Kajian mendapati persepsi pelajar terhadap hasil pembelajaran

kursus Kenegaraan Malaysia selepas kaeadah SCL dilaksanakan di dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran adalah positif dan berada pada tahap tinggi.

4. Kajian terhadap perbandingan keputusan gred pelajar



296

mendapati perlaksanaan SCL secara umumnya memberikan kesan ke atas keputusan gred pelajar seperti berlakunya pengurangan kadar peratusan pelajar yang mendapat markah lemah, sangat lemah dan gagal dalam ketiga-tiga kursus.

RUJUKAN

[1] Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah & Jayum Jawan (pnyt.) 1996. Kenegaraan Malaysia. Serdang: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia.

[2] Zatul Himmah Adnan, Kajian Terhadap Keberkesanan Kursus

Kenegaraan Malaysia di Universiti Putra Malaysia: Satu Pengamatan Awal dari Persepsi Pelajar. Kertas Kerja Seminar Kenegaran dan Ketamaduanan: Ke Arah Memahami Islam Hadhari di Malaysia 2005 (SOGOC 2005), 18 dan 19 Mei 2005 anjuran Jabatan Pengajian Kenegaraan dan Ketamadunan, Universiti Putra Malaysia

[3] Norhani Bakri, Noor Zainab Razak, Hamidah Rahman, Ishak Mad Shah,

Roziana Shaari dan Fadillah Zaini, Persepsi Pensyarah Terhadap Persekitaran Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Mata Pelajaran Umum Universiti di UTM, Skudai, Prosiding Seminar Kebangsaan Pengajian Umum (SKPU 2006), 13-14 Jun 2006 anjuran Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

[4] Utusan Malaysia. 2004b. 9 September. (Syor rombak format peperiksaan

bercorak objektif) [5] Zaid, Ahmad Tarmizi & Sri Rahayu, E-Pengajaran; Pembelajaran Kursus

TITAS: Pengalaman UPM. Prosiding Bengkel Kebangsaan Ketiga: Pengajaran TITAS di IPTA 2004, 13-15 April 2004 anjuran Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris

[6] Shahabudddin Hashim, Rohizani Yaakub, Mohd Zohir Ahmad (2003),

Pedagogi: Strategi dan Teknik Mengajar dengan Berkesan. Shah Alam : PTS Publications & Distributor Sdn. Bhd.

[7] Hamdan Noor, Student Centered Learning at the Faculty of Medicine and

Health Sciences UPM, Bengkel SCL 2004 anjuran Fakulti Ekologi manusia



297

PENDEKATAN PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA ARAB PELAJAR CHINA DI XI’AN INTERNATIONAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY (XISU): SUATU

TINJAUAN DI USIM

ARNIDA A. BAKAR WAN AZURA WAN AHMAD LUBNA ABD. RAHMAN

Fakulti Pengajian Bahasa Utama, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM), Bandar Baru Nilai, 71800, Nilai,Negeri Sembilan. [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRAK - Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM) menerima sepuluh orang pelajar perempuan luar negara daripada Xi’an International Studies University (XISU), China pada tahun ini. Para pelajar tersebut diberi peluang mengikuti pengajian selama setahun di USIM bersama pelajar tahun 3 Fakulti Pengajian Bahasa Utama (FPBU) yang mengambil jurusan Sarjana Muda Bahasa Arab dan Komunikasi. Mereka telah pun mengikuti pengajian bahasa Arab sebelum ini di XISU iaitu selama dua tahun. Sepanjang tempoh tersebut mereka mampu bertutur bahasa Arab dan membaca teks Arab dengan begitu baik berbanding pelajar tempatan yang telah mempelajari bahasa Arab semenjak di bangku sekolah menengah lagi. Oleh yang demikian, kertas kerja ini mengkaji pendekatan pembelajaran bahasa Arab yang digunakan oleh pelajar China di universiti tersebut sehingga mampu menguasai bahasa Arab dengan baik dan efektif. Fokus utama kajian ini adalah tertumpu kepada pendekatan pembelajaran kemahiran asas bahasa Arab. Borang soal selidik diedarkan kepda responden bagi memperolehi maklumat yang diperlukan. Penyelidik mendapati bahawa para pelajar tersebut menunjukkan tahap penguasaan bahasa Arab yang begitu baik melalui kemahiran berkomunikasi dan membaca teks bahasa Arab. Di samping itu juga, mereka menunjukkan minat yang positif dan memberangsangkan terhadap pembelajaran bahasa Arab. Ini membuktikan pendekatan pembelajaran bahasa Arab yang diaplikasikan sepanjang tempoh dua tahun di Universiti Xi’an sangat berkesan. Kata Kunci: pendekatan pembelajaran, kemahiran bahasa, penguasaan bahasa.



298

1. 0 PENDAHULUAN

Kertas kerja ini mengkaji pendekatan pembelajaran bahasa Arab yang digunakan oleh pelajar China di Xi’an International Studies University (XISU) selama dua tahun sehingga mampu menguasai bahasa Arab dengan begitu baik dan efektif. Objektif kertas kerja ini adalah untuk meninjau kaedah berkesan yang diguna pakai oleh para pelajar tersebut agar dapat dijadikan panduan berguna bagi penambahbaikan penguasaan bahasa Arab dalam kalangan pelajar tempatan di Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM). Kertas kerja ini diharap dapat memberi input yang positif serta contoh bagi meningkatkan keberkesanan pendekatan pembelajaran bahasa Arab bagi pelajar tempatan di USIM khususnya. 2.0 METODOLOGI KAJIAN Kajian ini menggunakan borang soal selidik sebagai asas utama bagi mendapatkan maklumat yang diperlukan. Sebanyak sepuluh borang diedarkan kepada sepuluh orang responden kajian yang terdiri daripada para pelajar China dari Xi’an International Studies University (XISU). Kesemua mereka ini telah diberi peluang mengikuti pengajian selama setahun bersama-sama dengan pelajar tahun 3 Fakulti Pengajian Bahasa Utama (FPBU) yang mengambil jurusan Sarjana Muda Bahasa Arab dan Komunikasi di USIM. Maklumat yang diperolehi daripada borang soal selidik ini dianalisa bagi mengenal pasti pendekatan pembelajaran bahasa Arab yang digunakan oleh kesemua sepuluh orang pelajar China tersebut. Borang soal selidik ini terdiri daripada dua bahagian utama iaitu:

a) Bahagian Pertama Bahagian ini mengandungi latar belakang responden yang

meliputi maklumat tentang butir peribadi serta pengalaman mempelajari bahasa Arab di institusi pengajian tinggi responden tersebut.

b) Bahagian Kedua

Bahagian ini mengandungi lima soalan utama iaitu berkaitan dengan pensyarah bahasa Arab di universiti berkenaan, buku teks yang digunakan, aktiviti bahasa yang dipraktikkan ketika sesi pembelajaran, bahan pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang digunakan, kekerapan bertutur bahasa Arab serta cara mereka menguasai bahasa Arab dengan berkesan.

Maklumat yang diperolehi daripada borang tersebut

diproses dengan menggunakan perisian Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Segala data tersebut dianalisa melalui kaedah taburan kekerapan (frequency distribution).



299

Hasil dapatan serta kesimpulan kajian ini juga dibincangkan dalam kertas kerja ini. 3.0 ANALISIS DATA

ANALISA DATA BORANG SOAL SELIDIK

3.1 BAHAGIAN PERTAMA

Terdapat seramai 10 orang responden perempuan (100%)

dan kesemuanya adalah para pelajar China daripada Xi’an International Studies University (XISU). Mereka belajar bahasa Arab selama dua tahun di XISU dan sekarang sedang mengikuti pengajian bahasa Arab selama setahun di USIM. Taburan kekerapan jantina pelajar tersebut adalah seperti berikut:

Jadual 1: Jantina

Jadual berikut adalah berkaitan tempoh pengalaman para pelajar

China tersebut belajar bahasa Arab. Data yang diperolehi menunjukkan bahawa kesemua mereka itu belajar bahasa Arab selama satu hingga tiga tahun sahaja (100%). Namun mereka mampu menunjukkan prestasi atau tahap bahasa Arab yang begitu positif dan memberangsangkan.

Jadual 2: Tempoh pengalaman belajar bahasa Arab

Soalan seterusnya adalah berkenaan tahap minat mereka belajar

bahasa Arab. 20% atau 2 orang daripada mereka sangat berminat belajar bahasa Arab, 40% atau 4 orang minat dan 40% lagi atau 4 orang sederhana minat belajar bahasa Arab. Kesimpulannya, 60% atau 6 orang daripada pelajar China tersebut tergolong dalam majoriti yang besar meminati belajar bahasa Arab.

10 100.0 100.0 100.01-3 TAHUNVALID

FREQUENCY PERCENT VALID PERCENT

CUMULATIVE

PERCENT

10 100.0 100.0 100.0PVALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT



300

Jadual 3: Tahap minat belajar bahasa Arab

Responden juga ditanya mengenai faktor atau sebab utama mereka

belajar bahasa Arab. Jawapan yang diperolehi adalah seperti jadual di bawah iaitu seorang (10%) berminat untuk belajar, seorang (10%) lagi terpaksa belajar, manakala 2 orang responden (20%) mendapat galakan daripada orang terdekat dan akhir sekali seramai 6 orang responden (60%) belajar bahasa Arab untuk memenuhi keperluan dan tuntutan semasa. Jadual 4: Faktor atau sebab belajar bahasa Arab

Soalan terakhir bagi bahagian pertama ini adalah berkaitan dengan kriteria yang membolehkan mereka mengikuti pengajian bahasa Arab selama setahun di USIM. 2 orang (20%) responden mendapat CGPA cemerlang manakala 8 orang (80%) datang ke USIM secara sukarela. Ini menunjukkan bahawa mereka berminat untuk belajar bahasa Arab di USIM yang menggunakan bahasa Arab dan bahasa Inggeris sebagai bahasa pengantar kuliah dan tutorial.

2 20.0 20.0 20.0

4 40.0 40.0 60.0

4 40.0 40.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

SANGAT MINAT

MINAT

SEDERHANA MINAT

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT

1 10.0 10.0 10.0

1 10.0 10.0 20.0

2 20.0 20.0 40.0

6 60.0 60.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

MINAT

TERPAKSA

GALAKAN ORANG TERDEKAT

KEPERLUAN SEMASA

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT



301

Jadual 5: Kriteria mendapat peluang belajar di USIM

3.2 BAHAGIAN KEDUA

Bahagian ini mengandungi lima soalan utama yang

berkaitan dengan pensyarah, buku teks dan cara pendekatan pembelajaran bahasa Arab yang digunakan oleh responden di XISU.

a) Warganegara pensyarah bahasa Arab di Xi’an

International Studies University (XISU)

Terdapat pensyarah tempatan (tanah besar China) dan juga pensyarah dari negara Arab yang mengajar responden berkenaan di XISU. Mereka terdiri daripada 2 orang (29%) pensyarah Arab dan 5 orang (71%) pensyarah tempatan. Kesemua responden tersebut memberikan jawapan 100% apabila ditanya tentang warganegara pensyarah yang mengajar mereka bahasa Arab di XISU. Taburan kekerapan warganegara tersebut ditunjukkan dalam jadual berikut.

Jadual 6: Warganegara

*kedua-duanya bermaksud warganegara pensyarah adalah orang tempatan (China) dan Arab.

Responden ditanya mengenai metode pengajaran bahasa Arab yang digunakan oleh pensyarah ketika sesi pembelajaran bahasa Arab. 5 orang (50%) mengatakan bahawa metode lama sahaja digunakan iaitu pensyarah membaca teks dan kemudian menerangkannya kepada pelajar. Manakala 5 orang lagi responden (50%) memberitahu bahawa pensyarah menggunakan metode lama dan terkini seperti penggunaan alat bantu mengajar. Ini menunjukkan bahawa terdapat keseimbangan pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang digunakan oleh pensyarah ketika

2 20.0 20.0 20.0

8 80.0 80.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

CGPA CEMERLANG

SUKARELA

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT

10 100.0 100.0 100.0*KEDUA-DUANYAVALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT



302

mengajar bahasa Arab. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan taburan kekerapan berkenaan.

Jadual 7: Metode pengajaran bahasa Arab yang digunakan oleh pensyarah *kedua-duanya bermaksud metode lama dan terkini digunakan

Dalam jadual 8, kesemua responden (10%) mengatakan bahawa pensyarah mereka menggunakan bahasa Arab dan China ketika sesi pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa Arab.

Jadual 8: Bahasa yang digunakan oleh pensyarah ketika mengajar

b) Buku teks

Soalan kedua adalah berkaitan dengan buku teks yang

digunakan oleh responden.

Hanya seorang responden (10%) sahaja menggunakan buku teks bahasa Arab yang mengandungi tahap secara berperingkat dan buku pelajaran yang mengandungi kemahiran asas bahasa Arab iaitu membaca, mendengar, menulis dan bertutur, manakala 6 orang responden (60%) menggunakan buku teks mengikut tahap, buku pelajaran yang mengandungi kemahiran asas bahasa Arab serta buku teks yang mengandungi subjek khusus bahasa Arab iaitu Nahu, Saraf, Balaghah dan lain-lain. Terdapat 3 orang (30%) yang menggunakan lain-lain buku teks semasa belajar bahasa Arab. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan taburan kekerapan tersebut.

10 100.0 100.0 100.0BAHASA ARAB DAN CINAVALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT

5 50.0 50.0 50.0

5 50.0 50.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

METODE LAMA

*KEDUA-DUANYA

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT



303

Jadual 9: Jenis buku teks yang digunakan oleh responden ketika sesi

pembelajaran

Kesemua responden (100%) mengatakan bahawa bahasa yang digunakan dalam buku teks adalah bahasa Arab dan China.

Jadual 10: Bahasa yang digunakan dalam buku teks Kesemua responden (100%) juga mengatakan bahawa tahap kefahaman bagi isi kandungan buku teks yang digunakan ketika sesi pembelajaran adalah berada pada tahap sederhana.

Jadual 11: Tahap kefahaman isi kandungan buku teks yang digunakan Terdapat 2 orang responden (20%) yang menggunakan satu sahaja material iaitu bahan bacaan teks ketika belajar bahasa Arab, seorang responden (10%) menggunakan dua material iaitu bahan bacaan teks dan suratkhabar, 4 orang responden (40%) menggunakan empat material iaitu bahan bacaan teks, suratkhabar, filem dan lagu serta nasyid manakala 3 orang responden (30%) menggunakan kesemua material iaitu bahan bacaan teks, suratkhabar, filem, lagu serta nasyid dan kisah atau cerita ketika belajar bahasa Arab. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan taburan kekerapan berkenaan.

1 10.0 10.0 10.0

6 60.0 60.0 70.0

3 30.0 30.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

DUA SAHAJA

KETIGA-TIGANYA

LAIN-LAIN

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT

10 100.0 100.0 100.0BAHASA ARAB DAN CINAVALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT

10 100.0 100.0 100.0SEDERHANAVALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT



304

Jadual 12: Material yang sering digunakan dalam sesi pembelajaran bahasa Arab Kesemua responden (100%) menyatakan bahawa terdapat pelbagai jenis latihan dalam buku teks yang digunakan oleh mereka yang merangkumi soalan kefahaman, perkataan seerti dan lawan, bina ayat, menulis karangan serta soalan tatabahasa atau Nahu. Ini menunjukkan bahawa kepelbagaian jenis soalan perlu bagi menguji tahap pemahaman serta membantu meningkatkan tahap penguasaan bahasa Arab mereka. Berikut ialah jadual taburan kekerapan tersebut.

Jadual 13: Jenis latihan yang terdapat dalam buku teks yang digunakan *kesemuanya bermaksud soalan berkaitan kefahaman, perkataan seerti dan lawan, bina ayat, menulis karangan serta Nahu.

c) Aktiviti bahasa yang sering dipraktikkan dalam sesi pembelajaran bahasa Arab

Soalan ketiga adalah berkenaan aktiviti bahasa yang sering dipraktikkan oleh responden ketika sesi pembelajaran bahasa Arab.

1. Jenis aktiviti yang sering dipraktikkan

a) Perbincangan

Dalam jadual di bawah, 4 orang responden (40%) sahaja yang berbincang secara berkumpulan, manakala seorang daripada mereka (10%) berbincang secara individu dan berkumpulan dan seramai 5 orang responden (50%) berbincang secara individu, berdua dan berkumpulan.

10 100.0 100.0 100.0*KESEMUANYA VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT

2 20.0 20.0 20.0

1 10.0 10.0 30.0

4 40.0 40.0 70.0

3 30.0 30.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

SATU SAHAJA

DUA SAHAJA

EMPAT SAHAJA

KESEMUANYA

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT



305

Jadual 14: Perbincangan

b) Pembentangan

Dalam sesi pembentangan pula, dapatlah dilihat pada jadual di bawah bahawa seorang responden (10%) sahaja yang membuat pembentangan secara berdua, manakala seramai 4 orang responden (40%) yang membentang secara individu, berdua dan berkumpulan. Namun terdapat juga 5 orang responden (50%) yang langsung tidak mengambil bahagian dalam sesi pembentangan.

Jadual 15: Pembentangan

c) Aktiviti lain (kuiz, peperiksaan, lakonan, debat,

pidato)

Selain daripada perbincangan dan pembentangan, terdapat juga aktiviti bahasa lain yang dilalui oleh responden dalam sesi pembelajaran bahasa Arab. Seorang responden (10%) hanya menyatakan lakonan sebagai aktiviti lain, manakala 2 orang responden (20%) menyatakan hanya kuiz dan peperiksaan, 4 daripada mereka (40%) menyatakan kuiz, peperiksaan, debat atau lakonan dan selebihnya iaitu 3 orang (30%) menyatakan kuiz, peperiksaan, debat, lakonan dan pidato sebagai aktiviti

4 40.0 40.0 40.0

1 10.0 10.0 50.0

5 50.0 50.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

SATU SAHAJA

DUA SAHAJA

KESEMUANYA

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT

1 10.0 10.0 10.0

4 40.0 40.0 50.0

5 50.0 50.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

SATU SAHAJA

KESEMUANYA

TIADA

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT



306

lain. Taburan kekerapan bagi peratusan ini dijelaskan dalam jadual 16 di bawah.

Jadual 16: Aktiviti lain berkaitan

2. Alat bantu mengajar yang digunakan ketika sesi

pembelajaran bahasa Arab

Jadual 17 menunjukkan bahawa terdapat 5 orang pelajar (50%) yang menyatakan makmal bahasa sebagai alat bantu mengajar yang sering digunakan oleh pensyarah mereka, manakala 2 orang pelajar (20%) menyatakan hanya makmal bahasa dan internet atau kaset. Begitu juga terdapat hanya seorang daripada mereka (10%) yang menyatakan makmal bahasa, internet, komputer, cakera padat (cd), kaset dan radio sebagai bahan pembelajaran yang sering digunakan dan dua orang pelajar (20%) menyatakan bahawa makmal bahasa, internet, komputer, cakera padat (cd), kaset, radio dan televisyen digunakan ketika sesi pembelajaran bahasa Arab.

Jadual 17: Alat bantu mengajar yang digunakan

d) Kekerapan menggunakan bahasa Arab di universiti

Soalan keempat adalah berkenaan kekerapan responden bertutur

bahasa Arab semasa berada di universiti.

1 10.0 10.0 10.0

2 20.0 20.0 30.0

4 40.0 40.0 70.0

3 30.0 30.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

SATU SAHAJA

DUA SAHAJA

TIGA SAHAJA

KESEMUANYA

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT

5 50.0 50.0 50.0

2 20.0 20.0 70.0

1 10.0 10.0 80.0

2 20.0 20.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

SATU SAHAJA

DUA SAHAJA

ENAM SAHAJA

KESEMUANYA

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT



307

Hanya 5 orang responden (50%) bertutur bahasa Arab ketika berbincang bersama rakan dalam kelas manakala 2 lagi responden (20%) bertutur ketika berbincang bersama rakan atau pensyarah dalam kelas dan sewaktu berada di hostel. Selain daripada itu, 2 orang responden (20%) bertutur bahasa Arab ketika bertemu dengan pensyarah di luar kelas dan sama ada ketika berbincang bersama rakan atau pensyarah dalam kelas atau ketika bertemu dengan rakan di luar kelas. Manakala hanya seorang daripada mereka (10%) yang bertutur bahasa Arab ketika bertemu rakan dan pensyarah di luar kelas, ketika berada di hostel dan ketika bertemu dengan pensyarah dalam kelas.

Jadual 18: Kekerapan penggunaan bahasa Arab

e) Cara pendekatan efektif bagi menguasai bahasa

Arab

Soalan terakhir adalah berkaitan pendekatan berkesan penguasaan bahasa Arab oleh responden.

Seorang responden (10%) menghafal perkataan dan melakukan latihan membaca setiap hari, 2 orang responden (20%) menghafal perkataan, mengumpul perkataan baru dan melakukan latihan membaca setiap hari, manakala 3 orang responden (30%) menghafal perkataan, melakukan latihan membaca setiap hari dan sama ada mengumpul perkataan baru, belajar secara berkumpulan, menulis, mendengar atau bertutur setiap hari. Terdapat 3 orang responden (30%) yang mengumpul dan menghafal perkataan baru setiap hari, belajar secara berkumpulan, mendengar, membaca dan bertutur setiap hari. Hanya seorang responden (10%) yang mempraktikkan membaca, menulis, bertutur, mengumpul dan menghafal perkataan serta belajar secara berkumpulan.

5 50.0 50.0 50.0

2 20.0 20.0 70.0

2 20.0 20.0 90.0

1 10.0 10.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

SATU SAHAJA

DUA SAHAJA

TIGA SAHAJA

EMPAT SAHAJA

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT



308

Jadual 19: Pendekatan efektif bagi menguasai bahasa Arab

4.0 DAPATAN KAJIAN DAN KESIMPULAN

Hasil analisis yang diperolehi daripada kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa kesemua responden tersebut hanya belajar bahasa Arab dalam tempoh yang pendek sahaja iaitu antara 1 hingga 3 tahun berbanding dengan pelajar tempatan di USIM yang telah mempelajari bahasa Arab sejak dari bangku sekolah menengah lagi iaitu lebih daripada 10 tahun. Para pelajar China ini menunjukkan tahap penguasaan bahasa Arab yang begitu baik dan memberangsangkan khususnya apabila mereka berkomunikasi dan membaca. Selain daripada itu, faktor minat dan tuntutan keperluan semasa seperti peluang mendapatkan pekerjaan yang lebih luas mendorong mereka untuk belajar bahasa Arab dengan lebih efektif sehnigga mampu memperlihatkan kebolehan dan keupayaan mereka. Sebagai contoh, apabila mereka berkomunikasi dengan para pensyarah yang mengajar bahasa Arab, dapat dilihat kepelbagaian penggunaan perkataan serta pengaplikasian tatabahasa yang betul. Ini menunjukkan keberkesanan pendekatan pembelajaran yang digunakan semasa berada di negara mereka sendiri. Di samping itu juga, majoriti daripada mereka yang datang untuk mengikuti pengajian bahasa Arab di fakulti Pengajian Bahasa Utama bersama-sama dengan pelajar tempatan USIM adalah dengan rasa sukarela tanpa ada paksaan daripada pihak universiti atau saudara mara terdekat.

Melalui kajian ini juga didapati bahawa pensyarah yang mengajar mereka di XISU juga majoritinya adalah daripada kalangan mereka sendiri iaitu penduduk tempatan China. Hanya sebilangan kecil sahaja iaitu tidak sampai 30% adalah terdiri daripada pensyarah berbangsa Arab. Para pelajar tersebut menjadikan bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa kedua untuk mempelajari dan menguasainya serta tidak jemu berusaha sehingga membuahkan hasil yang memberangsangkan dan positif. Walaupun pensyarah mereka menggabungkan kedua-dua bahasa iaitu Arab dan China ketika sesi pembelajaran bahasa Arab, namun ia tidak menjadi penghalang kepada mereka untuk menguasai bahasa Arab dengan begitu

1 10.0 10.0 10.0

2 20.0 20.0 30.0

3 30.0 30.0 60.0

3 30.0 30.0 90.0

1 10.0 10.0 100.0

10 100.0 100.0

DUA SAHAJA

TIGA SAHAJA

EMPAT SAHAJA

LIMA SAHAJA

ENAM SAHAJA

TOTAL

VALID


CUMULATIVE

PERCENT



309

baik. Begitu juga dengan gabungan metode lama dan terkini dalam penyampaian pelajaran oleh pensyarah juga antara faktor penyumbang kepada minat pelajar China tersebut mempelajari serta menguasai bahasa arab dengan lebih efektif.

Buku teks yang digunakan oleh mereka juga merangkumi pelbagai aspek iaitu buku bahasa Arab mengikut tahap dan berperingkat, buku empat kemahiran asas bahasa Arab dan buku yang mengandungi subjek khusus seperti Nahu, Saraf dan sebagainya. Ini menunjukkan bahawa mereka juga belajar sama seperti pelajar tempatan di USIM ini. Bahasa pengantar utama buku mereka ini adalah bahasa Arab dan China memandangkan mereka perlu memahami dengan lebih jelas apa yang dipelajari. Namun ini tidak menghalang mereka untuk terus berusaha menguasai bahasa Arab walaupun terdapat gabungan bahasa semasa sesi pembelajaran bahasa Arab.

Kajian juga mendapati bahawa majoriti daripada mereka bertutur dengan bahasa Arab apabila berada dalam kelas iaitu semasa berbincang dengan rakan atau pensyarah dan juga ketika bertemu dengan mereka di luar kelas. Ini menunjukkan keseriusan mereka dalam mempelajari dan seterusnya menguasai bahasa Arab dengan begitu baik sekali. Mereka tidak malu serta merasa bimbang untuk melakukan kesalahan bahasa apabila bertutur bahasa Arab dengan rakan dan pensyarah. Dalam erti kata lain, mereka mempunyai motivasi serta semangat yang tinggi untuk terus berusaha sehingga berjaya.

Selain daripada itu, hasil kajian juga mendapati bahawa mereka menjadikan aktiviti menghafal perkataan yang dipelajari, mengumpul perkataan baharu setiap hari, belajar dan membuat perbincangan secara berkumpulan atau study group serta membuat latihan berkomunikasi, mendengar, membaca dan menulis setiap hari sebagai rutin harian dan amat praktikal untuk menguasai bahasa Arab dengan begitu baik dan efektif.

Kesimpulannya, pendekatan pembelajaran bahasa Arab yang digunakan oleh responden kajian di XISU boleh dijadikan panduan dan contoh kepada pelajar tempatan di USIM. Sifat gigih dan rajin yang dimiliki oleh mereka pasti membuahkan hasil kejayaan yang bermakna buat diri mereka sendiri di samping patut dijadikan ikutan. Hal ini kerana mereka bukan penutur jati Arab namun mereka mampu membuktikan bahawa tiada yang mustahil bagi mereka untuk menguasai bahasa asing seperti bahasa Arab. PENUTUP Tempoh pembelajaran bahasa Arab selama dua tahun di XISU berjaya menunjukkan hasil yang memberangsangkan dan positif. Sepuluh orang pelajar China yang diberi peluang mengikuti pengajian bahasa Arab di USIM telah memperlihatkan kebolehan dan keupayaan mereka bertutur dengan



310

begitu baik. Oleh yang demikian, sewajarnya para pelajar tempatan di USIM mengambil peluang keemasan ini mendekati pelajar China berkenaan dan cuba mengenal pasti pendekatan lain yang digunakan oleh mereka bagi menguasai bahasa Arab. Tiada bezanya antara pelajar tempatan USIM dan pelajar China XISU kerana kedua-duanya bukan penutur jati Arab. Apa yang lebih penting adalah usaha gigih dan tidak jemu belajar serta mengambil contoh cara pendekatan pembelajaran mereka agar segala manfaat dan panduan berguna dapat dikongsi bersama. Kertas kerja ini mengenengahkan pendekatan yang digunakan oleh pelajar China dan diharap pendekatan lain yang juga efektif dan positif boleh dikenal pasti menerusi beberapa lagi kertas kerja dan kajian. Panduan dan contoh pendekatan efektif boleh diguna pakai bagi meningkatkan penguasaan bahasa Arab di kalangan bukan penutur jati Arab.



311

ENHANCING ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING CURRICULA THROUGH INTENSIFICATION OF FIELD COURSE

SUMIANI YUSSOFF, C.C.ONN

Department of Civil, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

[email protected], [email protected]


ABSTRACT

Environmental Engineers play an important role in maintenance of environmental health protection against environmental factors that may adversely impact the human health and impact the ecological balances that is essential to long-term human and environmental quality. Introducing Environmental Engineering students to nature is the first step in helping them to understand the structure and function of nature ecology and the importance of these structures in urban development and helps in preventing environmental health concerns. An inaugural ecology field course was conducted at University Malaya’s Ulu Gombak Field Studies Centre from 7

th May 2007 to 13

th May

2007 comprise of student of Environmental Engineering form Civil Engineering department, University Malaya. The program used the Problem Oriented Project Based Learning (POPBL) approach as the mode of teaching and learning. The program incorporated lectures, field studies, laboratory works, site visits and investigation, group oral presentation, written test. By the end of the course, students will be able to describe important of sustainable land and forest management concepts and identify important ecosystem services and how ecological processes influence the function of our urban environments and apply ecological principals to the future development of a management plan in urban areas.

Keywords: Environmental Engineering,



312

curricula, field course, problem oriented project based learning

1. INTRODUCTION

Reducing environmental risks worldwide could save 13 million lives every year, according to the World Health Organization. An analysis of health conditions in 192 countries showed that every nation in the world--rich and poor is affected by environmental risks related to such things as air and water pollution, agricultural practices, ecosystem changes, UV radiation, noise pollution, climate change, and workplace hazards that may lead to a range of impacts to health problems that could be prevented [1].

Environmental Engineers are concerned with these environmental risks on public health which is widely known as environmental health. Environmental Engineers play an important role in the maintenance of public health and environmental health protection which are the protections against environmental factors that may adversely impact the human health and impact the ecological balances that is essential to long-term human and environmental quality, whether in the natural or man-made environment [2].

1.1 Importance of field work

Introducing Environmental Engineering students to nature is the first step in helping them to understand the structure and function of nature ecology and the importance of these structures in urban development and helps in preventing environmental health concerns.

The field work was introduced in the new curriculum of Environmental Engineering in conjunction with the Outcome Based Education (OBE) system which stresses the importance of producing well informed students who can solve technical problems related environmental risks.

The purpose of the field work is to inspire the future graduates the sense of responsibility to the environment and society with respect to professional ethics, social conduct and the environment and equipping graduates with the ability to apply critical thinking in identifying, formulating and solving engineering problems.

1.2 Introduction to field work

For the first time, an ecology field course (KAES 1146) was conducted at University Malaya’s Ulu Gombak Field Studies Centre from 7

th May 2007 to 13

th May 2007 for first group of students which

comprise of second year student of Environmental engineering program of the Civil Engineering Department, University Malaya and the second batch from the 14

th May 2007 to 20

th May 2007 for the first

year students of Environmental Engineering program of Civil Engineering Department, University Malaya.

This ecology course is a field-based learning program on forest



313

ecology, natural resource and river management, and sustainable development. Using field activities, discussions, excursions, and presentations by teachers, students will work in a team formed to explore biodiversity in rainforest streams, impacts of development on diversity in forest, impact of development of rivers, and other aspects of forest ecology. The program includes field trips to forest, river, streams, and development areas.

The students stay at site throughout the course which was located at the University of Malaya Field Studies Centre of the Ulu Gombak Biodiversity Centre, sited on 120-hectares of secondary and primary forest, it is a veritable fount of biological & ecological knowledge, with the area’s fauna and flora extensively studied and documented throughout the site’s 40-year history [4]. The Centre has adequate facilities including dormitories, a teaching centre consisting of a classroom-laboratory as well as a VIP suite and two self-contained chalets, currently functioning as residences for visiting researchers from abroad [4].

This research centre is popular with foreign researchers conducting biological and ecological studies, the site is also popular with geology studies and is an excellent training ground for students to experience their first fieldwork practice [4].

Many parts of the world are heavily managed by humans, with cities, industrial areas, agricultural fields, are dominated by human influences which lead to many causes of environment degradation. This course will introduce student on how important ecological processes is in influencing the functioning of managed ecosystems. It will also explore the ways student can apply an understanding of ecology to improve the management of these systems.

By the end of the course, it is hoped that these environmental engineering students will be sensitized toward the environment and be able to appreciate nature better, while relating to future development of sustainable land and forest management concepts. The students will be trained to identify important ecosystem services and how the ecological processes influence the function of the urban environments and apply ecological principals in their future development and management planning.

1.3 Objectives of the program

The course program has several objectives, with the primary objectives being:

1. To produce students who can solve technical problems related to water, air and solid waste management.

2. To impart in graduates solid knowledge of engineering fundamentals, principles and applications,

3. To instill in graduates the sense of accountability and responsibility to the environment and society with respect



314

to professional ethics, social conduct and the environment, and

4. To equip graduates with the ability to apply critical thinking in identifying, formulating and solving engineering problems.

1.4 Mode of teaching and learning

The program used the Problem Oriented Project Based Learning (POPBL) approach as the mode of teaching and learning. The program incorporated of lectures, field studies, laboratory works, site visits and investigation, group oral presentation, and written test.

2.0 PROBLEM-BASED PROJECT WORK AND DESIGN

Problem-based means that traditional textbook-knowledge is replaced by the necessary knowledge to solve problems. The concept moves the perspective from understanding of common knowledge into ability to develop new knowledge. While the aim of the project work is "learning by doing" or "action learning". In this course, the project work is exemplary in the sense that working with the research question forms the key to understanding more general (societal) problems [5].

POPBL was used in this course as a new curriculum development that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in groups for active role of problem solvers confronted with an ill-structured problem that mirrors real-world problems. The main-feature of the POPBL is based on the development of a project.

In problem-based project work, the aim is to train students to learn by themselves independent of teachers and the institution. Problem-based project work helps students in developing:

• Communication and writing skills,

• Independence and co-operative skills,

• Critical and action orientation,

• Capability to rapidly grasp the structure of complex problems, survey huge amounts of material and find creative solutions.

2.1 POPBL teaching mode

In this course the students go through a full lecture module and were suppose to identify individual group project based on the basic lectures. Each group formulated a unique project which encapsulate their understanding, knowledge and concern about related environmental problems. The project is a singular task, which is specified in aim and time frame. This task is based on real and



315

complex operations, for which there is initially a multitude of possible solutions and the outcome is unknown to the students. The students carry out projects with the focus on:

• Research question

• Methodology and project design

• The project work

• The writing process

• The project report

2.2 The evolution of a project

The evolution of the problem based project report started with the commencing of the formulation of research problem with analysis of the background and history of the problem before the development of research question. Further analysis on theory and data required by the research question need to be determined before the students proceed to report



316

writing.

3. STUDENT’S GROUPING

Structured group work is a very effective method of promoting learning amongst students of different background. For this course the grouping was done with different criteria. Students were grouped in 5 groups, each comprising between 5-6 persons, with mix of different race and ethnic, and mix of gender.

Student roles in the group are flexible and may change throughout the project or assignment. They need to rotate the role of leadership among their group members each day. Students need to observe and help with other students' work and critique, evaluate, explain, and suggest ways for improvement within the group. The group must focus on cooperation as well as on achievement of goals. Awareness of the group process is important in completing the task given.

Open communication and multiple approaches were also emphasized. All students have to be actively involved in group discussion on ideas, procedures, results, gathered information, interpretations, and resource materials. Students have an opportunity to explain and discuss their suggested solutions as well as their misconceptions [6].

4. COURSE ASSESSMENT

The course incorporated different types of assessments which include oral assessment, written assessment and peer assessment to evaluate student’s performance in their group and individually. These comprehensive methods of assessments were used to ensure optimum evaluation on the course objectives and students performance.

Oral assessments have historically been a popular method for assessment. Oral presentations are often used to assess student learning from student’s individual and group research projects. Oral presentations are used increasingly in undergraduate programmes because the ability to present information orally is a valuable skill, achievement of which is a



317

reasonable expectation of any engineering graduate [7].

A written assessment is a brief description of the views regarding the quality and impact of the accomplishments of the students [8]. It intended to measure the student’s knowledge, skills and aptitudes from the lesson they have learnt. Written assessment can include essays, assignments, reports, dissertations, diaries, portfolios and workbooks. It may take place as course work or in an examination.

Peer assessment is assessment of students by other students, both formative reviews to provide feedback and summative grading. Peer assessment is one form of innovative assessment [9], which aims to improve the quality of learning and empower learners, where traditional forms can by-pass learners' needs. It can include student involvement not only in the final judgements made of student work but also in the prior setting of criteria and the selection of evidence of achievement [10].

5. COURSE MODULE

The aim of the module is designed to provide a critical overview of the theory, knowledge and practice of Environmental Engineering course and it’s related courses. The course modules developed in this course are comprehensive in aspects and knowledge on ecological and environmental factors, which includes:

• Introduction to field biology,

• Jungle and nature walks for nature identification and appreciation,

• Introduction to forest insect with sorting and identification ,

• Investigating nocturnal invertebrates with sorting and identification ,

• Investigating diurnal invertebrate (terrestrial and aquatic),

• Introduction to mammal/ herptiles in the field,

• Investigating the bats and other small mammal and herptiles,

• Introduction to bird watching,

• Birds watching/ mist netting, identification and biometrics,

• Frogging and identification,

• Introduction to river ecology/ limnology and water chemistry,

• River profiling (physical characteristics),

• River investigation: nature to urban with data analysis & presentation,

• Site visit.



318

6. PROBLEM FORMULATION PROJECT

As mentioned earlier, the problem formulation on research questions were the main foundation for any POPBL project. The students groups were required to formulate the title for their problem formulation assessment with supervision from the lectures. Amongst the examples of problem formulation included topics on:

• How does proper management of environment can prevent extinction of fauna?

• How does the declination of biodiversity affect’s the local communities in peninsular Malaysia?

• What is the trend of carbon dioxide emission in our country and how it affect local climate?

• How does river channelization affect river ecosystem in Klang valley? (focus on water quality)

• How does domestic waste from human settlement affect the river ecosystem in Klang valley?

• How does human affected by water quality and quality change due to deforestation?

• What are the effects of disturbed ecosystem to the present and future population?

• Urbanization: how does it affect the balance of nature?

• How human activities affect the aquatic ecosystem in times of our country’s rapid development?

• How protective Malaysian’s mega-biodiversity and its intrinsic value from public ignorance?

Students must interpret their report based on POPBL concepts. Students were required to submit their report to department of Civil Engineering within a week.

7. COURSE EVALUATION AND OUTCOME

At the end of this course an evaluation by students on the course were carried out through questionnaire. The evaluation showed that the learning goals and timelines of the field work were clearly understood by the students. Students were able to work in groups and interacting with others effectively. With heterogeneous groups, all students are actively involved and able to develop leadership qualities where cooperation is valued over competition with students having a sense of being able to accomplish more by learning together than they can alone. The group process also provides a comfort level for discussion and airing questions. Student interaction and social skills are required for discussion and it helps students in enhancement



319

of verbal and written communication skills and further enhancing students self esteem and personal confidence and development. Student is able to develop abilities in solving problem and critical thinking through group discussion and group work.

8. CONCLUSION

It was obvious that after the completion of the course that the students were extremely satisfied with the course modules and enjoyed all the activities carried out. Students became more appreciative of their engineering profession, ethics and better understanding about the relationship and importance of environmental issues and nature conservation with hands on experience on nature and the impact of development towards nature. This field work course also helps to development of student’s deep interest and appreciation towards environmental preservation. The Project Oriented Problem Based Learning (POPBL) methodology used in conducting the course have proven its benefit and enhances the students overall teaching and learning experience. Thus, the filed work course is an excellent platform for supporting the new engineering OBE curriculum which emphasised on the development of improved future environmental engineers, who are more sensitive towards nature, more prudent and conscious about impacts of their work and development on the environment.

REFERENCES

[1] West, L. Cleaning Up the Environment Could Save 13 Million Lives. 2007

[2] Ciesla, J.J. “The evolving role of Environmental Science Officers and

Environmental Engineers in the Medical Service Corps”. U.S. Army Medical Department Journal; Jun 2006.

[3] Outcome-based education. Available on

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outcome-based_education; 2007.

[4] University of Malaya Field Studies Centre of the Ulu Gombak Biodiversity Centre. Available on http://www.um.edu.my/discover_um/umique/um_studies_centre.php?intPrefLangID=1&.; 2007.

[5] Enemark, S. Learning to Learn - Educational Trends for the New Millenniu;2000.

[6] Kizlik, B. Ability and Instructional Grouping Information; 2007. [7] Moon, J. Academic Honesty, Plagiarism and Cheating: a self-

instruction unit for levels 1 and 2 students. University of Exeter; 2005.



320

[8] Employees Exempt from the State Personnel Act (EPA). Written

Assessments, Recommendations, and Responses in RPT Review; 2000.

[9] Mowl, G. Innovative Assessment, in DeLiberations; 1996. [10] Biggs, J. Teaching for Quality Learning at University, Buckingham:

SRHE and Open University Press; 1999.



321

FREEMIND FOR THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

MOHD FAKHIZAN ROMLIE* AZIZAN ZAINAL ABIDIN

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 31750 Tronoh,

Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia.

*[email protected] © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRAK - It is a well-known fact that mind mapping is a technique of developing notes and is a powerful tool in assisting and motivating students’ learning. Nevertheless, mind mapping is not a method used to deliver lectures for engineering subjects specifically at the Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS in Perak, Malaysia. The normal and common practice is to use Power Point presentations, instead. As an alternative approach to the well-accepted practice, FreeMind, a mind mapping software, is used as a teaching mode for Electrical Machines subject. Lecture notes are also prepared using FreeMind. The authors discover that this mind mapping approach is a very helpful tool for lecturers to show linkages between topics in Electrical Machines course to students. Students will also be able to grasp the ideas globally. Besides, the notes that are prepared by using this software are simple and made easy for students to understand and remember the subject matter. The objectives of this study are to investigate students’ responses and performances with the aid of mind mapping software. One hundred and fifty undergraduate students taking Electrical Machines are involved in the study. The data for the purpose of this study is collected over fourteen weeks of teaching and learning. Students are given clear instructions at the onset of the study. The outcome of this study shows that students have responded positively towards the implementation of FreeMind in the teaching and learning of the subject.

KEYWORDS: Freemind, Engineering Subject, Electrical Machines, Mind Map, Presentation Method, Teaching Method, Study Skill.



322

1. 0 INTRODUCTION

Mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks or other items linked to and arranged radially around a central key word or idea. It is used to generate, visualize, structure and classify ideas, and as an aid in study, organization, problem solving, decision making, and writing. It is an image-centered diagram that represents semantic or other connections between portions of information. By presenting these connections in a radial, non-linear graphical manner, it encourages a brainstorming approach to any given organizational task, eliminating the hurdle of initially establishing an intrinsically appropriate or relevant conceptual framework to work within. The uniform graphic formulation of the semantic structure of information on the method of gathering knowledge, may aid recall of existing memories [1].

Buzan claims that the mind map is a vastly superior note-taking method because it does not lead to the alleged "semi-hypnotic trance" state induced by the other note forms. He also claims that the mind map utilizes the full range of left and right human cortical skills, balances the brain, taps into the alleged 99% of your unused mental potential, as well as intuition (which he calls "super logic") [2].

There is research evidence that knowledge stored in the brain is hierarchical, i.e. organized in levels [3]-[4]. Mind maps represent knowledge in the same way the brain stores it; that is why they are so intuitive and effective. For this reason they make learning easier for those individuals who use them [5].

Mind maps can become complex but exciting revision tools which allow the students to build up links between the main topics of the map. Another advantage is that it allows revision to take place using just one A4 page, although larger sheets can obviously be used for more adventurous projects [6].

FreeMind is a premier free mind mapping software written in Java [7]. The software is open source and thus can be downloaded and installed, free of charge. Knowing the advantages of mind map and having free mind mapping software led to the utilization of FreeMind for the teaching and learning of Electrical Machines course. Electrical Machines is a subject taught to the Electrical & Electronic Engineering students in Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP). In the July 2007 semester, one hundred and fifty, 3

rd year students registered for the subject. During this particular

semester, the lecturer decided to use FreeMind as a tool to do presentation during lectures. Earlier on in January 2007 semester, the same lecturer used Microsoft Office Power Point for the preparation of lecturer notes and presentation in lectures. In fact, it is a normal practice to use Power Point slides to deliver the lectures in UTP. The objectives of this study are to investigate students’ responses and performances in Electrical Machines after being taught with the aid of FreeMind. An interview, a questionnaire and an evaluation of the lecturer by his students were used to investigate students’ responses. Since the final exam results for July 2007 semester is



323

not available until January 2008, an equivalent written test is used to investigate the students’ performance with the use of FreeMind. The students’ results in semesters January 2005 and January 2007 were compared with the results in July 2007 semester.

2. 0 FREEMIND FEATURES

FreeMind was chosen to do mind mapping for teaching and learning of Electrical Machines because the software is made available, free of charge. This is important so that all students have easy access to the software. FreeMind is particularly noted for the following features: nodes or the branches can have different font styles, font colors, font sizes and background colors; the branches can be folded. Therefore, some of the information can be hidden; the nodes can contain follow-able links to web pages, local folders, executable files and any documents on local computer or local network; the nodes can have clouds with customized colors; the nodes can be positioned freely, cut and pasted as well as deleted; the figures or animated images can be included in the mind map; the mind map can be exported as PDF, JPEG or html files.

Figure 1: Demonstration of some FreeMind features.

3.0 FREEMIND FOR ELECTRICAL MACHINES

The first step to use the FreeMind for the teaching and learning of Electrical Machines is to prepare mind maps using the software. The mind maps were prepared according to the textbook that is used in the subject [8]. Each mind map represents a main topic in Electrical Machines course that was used for the presentation in the lectures, the sizes of the fonts and figures in the mind maps were chosen to the suitable sizes for easy viewing in the lecture hall. Smaller font sizes and figures were used for the lecture notes. This can



324

easily be done since the fonts and figure sizes are changeable using FreeMind.

Figure 2: A mind map prepared using FreeMind for a topic in Electrical Machines.

During the first lecture, the lecturer gave instructions and explanation about the use of FreeMind for the teaching and learning of Electrical Machine in the semester. The software was introduced and demonstrated to the students and they were also required to download the software and be familiar with it after the lecture. This is crucial to ensure students’ competency in using the software for their learning and in preparation for work which required such capabilities. In order to familiarize students with the software, a FreeMind-based assignment was given. The students were required to produce a mind map for a given subtopic in Electrical Machines using the software. The objective of this assignment was to encourage the students to use and at the same time be familiar with the software. Most of the students complained that they were having problems in preparing the mind map because the topics given for the assignment were not yet taught. However, based on the evaluation done by the lecturer, the objective of giving the assignment was met since most of the students had explored functions and features in FreeMind and the students were able to produce good mind maps. The scoring rubric to evaluate the assignments was created using RubiStar [9]. On average, the students obtained scores of 81%, which is classified as ‘outstanding’.



325

FreeMind was then used for eight weeks in the presentation of Electrical Machines lectures, replacing the conventional method, Power Point slides. The feature, fold and unfold nodes available in FreeMind proved helpful for the lecturer to clearly explain the concepts in Electrical Machines because the lecturer was able to hide some of the information while explaining another. At the same time the students were able to see the linkages between main topics, subtopics and concepts covered. Some of the images obtained from the internet could also be animated for better explanation on certain concepts. For students’ revision, the mind maps prepared by the lecturer were made available in the e-learning portal. The students were also able to print the mind maps as lecture notes for their references. The mind maps prepared using FreeMind may be exported to JPEG format file and can be printed on an A4 paper which would be handy and convenient for revision purposes.

4. 0 DATA ACQUISITION METHODS

The objectives of this study were to investigate students’ responses and performances and were done through four methods: questionnaire, interview, evaluation of lecturer by students, and analyzing written test results.

The questionnaire posed aimed to investigate the following responses:

1. FreeMind is new to the students. 2. FreeMind provides an excellent method of enabling students to see

the global view of the course. 3. Learning is made fun with FreeMind. 4. FreeMind is a valuable means for the students to see the

connections between topics in this course. 5. Students enjoy doing assignment using FreeMind. 6. Students are doing well with this course. 7. Students will recommend the software for other courses as well. 8. FreeMind is a better mode of education delivery for this course

compared to Power Point presentation.

The students’ genders were also taken into account to observe any variation of responses from different genders.

Students’ feedback was also assessed through an interview. Seventeen students were interviewed to get their responses on the use of FreeMind in the teaching and learning of Electrical Machines course. The questions posed during the interview were related to the following issues:

1. Students’ motivation to study the subject by using FreeMind. 2. General comments on the use of FreeMind. 3. Students’ opinion on a better way to deliver lecture comparing

between FreeMind and Power Point presentation. 4. Students’ preferences to use FreeMind for other subjects. 5. Comments on FreeMind-based assignment. 6. The students’ learning styles.



326

It is a norm in UTP to distribute a survey form to ask the students to evaluate the lecturers every semester. The survey was also used to evaluate the students’ responses on the FreeMind implementation in the teaching and learning of Electrical Machines subject. The survey form evaluated the following attributes:

1. Quality of presentation. 2. Knowledge of subject matter. 3. Interaction with students. 4. Ability to sustain students’ interest. 5. Pace of instruction. 6. Value of activities and exercises.

The instrument used to measure students’ performance in Electrical Machines course with the aid of FreeMind was written test. The written test results of the students in semester July 2007 were compared with those of students’ results in semesters January 2005 and January 2007. Note that in semesters January 2005 and January 2007, Power Point presentation was used but in semester July 2007, FreeMind was incorporated together with Power Point. In both the January 2007 and July 2007 semesters, the first author was the course lecturer. The written test in both semesters covered the same topics and levels of difficulties. The results from both semesters were used to gauge students’ abilities.

5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Questionnaire Result

Questionnaires were dispensed to explore students’ preferences and responses regarding the use of FreeMind in the teaching of Electrical Machines. Eight questions were posed to both male and female respondents, and the feedback obtained is shown in Figure 3. The responses are shown according to the questions numbered 1 through 8 corresponding respectively to the following: (1) FreeMind is new to me; (2) FreeMind provides an excellent method of enabling me to see the global view of the course; (3) Learning is made fun with FreeMind; (4) FreeMind is a valuable means for me to see the connections between topics in this course; (5) I enjoyed doing the assignment set by my instructor using FreeMind; (6) I am doing well in this course; (7) I would recommend FreeMind for other courses as well; (8) FreeMind is a better mode of education delivery for this course compared to Power Point presentation.



327

FREEMIND for E-Machines: Students' Responses

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Questions posed to students

Responses in %

Male Strongly Agree/Agree

Female Strongly Agree/Agree

Male Strongly Disagree/Disagree

Female Strongly Disagree/Disagree

Figure 3: FreeMind for Electrical Machines: students’ responses.

Freemind is new to me: analysis of the responses shows that almost all the students experience freemind for the first time. Only two female students claimed they have encountered with freemind before. Freemind provides an excellent method of enabling me to see the global view of the course: 93% of the students felt that freemind is an excellent way of enabling them to get the big picture of electrical machines before dwelling into the details. Learning is made fun with freemind: 63% of the students admitted that learning of electrical machines is made an enjoyment with the use of freemind, whilst 37% however were not that enthusiastic. Freemind is a valuable means for me to see the connections between topics in this course: about 85% agreed that with freemind, they were able to see the connections or linkages between topics in learning the course with this software. I enjoyed doing the assignment set by my instructor using freemind: 49% of the students were for this whilst 51% were against it. More of the male students disliked having to do assignments given by the instructor using freemind. This most probably was due to the fact that the students needed more time to get familiarized with the software and although the software was provided to them at no costs, they had to learn how it worked and learning the concepts at the same time became time consuming. This gave the indication that at this initial stage perhaps



328

freemind was well-received when used for the purpose of teaching but not to expect them to do assignments using the software since they required more time to get themselves used to it. I am doing well in this course: an encouraging 87.8% of the students claimed that they were doing well in the course, whilst 12.2% were having some problems. I would recommend freemind for other courses as well: 65.9% of the students agreed to this whilst 34.1% disagreed. A possible reason for such a response would be due to the time required to be competent enough to use the software. Freemind is a better mode of education delivery of this course compared to power point presentation: students were able to distinguish between the use of freemind and power point since they were exposed to eight weeks of freemind and six weeks of power point presentation. 68.3% of the students prefer freemind to power point presentation as the mode of delivery for this course. All the females were for freemind, 31.7% who disagreed were all male students.

5.2 feedback on interview

A total of seventeen students comprising of eight females and nine males, were interviewed to gather some additional comments on the use of freemind in the education delivery of electrical machines course. All the female students admitted that they were motivated to study the course due to the use of freemind, whilst seven out of the nine males shared the same opinion. Further, students expressed that the course was made easier to remember, and the different approach was interesting. The use of a variety of colors was appealing and motivating. Although linkages were clearly seen, the details needed explanation and presented by power point presentation. One student however felt that he could not comprehend the details of the topics, and another mentioned that the approach was not suitable for the course. Five out of the seventeen students suggested a combination of freemind and power point presentation might do a better job, whilst ten students preferred freemind solely. Two of the students opted for merely power point presentation. All, with the exception of two students, enjoyed doing an assignment using freemind. This however was a contrast to the results found in the questionnaire. A conjecture that could be made is that during the interview, students were identified, unlike the anonymous questionnaire responses. Ten students admitted that their learning styles were more global than sequential; six females and four males. This may help explain the tendency of students favoring freemind which displays a general overview of the course more than the minute details.



329

5.3 Evaluation of Lecturer by Students

Each semester, students in UTP evaluate their instructors and the result of the students’ evaluation of their instructor is as displayed in Table 1. The evaluation is based on a rating scale of 1 to 7; indicating poor to excellent respectively.

Table 1 clearly indicates that the overall rating given by the students was that the instructor was doing a good job with 80% rating. He was well noted particularly on his knowledge of the subject matter, his good interaction with the students, and the pace of instruction. Generally students expressed their satisfaction with the instructor’s approach, his mode of delivery, his ability in sustaining their attention and the type of activities that went on throughout the semester.

Table 1: Evaluation of lecturer by student result: semester July 2007

5.4 Students’ Performances

Table 2 shows the comparison of scores and grades obtained by students doing Electrical Machines in three semesters. This shows that historically, students had problems understanding Electrical Machines. In the past semesters, a common practice amongst lecturers teaching the course was by using Power Point presentation as the mode of delivery in the teaching of this course. With the aid of FreeMind, the July 2007 evaluation shows promising results.

Table 2: A comparison: student’s performances in three semesters.

GRADE SCORE

WRITTEN TEST RESULT (%)

SEMESTER JAN 2005

SEMESTER JAN 2007

SEMESTER JULY 2007

F 0 24.17 9.17 7.50



330

CONCLUSION

Although FreeMind is something new to most students, it was well accepted and students gained a lot of benefits in terms of their enjoyment in learning the subject matter, motivated with the clearer global picture and connections between topics, so that they were able to see the relations of the different titles and subtitles, hence making more sense to most of them. As a result, their performance proved far better than those students in the past that relied solely on Power Point presentations. With the incorporation of FreeMind, learning Electrical Machines has definitely been more meaningful to the students. Students clearly were satisfied with this method of teaching as shown in the evaluation results. They felt and performed better with the use of FreeMind. For future work, the implementation of FreeMind in the teaching and learning of Electrical Machines could be further extended for several more semesters and explore the students performances to establish a more concrete and conclusive finding. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors gratefully acknowledge Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for the support and permission to publish the paper. REFERENCES

[1] “Mind Map”, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, Retrieved on Oct 1, 2007, Http://En.Wikipedia.Org/Wiki/Mindmapping

[2] Tony Buzan and Barry Buzan, “The Mind Map Book”, Millennium Ed., Bbc.

[3] Novak, J.D. & Gowin, D.B. (1996). Learning how to learn, Cambridge University Press: New York, P. 7.

[4] Anderson, J. R., & Lebiere, C. (1998). The Atomic Components of Thought. Mahwah, Nj: Erlbaum.

[5] Robert M. Alfonsi, “Ict Workshop: Mind Maps as a Teaching Tool” Retrieved on Oct 19, 2007, Http://Listserv.Ru.Ac.Za/Pipermail/Events-L/2006-September/ 001527.Html

D 40 7.50 5.83 3.33

D+ 45 9.17 2.50 3.33

C 50 18.33 4.17 5.83

C+ 55 20.83 10.00 14.17

B 65 12.50 5.83 27.50

B+ 75 2.50 7.50 8.33

A- 80 1.67 1.67 19.17

A 85 2.50 13.33 34.17



331

[6] Richard Lee Steven Williams, “Teaching Ideas”, Retrieved on Oct 19, 2007, Http://Easyweb.Easynet.Co.Uk/~Rwilliams/Teaching.Htm

[7] “Freemind”, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, Retrieved on Jun 30, 2007, Http://En.Wikipedia.Org/Wiki/Freemind

[8] Stephen J Chapman, “ Electric Machinery Fundamentals”, 4th Ed., Mc

Graw Hill.

[9] Altec, The University of Kansas, “Rubistar”, Retrieved on Sept 1,2007, Http://Rubistar.4teachers.Org /Index.Php



332

PENGAJARAN KURSUS PEMIKIRAN KRITIS BERTERASKAN AL-QUR’AN DI PERINGKAT PENGAJIAN TINGGI: SATU CADANGAN

MOHD FAUZI HAMAT

Jabatan Akidah dan Pemikiran Islam Akademi Pengajian Islam, Universiti Malaya 50603 Kuala Lumpur

[email protected] . © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRAK - pemikiran kritis adalah satu kursus yang ditawarkan oleh kebanyakan institusi pengajian tinggi di negara kita sama ada ipta atau ipts. Penelitian awal penulis terhadap silibus yang diperkenalkan di beberapa ipta dan ipts di negara kita menunjukkan bahawa modul kursus yang digunakan adalah berdasarkan orientasi pemikiran barat, khususnya yang dikemukakan edward de bono dan lain-lain pemikir barat. Walaupun tidak dinafikan bahawa umat islam perlu bersikap terbuka terhadap sebarang bentuk pemikiran manusia yang mengalir dalam dunia islam atas alasan islam menghargai budaya ilmu, namun ia kita perlu berwaspada terhadap kemungkinan adanya elemen-elemen yang tidak sejalan dengan pemikiran islam yang berteraskan al-quran dan al-sunnah. Kertas ini cuba mengemukakan cadangan penulis tentang bentuk kursus pemikiran kritis berteraskan al-quran yang boleh ditawarkan di institusi pengajian tinggi di malaysia. Elemen-elemen pemikiran kritis yang terkandung dalam bidang pengajian usuluddin dan syariah boleh dimasukkan dalam kandungan kursus tersebut. Pandangan tokoh-tokoh pemikir islam berprolifik seperti al-ghazali dan ibn khaldun tentang kaedah berfikir juga boleh dibincangkan dalam kursus berkenaan. Penulis berkeyakinan bahawa sekiranya bentuk pemikiran kritis yang berteraskan sumber wahyu ini ditawarkan oleh institusi pengajian tinggi di negara kita, ia mampu memberi impak yang maksimun dalam mendidik mahasiswa menjadi individu yang mampu berfikir secara kritis setelah mereka mendapat pendedahan semasa mereka berada di menara gading. Di akhir kertas ini juga, penulis akan mengemukakan cadangan kandungan kursus tersebut yang sesuai ditawarkan di



333

ipta dan ipts negara ini.

1.0 PENDAHULUAN Pengajian tinggi adalah peringkat pengajian yang penting untuk melahirkan modal insan yang dapat memenuhi matlamat pihak kerajaan dan swasta menubuhkan sesuatu institusi pengajian tinggi. Dalam konteks pengajian tinggi di malaysia, peranan agama, khususnya islam dalam membentuk falsafah dan modus operandi kegiatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran tidak harus dikesampingkan, sekurang-kurangnya kerana beberapa sebab, antaranya ialah islam menjadi acuan kepada falsafah pendidikan negara, islam berperanan dalam pembentukan citra malaysia dan majoriti mahasiswa yang penuntut institusi pengajian tinggi terdiri dari penganut ajaran islam. Memandangkan islam adalah berbeza dengan agama-agama lain kerana ia adalah suatu cara hidup (way of life) dan sumbernya iaitu al-quran menjelaskan (tibyan) segala perkara, membezakan antara benar dan salah (furqan) dan menjadi sumber pertunjuk (hudan) bagi orang-orang yang bertaqwa, maka kitab suci tersebut perlu dimanfaatkan sebaik mungkin untuk dijadikan garis panduan bagi seluruh kegiatan muslim, termasuk dalam lapangan pendidikan. Ini kerana seluruh kegiatan penerokaan ilmu harus bermula dengan pengenalan tentang tuhan (iqra’ bismi rabbik) yang mengajar manusia apa yang manusia tidak ketahui, mengurniakan ilmu dan hikmah kepada manusia bagi membantu manusia mendapat ilmu-ilmu pelengkap lebih dari apa yang dapat dicerap oleh alat-alat inderawinya dan dicapai oleh akalnya yang terbatas.

Merujuk kepada fokus penulisan kertas ini yang membicarakan kepentingan penawaran kursus pemikiran kritis berteraskan al-quran di institusi pengajian tinggi di malaysia, penulis mengambil pendirian bahawa penawaran kursus pemikiran kritis sedia ada di universiti-universiti yang banyak berorientasikan pendekatan barat perlu diperlengkapkan dengan memasukkan perdekatan al-quran dalam membentuk manusia yang berfikiran kritis. Walaupun tidak dinafikan bahawa umat islam perlu bersikap terbuka terhadap sebarang bentuk pemikiran manusia yang mengalir dalam dunia islam atas alasan islam menghargai budaya ilmu, namun ia kita perlu berwaspada terhadap kemungkinan adanya elemen-elemen yang tidak sejalan dengan pemikiran islam yang berteraskan al-quran dan al-sunnah. Selain dari mengetengahkan topik-topik penting pemikiran kritis, khususnya dari aspek metode-metode pembinaan kemahiran berfikir mencakupi tiga domain utamanya iaitu kemahiran menganalisis, membuat sintesis dan membuat penilaian yang dibincangkan dalam al-quran, beberapa asas penting pemikiran kritis yang dikeluarkan oleh para ilmuwan islam daripada sumber wahyu tersebut juga perlu dimanfaatkan oleh penggubal silibus kursus ini di universiti. Asas-asas pemikiran ini boleh dilihat sama ada, (1) hasil-hasil pemikiran ilmuwan islam terkenal seperti ibn khaldun dan al-ghazzali yang banyak mengetegahkan perbincangan tentang kaedah pembinaan kemahiran berfikir kritis (2) beberapa disiplin ilmu islam yang



334

berkembang dalam tradisi keilmuan islam seperti ilmu mustalah al-hadith, ilmu usul al-fiqh, ilmu mantik dan lain-lain lagi. Dalam perbincangan selanjutnya, akan diterangkan asas-asas pemikiran al-quran tentang pemikiran kritis dan bagaimana asas-asas tersebut boleh dimanfaatkan oleh penggubal silibus subjek pemikiran kritis di universiti bagi mencapai matlamat penawaran kursus tersebut di institusi pengajian tinggi.

1.1 Al-quran dan pemikiran kritis Dalam tinjauan penulis terhadap beberapa definisi pemikiran kritis (critical thinking) yang dikemukakan oleh para ilmuwan, kemahiran berfikir kritis adalah suatu kemahiran untuk menimbang (judge) sesuatu perkara sama ada benar atau salah, wajar atau tidak secara objektif dan logik, tanpa dipengaruhi oleh emosi, perasaan dan kepentingan-kepentingan yang lain. Pemikiran kritis juga merujuk kepada kemahiran berfikir yang melibatkan beberapa subkemahiran seperti kemahiran menilai maklumat, kemahiran menilai hujah secara rasional dan logik, kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah dan lain-lain lagi. Ennis, o’neill menyenaraikan beberapa aspek utama kemahiran pemikiran kritis seperti kemahiran mengenalpasti kesangsian atau kekeliruan dalam memberi alasan (recognizing ambiguity in reasoning), mengenalpasti kontradiksi dalam sesuatu hujah (identifying contradictions in arguments), and memastikan konklusi yang digeneralisasikan dibuat berdasarkan kaedah empirikal yang betul dan tepat (ascertaining the empirical soundness of generalized conclusions) dan juga kemahiran membezakan antara alasan bersifat bias dari alasan yang objektif dan membezakan antara fakta dan pendapat seseorang (ability to distinguish bias from reason and fact from opinion).

Jika diteliti kandungan al-qur’an secara cermat, ternyata kitab suci

tersebut adalah sumber ilmu bagi segala perkara. Kepercayaan ini bukan sahaja dipegang oleh umat islam, tetapi juga oleh orang-orang barat. Bekas presiden amerika syarikat, thomas jefferson misalnya pernah menyatakan bahawa “wisdom could be gleaned from many sources”, termasuk al-quran Al-quran cuba berusaha membentuk dan membina kemahiran berfikir kritis dalam minda pembaca dan pengamal tuntutannya. Gugusan ayat al-quran banyak memperkatakan tentang bagaimana membina kemahiran menganalisis, membuat sintesis dan penilaian terhadap sesuatu. Al-quran mengemukakan beberapa panduan kepada manusia agar mereka membuat analisis terhadap sesuatu kepercayaan yang tidak berasaskan ilmu, menggesa manusia menolak keraguan dalam perkara yang pasti, membuat sintesis dengan memperkaitkan antara kisah-kisah keruntuhan umat silam kerana faktor pelanggaran syariat untuk diambil pengajaran kepada umat kini agar tidak mengulangkan pelanggaran syariat yang sama, memperkaitkan asas-asas kejayaan, kesejahteraan dan kebahagiaan manusia yang diketengahkan oleh al-quran untuk difikirkan kaedah penghayatannya dalam alam kehidupan manusia dan menggesa manusia membuat penilaian yang cermat antara kebaikan dengan keburukan, antara kebahagian abadi dengan kebahagian yang pura-pura, antara amalan yang



335

berasaskan rasional akal dengan yang berasaskan taklid buta kepada nenek moyang atau taksub kepada pemimpin

i, antara amalan yang bersikap

bias dalam memutuskan sesuatu dengan yang berasaskan penilaian yang objektif dan lain-lain lagi.

Dalam membina kemahiran menganalisis contohnya, al-quran juga

menuntut manusia menganalisis sebab-sebab sesuatu secara objektif sebelum memutuskan sesuatu tindakan yang sewajarnya, sebagaimana yang dapat dilihat dalam kisah nabi sulaiman a.s. yang meminta burung belatuk membawa alasan kukuh atas kegagalannya berada dalam kumpulan burung-burung yang berada di bawah pimpinannya. Setelah alasan itu dikemukakan kepadanya, beliau berpuas hati dengan alasan tersebut dan membatalkan niat asalnya untuk menjatuhkan hukuman atas kegagalannya berada dalam barisan tenteranya. Begitu juga tindakan al-`aziz, raja mesir yang tidak menerima dakwaan isteriya zulaikha kononnya nabi yusuf a.s berusaha menggodanya tanpa bukti yang kukuh

ii. Al-quran

juga menuntut umat islam menyelidiki sumber maklumat dan tidak mudah menerima apa yang ada dalam masyarakat. Ia amat menekankan kepentingan menyelidik sesuatu perkara sebelum membuat keputusan mengenainya. Keputusan yang ingin dibuat hendaklah berasaskan kefahaman yang jelas terhadap sesuatu, bukannya berasaskan kejahilan, agakan dan andaian liar semata-mata, khususnya dalam hal-hal yang penting. Ini terkandung dalam firman allah swt yang meminta mukmin agar tidak mudah menerima berita yang dibawa oleh orang fasik, tanpa menyelidikinya terlebih dahulu kerana tindakan tersebut kemungkinan akan menyebabkan mereka menjatuhkan sesuatu hukuman terhadap seseorang berasaskan kejahilan dan mereka akan menyesal di atas tindakan tersebut di kemudian hari

iii.

Dalam membina kemahiran menganalisis di kalangan manusia, al-

quran meminta umat terkemudian memerhatikan kemusnahan kaum `ad dan thamud kaum firaun dan lain-lain yang menolak ajaran yang dibawa oleh nabi mereka untuk diambil pengajaran oleh umat terkemudian. Manakala untuk membina kemahiran menilai sesuatu, al-quran menempelak golongan yang cenderung untuk menuruti segala pemikiran, amalan dan gagasan idea yang ditinggalkan oleh nenek moyang mereka tanpa menyelidikinya terlebih dahulu sejauh mana sesuatu amalan tersebut bertentangan dengan tuntutan al-quran dan al-sunnah serta bercanggah dengan akal manusia yang waras. Al-quran turut menempelak kalangan yang cenderung menuruti pandangan atau amalan majoriti ahli sesebuah masyarakat yang tidak selaras dengan nilai-nilai kebenaran. Ini kerana apa yang diturutinya itu hanyalah bersandarkan sangkaan semata-mata, bukannya berasaskan dalil-dalil kebenaran yang nyata. Antaranya firman allah swt yang bermaksud: “ janganlah engkau menurut kebanyakan orang yang ada di muka bumi, nescaya mereka akan menyesatkanmu dari jalan allah; tiadalah yang mereka turut melainkan sangkaan semata-mata, dan mereka tidak lain hanyalah berdusta”.



336

Nilai-nilai al-quran ini diperjelaskan lagi oleh rasulullah s.a.w. menerusi amalan hidupnya yang banyak direkodkan oleh para perawi hadis di sepanjang zaman. Rasulullah s.a.w. berusaha membudayakan pemikiran kritis dalam masyarakat arab setelah baginda dibangkitkan sebagai utusan allah swt. Rasulullah s.a.w. memasukkan larangan supaya orang-orang arab yang ingin bersumpah setia dengannya menerusi perjanjian àqabah agar meninggalkan amalan bertaklid kepada nenek moyang mereka yang akan membunuh anak-anak mereka, khususnya anak perempuan kerana mereka dipercayai boleh membawa sial kepada keluarga mereka. Baginda juga melarang mereka agar membudayakan dalam masyarakat amalan suka membuat tuduhan sembrono terhadap seseorang sebagai melakukan perkara keji, kalau penuduh tidak boleh mengemukakan bukti-bukti yang kukuh, misalnya di mahkamah di atas tuduhannya. Rasulullah s.a.w juga menolak andaian liar para sahabatnya yang cuba mengaitkan kejadian gerhana matahari (kasuf) yang secara kebetulan berlaku serentak dengan kematian puteranya, ibrahim kerana kejadian gerhana adalah suatu sunnah allah yang berlaku secara tabiì dan tiada kaitan dengan kematian atau kehidupan seseorang. Unsur-unsur penghayatan budaya berfikir kritis juga boleh diteliti pada dokumen piagam madinah yang mempunyai puluhan fasal tersebut yang menjadi rujukan pentadbiran islam pada zaman pemerintahan baginda semasa hayatnya.

Panduan al-quran ini dihayati oleh para sahabat dan generasi umat islam yang menuruti jejak langkah mereka. Kemudian selepas itu muncul beberapa tokoh pemikir islam terkemudian dari berbagai aliran pemikiran sama ada terdiri dari tokoh-tokoh ulama falsafah, kalam, tasawuf, fikah dan usul fikah yang memperkatakan tentang unsur-unsur pemikiran kritis ini dalam karya-karya ilmiah yang dihasilkan oleh mereka. Serentak dengan itu juga muncul beberapa disiplin ilmu islam seperti ilmu kalam/akidah, mustalah al-hadith, al-jarh wa al-ta`dil, falsafah, pengajian sejarah dan tamadun islam (khususnya falsafah sejarah), pengajian tafsir (khususnya tafsir tematik), pengajian al-sunnah, usul fikah dan qawaìd fiqhiyyah, pengajian undang-undang, muamalat, siyasah syarìyyah dan lain-lain yang memang banyak terkandung di dalamnya elemen-elemen pemikiran kritis. Semua bahan pemikiran ulama silam sama ada yang belum tersusun dalam mana-mana disiplin ilmu atau yang sudah tersusun mantap dalam kandungan ilmu-ilmu islam boleh dimanfaatkan untuk dimasukkan dalam kursus pemikiran kritis yang boleh ditawarkan di universiti-universiti.

Dalam disiplin ilmu akidah atau ilmu kalam yang menekankan pengambilan sumber akidah dari sumber yang meyakinkan, begitu juga yang turut menekankan kepentingan penggunaan al-burhan berasaskan sumber premis yang meyakinkan jelas boleh digunakan sebagai sebahagian dari silibus subjek pemikiran kritis berperspektif islam. Penggunaan kaedah-kaedah logik aristotle oleh mutakallimun untuk mempertahankan doktrin-doktrin akidah islam dari serangan musuh menyebabkan tradisi pengajian ketuhanan ini menjadi mantap dengan sentuhan hujah-hujah berasaskan



337

rasionalilti dan kelogikan yang sukar ditolak oleh kalangan yang berakal waras. Tradisi tersebut menyebabkan umat islam mewarisi suatu pegangan akidah yang jelas dan putus (jazam) dan menolak sebarang kepercayaan yang tidak berasaskan asas rasionaliti yang kukuh.

Pengajian ilmu mustalah al-hadith juga sarat terkandung di dalamnya elemen-elemen pemikiran kritis, khususnya jika dilihat dari kriteria-kriteria atau parameter yang digunakan oleh ulama dalam menilai kesahihan sesuatu hadis. Kritikan terhadap matan hadis dan sanadnya menentukan sejauh mana sesuatu maklumat kehadisan boleh diterima sebagai sesuatu yang benar dan absah. Matan hadis yang menggelirukan dan perawi yang meragukan atau dipertikaikan dari segi thabitnya (ketepatan ingatan/catatan hadis) atau kebolehpercayaannya (thiqahnya) diambil kira sebagai kayu ukur penting dalam penilaian sesuatu hadis. Kaedah ini juga boleh diterapkan sebagai asas dalam bidang kewartawanan dan penulisan ilmiah. Selain dari itu, kaedah al-jarh wa al-ta`dil juga tidak kurang pentingnya dalam menilai kebolehpercayaan dan kebolehterimaan sesuatu hadis.

Dalam disiplin pengajian syariah, kaedah-kaedah usul al-fiqh dan qawaìd fiqhiyyah amat penting diketengahkan sebagai sebahagian dari elemen-elemen penting yang boleh dimasukkan dalam kandungan kursus ini. Kaedah-kaedah ini yang digunakan dalam bidang undang-undang, mumalat, dan hal ehwal sahsiah boleh ditonjolkan sebagai sebahagian dari mekanisme islam dalam menentukan sejauh mana sesuatu amalan tersebut boleh diterima sebagai sesuatu yang tidak bertentangan dengan islam. Penghindaran amalan seperti gharar, al-batil dan al-syubhah dalam transaksi jual beli, dan amalan dalam mumalat islam menunjukkan bahawa islam amat menekankan ketepatan, kejelasan, dan keyakinan, sesuatu yang ditekankan dalam subjek kemahiran berfikir kritis. Begitu juga dengan prosedur perjalanan mahkamah yang menekankan hakim yang bersifat objektif, tidak bias, saksi yang boleh dipercayai dan sebagainya. Islam tidak menerima keterangan yang meragukan, begitu juga dakwaan yang tidak berasaskan bukti yang kukuh. Prinsip islam dalam hal ini ialah al-bayyinah li al-muddaì wa al-yamin àla man ankar.

1.2 Pengajaran Kursus Pemikiran Kritis Berteraskan Al-Quran Di Peringkat Pengajian Tinggi

Usaha untuk melahirkan pelajar atau mahasiswa yang serba boleh, mampu mendepani cabaran hidup serta mempunyai integriti dan kredebilti setelah bergelar graduan dan menjawat jawatan-jawatan penting di alam pekerjaan adalah perlu digembeling oleh semua pihak. Ini kerana isu integriti, rasuah, salah guna kuasa yang melibatkan pagawai-pegawai lepasan universiti semakin hangat diperkatakan dan angkanya amat menggerunkan kita. Isu pengangguran graduan universiti yang semakin meningkat setiap tahun juga



338

kadang-kadang dikaitkan dengan kelemahan pelajar, khususnya pelajar melayu berfikir secara kritis. Lantaran itu pihak kementerian pengajian tinggi telah menggalakkan universiti-universiti awam agar menekankan kemahiran insaniah (ki) yang turut menekankan aspek pemikiran kritis. Universiti malaya misalnya telah mengadakan beberapa perancangan akademik untuk memantapkan aspek hasil pembelajaran (learning outcomes) bagi setiap kursus yang diajar di universiti tersebut yang turut menekankan aspek penggunasuaian aspek teoretikal dalam setiap bidang ilmu yang diajar dalam alam realiti yang bakal dihadapi oleh graduan.

Tidak dinafikan bahawa sejak sekian lama, universiti-universiti tempatan telah memperkenalkan kursus pemikiran kritis sama ada dalam bentuk subjek yang berasingan ataupun menerapkan elemen-elemen tersebut menerusi penawaran berbagai kurusus di universiti. Ini kerana kegiatan pengajaran di mana peringkat sekalipun, ia sewajar dan sepatutnya menekankan aspek pembudayaan ilmu, pemikiran saintifik, rasional dan objektif dengan tujuan untuk mencapai falsafah pendidikan negara yang bertujuan untuk melahirkan pelajar yang terbina secara sepadu antara jasmani, emosi, rohani dan intelek. Walaupun kursus ini boleh memberi impak yang berguna bagi melahirkan pelajar yang mampu memiliki kemahiran berfikir kritis, namun terdapat ruang-ruang yang boleh dimantapkan berbekalkan panduan al-quran, sebagaimana yang telah dijelaskan sebahagian asasnya di atas. Tulisan ini hanya sekadar mengemukakan saranan bagi memantapkan kursus kemahiran berfikir kritis di ipta dan ipts sedia ada, berteraskan panduan kitab suci tersebut pemantapan boleh dilakukan dengan memasukkan elemen pemikiran kritis berteraskan al-quran dalam kandungan kursus sedia ada atau dengan memperkenalkan kursus baru, “al-quran dan pemikiran kritis”. Di akhir kertas ini juga, penulis akan mengemukakan cadangan kandungan bagi kursus tersebut yang sesuai ditawarkan di institusi pengajian tinggi di negara kita.

Sebagaimana yang dinyatakan di atas, di malaysia terdapat falsafah pendidikan negara yang perlu menjadi landasan bergerak bagi sistem pendidikan di malaysia, bermula dari sekolah rendah hinggalah ke pengajian tinggi di universiti sama ada universiti awam atau swasta. Falsafah tersebut berbunyi:

“pendidikan di malaysia adalah suatu usaha yang berterusan ke arah memperkembangkan lagi potensi individu secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu untuk mewujudkan insan yang seimbang dan harmoni dari segi intelek, rohani, emosi dan jasmani berdasarkan kepercayaan kepada tuhan. Usaha ini adalah bagi melahirkan rakyat malaysia yang berilmu pengetahuan, berketrampilan, berakhlak mulia, bertanggungjawab dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraan diri serta memberi sumbangan terhadap keharmonian dan kemakmuran masyarakat dan negara”.



339

jikalau falsafah di atas dicerakinkan secara detil, ternyata bahawa matlamat untuk melahirkan pelajar yang terbangun potensi inteleknya berdasarkan kepercayaan kepada tuhan adalah menjadi salah satu matlamat utama pembangunan insan/pelajar secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu. Membangun intelek pelajar boleh ditafsirkan antaranya ialah membangun keupayaannya berfikir secara kritis dan kreatif dengan anugerah akal yang dikurniakan oleh allah swt kepada manusia. Kejayaan usaha melahirkan pelajar berfikiran kritis boleh diukur sama ada berdasarkan domain pemikiran kritis yang utama iaitu graduan yang mahir menganalsis, membuat sintesis dan mahir menilai sesuatu perkara secara objektif dan ilmiah. Ia juga boleh diperhatikan pada domain-domain yang lebih spesifik seperti kejayaan melahirkan graduan yang berfikir secara serius, mendalam bagi membuat sebarang pertimbangan, membuat analisis, sintesis dan penilaian teliti terhadap sesuatu, pemikiran reflektif untuk memutuskan sama ada sesuatu itu patut diterima atau ditolak, berfikir secara holistik dengan melihat masalah dari berbagai-bagai dimensi, juga berfikir secara cekap bagi menilai kemunasabahan dan kewajaran sesuatu idea. Ringkasnya beberapa elemen yang terkandung dalam topik perbincangan tradisi keilmuan islam boleh dimanfaatkan untuk merangka silibus pemikiran kritis berteraskan al-quran

Kepentingan melahirkan pelajar berfikiran kritis seharusnya disedari

oleh para ilmuwan, khususnya di era globalisasi kini yang meyaksikan lebuh raya maklumat begitu senang disalahgunakan jikalau seseorang itu tidak mempunyai mental kritis. Pelajar yang dilahirkan di universiti tidak seharusnya sekadar menjadi pak turut dalam masyarakat, sekadar memerhati apa yang ada tanpa menelitinya secara kritis, dan tanpa menilai kesesuaian, kerelevenan dan kepentingannya dari sudut tuntutan ajaran islam dan tuntutan misinya sebagai khalifah di atas muka bumi ini. Graduan universiti tentu antaranya ada yang akan menjawat jawatan penting dalam pentadbiran awam dan terlibat sebagai pembuat dasar dan pelaksana dasar-dasar kerajaan. Lantaran itu, mereka perlu bersikap professional dan tidak bias dalam memutuskan sesuatu perkara. Andaikata terdapat kalangan pegawai kerajaan yang bersikap bias dan Mengutamakan Kepentingan Diri, Kaum Keluarga Dan Kroninya, Lambat Laun Amalan Ini Akan Merosakkan Masyarakat Dan Tamadun Kita. Kecenderungan Untuk Bersikap Bias Dan Tidak Objektif Sebenarnya Ada Kaitan Dengan Faktor Hawa Nafsu Dan Emosi Yang Ada Dalam Diri Manusia. Sifat Ini Amat Penting Dimiliki Oleh Pegawai Mahkamah, Misalnya Kalangan Hakim-Hakim Yang Mengendalikan Perbicaraan. Menurut Shah Wali Allah Al-Dihlawi, Apabila Timbul Kes Dakwaan Terhadap Sesuatu Oleh Seseorang, Maka Pengadilan Atau Penghukuman (Al-Qada’) Untuk Menentukan Kedudukan Perkara Yang Didakwa Tersebut Wajib Dikendalikan Oleh Individu Hakim Yang Bersifat `Adil Dan Bersih Dari Sifat Zalim Serta Sifat Bias.

Sebagai Pembuat Dasar Misalnya, Mereka Perlu Mempastikan

Dasar-Dasar Pembangunan, Dasar-Dasar Pendidikan, Dasar-Dasar Kebudayaan, Dasar-Dasar Penerangan Dan Media Massa, Dasar-Dasar Hiburan, Dasar-Dasar Pelancongan, Dasar-Dasar Pembangunan Belia Dan



340

Program-Program Yang Dirancang Dalam Masyarakat Tidak Terkandung Elemen-Elemen Yang Bertentangan Dengan Tuntutan Al-Quran. Sebagai Contoh, Dalam Merancang Program-Program Pembangunan Negara Dan Anak Bangsa Kini, Kita Perlu Menilai Dan Menimbang Sejauh Mana Keterikatan Kita Dengan Dasar-Dasar Dan Polisi Pemerintahan Dan Pembangunan Negara Berasaskan Falsafah Pemikiran Barat Tinggalan Penjajah. Graduan Universiti Di Masa Yang Akan Datang Diharapkan Dapat Memain Peranan Aktif Bagi Menggerakkan Anjakan Paradigma Ini. Menurut Ibn Khaldun, Lazimnya Sesuatu Bangsa Yang Telah Dikalahkan/Dikuasai Oleh Sesuatu Bangsa Lain Akan Sentiasa Menggemari Dan Bergantung Dengan Bangsa Yang Mengalahkannya Sama Ada Dari Segi Syiar, Gaya Berpakaian, Aliran Pemikiran Dan Identiti Dan Semua Perkara Yang Didatangkan Oleh Mereka. Tidak Salah Kita Meniru Sebahagian Dari Unsur-Unsur Budaya Barat Yang Tidak Bertentangan Dengan Tuntutan Al-Quran, Namun Apa Yang Dikesalkan Ialah Terdapat Sebilangan Ahli Masyarakat Kita Yang Masih Kuat Terpengaruh Dengan Pemikiran Barat Dan Nilai-Nilai Mereka. Selain Dari Terikat Dengan Elemen-Elemen Kebaratan, Kalangan Pembuat Dasar Dan Para Pegawai Juga Masih Tidak Dapat Membebaskan Diri Dari Terikat Dengan Belenggu Kebergantungan Terhadap Adat Resam Dan Kebudayaan Melayu Yang Bercanggah Dengan Nilai-Nlai Keislaman. Pengaruh Ini Boleh Dilihat Dari Pelaksanaan Program-Program Kebudayaan Dan Hiburan Yang Digerakkan Oleh Kalangan Pegawai Dari Golongan Kumpulan Pengurusan Dan Professional, Lepasan Universiti. .

Beberapa Langkah Yang Diambil Oleh Kerajaan Untuk

Memperkasakan Bangsa Melayu Menerusi Pelaksanaan Islam Hadhari Dan Pengukuhan Modal Insan Di Malaysia Kini Seharusnya Dibantu Oleh Ipta Dan Ipts Menerusi Penawaran Kursus Seperti Ini. Islam Hadhari Selamanya Tidak Akan Dapat Berjaya Dilaksanakan Selagi Budaya Berfikir Hadhari Tidak Dibudayakan Dalam Masyarakat Kita, Begitu Juga Dengan Pengukuhan Modal Insan Untuk Melahirkan Melayu Yang Berfikiran Kelas Satu Dunia. Subjek Ini Diharapkan Menjadi Sebahagian Dari Usaha Pihak Universiti Untuk Mencapai Hasrat Murni Tersebut. Di Universiti Malaya, Akademi Pengajian Islam (Apium) Menerusi Jabatan Akidah Dan Pemikiran Islam (Japi) Sejak Sesi Pengajian 2002/03 Telah Memperkenalkan Kursus Iaeu 2309: Islam Dan Pemikiran Kritis. Kursus Ini Dicadangkan Oleh Penulis Sendiri Dan Menarik Minat Pelajar Dari 9 Jabatan Di Bawah Apium. Kursus Ini Mendedahkan Kepada Pelajar Pandangan Islam Tentang Akal Dan Fungsi Utamanya Yang Mampu Berfikir Secara Kritis Sekiranya Manusia Dapat Menghindarkannya Dari Halangan-Halangan Seperti Sifat Taksub, Taklid Dan Membebaskan Dirinya Dari Kepentingan Diri, Kaum, Fahaman Politik Dan Sebagainya. Kursus Ini Akan Difokuskan Kepada Perbincangan Tentang ‘Nature’ Ajaran Islam Yang Menggalakkan Pemikiran Kritis Menerusi Gugusan Ayat-Ayat Al-Qur’an Dan Al-Hadith Serta Amalannya Di Kalangan Para Sahabat Dan Al-Salaf Al-Salih. Turut Ditekankan Ialah Konsep Dan Kriteria Pemikiran Kritis Islam, Perbandingannya Dengan Pemikiran Kritis Barat, Sejarah Kemunculannya Dalam Peradaban Islam, Tokoh-Tokoh Pemikir Kritis Islam Dan Kepentingan Pemikiran Kritis Dalam Kehidupan Masyarakat. Kursus Tersebut Adalah Disesuaikan Dengan Para



341

Mahasiswa Yang Berlatarbelakangkan Pengajian Islam, Khususnya Yang Datang Dari Sekolah-Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama (Skma) Dari Seluruh Negara. Walau Bagaimanapun, Untuk Mahasiswa Yang Tidak Berlatarbelakangkan Pengajian Islam, Kursus Asas-Asas Islam Dan Pemikiran Kritis Dirancang Akan Ditawarkan Pada Sesi 2008/2009.

Antara Kandungan Yang Boleh Diketengahkan Dalam Kursus Pemikiran Kritis Berteraskan Al-Quran Ialah Pengenalan Konsep Dan Ciri-Ciri Pemikiran Kritis, Elemen-Elemen Pemikiran Kritis Dalam Al-Quran Dan Metode Al-Quran Dalam Pembinaan Kemahiran Berfikir Kritis. Dalam Membincangkan Unsur Pemikiran Kritis Dalam Al-Quran Dan Metode Pembinaan Kemahiran Berfikir Kritis, Beberapa Ayat Al-Quran Berkaitan Hendaklah Dianalisis. Selain Daripada Itu, Mahasiswa Juga Perlu Didedahkan Dengan Beberapa Contoh Bagaimana Para Sahabat Dan Generasi Awal Islam Menghayati Budaya Berfikir Tersebut Berdasarkan Tuntutan Al-Quran. Huraian Ulama-Ulama Islam Tentang Asas-Asas Al-Quran Tentang Aspek Ini Juga Boleh Diketengahkan. Bagi Maksud Ini, Karya-Karya Ulama Dalam Bidang Akidah, Fikah, Usul Fikah, Ilmu-Ilmu Hadis, Fikah Sejarah (Fiqh Al-Sirah) Dan Lain-Lain Lagi Yang Menghuraikan Aspek-Aspek Yang Berkaitan Dengan Pemikiran Kritis Juga Perlu Dibincangkan Dalam Kuliah.

2.0 KESIMPULAN Berdasarkan Perbincangan Di Atas, Dirumuskan Bahawa Penawaran Kursus Pemikiran Kritis Berteraskan Al-Quran Boleh Diperkenalkan Di Peringkat Universiti Berbekalkan Panduan Al-Quran Dan Elemen-Elemen Pemikiran Kritis Yang Terkandung Dalam Elemen-Elemen Ilmu Islam. Kursus Ini Boleh Memantapkan Kursus-Kursus Kemahiran Kritis Sedia Ada Di Universiti-Universiti. Jikalau Mahasiswa Didedahkan Tentang Kemahiran Pemikiran Kritis Berdasarkan Tiga Domainnya Yang Besar Iaitu Kemahiran Menganalisis, Membuat Sintesis Dan Penilaian Berdasarkan Panduan Kitab Suci, Maka Tentu Sekali Minat Dan Keinginan Mahasiswa, Khususnya Pelajar Muslim Untuk Menguasai Kemahiran Tersebut Dan Membudayakannya Dalam Kehidupan Individu Dan Masyarakat Amat Tinggi Sekali. Ini Kerana Kedudukan Al-Quran Sebagai Sumber Pertunjuk Dan Ilmu Sukar Dipertikaikan Oleh Sesiapapun, Kecuali Yang Berhati Bebal. Harapan Kita Agar Mahasiswa Yang Didedahkan Dengan Kursus Seperti Ini Akan Dapat Menjadi Modal Insan Yang Berfikiran Kelas Pertama Dan Boleh Diharapkan Untuk Memikul Amanah Besar Memacu Negara Ke Arah Kegemilangan Dan Kecemerlangan.



342

3.0 BIBLIOGRAFI

[1] Akademi Pengajian Islam, Universiti Malaya, Buku Panduan Program Ijazah Dasar Tahun Akademik 2005/06, Kuala Lumpur: Apium, 2005.

[2] Al-Bukhari, Muhammad Bin IsmaÌl, Sahih Al-Bukhari. Riyad &

Damsyiq: Dar Al-Salam & Dar Al-Fayha’, 1999. [3] Al-Dihlawi, Shah Wali Allah , Hujjat Allah Al-Balighah, J. 2, Kaherah:

Dar Al-Turath, 1355 H. [4] D. Brookfield, Stephen, Developing Critical Thinkers. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1987. [5] Iium, Proceedings National Conference On Creative/Critical

Thinking From Islamic Perspective. Gombak: Department Of General Studies, Kirkhs, 2005.

[6] Khaldun, Ibn, Àbd Al-Rahman Ibn Muhammad, Muqaddimah Ibn

Khaldun, Beirut, Dar Al-Jil., T.T. [7] Mohd Salleh Lebar, Pentadbiran Pendidikan Dan Pendidikan Di

Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Addison Wesley Longman Malaysia, 2000. [8] Mohd Azhar Abd. Hamid, Et.Al., “Mentaliti Kritis Dalam Kalangan

Masyarakat Melayu: Suatu Pengamatan Terhadap Pelbagai Persoalan Hidup Masyarakat Melayu Masa Kini” Dlm. Hashim Awang, Et.Al. Eds. Emosi Melayu, Kuala Lumpur: Akademi Pengajian Melayu, 2005.

[9] Mohd Azhar Abd. Hamid, Pengenalan Pemikiran Kritis Dan Kreatif.

Skudai: Penerbit Utm, 2001. [10] Mohd Michael Abdullah, Pemikiran Kritis. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan

Bahasa Dan Pustaka, 1995. [11] Mohd Fauzi Hamat, “Beberapa Halangan Pembudayaan Pemikiran

Kritis Dalam Masyarakat Menurut Perspektif Al-Sunnah”, Jurnal Al-Bayan, Bil. 2, 2004.

[12] Mohd Fauzi Hamat, “Sumbangan Pengajian Akidah Dalam

Membangun Minda Melayu: Suatu Sorotan Ringkas”, Jurnal Afkar, Bil. 5, 2004.

[13] Al-Nadwi, Àli Ahmad (1991), Al-QawaÌd Al-Fiqhiyyah. Damsyik:

Dar Al-Qalam. [14] Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (1989), Falsafah Pendidikan

Negara. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.



343

[15] Al-Qaradawi, Al-Qur’an Berbicara Tentang Akal Dan Ilmu Pengetahuan, Terj. Abdul Hayyie Al-Kattani, Et.Al., Jakarta: Gema Insani Press, 1998.

ET.AL., AKARTA: GEMA INSANI PRESS, 1998, H. 277-297. ii Al-Nam (27): 25-29 & Yusuf (12): 20-22) iii AL-HUURAT (49) : 6.



344

FACILITATING GRADUATE LEVEL-LEARNING: A CASE STUDY OF THE “NEWFOUNDLAND STRATEGY”

NORMAH HAJI OMAR

Faculty of Accountancy Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia 40450 Shah Alam, MALAYSIA

[email protected] © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor, 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRACT - This paper is an examination of the author's experiences facilitating for the first time, an advanced graduate course of a new and niche Master program at her university. The course: Financial Criminology and Investigative Techniques; the program – Master in Forensic Accounting and Financial Criminology. Whilst the students comprise mainly of experienced, working adults; the author (though academically qualified) has very limited practical experience in the subject matter. The “Newfoundland Strategy” focuses on students-driven learning initiatives, which incorporates self-reflected case study approach, guest speakers from the industry, group presentations, seminars, forums, video clippings, simulated case defense (in a moot court) and written case reports. Both the facilitating role of the author and the multiple initiatives assumed by the students had successfully created a positive and interesting in-class environment for the course. The purpose of this paper is to share insights about this strategy, so that other educators who are considering implementing similar pedagogy might understand the challenges and ultimately experience success in their endeavors.



345

1.0 INTRODUCTION The “Newfoundland Strategy” refers to the author’s own experience and discovery in finding the “best approach” in facilitating a graduate-level course at her university. “Newfoundland” is just a fictional term used in this paper to describe various new, exciting discoveries and experiences encountered by both the author and her students during the conduct of a new course of a new program. The university had just recently introduced a new and niche graduate program, Master in Forensic Accounting and Financial Criminology. Basically, the program was developed to fill the acute industry need for forensic accountants – a new breed of financial fraud investigators. Financial frauds that took place in business organizations such as Enron, Worldcom, Parmalet, Pewaja Steel, Transmile and Megan Media are just “tip of the iceberg” and had resulted in the increasing demand for forensic accounting programs. Forensic accounting is the application of investigative and analytical skills for the purpose of resolving financial issues in a manner that meets standards required by the courts of law (Hopwood et. al., 2007). The first cohort comprises twenty eight students who are mostly very experience in the investigative field, coming from various sectors such as banking, insurance, auditing, commerce & industry, the Inland Revenue board and the police. The course Investigative Techniques and Financial Criminology represents the final core comprehensive paper where one needs to incorporate and integrate both theoretical knowledge and practical competencies. As such, the course requires more than just mere investigative experience to master it. At the end of the course, students are expected to display their ability and competency through two important roles: as a financial investigator and as an expert witness in litigation cases. The author, who was assigned to facilitate the course has the necessary academic and professional qualifications, but did not have the investigative experience to her credit. How best then should this course be conducted so that the students’ and the facilitator’s experiences can be optimally utilized?. Premised on the popular Chinese proverb “Tell me and I forget; Show me and I remember; Involve me and I understand”, the “Newfoundland Strategy” focuses on the need to actively involve the students during the conduct of the course. As propagated by the Constructivism learning theory perspective, this paper is written based on the understanding that students’ theories are attempts to describe how learning at its basic level is all self-taught. 2.0 THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS: CONSTRUCTIVISM LEARNING

THEORY As previously mentioned, the “Newfoundland Strategy” is premised on the Constructivism learning theory. The theory as propagated by Jean Piaget in the 1950s, is a set of assumptions about the nature of human learning that guide constructivist learning theories and teaching methods of education. He suggested that through processes of accommodation and assimilation, individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences. When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new experience into an already existing framework without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals' experiences are aligned with their internal representations of the world, but may



346

also occur as a failure to change a faulty understanding; for example, they may not notice events, may misunderstand input from others, or may decide that an event is a fluke and is therefore unimportant as information about the world. In contrast, when individuals' experiences contradict their internal representations, they may change their perceptions of the experiences to fit their internal representations. According to the theory, accommodation is the process of reframing one's mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences. Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by which failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way and it violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others' failure.

2.1. The Role of the Learner

Constructivist views each learner as a unique individual with unique needs and backgrounds. The learner is also seen as complex and multidimensional (Gredler 1997). Constructivism not only acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but actually encourages, utilises and rewards it as an integral part of the learning process (Wertsch 1997). Gredler (1997) also emphasizes the importance of the background and culture of the learner. Constructivism encourages the learner to arrive at his or her own version of the truth, influenced by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview. Historical developments and symbol systems, such as language, logic, and mathematical systems, are inherited by the learner as a member of a particular culture and these are learned throughout the learner's life. These symbol systems dictate how the learner learns and what is learned (Gredler 1997; Bullard and Felder, 2007). This also stresses the importance of the nature of the learner's social interaction with knowledgeable members of the society. Without the social interaction with other more knowledgeable people, it is impossible to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to utilize them. Young children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with other children, adults and the physical world. From the constructivist viewpoint, it is thus important to take into account the background and culture of the learner throughout the learning process, as this background also helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the learner creates, discovers and attains in the learning process (Gredler 1997; Wertsch 1997). Furthermore, it is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the learner (Von Glasersfeld 1989). Social constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the learner being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive role. Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasizes that learners construct their own understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information. Another crucial assumption regarding the nature of the learner, concerns the level and source of motivation for learning. According to Von Glasersfeld (1989) sustaining motivation to learn is strongly dependent on the learner’s confidence in his or her potential for learning. These feelings of competence and belief in



347

potential to solve new problems, are derived from first-hand experience of mastery of problems in the past and are much more powerful than any external acknowledgement and motivation (Prawat and Floden 1994). Most approaches that have grown from constructivism suggest that learning is accomplished best using a hands-on approach. Learners learn by experimentation, and not by being told what will happen. They are left to make their own inferences, discoveries and conclusions. It also emphasizes that learning is not an "all or nothing" process but that students learn the new information that is presented to them by building upon knowledge that they already possess. It is therefore important that teachers constantly assess the knowledge their students have gained to make sure that the students perceptions of the new knowledge are what the teacher had intended.

2.2. The Role of the Facilitator

Instructors have to adapt to the role of facilitators and not teachers (Bauersfeld, 1995). Where a teacher gives a didactic lecture which covers the subject matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his or her own understanding of the content. In the former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter scenario the learner plays an active role in the learning process. The emphasis thus turns away from the instructor and the content, and towards the learner (Gamoran, Secada, & Marrett, 2000). This dramatic change of role implies that a facilitator needs to display a totally different set of skills than a teacher. A teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures from the front, a facilitator supports from the back; a teacher gives answers according to a set curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and creates the environment for the learner to arrive at his or her own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a monologue, a facilitator is in continuous dialogue with the learners (Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999). A facilitator should also be able to adapt the learning experience ‘in mid-air’ by using his or her own initiative in order to steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value. The learning environment should also be designed to support and challenge the learner's thinking (Di Vesta, 1987). While it is advocated to give the learner ownership of the problem and solution process, it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical goal is to support the learner in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by assuming multiple roles, such as consultant and coach. 3.0 THE NEWFOUNDLAND STRATEGY For the “Newfoundland Strategy”, active student involvements are in the forms of case study presentations, students’ forums, case study write ups, expert witnessing and a moot court trial simulation. In addition, the students are also given practical feedbacks through video clippings and several guest speakers from the industry. At the end of the semester, a one-day student seminar is organized where students are required to present their cases in the university’s moot court. The moot court is deliberately chosen as the venue of the oral presentations to provide a simulated environment in litigation cases. Both the students’ final presentations and case reports are evaluated by expert panelist comprising lawyers, academics, enforcers and regulators. Though the final



348

evaluation of the students’ works are not meant to be exhaustive and conclusive (in judging their level of competencies as investigators or expert witnesses), it is nevertheless possible at that point in time, to gauge whether or not they are ready to carry out their tasks professionally in the near future. As a new group of forensic accountant professionals in this country, the students ought to showcase their competencies and professionalism in a deliberate manner. Figure 1 depicts the implementation process of the “Newfoundland Strategy”. Notice that the “Newfoundland Strategy” allows the teacher to undertakes a more meaningful facilitating role, shifting the responsibility for learning a new subject matter to the students – as depicted by the involve-me-and-I-will-understand concept. The facilitator then explains the theoretical aspects of the subject, moderates the forum and presentation, selects appropriate and relevant guest speakers, evaluates the examination and written assignments, and most importantly assumes the role of motivating the students. It is important to note that constructivism itself does not suggest one particular pedagogy. In fact, constructivism describes how learning should happen. Constructivism as a description of human cognition is often associated with pedagogic approaches that Figure 1: Newfoundland Strategy

1st Presentation:

Understanding the

Facts of Financial

Fraud Cases

First Batch of

Guest Speakers:

Lawyer, Auditor,

SC Investigator

Student Forums

and 2nd

Presentation on

Litigation

Framework & Procedures

Second Batch of

Guest Speakers:

Police, ACA,

Deputy Public

Prosecutor from

AG Chamber

3rd Presentation on

evidence gathering

and expert

witnessing

protocols

Submission of a

30-page Case

Report on a Real-

Life Financial

Fraud cases

Final Seminar

Presentations at

the university’s

Moot Court

Teacher as a

FACILITATOR:

• Theor

etical

• Evalu

Prescribed

Textbook

Assessmen

ts by Expert

A



349

promote learning by doing. As a result, the classroom environments become more conducive for learning (see Von Glasersfeld 1989; Duffy and Jonassen 1992; Felder and Brent, 2007); Gredler 1997 and Wertsch 1997; Mundhenk, 2004). In a nutshell, the “Newfoundland Strategy” involves a transformation process that took place through seven distinct but related phases: (i) preliminary case presentations, (ii) first-batch guest speakers, (iii) student forum and second presentations, (iv) second-batch guest speakers, (v) third presentations, (vi) 30-page case study write up and (vii) moot court final case presentations. It is therefore expected that the different facets of learning would transform the students from passive learners to confident (and hopefully) competent professionals. To further facilitate learning, the facilitator is also responsible to identify suitable textbook and other related references.

3.1 Preliminary Case Presentations One of the most important pre-requisites of the “Newfoundland Strategy” is the identification of suitable resources (e.g. textbook, reference materials, websites and video clippings) for the course. Basically, students are required to acquire the main textbook: Forensic and Investigative Accounting (Crumbley et. al., 2005), which covers a comprehensive array of forensic accounting topics such as financial fraud investigations, financial fraud detection, employee fraud, money laundering, evidence management, cybercrimes, business valuations and expert witnessing. Prior to the first meeting of this course, students have been notified on the requirement for them to present a preliminary case study on financial frauds. Within a span of 15 to 20 minutes, students worked in a group of four and they are to describe the facts of the cases and to identify the financial fraud acts as well as to identify the fraud perpetrators in the said cases. The aim of this learning phase is to allow the students to explore different financial fraud cases and to discuss these cases in class even before they are introduced to the syllabus, the textbook and the expected learning outcomes. Beside oral presentation, the students are also required to submit a 5-page written report of the selected cases. Also on the first day of the course, a preliminary set of student evaluation questionnaire was distributed to the students with the aim of assessing their expectation of the course and what they hope to achieve at the end of the semester. With the case presentation and report, the students are started with something that they themselves initiated and researched. The course and its contents and requirements are introduced after the case presentations. It was then made known to them that the success of this course and the class would be very much dependent on their active participation and enthusiasm. The shift of learning from teacher-centred to student-centred is illustrated in Figure 2 below.



350

Figure 2: Student-Centred Learning

Teacher-centred Learning Student-centred Learning

Low level of student choice High level of student choice

Student passive Student active

Power is primarily with teacher Power primarily with the student

3.2 First-Batch Guest Speakers

As a facilitator to the course, the author identifies three speakers from the industry who would be invited to give separate talks on topics specified in the syllabus. The feedbacks and inputs from these practitioners are important aspects of learning for this course. Firstly, a defense lawyer from a renowned legal firm came to discuss litigation procedures in financial fraud cases. Students are introduced to various Laws, Bylaws, Acts, Pronouncements, codes and standards that must be reviewed and thoroughly understood when dealing with financial fraud cases. This includes among others, the Companies Act, The Industry Securities Act, Anti Money Laundering & Financing Terrorism Act, the Penal Code, Evidence Act, and the Financial Reporting Act. As a defense counsel, the lawyer shared various technicalities that are often used in courts to “break” the financial fraud cases. Students are therefore advised to be aware of these technicalities and to tackle them wisely when representing their clients either as expert witnesses or as fraud investigators. The second speaker was a senior partner of a Big Four Accounting Firm in Malaysia. As an experience auditor, the speaker shared various audit procedures and protocols when conducting company audits. The identification of red flag indicators to evaluate fraudulent and suspect transactions is very commonly used during the course of audits. The students are also exposed to variables fraud risk indicators and tests used to assess the effectiveness of the companies’ internal control systems. Further, the students are advised to understand thoroughly elements related to fraud theories and transaction cycles. These insights are valuable “secrets” that are not readily found in books or journal articles. Students are therefore expected to incorporate these feedbacks into their final report at the end of the semester. The third speaker identified was from the Securities Commissions (SC). Specifically, the head of the Surveillance and Investigation unit at SC gave his agreement to talk to the students on financial fraud surveillance and investigation. The speaker shares his personal experiences in detecting and investigating financial frauds of public listed companies. The students were advised on the need for financial fraud investigators to keep abreast with the latest technologies in fraud detection and thorough knowledge and knowhow in audit trailing of financial transactions. As investigators, forensic accountants must always be in proactive modes and they should be able to effectively “read” and predict fraudsters’ behaviour and thinking.



351

The students’ enthusiasms and excitements are very much reflected through the highly interactive classroom sessions with all the guest speakers invited for the course. All the students participated actively in the questions and answers segments.

3.3 Forum and Second Case Presentations

The third phase of learning comprises the students’ forum and second case presentations. Five students with differing backgrounds were selected to lead the forum, with each respectively representing the Police Force, the Anti Corruption Agency, the Inland Revenue Board, the Banking & Finance sector and the Commerce and Industry group. One of the students was also appointed as a chairperson to moderate the forum. The rest of the students were to participate in the forum discussions. Specific issue on litigation framework and procedures was identified and to be addressed for the forum. At the end of the session, relevant resolutions are identified and tabulated. Again, feedbacks from the forum form valuable and useful input for the students’ forthcoming presentations and reports. In line with the specified learning outcome of this course, the second case presentation focuses on soft skills requirements and other techniques that could be adopted when conducting a financial fraud investigation. Each group is to identify a specific financial fraud case and to propose an investigation framework for that said cases. They are also encouraged to share video clippings of their “investigation” techniques with other fellow students. In addition to the oral presentation, the students are also required to submit a five-page case report.

3.4 Second-Batch Guest Speakers

The fourth learning phase comprises talks by three different guest speakers over the next three class periods. The first speaker from this phase was from the Commercial Crime Unit of the Royal Malaysian Police (PDRM). The speaker shared with the students on interrogation techniques, evidence gathering protocols, prosecution techniques, litigation charges and forensic investigation protocols when dealing with financial fraud cases. The students were also advised to work closely with either the police department or the SC or both on financial litigation cases. The second speaker was from the Anti-Corruption Unit, a very experienced investigator who has been in the profession for more than 25 years. The focus of his talk was on interviewing techniques and soft skills in getting witnesses to divulge evidences and information before a prosecution could be carried out. At the end of his talk, there was a demonstration on interviewing techniques and students were invited to participate in the interviews. Students were advised on the need to be good with their soft skills as interviewees are from differing backgrounds and personalities. The third speaker was a Deputy Public Prosecutor (DPP) from the Attorney General Chamber in Putrajaya. As a prosecutor, the DPP emphasizes on the importance of getting good and reliable evidences for the financial fraud cases. Very often, the class was told that financial fraud cases “get thrown out of court” due to insufficient evidences or due to the wrong choice of expert witnesses to help with the cases. Basically, the main job of a prosecutor is to develop cases



352

for court proceedings. As such, one must be crystal clear on the facts of the cases and to ensure continuity of evidences. These are practical feedbacks that the students could use in their final project.

3.5 Third Presentations

One of the learning outcomes of this course is to produce graduates who are capable of conducting successful financial fraud investigation. As such, they should be able to (i) choose and gather the “right” types of financial fraud evidences, (ii) follow through the audit trails of financial transactions; (iii) critically analyse financial documents and (iv) possess relevant investigative soft skills (e.g. communication, writing, working in teams etc). Another important learning outcome of the course is for these graduates to be able to assume the role of competent expert witnesses. In assuming the role an expert witness, one must be knowledgeable and competent in various fields such as accounting, auditing, law and information technology. The third presentation highlights on the ability of the students to showcase their knowledge and competency in gathering evidences, analysing financial and legal documents and the utilisation of information technology as an investigative tool. Each group selects a case on financial fraud. Whilst some group members act as investigators, others take the role of expert witnesses. All groups are required to showcase their evidences in a structured and organised, similar to the requirements in normal court proceedings. Once the students have gone through the above five phases of learning, it is expected that they are now ready to precede to the next two higher levels namely a submission of a 30-page case study report and a final, comprehensive presentation at a simulated court.

3.6 30-page Case Study Write Ups

One very important learning outcome expected of the graduates is the ability to prepare a comprehensive financial fraud report that could be used and admissible in the court of law. For the preparation of the report, students need to incorporate both theoretical and practical feedbacks obtainable from the reference books, video clippings, guest speakers and other available sources. The case study report is divided into two parts: the first part comprises a summary highlighting the issues in hand, the violation, proposed charges and the proposed methodology to be adopted in conducting the investigation; the second part details out the investigation processes which include the planning and structuring of financial fraud investigation, document analysis, interviewing, evidence gathering, specific investigation techniques and report writing. Students are also encouraged to provide other relevant documents as appendices. As an academic requirement, the students are also required to furnish and cite at least fifteen reference articles in the report.

3.7 Moot Court Final Presentations

Another important learning outcome of this course is for the students to be able to present and defend their financial fraud cases comprehensively and convincingly. Their ability to communicate effectively is an important key



353

success attribute for their profession either as a financial fraud investigator or as an expert witness. In a group of three to four students, each team is given one hour to present its case. A group of expert panelists comprising four academics, two lawyers and an industrialist are appointed to assess the presentations. A question and answer session is arranged at the end of each presentation. To give the students a simulated court environment, the university moot court has been chosen as the most suitable venue for this event. All in all, the students’ presentations are assessed based on specific criteria namely flow of thoughts, contents, discussions & critical analysis, interaction with panelists, the ability to “defend” their cases, ability to work in a team, conclusion and time management. In both the evaluations of case study report and the oral presentation, specific assessment forms are used by the respective evaluators.

3.8 Examination

In addition to the various student-based learning initiatives, a mid term examination which is worth ten percent of the course’s overall assessment is also given. Premised on Bloom’s ( Bloom et.al. 1956) six cognitive hierarchical taxonomies, the two-hour mid-term examination focuses on assessing the students’ learning effectiveness, particularly on the top three domains namely analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Applied-based examination questions are mainly constructed from reported financial fraud case studies, newspaper reports, guest speakers’ discussions and other similar sources. Students are then required to accordingly discuss, analyze, synthesize and evaluate the given scenarios and cases and propose a suitable investigation framework and procedure. The mid-term examination is necessary as it assesses an individual student’s level of cognitive domains. Understandably, competent financial fraud investigators are expected to acquire high level of investigative skills and as such they need to be very good with their analytical, synthesis and evaluation capabilities. 4.0 FINAL ASSESSMENT

Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) and Gredler (1997) emphasize the concept of dynamic assessment, which is a way of assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional tests. Here the essentially interactive nature of learning is extended to the process of assessment. Rather than viewing assessment as a process carried out by one person, such as an instructor, it is seen as a two-way process involving interaction between both instructor and learners. For the in-class case presentations and forum, a peer-group assessment technique was also used. Basically, members of other teams get to evaluate the performance of the team that are presenting and vice versa. Table 1 depicts the percentage breakdown of the assessment items. The feedback created by the assessment process serves as a direct foundation for further development. It should not be an intimidating process that causes anxiety in the learner, but rather a supportive process that encourages the learner to want to be evaluated in order for future, more focused development to take place (Green and Gredler 2002; King, 2006). At the end of the course, an overall evaluation is obtained from the students. The evaluation scores at the end of the semester are gauged against an earlier assessment carried out at the beginning of the



354

semester to establish whether the students had benefited from the different learning initiatives adopted for the course. Table 1: Final Assessment Components

Assessment Items %

In-class case presentations (3 in total) & Forum 15

Three 5-page case study write ups 15

Mid-term examination 10

Moot Court case presentation 30

30-page case study write up 30

5.0 CONCLUSIONS Whilst the “Newfoundland Strategy” adopted for this particular course seemed to work very well in achieving the stipulated learning outcomes, it is important to acknowledge the presence of various obstacles and challenges during its implementation phase. The most basic obstacle relates to the willingness for both students and the lecturer to undergo a change in mindset, from lecturer-centred to student-centred learning. Whilst lecturers are so used to giving lectures, the students find comfort in listening to the lectures with the “feed me expectation” syndrome. Under this learning strategy, a lecturer is no longer an “expert who knows it all”. Instead, there’s a very clear shift in responsibility where students are encouraged to initiate learning strategies. Students are no longer merely passive listeners; they participate actively in classroom discussions. The role of the lecturer is now reduced to that of a facilitator. He or she no longer gives long lectures, instead invites experts to give feedbacks, encourages students to give ideas and opinions and motivates students to think from “outside the box” perspective. Another apparent challenge in implementing this strategy is in getting the right guest speakers to agree to participate in the program which is held during weekends. Therefore, there’s a great need for the author to plan well in advance to secure these speaking engagements. As a facilitator, the author needs to exercise a very high level of “people skills” when inviting the speakers. Equally important, the author has to convince the students that student-centered learning would benefit them in the long run. It is also important to note that students have a variety of learning styles and no instructional approach can be optimal for everyone (Claxton and Murrell 1987; Felder 1993; Grasha 1990, 1994). In the end, despite our best efforts, some students “fail” and some who pass continue to resent this strategy of putting so much of the burden of learning on their shoulders. On the other hand, for all their complaints about how hard this strategy had put so much strain on them, the students on the average do better work than they ever did in other courses when the instructors just lectured. Many more of them now indicated in their evaluation forms that after getting through this final course on Investigative Techniques and Financial Criminology they feel confident that they can do anything. In a nutshell, one may “lose” some students, but one can expect to win a lot more. In short, the author is convinced that the benefits of properly implemented student-centered instruction more than compensate for any difficulties that may be encountered when implementing it. Facilitators who are prepared for initially



355

negative student reactions, and who have the patience and the confidence to wait out these reactions, will reap their rewards in more and deeper student learning and more positive student attitudes toward their courses and toward themselves. It may take an effort to get there, but it is an effort well worth making. 6.0 REFERENCES [1] Bauersfeld, H. (1995). “The Structuring of the Structures: Development and

Function of Mathematizing as a Social Practice”. In L. P. Steffe & J. Gale (Eds.), Constructivism in Education. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers

[2] Bloom, B., Englehart, M. Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956).

Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York, Toronto: Longmans, Green.

[3] Bullard L.G. and Felder R.M. (2007), "A Student-Centered Approach to

Teaching Material and Energy Balances. Part 2. Course Delivery and Assessment." Chem. Engr. Education, 41(3), 167-176.

[4] Claxton, C.S., and P.H. Murrell. (1987), Learning styles: Implications for

improving educational practice. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 4. Washington, DC: George Washington University.

[5] Crumbley D.L.,Heitger, L.E. and Smith, G.S. (2005), Forensic and

Investigative Accounting, Chicago: CCH Incorporated. [6] Di Vesta, F. J. (1987), “The Cognitive Movement and Education”. In J. A.

Glover & R. R. Ronning (Eds.), Historical Foundations of Educational Psychology (pp. 203-233). New York: Plenum Press.

[7] Duffy, T.M., & Jonassen, D.H. (eds.) (1992). Constructivism and the

technology of instruction: A conversation. Hillsdale, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum.

[8] Felder, R.M. (1993), “Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching

Styles in College Science Education”, J. Coll. Science Teaching, 235, 286-290.

[9] Felder R.M. and Brent R. (2007), "Cooperative Learning." Chapter 4 of

P.A. Mabrouk, ed., Active Learning: Models from the Analytical Sciences, ACS Symposium Series 970. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.

[10] Gamoran, A. Secada, W. G. and Marrett, C. B. (2000), “The Organizational

Context of Teaching and Learning”, In M. T. Hallinan (Ed), Handbook of the Sociology of Education, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.



356

[11] Grasha, A.F. (1990), “The Naturalistic Approach to Learning Styles”, College Teaching, 38(3), 106-113.

[12] Grasha, A.F (1994), “A Matter of Style: The Teacher as Expert, Formal

Authority, Personal Model, Facilitator, and Delegator”, College Teaching, 42(4), 142-149.

[13] Gredler, M.E (1997), Learning and Instruction: Theory into Practice

(3rd ed), Upper Saddle River [14] Green, S., & Gredler, M. (2002) “A Review and Analysis of Constructivism

for School-based Practice”. School Psychology Review, 31(1), 53-70. Retrieved from host database on June 20, 2004

[15] Hopwood, W. S., Leiner, J. J. And Young, G. R. (2005), Forensic

Accounting, McGraw-Hill: Boston. [16] Holt, D. G. and C. Willard-Holt (2000). "Let's Get Real (TM) - Students

solving authentic corporate problems." Phi Delta Kappan 82(3): 243-246. King, E.M. (2006), “Studio Classrooms and Student Centered Learning in Traditional Microscopic Courses”, Journal of Geoscience Education, 54(4), pp. 476-479.

[17] Mundhenk, L. G. (2004), “Toward an Understanding of What it Means to

be Student Centered: A New Teacher’s Journey, Journal of Management Education, Vol. 28, No. 4, 447-462

[18] Piaget, J. (1950), The psychology, of intelligence. New York: Harcourt,

Brace. Prawat, R. and Floden, R. (1994). Philosophical Perspectives on Constructivist Views of Learning. Educational Psychology, 29(1), 37-48.

[17] Von Glasersfeld, E. (1989). “Constructivism in Education”. In T. Husen & N.

Postlewaite (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Education [Suppl.], (pp.162-163). Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.

[18] Wertsch, J.V (1997), Vygotsky and the Formation of the Mind, London:

Cambridge Press.



357

CIKGU, GAMBARAJAH INI MENYUSAHKAN SAYA!

JOHARI SURIF NOR HASNIZA IBRAHIM MOHAMMAD YUSOF ARSHAD

Jabatan Pendidikan Sains dan Matematik Fakulti Pendidikan UTM


ABSTRACT - Artikel ini membincangkan kewujudan kerangka alternatif di kalangan pelajar yang disebabkan oleh kesukaran untuk menerangkan sesuatu gambarajah yang ditemui mereka dalam buku teks, buku rujukan atau penerangan guru di dalam kelas. Gambarajah yang tidak sejajar dengan konsep saintifik menyebabkan pelajar tidak dapat mentafsirkan sesuatu gambarajah dengan tepat sekaligus menyebabkan kerangka alternatif terbina dalam skema pemikiran mereka. Hal ini dapat dilihat melalui pelbagai contoh yang ditemui dalam buku teks atau buku rujukan yang digunakan pelajar khususnya dalam matapelajaran kimia. Artikel ini turut membincangkan implikasi yang mungkin berlaku dalam pengkonsepan pelajar dan bagaimana strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains yang berkesan boleh dimanfaatkan untuk mengatasi permasalahan ini.



358

1.0 PENGENALAN

Sekeping gambar dapat menceritakan seribu perkataan. Ungkapan di atas merupakan antara pepatah Melayu lama yang memperihalkan keupayaan sekeping gambar untuk menerangkan sesuatu situasi,objek atau fenomena yang berlaku dengan lebih jelas berbanding penceritaan secara naratif yang panjang dan berjela-jela. Hal ini dapat diterangkan dengan lebih jelas melalui gambar dalam Rajah 1 berikut:

Rajah 1 Pemandangan matahari yang sedang terbenam Pemandangan matahari terbenam dalam Rajah 1, boleh diperihalkan dengan pelbagai ungkapan, penceritaan, pernyataan dan sebagainya seperti memperihalkan ciri-ciri warnanya, jirim dan ciptaan Tuhan, fenomena pembiasan cahaya, waktu berlakunya peristiwa ini dan sebagainya yang hanya diungkapkan melalui sekeping gambar. Hal ini turut diaplikasikan dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran melalui penggunaan gambar, gambarajah, rajah, carta dan sebagainya bagi menyokong proses pembelajaran pelajar khususnya dalam mempelajari konsep sains.

1.1 Kepentingan Gambarajah Dalam Proses Pembelajaran Sains

Proses pembelajaran sains amat menekankan penguasaan pelajar terhadap proses pembinaan konsep yang menjadi landasan dan asas kepada pelajar untuk menguasai segala fakta, prinsip, hukum dan pernyataan yang terkandung dalam sains (Tan et al, 2002). Penguasaan konsep ini seterusnya membantu pelajar untuk mempelajari segala fenomena, proses-proses dan setiap objek di persekitarannya. Malangnya, konsep sains lazimnya bersifat abstrak (sukar untuk digambarkan secara konkrit melalui pancaindera manusia) menyebabkan pelajar perlu membayang, memikir dan menaakul yang memerlukan imaginasi yang tinggi serta kemahiran berfikir yang kompleks. Sebagai contoh konsep atom, molekul, ion, proses



359

fotosintesis, daya dan sebagainya tidak mungkin dapat dilihat dengan mata kasar, dihidu melalui deria bau dan sebagainya kerana sifatnya yang abstrak. Dalam hal inilah, gambarajah amat diperlukan bagi membantu pelajar mempertingkatkan daya imaginasi dan menyokong proses berfikir dan membayang yang amat diperlukan pelajar (Yap et al., 2000).

Melalui gambarajah dapat melibatkan proses pemerhatian ke arah membantu proses pemikiran membayangkan sesuatu yang abstrak secara lebih konkrit. Gambarajah akan bertindak menyokong proses pemikiran turut menggalakkan pelajar lebih bermotivasi dalam pembelajaran sekaligus merangsang proses pembelajaran mereka. Hal ini menyebabkan gambarajah atau rajah sering digunakan oleh penulis buku teks atau buku rujukan sains bagi menerangkan sesuatu proses, fenomena atau objek yang menyokong proses pembinaan pengkonsepan pelajar. Tidak cukup sekadar itu, penggunaan gambarajah dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains sememangnya tidak dapat dielakkan dan dilaksanakan secara meluas dalam pelbagai strategi pengajaran samada secara inkuiri, resepsi dan sebagainya. Sekurang-kurangnya seorang guru sains akan bertindak melakarkan rajah di papan hitam untuk membantu para pelajarnya memahami sesuatu konsep yang cuba diajarkan. Jelaslah, gambarajah memainkan peranan yang amat penting dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains.

Walau bagaimanapun, terdapat juga kajian yang membuktikan gambarajah bertindak dalam proses yang berlawanan dengan manfaat yang cuba dicapai. Gambarajah mampu menyebabkan kesukaran kepada pelajar untuk memahami sesuatu konsep sains dengan tepat sebaliknya mewujudkan miskonsep yang membentuk kerangka alternatif dalam skema pemikiran pelajar. Kerangka alternatif, miskonsep, konsep alternatif, tanggapan alternatif, mini sains, sains kanak-kanak atau istilah yang seumpamanya merupakan benteng halangan yang amat penting dikenalpasti di kalangan pengkaji sebagai halangan yang menghambat proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains (Johari dan Mohammad Yusof, 2003). Kewujudan kerangka alternatif ini akan menyebabkan seseorang pelajar membina pengkosepan mereka yang tersendiri, unik dan bertentangan dengan konsep saintifik sekaligus menjejaskan kefahaman mereka dalam menguasai konsep sains (Driver et al., 1994). Menyedari hakikat inilah, artikel ini ditulis dengan tujuan untuk mengkaji dan membincangkan kewujudan permasalahan ini dalam konteks buku teks dan buku rujukan sains khususnya bagi mata pelajaran kimia di Malaysia serta cadangan ke arah mengatasinya.

2.0 METODOLOGI KAJIAN Kajian dilaksanakan secara kualitatif menggunakan kaedah analisis dokumen daripada sumber sekunder. Buku-buku teks dan rujukan dalam mata pelajaran kimia yang terdapat dipasaran dipilih secara rawak dan gambarajah-gambarajah



360

yang terdapat di dalamnya juga dipilih secara rawak. Gambarajah kemudiannya dianalisis untuk mengenalpasti kewujudan kesalahan yang memungkinkan berlakunya kewujudan kerangka alternatif di kalangan pelajar sains. Kesalahan ini direkodkan dan pola-pola kesilapan dikenalpasti bagi tujuan pengkategorian. Seterusnya dapatan yang diperolehi dibandingkan dengan data-data kajian lepas bagi mengelakkan proses penekaan berlaku serta mengenalpasti kesalahan yang baru. 3.0 DAPATAN DAN PERBINCANGAN Kajian yang dilaksanakan mendapati wujud pelbagai gambarajah yang bercanggah dengan konsep saintifik dan berupaya menyebabkan kewujudan kerangka alternatif kepada pelajar yang mengunakan buku-buku tersebut bagi mencari maklumat dan fakta yang berkaitan dengan konsep yang dipelajari. Antara gambarajah yang bercanggah dengan konsep saintifik adalah sebagaimana berikut: Zarah-zarah dapat dilihat dengan mata kasar

Secara saintifik, zarah-zarah adalah terlalu seni sehingga tidak dapat dilihat dengan mata kasar. Walau bagaimanapun, sesetengah gambarajah menggambarkan zarah dapat dilihat tanpa menggunakan peralatan saintifik seperti mikroskop dan sebagainya. Sebagai contoh, Rajah 2 menggambarkan molekul wap air dalam dua buah balang yang tertutup dan terbuka.

Rajah 2 Molekul air dapat dilihat dengan mata kasar (Sumber: Toh,

2003: 29)

Rajah 2 cuba membezakan kepada pelajar perubahan yang berlaku kepada molekul wap air apabila sebuah balang ditutup dengan gabus dengan sebuah balang yang dibiarkan terbuka. Akibatnya penyejatan yang berlainan akan berlaku. Walau bagaimanapun, rajah ini mampu menimbulkan kerangka alternatif kepada pelajar dengan menganggap molekul wap air tersebut boleh dilihat dengan mata kasar.



361

Jumlah zarah pada suatu jasad dapat dikenalpasti

Jirim perlu diterangkan pada aras makroskopik (seperti keadaan pepejal, cecair dan gas) dan juga pada keadaan mikroskopik (seperti zarah-zarah atom, molekul atau ion). Bagi menerangkan dua keadaan yang berlainan ini dalam satu gambarajah, lazimnya gambarajah tersebut akan diwakilkan dengan membuat gambaran perwakilan satu juzuk seni pada gambarajah makroskopik yang diperbesarkan kepada gambaran mikroskopik (Rujuk Rajah 3). Walaubagaimanapun, sesetengah gambarajah membuat perwakilan yang tidak tepat sebagaimana dalam Rajah 4.

Rajah 3 Zarah-zarah dapat ditentukan jumlahnya pada luas kawasan yang

tertentu (Sumber: Toh, 2003: 25) Rajah 4 di atas bertujuan untuk menerangkan susunan dan jarak zarah-zarah yang berbeza dalam keadaan atau fasa jirim yang berlainan. Walau bagaimanapun, perwakilan dengan bulatan yang dikemukakan pada saiz yang tertentu memberikan gambaran bahawa dalam suatu saiz yang sama, zarah-zarah dapat ditentukan jumlah dan bilangannya. Molekul di dalam cecair

Menurut Johari dan Mohammad Yusof (2004) salah satu kerangka alternatif yang ditemui dalam kajian mereka di kalangan pelajar tingkatan empat aliran sains ialah atom-atom yang tersusun dalam jirim seumpama kismis yang bertaburan di dalam kek. Apabila pelajar diminta menerangkan apakah yang terdapat di antara zarah-zarah, pelajar mengemukakan pelbagai jawapan seperti udara, air, oksigen, atom, dan sebagainya. Jawapan ini ternyata amat bercanggah dengan konsep saintifik bahawa ruang antara zarah adalah vakum. Kajian dengan jawapan yang sama turut ditemui dalam kajian yang dijalankan



362

turut oleh Anderson (1990) di Sweden. Dalam perbincangannya beliau turut mengemukakan bahawa antara punca kewujudan kerangka alternatif ini ialah akibat daripada pengkonsepan pelajar yang salah hasil daripada gambarajah dalam buku teks yang tidak menggambarkan konsep saintifik. Rajah 5 turut menemui kewujudan kesilapan yang sama dengan menggambarkan zarah-zarah cecair yang tenggelam dalam larutan cecair itu sendiri. Walaupun gambarajah ini cuba menerangkan perubahan yang berlaku apabila zarah tersejat daripada keadaan cecair kepada keadaan gas namun ianya turut mewujudkan model atom dan sebatian yang tidak tepat dan mengundang kepada pembentukan kerangka alternatif dalam skema pemikiran pelajar.

Rajah 5 Zarah cecair dikelilingi cecair (Sumber: Eng et al., 1999: 13)

Ion di dalam cecair

Dalam larutan ionik, larutan dalam bentuk akuas terdiri daripada ion-ion yang bercas positif (kation) dan ion-ion yang bercas negatif (anion). Kedua-dua ion ini bersifat elektrolit yang lazimnya berada dalam keadaan keseimbangan. Walau bagaimanapun, sesetengah gambarajah (contoh Rajah 6) menggambarkan larutan tersebut mengandungi ion-ion positif dan ion-ion negatif yang tenggelam dalam larutan tersebut sekaligus berupaya mewujudkan kerangka alternatif bahawa ion-ion seumpama kismis yang terbenam di dalam kek.

Rajah 6 Ion-ion dikelilingi cecair (Sumber: Tan et al., 2003: 189)



363

Atom di dalam balang

Rajah 7 berikut cuba menerangkan perbezaan susunan atom dalam keadaan atau fasa jirim yang berlainan. Pepejal adalah teratur dan rapat manakala gas berada dalam keadaan yang jauh dan tidak teratur. Walau bagaimanapun, rajah tersebut yang cuba menerangkan sifat mikroskopik jirim dalam keadaan makroskopik iaitu pepejal dalam keadaan bongkah kiub, cecair di dalam bikar dan gas dalam kelalang gas berupaya mengelirukan pelajar bahawa zarah dapat dilihat dengan mata kasar.

Rajah 7 Zarah-zarah di dalam balang (Sumber: Eng et al., 1999: 20)

Jarak antara zarah pada fasa yang berlainan

Kajian saintifik yang dilaksanakan mendapati bahawa zarah-zarah yang berada dalam keadaan atau fasa yang berlainan mempunyai kedudukan dalam nisbah yang tertentu. Nisbah jarak antara zarah dalam keadaan gas kepada pepejal ialah 10:1. Namun konsep saintifik ini lazimnya diabaikan dalam gambarajah yang terkandung dalam buku-buku rujukan dan teks (Rujuk Rajah 8). Dalam Rajah 8, nisbah jarak antara gas dan cecair terlalu hampir – katalah 3:1 yang memberikan pelbagai tafsiran yang berbeza kepada pelajar. Gambarajah seperti ini turut ditemui dalam kajian yang dilaksanakan Anderson (1990) di Sweden mendapati kebanyakan gambarajah memberikan nisbah jarak antara zarah pepejal dan gas yang salah seperti jarak antara zarah ialah 5-6 zarah menyebabkan kebanyakan elajar tidak mampu menerangkan jarak antara zarah sebagaimana yang dijelaskan dalam konsep saintifik.



364

Rajah 8 Jarak antara zarah yang tidak tepat (Sumber: Tan et al., 2003: 19)

Model atom, molekul dan sebatian yang berlainan

Terdapat pelbagai model yang lazimnya digunakan di dalam gambarajah pada buku teks dan rujukan untuk menggambarkan sesuatu atom, molekul dan sebatian. Model yang berbeza ini digunakan bagi tujuan yang berlainan seperti model dalam keadaan tiga dimensi, menerangkan ikatan dalam sesuatu sebatian atau struktur sesuatu sebatian. Walau bagaimanapun, model yang pelbagai berupaya menimbulkan kekeliruan kepada pelajar terutamanya untuk membezakan antara atom, molekul dan sebatian. Banyak kajian yang dijalankan mendapati kebanyakan pelajar beranggapan atom, molekul dan sebatian adalah sama (Driver et al., 1994; Anderson, 1990; Yap et al, 2002). Hal ini dapat dilihat berdasarkan Rajah 9, 10 dan 11 yang cuba menggambarkan molekul air dalam tiga model yang berlainan. Rajah 9 menerangkan keadaan sebatian air iaitu sebatian kovalen hasil daripada pembentukan ikatan kovalen yang wujud antara oksigen dan hidrogen, manakala Rajah 10 dan 11 menerangkan molekul air dalam keadaan tiga dimensi serta perkongsian elektron yang wujud dalam molekul air. Malangnya, pelajar beranggapan bahawa molekul dan sebatian merupakan sesuatu yang sama.



365

Rajah 9 Sebatian air (Sumber: Buni et al., 2001: 119)

Rajah 10 Molekul air (Sumber: Buni et al., 2001: 127)

Rajah 11 Molekul air (Sumber: Buni et al., 2001: 128)

Atom merupakan benda hidup

Analogi merupakan sesuatu teknik penerangan yang amat penting bagi membantu pelajar memahami sesuatu konsep dengan berkesan. Banyak rajah yang terdapat dalam buku teks mengemukakan analogi-analogi tertentu untuk menyampaikan sesuatu konsep. Rajah 12 berikut menunjukkan analogi yang digunakan dalam buku teks untuk membandingkan nisbah antara atomhelium dan atom hidrogen iaitu jisim satu atom helium adalah bersamaan dengan jisim empat atom hidrogen. Bagi memberikan gambaran yang menarik, pengarang buku teks mengilustrasikannya dalam bentuk kartun. Malangnya, rajah seperti ini berupaya mengelirukan pelajar tentang konsep atom sebagai benda hidup. Banyak kajian yang dijalankan mendapati pelajar beranggapan atom adalah sebagaimana sel dalam organisma yang turut hidup (Holding, 1987; Ben Zvi et al., 1988) dan tentunya pengkonsepan ini



366

bercanggah dengan konsep saintifik bahawa atom bukanlah benda hidup.

Rajah 12 Atom seperti hidupan (Sumber: Buni et al., 2001: 39) Keseluruhannya berdasarkan dapatan yang diperolehi daripada kajian yang dijalankan terhadap gambarajah yang terdapat dalam pelbagai buku teks dan rujukan kimia di dalam pasaran di Malaysia, jelaslah terdapat sesetengah gambarajah yang berupaya menimbulkan kerangka alternatif dalam proses pembelajaran pelajar. Sehubungan itu ianya tentulah menimbulkan implikasi yang perlu diberikan perhatian khususnya dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. 4.0 IMPLIKASI GAMBARAJAH YANG MEWUJUDKAN KERANGKA

ALTERNATIF TERHADAP PROSES PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN SAINS

Gambarajah yang berupaya membawa kepada kewujudan kerangka alternatif bukan sahaja menimbulkan kesukaran dalam proses pembelajaran pelajar bahkan turut mengundang permasalahan dalam proses pengajaran kepada guru sains. Lazimnya buku teks atau buku rujukan merupakan antara sumber maklumat dan fakta yang diperolehi pelajar samada di dalam bilik darjah mahupun melalui pembacaan awal mereka sebelum menghadiri sesi pengajaran dan pembelajaran formal di sekolah. Menurut Driver (1985) kerangka alternatif ini akan membentuk skema pemikiran mereka yang amat sukar diubah dan menjadi suatu halangan dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Kerangka alternatif juga akan menjadi semakin kukuh jika ianya tidak dicabar dan diubah kepada konsep saintifik dan terus berlarutan sehingga dewasa. Sehubungan itu menjadi tugas guru untuk bertindak mengatasi permasalahan ini melalui proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berkesan. Antara strategi yang boleh digunakan ialah:

4.1 Menggunakan gambarajah pada buku teks untuk mencungkil kerangka alternatif pelajar.

Walaupun gambarajah yang terdapat pada buku teks tersebut tidak sejajar dengan konsep saintifik namun ianya boleh dimanfaatkan bagi mecungkil kerangka alternatif. Dengan mengaitkannya dengan sedikit aktiviti permainan contohnya, guru boleh meminta para pelajar untuk mengesan kesalahan yang mungkin wujud dalam gambarajah tersebut.



367

Dengan bimbingan guru juga, pelajar boleh diminta untuk menerangkan gambarajah yang telah dipilih guru untuk memberikan penerangan berdasarkan pengetahuan sedia ada mereka samada melalui kaedah perbincangan atau menerangkannya di hadapan bilik darjah. Aktiviti seperti ini akan dapat mencungkil kerangka alternatif pelajar dan guru hanya perlu bertindak mengesan setiap kerangka alternatif yang dikemukakan pelajar semasa menerangkan gambarajah yang diminta oleh guru.

4.2 Mencari gambarajah yang tepat bagi memfokuskan

pemikiran pelajar dan menggalakkan peningkatan kemahiran generik.

Hasil daripada aktiviti yang dilaksanakan dalam fasa mencungkil kerangka alternatif pelajar, guru boleh menggunakan gambarajah tersebut sebagai suatu alat bantu mengajar kepada pelajar bagi tujuan memfokuskan pemikiran mereka untuk mencari konsep saintifik. Di samping itu, pelajar juga boleh dibimbing untuk mempertingkatkan sikap inkuiri dengan cara meminta pelajar mencari gambarajah alternatif untuk memperbetulkan kesilapan pada gambarajah. Pelajar diminta membandingkan gambarajah tersebut dengan gambarajah di perpustakaan, internet dan sebagainya. Usaha sebegini bukan sahaja membantu pelajar untuk menumpukan pemikiran mereka ke arah perolehan maklumat yang tepat bahkan merangsang inkuiri dan kemahiran generik mereka untuk mencari maklumat yang sahih dan sebagainya.

4.3 Menggalakkan perbincangan dan dialog bagi mencabar

kerangka alternatif pelajar.

Gambarajah juga boleh digunakan guru bagi tujuan mencabar kerangka alternatif pelajar dengan mencetuskan konflik kognitif. Kajian yang dijalankan Stavy, (1991) mendapati gambarajah yang salah juga berperanan untuk mencetuskan konflik kognitif. Dengan menggalakkan perbincangan sesama rakan atau dialog antara guru dan pelajar, gambarajah tersebut dikemukakan kepada pelajar untuk mencari kesilapan dan memperbetulkannya. Guru boleh mengemukakan soalan-soalan yang meminta pelajar berfikir tentang kesalahan yang wujud dan mencari alasan-alasan bagi jawapan mereka. Sebagai contoh dalam gambarajah berikut guru boleh mengemukakan soalan-soalan seperti berikut:

Rajah A Gambarajah yang mengandungi kesalahan (Sumber: Anderson,

1990: 72)



368

Guru: Anwar, berdasarkan rajah di atas, apakah kesilapan yang boleh awak jelaskan?

Anwar: Tidak ada kesilapan cikgu. Guru: Tidakkah awak lihat saiz molekul air tersebut? Anwar: Ya, molekul air terlalu besar. Guru: Bagus. Mengapa awak berkata demikian? Anwar: Sepatutnya saiz molekul air tersebut tidak boleh

dilihat dengan mata kasar. Guru: Tidak boleh dilihat dengan mata kasar? Anwar: (Sambil merujuk buku teks) Menurut teori kinetik

zarah, molekul merupakan suatu yang seni dan tidak dapat dilihat melainkan dengan bantuan mikroskop dan sebagainya.

Guru: Bagus, Siti bagaimana dengan pendapat awak pula?

Siti: Saya pun berpendapat seperti Anwar. Guru: Tidakkah gambar tersebut kelihatan seperti

sebuah akuarium. Siti: Ya, molekul air tersebut seolah-olah terapung-

apung seperti ikan di dalam air. Guru: Saya tak faham... Boleh Siti jelaskan? Siti: Gambar molekul tersebut seolah-olah molekul

air yang dikelilingi oleh air di sekelilingnya. Guru: Mengapa begitu? Apa yang sepatutnya? Siti: ... Saya pernah melihat dalam gambarajah yang

lain. Sepatutnya gambar molekul tersebut perlu dilukiskan pada tempat yang berlainan iaitu hasil pembesaran air di dalam bekas tersebut.

Guru: Boleh Siti tolong betulkan? Siti: Baiklah... sepatutnya begini. (Siti melukiskannya

di papan hitam dengan gambarajah yang betul).

Rajah B Gambarajah yang dilukiskan Siti Berdasarkan perbincangan yang dilakukan di atas, guru hanya bertindak mencetuskan persoalan-persoalan untuk dijawab oleh pelajar tanpa mengemukakan sebarang jawapan. Sebaliknya pelajar sendiri diminta berfikir dan menerangkan jawapan mereka. Melalui strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran sebegini yang bukan sahaja menumpukan terhadap penerimaan



369

maklumat semata-mata bahkan membantu penguasaan konsep pelajar dengan memperbetulkan kerangka alternatif dengan menggunakan gambarajah tersebut sebagai bahan bantu mengajar mereka diharapkan dapat membantu pelajar menguasai konsep sains dengan tepat. Selain itu guru sains juga dapat memanfaatkan penggunaan bahan-bahan yang tersedia seperti gambarajah pada buku teks untuk dijadikan sebahagian alat bantu mengajar yang berkesan dalam proses pengajaran aktif dan berlandaskan pendekatan konstruktivisme. Dapatan dan hasil perbincangan ini diharapkan dapat membantu guru untuk memahami setiap bahan pengajaran dan mempertingkatkan kesedaran terhadap setiap makluamt yang terdapat dipersekitaran mereka ke arah proses pengajaran sains yang berkesan. 5.0 RUJUKAN [1] Andersson, B. (1990). Pupils’ conceptions of matter and its

transformation (age 12-16). Studies in Science Education. 18: 53-85. [2] Ben-Zvi, R., Eylon, B. dan Silberstein, J. (1988). Theories, principles

and laws. Education in Chemistry. 25: 89-92. [3] Buni Sunade, Eng, N.H., Lim, E.W. dan Lim, Y.C. (2001). Kimia

Tingkatan 4. Zeti Enterprise: Batu Pahat. [4] Driver, R. (1985). Beyond appearances: the conservation of matter

under physical and chemical transformations. Dlm. R. Driver, E. Guesne dan A. Tiberghien. (Ed.). Children’s Ideas in Science. Open University Press: Milton Keynes.

[5] Driver, R., Squires, A., Rushworth, P. dan Robinson, W. (1994). Making

sense of secondary science research into children’s ideas. Routledge: London.

[6] Eng, N.H., Lim, E.W., dan Yeow, K.O. (1999). Kimia Fokus Jingga SPM.

Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd: Bandar Baru Bangi. [7] Holding, B. (1987). Investigation of school children’s understanding of

the process of dissolving with special reference to the conservation of matter and the development of atomistic ideas. Tesis PhD. Bahan tidak diterbitkan. University of Leeds.

[8] Johari Surif dan Mohammad Yusof Arshad. (2003). Kesukaran pelajar

untuk memahami konsep pendidihan: peranan simulasi komputer untuk mengatasinya. Buletin Persatuan Pendidikan Sains dan Matematik Johor. 12(1): 1-13.

[9] Johari Surif dan Mohammad Yusof Arshad. (2004). Strategi metakognitif

dalam pembelajaran sains: Suatu perspektif baru. Jurnal Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. 10: 1-16.



370

[10] Stavy, R. (1991). Using analogy to overcome misconceptions about conservation of matter. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 28(4): 305-313.

[11] Tan, A.G., Lee, K.W.L., Goh, N.K. dan Chia, L.S. (2002). New

paradigms for science education. A perspective of teaching problem solving, creative teaching and primary science education. Prentice Hall: Singapura.

[12] Tan, Y.T., Lou, W.L. dan Tan, O.T. (2003). Sukses Kimia SPM.

Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd : Kuala Lumpur. [13] Toh, K.K. (2003). Revisi prioriti Kimia Tingkatan 4-5. Sasbadi Sdn. Bhd:

Petaling Jaya. [14] Yap, K.C., Toh, K.A. dan Goh, N.K. (2000). Teaching science. Reading

and resources for the primary school teacher. Prentice Hall: Singapura.



371

THE IMPACT OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING METHOD IN INCREASING STUDENT’S PERFORMANCE AND SATISFACTION. AN EXPLORATORY

STUDY IN UMS

CAROLINE GEETHA VIVIN VINCENT CHANDRAN SO TIONG SENG Universiti Malaysia Sabah © Universiti Putra Malaysia 2007. Semua Hak Cipta Terpelihara. Prosiding Persidangan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran di Peringkat Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (CTLHE07), The Palace of Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan, Selangor, 12-14 Disember 2007

ABSTRACT - Many approaches to teaching have been urged by educators to develop academic achievement. Researchers believe that academic achievement can be obtained by promoting student learning, increase student retention and satisfaction and at the same time stimulate the much talked about oral communication and social skills. Previous studies have shown that student’s achievement both academically and socially can be obtained through interactive learning method. Since Universiti Malaysia Sabah is a people’s university that consists of multiethnic students, an investigation was carried out whether the performance of the students can be improved through the implementation of cooperative learning. An exploratory study was carried out on 76 second year students who were from the economic department. The tool used to incorporate the interactive learning method is group formation. The students were grouped randomly, based on friendship or someone that shared the same interest and a group formed by the lecturer based on the student’s academic performance. The result revealed that the student’s whose members were chosen by the lecturer performed academically well and obtained a much higher level of satisfaction.



372

1.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Interactive means the way it involves at least two people or things that can influence each other. Interactive Learning Method is one of the learning methods which does not involve one teacher presenting in front of the class, but at the same time the students are also involves in the class. It is a common method employed in schools today and often involve the use of computer lab and others related equipment in teaching. Interactive learning method can also be seen in used hospitals, companies and government departments. Since interactive learning method is so widely use, is it applicable in the universities where a lecturer handles more than 100 students in his or her class. One of the main elements of interactive learning method is the formation of groups. According to Sakthi and Pamela (2000), investigation about the impact of group selection on student performance and satisfaction can be done using three different methods. Firstly, the students are chosen randomly. Secondly, the grouping can be based on friendship or on other shared interest and finally the grouping of students can be based on the teacher’s selection. Sharan and Sharan (1992), believe that grouping students will encourage students to discover that anyone in their class can contribute to their learning. The researcher believes grouping students based in friendship will work more effectively. The researcher believes that by doing so, everyone is participating and no one is left out for social, academic or ethnic reasons. Psychologists claim that group members can influence each other. Therefore groups should be structured accordingly as it can influence system that changes attitudes and improve performance through member’s interaction with each other. The most important factor that influences grouping of students is capability. This is supported by Webb and Palincsar (1996), Barraclough and Stewart (1992) and Dillard (1990). McCroskey and Richmond (1992) claim that there are 5 types of power can contribute to effective learning. Their study claim that students who use pro-social techniques perform better compared to anti-social behavior. Coercive and legitimate power is negatively associated to learning while referent and expert power is positively referred to learning. Therefore friends in a group will have a positive effect on learning. Harris and Menten (1996) disagrees with the study conducted by McCroskey and Richmond (1992), friends can equally influence both the good and the bad group of teenagers. Social categorization always plays an important role in college environment where the teachers divide them up into academically excellence, moderate and week students. This comes in the need to form groups to implement the interactive learning method. The way the groups selected can have a significant effect on the success of interactive learning. The appropriate method of selecting the



373

group members can also enhance their ability to develop soft skills. Especially with the course with limited man power to assists the lecturer during tutorials. 2.0 OBJECTIVE The aim of the study is to test whether interactive learning method using different formation of groups is effective in imparting knowledge in the university. In this study, the interactive learning method is tested using different forms of group formation, students that are grouped randomly, students that are grouped based on friendship or shared interest or grouping of students based on teacher’s selection. By finding the most effective way of implementing interactive learning method, student’s academic performance and satisfaction can be enhanced.

3.0 HYPOTHESIS FORMATION H1: Students that are grouped based on friendship or shared interest can

perform better than students who are grouped randomly. H2: Students that are grouped based on the lecturer’s preference can

perform better than the students who are grouped randomly. H3: Students who are grouped based on the lecturer’s preference perform

better than the students that are grouped based on the friendship or shared interest.

H4: Students who are grouped based on friendship or shared interest have a higher level of satisfaction compared to students who are grouped randomly.

H5: Students who are grouped based on the lecturer’s preference have a higher level of satisfaction compared to students who are grouped randomly.

H6: Students who are grouped based on the lecturer’s preference have a higher level of satisfaction compared to students who are grouped based on friendship or shared interest.

4.0 SCOPE

The study was conducted on the 2nd year students from the field of

economics (monetary, development and human resources). There are 76 respondents. The 76 respondents had to take their basic econometric paper. Thus this course was used as a base to test the students’ performance and their level of satisfaction since it is a subject that combines statistic, mathematics and economics..

5.0 RESEARCH STRUCTURE

Section 1 consists of introduction, problem statement, objective hypothesis, scope and research structure. Section 2 explains the literature review of interactive learning method. Section 3 explains the methodology of the study while section 4 discusses the results in detail. The conclusion will be given in section 5.



374

6.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Interactive learning method is one of the learning methods which involve at least two people or things. Communication between each other plays an important role in this method. In schools, teacher often use interactive learning as a way to get their students involved. Teachers are not always successful at engaging their students through typical lecture format. Some educators also believe that subjects like Chemistry and Biology are more easily understood where lab experiments are used as interactive learning method. One of the most famous tools used in interactive learning method is grouping of students. Sharan and Sharan (1992) believe that alls students are equally valuable. Thus it will encourage students to contribute effectively in their learning process. There are three ways of grouping the students in Sharan and Sharan’s (1992) study’s grouping can be done randomly, based on friendship or shared interest of finally by the teacher’s selection According to Webb and Palincsar (1996), grouping students involves a very important element known as compatibility. Therefore they suggest that the consequence would be greater when the group is formed with peer as it will be the greater peer pressure towards the enactment of pro-social behavior and greater interpersonal attraction among members. McKeachie (1986) also support the idea that the most effective teaching method is “students teaching other students”. He found that students who have minimum interaction with their peers have low academic performance and dropping out of college. He also claims that the greater affinity seeker on the part of the teacher has a positive and significant effect on the students’ performance. As the degree of likeness to the teacher increase, they have learned substantial material and at the same time also reported their intention to take the same class with the same teacher. Since teachers can create greater affinity, teachers should inquire to study what students can do to generate greater interest among their peers. McCroskey and Richmond (1992) supported the study done by McKeachie (1986). The researchers were interested in how teachers communicate their power sources to their students. The study showed that college students resist teachers who use anti-social behavior when compared to teachers who used pro-social techniques. Coercive and legitimate power is negatively associated with learning while referent and expert power is positively associated with learning. Referent power is based on the target’s identification with the agent. Therefore, using students who are friends in a group will have the effect of increasing the referent power base when students identify themselves with their groups’ members. Harris and Menten (1996) also supports the argument that peers equally influence both the good and bad groups of teenagers, it is just they belong to different sorts of peer groups. According to Lightfoot (1992) teenagers seldom need to be pushed to conform to the norms of the group; once they are in



375

a group, they are pulled into conformance and also not have to be pushed or provided by an adult to conform. According to the Harris (1998), social categorization plays an important role in a college environment. The researcher reported the study where the teachers divided up children into good readers and those who are not so good and found that the good readers tend to get better and the not so good tend to get worse. Thus, group contrast effects between quick learners and slow ones resulted in the slow learners adopting norms that caused them to avoid doing things that might make them learn more. Harris (1998) suggested that slow learners did not have a poor attitude toward themselves but just towards the school they belong to. In college, students’ alliances are probably made on the basis of academic performance, motivation and attitudes. Students who are associated with good students tend to have good attitudes towards college work, while those who associate with not so good students may develop poor attitudes. If randomly combining pairs, results in a group that has a good attitude towards work and high ability then such a group would excel. On the other hand, opposite can happen. Thus if can be concluded that grouping strategy is very effective tool in interactive learning method. 7.0 METHODOLOGY Students who sat for their basic econometric course were used in this field experiment. There are 76 respondents or students from various departments in the field of economics. There are three departments in economics such as the monetary, development and human resource economics. The students were grouped into two or three members in a group. In the first week of the class the students were briefed about the assignment and the questionnaires they need to fulfill in this study. At the end of the eight week of lecturer, students who entered the lecturer were asked to form a group randomly. Each group consists of two to three members who are not acquainted. An assignment was given to students to be completed within a time frame with the assistance of their members in their group. The assignment was later graded by their lecturer for 100 points. At the end of the session, the students were given a questionnaire to evaluate their satisfaction level where areas such as task variety, task significance, autonomy and feedback were enquired. A Likert Scale from 1 to 5 was used to evaluate the questions. 1 stands for strongly disagree while 5 stands for strongly agree. At the end of the tenth week of the lecture, the students were asked to group into two or three. Each member of the group is chosen by the students based on friendship or someone who shared the same interest. Similarly, each student was given an assignment that was graded for 100 points by the lecturer. The time frame given to complete the project was the same as the earlier assignment. At the end of the session, similar questionnaire was given to identify the student’s



376

level of satisfaction in the area of task variety, task significance, autonomy and feedback. The Likert Scale from 1 to 5 was used to evaluate the questions. 1 stands for strongly disagree while 5 stands for strongly agree. Finally at the end of the twelve week of lecture, the students were now grouped into two or three. Each member of the group was chosen by the lecturer based on their academic performance. The lecturer grouped the weak students with students with high academic performance. An assignment was distributed to all of them to be completed within the same time frame as the earlier assignments. The lecturer graded the assignment for 100 points. Again the students were given the same questionnaire to be completed to obtain their level of satisfaction that covers the same are of task variety, task significance, autonomy and feedback. The questions were evaluated using a Likert Scale of 1 to 5. 1 stands for strongly disagree while 5 stands for strongly disagree. A descriptive analysis was carried out on the questionnaires. The important variables to be analyzed are the score of the randomly chosen group, the score of the group chosen based on friendship or someone with the same interest and finally the score of the group chosen by the lecturer based on the academic performance of the students. The CGPA was used as an indicator to create the balanced environment. Other than the score the level of satisfaction was also measured using all the questions from the area of task variety, task significance, autonomy and feedback. The reliability test was carried out to ensure that all the items are added into study. The significance difference in mean at 1 percent or 5 percent significance level will be used to analyze the data. 8.0 RESULT Since the questionnaire used to measure the level of satisfaction for the randomly grouped, the group based on friendship and the group formed by the lecturer was the same, the Cronbach alpha reliability test showed a coefficient of 0.78. With this high level of reliability, all items in the questionnaire were included to obtain an overall satisfaction score of each student. The summary of the result shows that when the randomly formed group was paired with the grouped that was formed based on friendship or someone that shared the same interest, the mean score difference are significant at 5 percent

significance level (ρ = 0.047, t = 2.018). This result supports the first hypothesis that states groups that take their friends as group members perform well compared to students who are grouped randomly. The mean score for the randomly chosen group was 54.47 while for the group formed based on friendship is 65.78. When the score of the students who are randomly chosen as the group members was compared to the students who are grouped based on the lecturer’s preference, there was a significance difference in their mean score at 1 percent

significance level (ρ = 0.000, t = 10.790). Thus the study supports the second hypothesis that claims that groups formed by the lecturer based on academic performance perform better than randomly chosen members with the average score of 100.



377

In addition when comparison between the score of the group members chosen based on friendship with the members chosen by the lecturer were made, the

mean score was significantly different at 1 percent significance level (ρ = 0.000, t = 6.877). The man score of the members whose group was chosen based on lecturer’s preference was 100 unlike the score of the members whose group are chosen based on friendship, 65.78. As for the satisfaction score between the randomly selected group with the group chosen based on friendship, the means score is statistically difference at 1

percent significance level (ρ = 0.000, t = 5.190). The mean score of the randomly selected group is 2.78 while for the group that consists of friends is 4.31, above average. Similarly, when comparison was made between the randomly selected group and the group members selected by the lecturer, the mean level of satisfaction was significantly different at 1 percent significance

level (ρ = 0.000, t = 8.380). The mean level of satisfaction was 2.78 and 5.0 respectively. The mean satisfaction score between the group members selected based on friendship and the members selected based on the preference of the

lecturer was also found to be significant at 1 percent significance level (ρ = 0.000, t = 6.070) indicating a significant different in the mean score. The study supports the research carried out by all the researchers about interactive learning method where the tool used in this study is grouping. Group formed randomly where the members have no acquaintance, group formed based on friendship or with someone that has shared interest and finally group formed by the lecturer who teaches the course based on academic performance. Among the three types of grouping the most effective that provides a higher average score in the assignment and the level of satisfaction is the group formed by the lecturer. 9.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Student’s evaluation in a group can provide insights in the effectiveness of the group selection process. Pairing students influences student’s satisfaction with their group activities. As one student from a paired group claim that it was easier for them to meet outside their class if they were close friends. Students assigned to a group were their members are close friends perform better than when they were assigned randomly to a group where they had no acquaintances. As for the case in the econometric class in Universiti Malaysia Sabah, no doubt the students performed slightly better with their close friends as members of the group but there is some form of imbalance because the students with low ability tend to group with the students with low ability and vice versa. As such it is advisable for the lecturer to intervene to balance the groups by pairing students with low ability with high ability. The low ability students can learn from the high ability students. The lecturer can help to create an environment that is comfortable for student learning, performance and learning are likely to increase for all students.



378

10.0 REFERENCES [1] Barraclough, R.A and Stewart, R.A. 1992. Power and control:social

science perspectives, in Richmond, V.P and Mc Crosky, J.C, Power in the Classroom Communication, Control and Concern, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale. NJ.

[2] Dillard, J.P. 1990. Seeking compliances: The production of interpersonal

influence messages, Gorsuch Scarisbrick, AZ. [3] Harris, J.H. 1998. The Nature Assumption: Why children turn out the way

they do, Simon and Schuster, New York. [4] Harris, J.H and Merten, D.E. 1996. Information versus meaning towards

a further understanding of early adolescent rejection, Journey of Early Adolescent, Vol 16. 35-45.

[5] Lightfoot, C. 1992. Constructing self and peer culture a narrative

perspective on adolescent risk taking, in Winegar, L.T. and Valsiner, Journal of Children Development within Social Context; Research and Methodology, Earlbaum, Hillsdale, N.J.

[6] Mahenthiran, Sakthi and Rouse, J. Pamela. 2000. The impact of group

selection on student performance and satisfaction, The International Journal of Educational Management, 14/6. 255-264.

[7] McCroskey, J.C and Raymond, V.P. 1992. Motivating faculty, in Hickson,

M.III, Managing Communication in the Academic Department, SUNY Press, Albany. NY

[8] McKeachie, W.J. 1986. Teaching and Learning in College Classroom: A

Review of the Research Literature, The University of Michigan , Ann Arbor.MI.

[9] Sharan, Y and Sharan, S. 1992. Expanding cooperative learning through

group investigation, Teachers College Press: Columbia University, New York.

[10] Webb, N.M. and Palinesar, A.S. 1996. Group processes in the

classroom, in Berliner, D.C. Handbook of Educational Psychology.



379

ONLINE INTERACTION: QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE

APPROACH ¹MOHD FADZLI ALI ²GORDON JOYES

¹Department of Educational Multimedia Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia ²School of Education, University of Nottingham, Jubilee Campus, NG81BB, United Kingdom



ABSTRACT - Many approaches to teaching have been urged by educators to develop academic achievement. Researchers believe that academic achievement can be obtained by promoting student learning, increase student retention and satisfaction and at the same time stimulate the much talked about oral communication and social skills. Previous studies have shown that student’s achievement both academically and socially can be obtained through interactive learning method. Since Universiti Malaysia Sabah is a people’s university that consists of multiethnic students, an investigation was carried out whether the performance of the students can be improved through the implementation of cooperative learning. An exploratory study was carried out on 76 second year students who were from the economic department. The tool used to incorporate the interactive learning method is group formation. The students were grouped randomly, based on friendship or someone that shared the same interest and a group formed by the lecturer based on the student’s academic performance. The result revealed that the student’s whose members were chosen by the lecturer performed academically well and obtained a much higher level of satisfaction.



380

1.0 INTRODUCTION With the introduction of communication technology namely the Internet, the field of education has enter a new dimension. Communication among teachers, students and staffs is made possible through asynchronous technology (electronic mail) or synchronous technology (video conferencing). Both communications take place internally within the educational institutions and externally with the wider academic community. Thus, the concept of on-line learning takes place. Dillon and Gabbard (1998) had commented that much research had been conducted on hypermedia but actually lacked of evidence to support the studies on learners. The authors referred to suggestions that classroom should not only be supplemented by notes posted on website or email, but facilitated by interactions through networked technology (Salmon, 2000) and thus allow the learners to seek for peer support (Oliver and McLoughlin, 2001). A lot of studies conducted in the area of web-based learning produced minimal results to meet the acceptable standard of an effective learning. Much on-line educational research does not utilise scientific designs less quantitative approach and there were small number of experimental studies produced weak and inconclusive evidence (Landauer 1995; Chen & Rada 1996) There was also inconsistence literature due to different effectiveness of hypermedia for different learners and types of learning tasks. (Dillon & Gabbard, 1998). As for Conole (2003), learning technology is relatively a new field. Thus, the area and scope are not being defined clearly, the research activities are mostly case-based and lack of theoretical underpinning. Furthermore, the field is still divided between quantitative versus qualitative research methods. The question is whether the two methods should be independent of each other or researches should employ a mixed-method study.

1.1 Research Design Many sociology books had written on the merging between quantitative and qualitative approach. According to Bryman (2004), although not all writers support its use, there has been a growth in the amount of multi-strategy research. Some social science researchers perceive qualitative and quantitative approaches as incompatible, but others believe that skilled researcher can successfully combine approaches. Creswell (2003) suggested that researchers could collect both quantitative and qualitative data sequentially (in phases) or concurrently (gathering the data at the same time). However, Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998) differentiate between mixed methods and mixed models. Mixed methods combine qualitative and quantitative approaches while mixed models studies combine these two approaches across all phases of the research process such as data collection and data analysis. The question that arises is whether the amount between the two research methodologies should be balanced. Or whether the quantitative method is not strong enough to support research findings and thus must be supplemented by qualitative methods or the other way round.



381

1.2 Research Methodology

1.2.1Instrumentations Quasi-experimental involves the design of pre-test-post-test group (before and after). The use of quasi-experimental design is actually a controversial issue surrounding social science research in the study of online learning.

First, the researchers do not randomly assign participants to groups. Thus, subjects were not randomly assigned to an experimental (treatment) group and a control (non-treatment) group. Although, the researcher had the intention as a means to maximize internal validity, the implementation of such designs can be questioned.

Second, similar to experimental studies, quasi-experimental studies also manipulate a treatment. A major implementation issue is how Frederickson forms a pure control group without other external influences. External influences of the respondents would mainly include students’ awareness of the research being conducted and thus, the students would perform well to satisfy the objectives of the study.

Third, as for the qualitative research design, the approach places greater emphasis on the depth of the data collected rather than the sample size. Researcher obtained written qualitative feedback on the two methods of teaching. The analysis of the data could be based on the certain procedures such as dividing into categories. These categories were developed based on the feedback gathered from the written qualitative feedback. However, researcher needed to be aware of misinterpretation of the categories derived form the online interaction. For such analysis, detailed accounts on how the online interaction were categorised and how information/data was gathered should be given in this section.

The complexity of the web-based learning can not be represented by statistical findings from quantitative approach. It needs elaborations on the part of how students and tutors feel the use of both methods of teaching. However, the major question that could be raised from online learning study was whether the study was exactly focussed on the pedagogy of teaching and learning or the effective delivery of content through technology.



382

1.2.2 Reliability and Validity

With quasi-experimental design, researcher assumed that the results could be generalised and replicated. The methods, results and ideas of an experimental approach could be replicated from one research to other context and thus, results could be generalised. The study of online learning is keep on changing as the technology progresses and this would affect the method of study altogether. Results from study of online learning would go on constant change as well. (Colone, 2003) Generalising is difficult or impossible because one small group cannot represent all similar groups or situations. (Lauer and Asher, 1998) Thus, a group of students who found that web-based learning was effective cannot represent other groups of students. Conclusions drawn from the research was only about the participants concerned being observed.

1.2.3 Online Interaction Salmon (2000) suggested that a classroom learning should not only supplemented with notes posted on a website or through email but should allow interactions among the learners through the networked learning. Facility such as forum in the networked learning could support collaboration among learners.

This would mean students’ participation on on-line learning either through synchronous mode (such as video conferencing) or asynchronous mode (such as forum discussion). Synchronous communication allows students to communicate face to face with other students or teacher at the same time but different places. Instead, asynchronous mode provides communication at different time and different places. Between the two modes, asynchronous communication is most area that being focused by researchers. McConnell (2001) agreed that CMC encourage high students’ participation in the forum discussion. The transcripts derived from networked learning could serve as data for research especially for content analysis. However, these data can be analysed using traditional methods such as grounded theory or ethnography.

1.2.4 Quasi-Experimental Research Studying the effectiveness web-based learning through experimental approach could be debated. Marshall and Rossman (1980) argued that the changes in human behaviour is significantly influenced by the setting in which it occurs. Thus, researcher must study that particular behaviour in situations. The physical settings such as the classroom or the computer



383

laboratory are the crucial contextual variables. Research must be conducted in the setting where all the contextual variables are operating. In fact, results from quasi-experimental approach were not really able to derive any meaning. They were due to the research instruments applied and the respondents chosen. The question was centred on whether the fine scores of the tests achieved by the students could be translated into the success of web-based learning. There was possibility that respondents involved in the experimental group and control group, were wary and aware of the research and thus, try to please the researchers. In some cases, respondents themselves did not know their feelings, interactions, and behaviours. As a result, researcher could not articulate them to respond to a questionnaire. As a matter of fact, before understanding human behaviour, researcher must understand the framework of the respondents interpreting their thoughts, feelings and action. It is in the field study that researchers can explore the processes and meanings of events and not through experimental design. Most of the recent research online learning focussed on other area such as students’ interactions. They could study the interactions among students that would contribute to the understanding of the subject content. The interactions could take place within or outside the computer room. On a wider perspective, online learning conducted through a specific learning management system, provides research areas related to collaborative learning and this is where students and teachers would form a community of practice. Facility such as forum discussion and chatroom allow the students for interactions. Synchronous communication such as face-to-face meeting through online system has not been widely explored.

2.0 CONCLUSION In previous research, the effectiveness of online learning in education has been debated over which methodology, either quantitative or qualitative, that could best utilised in the field. Quantitative and qualitative research methods are based on different assumptions and different methodology. Quantitative data produced numbers and graphs which normally gather the data from research instruments such as questionnaires and structured interviews. However, qualitative researchers claim that human learning can not be accurately being measured by numbers. Tools such as interviewing, observations and document analysis are mainly used by qualitative researchers (Mann and Stewart, 2004) as the data could provide a wider understanding of the social context.



384

Each method has its drawbacks. To overcome the weaknesses derived from both research modes, it is agreeable that the quantitative and qualitative methodology should complement each other. Thus, some consensus on the approaches must be compromised to accommodate the evaluation studies of networked learning which centres on the need for a variety of methods, due to the complexities and multi dimensions of networked learning and teaching (Oliver & Conole, 1998). Conole (2004) suggested researchers to conduct more systematic studies and to understand the benefits and limitations of different methods, in which he termed it as triangulation of results. On whether to balance the amount of quantitative and qualitative approach in a research, there is no one way to answer it. But Jones (2004) had suggested researchers to refer to an ethnomethodological approach. It is a critical approach of social sciences and may offer some concluding remarks. Ethnomethodology approach stated that all classification and categorisation of data rely on practical accomplishment of the findings that fit somewhere between the phenomenological approach and ethnography approach. The data source which could be analysed either in a quantitative or qualitative manner, provide meaning to the effectiveness of on-line learning. However, designing research method for a study on on-line learning is not only confined to researcher alone. It involved other stockholders such as the government, the institution and sponsor of the study who have direct or indirect influence on the findings. Sometimes, the stockholders may have conflicting ideas on the methodological approaches with the researchers. On one hand, the institution would mainly emphasise on profit gains and expect to see evidence-based findings of the technology used in teaching and learning. On the other hand, the researchers are more interested in the findings that focus mainly on improving students’ learning experiences. Action research can be used extensively on the study of online learning. Since online learning research involves researchers and other stakeholders, the findings can be translated into practice and to ensure the commitment of the stakeholders. The findings of online learning study various depending on which methodology is being adopted and which specific area is being looked into. As a result, the findings have minimal importance to be generalised to other studies. These are the two main criteria for action research – minimal importance of generalisation to other research and involvement of the stakeholders from the beginning to the end of the research (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2006). Based on the contradictions between the researchers and the stakeholders, (Issroff and Scanlon, 2002) introduced an activity theory into online learning research. Activity theory raises a contradiction between the rules of the community and those of individual subjects. Normally there are between government and researcher. Researchers conducting study within qualitative paradigm are disadvantaged unless they concentrate on quantitative approach. Such governmental sanctioning is being an inappropriate (Oliver & Conole, 2003).



385

3.0 REFERENCES [1] Bryman, A. (2004). Social Research Methods. New York: Oxford University

Press Inc. [2] Chen, C. and Rada, R. (1996). ‘Interacting with hypertext: A meta-analysis

of experimental studies’, Human–Computer Interaction 11, 125–156. [3] Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and

Mixed Methods Approaches. London: Sage Publication [4] Conole, G. (2003). “The Role Of Learning Technology Practitioners And

Researchers In Understanding Networked Learning”. Proceeding of Asynchronous Learning Networked, 2003

[5] Conole, G. (2004). “E-Learning: The Hype and the Reality”. Journal of

Media in Education. (12), 1-18 [6] Dillon, A. and Gabbard, R. (1998). ‘Hypermedia as an educational

technology: A review of the quantitative research literature on learning comprehension, control and style’, Review of Educational Research 68, 322–349.

[7] Fraenkel, J. R. and Wallen, N. E. (2006). How to Design and Evaluate

Research in Eduaction. New york: the McGraw-Hills Companies [8] Issroff, K. & Scanlon, E. (2002) Using technology in Higher Education: an

Activity Theory perspective. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 18 (1), 77-83

[9] Jones, C. (2001) What ethnography sees: networked learning as a context

for action. In Rust, C. (Ed), Proceedings of the 2001 9th International Symposium, Improving Student Learning, 348-358.

[10] Jones, C. (2004). “Addressing Addressing Methodological Issues in e-

Learning Research”. Proceeding of Asynchronous Learning Networked, 2004

[11] Landauer, R. (1995). The Trouble with Computers. Cambridge, MA: MIT

Press. [12] Lauer, Janice M. & Asher, J. William. (1988).Composition research:

empirical [13] Mann, C. and Stewart, F. (2004) Introducing Online Methods. In Hesser-

Biber, S. N. and Leavy, P. Approaches to Qualitative Research: A Reader on Theory and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press



386

[14] Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. (1980). Designing qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

[15] McConnell, D. (2001) Researching networked learning: issues arising from

the use of a variety of different research methods. In Rust, C. (Ed), Proceedings of the 2001 9th International Symposium, Improving Student Learning, 348-370.

[16] Oliver,M & Conole,G.C (1998). “Evidence-based Practice and e-learning in

higher education: can we and should we?’ Research paper in Education, 18(4), 385-397

[17] Oliver,M & Conole,G.C (2003). “The Evaluation of Learning Technology: an

Overview, in Innovation in the Evaluation of Learning Technology, ed. Oliver, M, p1 -12. London: University of North London Press,

[18] Oliver and McLoughlin, (2001). “Exploring the Practise and Development of

Generic Skills through Web-Based Learning”. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, Vol. 10

[19] G. Salmon (2000), “E-Moderating: The Key to Teaching and Learning

Online”. Kogan Page, London. [20] Tashakkori, A. and Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed Method : Combinng

Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. London: Sage Publication



387

EXPLICATION OF TACIT KNOWLEDGE IN HIGHER EDUCATION

INSTITUITIONAL RESEARCH THROUGH THE CRITERIA OF PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE ACTION RESEARCH APPROACH:

A FOCUS GROUP CASE STUDY AT AN AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITY

EDWARD WONG SEK KHIN

Institute of Postgraduate Studies & Research Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia [email protected]


ABSTRACT - In this paper, the author reports on a critical and reflective practitioner heuristic inquiry that investigates a focus group case study of doctoral candidates concerning the adoption and use of a Knowledge Management Processes. In addition, the author investigates the research process itself and his own professional academic practices. Of particular interest is the conversion of group’s, individual’s, and eventually his own tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge, whether in the organisational or personal domains. The paper aims to bring out inner dialogues and open discourse responses in one-on-one interviews within a phenomenological, reflective practitioner methodology. The author seeks to explain why the role within a phenomenological, reflective practitioner methodology is experiencing increased interest in the nature of critical Institutional Research. One area of controversy between critical Institutional Professional Research and the traditional Institutional Professional Research is the role of “reflective practice," which remains under-developed. In this paper, the importance of reflective practice employing the term "living thesis paradigm" as a means of developing expert research methods will be explored. Keywords: Action Research, Higher Education Knowledge Management, Reflective Practice, and Institutional Professional Research.



388

1.0 INTRODUCTION The main aim of this paper is to examine the role of employing the reflective professional practice action research approach in evaluating the explication of tacit knowledge. The paper presents an account of the author’s personal experience, a personal story of his development as a heuristically critical reflective practitioner, both as a knowledge management consultant in business, and as an academic teacher and researcher. In order to examine the author's development, he felt it necessary to search into his past so that he can account for his values and actions in the present.

The paper also discusses the role of developing reflective skills and processes employed in conducting critical Institutional Professional Research (IPR). In recent years there has been an increase interest in the nature of critical IPR research and the development of methodologies to explore this subject. One area of controversy between critical IPR research and the traditional IPR research is the role of “reflective practice,” which remains under-developed. In this paper, the importance of reflective practice employing the term "living thesis paradigm" as a means of developing expert research methods will be explored.

The first section of this paper introduces the literature of reflective practice, which defines what constitutes a reflective practitioner; some philosophical dimensions involved in the development of the living thesis paradigm and then describes and justifies the author's writing style. The second section provides the discussion of the research methodology. The third section discusses a focus group case study of doctoral candidates employing the living thesis paradigm of reflective practice in investigating the explication of tacit knowledge while the last section identifies areas for future research. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. What Is a Reflective Practitioner?

Schön (1984) and Moon (2000) describes that the reflective practitioner as someone who is simply thoughtful about his or her own practice. In fact, reflective practice involves the mental process of reflecting, which may or may not be characterised by what we have called “being reflective.” For example, these authors speak of the reflective practitioner as a person with a self-image as a facilitator, for whom there is important recognition of the uncertainty within the profession, as one who has the knowledge base of a member of his/her profession, and is also aware of the problems that need to be resolved in a professional practice. The reflective practitioner copes with this uncertainty by putting the relationship with their clients at the centre of his/her professional practice with an attempt to develop reflectively negotiated shared meanings and understandings as a joint process.

Proctor (1993) takes a similar view, stating that reflective practice is the process of looking back in a critical way at what has occurred and then using the results of this process, together with professional knowledge



389

(with technical and ethical aspects), to tackle new situations. Critical elements have been widely associated with reflective practice and are often taken to be the main purpose of reflection (Smyth, 1989). In similar vein to Smyth’s ideology, Wong and Williams (2002) state that in a reflective professional education, the activities of teaching often need to be set in their historical, political, theoretical and moral context as not considering them turns reflective teaching into a technical process. Reflection is the “active and militant” tool that enables that contextualisation (Smyth, 1989). In this regard, the “technical-rational” education fails to provide the elements necessary to enable the doctoral students to develop the heuristics needed to deal with the unpredictability and chaos of real world issues.

According to Wong and Williams (2002), professional practice action research and reflective practitioner research is usually written in distinctive reflective practitioner styles, as individuals evolving as the action researchers find their own voice and distinctive authorial style. This evolution occurred in the writing style used by Donald Schön from 1983 (Schön, 1983 and 1987). Dewey (1933) who wrote about the function of reflective thought in learning from experience first alluded to this concept of reflective practice. He further indicates that the researcher’s notes and reflections and insights are integrated with the empirical data from interviews with colleagues, supervisors, mentors, and clients is usually analysed using reflective practitioner methodology as identified by Schön (1983), with additional ideas gained from Overmeer et al (1998). This research method allows the researcher to give an account of how they applied knowledge in their workplaces. It encourages them to reflect on their experiences and then to comment on what they believed they had learned from those experiences (Wong and Williams, 2002; Williams, 2000, 2001).

2.2. Reflective Professional Practitioner Action Research Approach: The Ontological Perspective

In this paper, the author describes the consensus between institutional professional research culture, teaching and learning in a particular manner, in all combinations to yield a new approach, that is the reflective practitioner action research, that takes all of these three factors into account when trying to explain why problems are solved in a particular way in a given culture at a given time. Here, the approaches and philosophies of Habermas (1984), Wieman (1963), and the approaches of Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) within the approach and methodology of Action Research are used to explain the perceived situation by the prime researcher and their co-researchers.

The use of human experiences as sources and resources is the foundation of heuristic enquiry (Patton, 2002). This form of enquiry to begin the processes of understanding the topic, find its essence and meaning. However, this requires an intensity of investigation to establish a quality



390

based result founded upon experience (Douglass and Moustakas, 1985). This personalized approach establishes the necessary research factor of rigour, but not that of duplication, through insights, reflections and mutual experiential explanations of the events being discussed; they are unique for a time and place.

All of this leads to the making of a rope from various components that give this work the strength that is seen and felt by the researcher. Even if a few components are weak, the rope still holds, and the rope still does its job well. Each component however, is the subjective evaluation of the situation, and includes the personalities and their personal development as well as the strength of their considered contributions, as all contributions have value. What then, is the value of a single contribution? Its value is found within its ability to vent emotions concerning a given topic, which when answered, peels back another layer of debris leading the researchers nearer to the perhaps, impossible – a subjectively supported objective truth. In a situation of diverse institutional research cultures, emotions play a supportive but vital role in any discussion, and they must in an heuristic enquiry be evaluated as well as any ‘facts’ presented to the primary researcher. This is the strength of Action Research; the range of data is great but evaluative and with the ever decreasing spiral of supportive data that reveals warranted assertions and the conclusions tend to be self-evident, as well as logical, founded upon this reducing spiral.

This refers to our fundamental identity, which lies in our relationship with our own spirit. The reflexive reflection process can also open the door to the avenue of self-awareness and self-discovery that may not have been accessible was we not reflecting. Meditation, Self-reflecting on one’s owns thoughts, and listening to others are good ways to enrich one’s consciousness and gain important insights into whom and what we are.

2.3. Creating The Living Thesis Paradigm: The Espistemological Perspective

The author notes the developments in what Jack Whitehead terms the "living thesis paradigm" (1993, p 69) at the Perth Centre of Reflective Practitioner Research Group (Wong and Williams, 2002) and at the University of Bath’s Centre for Action Research Professional Practice (Whitehead 1998, 2002; Reason 1999). Whitehead argues that these dialogues are a new way in which action re searchers represent the living aspect of their theories about practice and that this approach celebrates a living form of practitioner educational theory, which is open-ended and contains an intention to create something better (Wong, 2003). Whitehead (1998) asserts that including the “I” and embracing subjectivity is essential to research within this paradigm. Furthermore, Whitehead (2002) exhorts individuals to not be silent, or hold back their perspective or try to struggle dishonestly in order to fit their private world with their public face through the process of denying or by inauthentically



391

conforming to oppressive domination concerning gender, race, or differently cultured selves.

The living thesis paradigm compels the author to document any conflicts he or she experiences, especially when the values he or she holds internally are not reflected in the way he or she behaves externally, and the satisfaction he or she feels when their values and actions are in harmony. Put in different words, Whitehead’s (1993, 1996) comments that one’s espoused theory ideally should be consistent with one’s lived theory. Whitehead further argues that living theory refers to the explanations that are not embodied in the individual’s life forces, but it contains an intention to create something in the future based on that person’s goals or values and is controlled within an action plan. Hence, this theory is an explanation, which makes sense of the present in terms of an evaluation of the past with an intention to change some aspect of one’s own practice, or the world in the future (Wong, 2003).

2.4. Writing Style

Denzin (1994, p. 502) suggests that academic research writing can tend towards one of five major paradigms:

1. Positivists styles, tightly spare and non-personal with phrases such as variables, experimental design, subjects, statistical significance, triangulated;

2. Constructivist styles, more descriptive and commonly including words like emergent, prior knowledge, culture, and participants;

3. Critical styles, with politically inclined terms such as empowerment, society, power, and ethics;

4. Interpretive or phenomenological styles, subjectively descriptive and sometimes allusive with common phrases such as personally constructed realities, cultural perspectives, interpretive knowledge, intersubjectivity, reflective, discourse;

5. Feminist styles, descriptively suggestive and aware of cultural conditioning using terms like gender, equity, and reflexivity (Source from Denzin, 1994, p. 502).

The author’s choice of pursuing writing this paper as an inquiry including the "I" that is not in principle governed by pre-established rules, was a deliberate attempt to place his research in a setting where participative, collaborative, action-oriented, critical, heuristic, and reflective phenomenological forms of inquiry can be fostered (Lyotard, 1986, Wong, 2003). As will be discussed in this section, such inquiry allows for many important dimensions of research, not only formal communication, but also personal accounts of what Whitehead's (2002) terms the living thesis paradigm. Such a paradigm can emerge as a part of historical-political



392

dilemmas and actions, feelings and emotional intelligence, asthetic allusiveness, questions of justice and truth, ethical imperatives, faith dimensions of people's lives, and even the unconscious wellsprings whence come intuitions and urges and dreams and visions (Wong, 2003).

2.5. Research Methodology.

This study involves research, teaching and learning contexts in higher education with human science hermeneutical dimensions (ie. the process of mimetics through reconstructions of facts by the understanding of its meanings and intentions rather than by deductive explanation (Standing, 2000; Wong, 2003)), it is suggested that an ethnographic reflection on professional practitioner focus group case study methodology is most appropriate. The author studied one focus group in-depth, the doctoral candidates at University #A, an Australian University, in an attempt to gain empirical and interpretive understanding of their results, that is, in terms of the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge, by their adoption of the Knowledge Management Processes in higher education.

The following flow chart (see Fig 1.1, below) presents the ethnographic reflection on the professional practitioner case study methodology used in this study. In phase one, the philosophical perspective, either the interpretivist or the positivist or both, influences the methodology. The ethnographic-reflective-practitioner-practice paradigm employing critical social theory narrows the interpretive approach. Then the performing of qualitative ethnographic reflection adopting the critical social theory perspective occurs. In phase two, the selection of research instruments that includes both face-to-face interviews and documentation, is outlined. Then the establishment of data collection procedures takes place through the recall of the reflective practitioner data. Then the application of the hermeneutic approach takes place on the interpretation of interview transcripts. In phase three, the analyses of data occur using an ethnographic interpretative approach through a data meta-matrix. The processes of discovery, observation, documentation, and assessment were integral aspects of the methods employed in this stage of the study. Finally, comes the presentation of the recorded summaries of the interpreted findings which includes the reflections of the reflective practitioner (Wong, 2003).

Figure 1: Is a diagram illustrating the methodology flow chart showing the progression of the research. This figure also demonstrates how the author has endeavoured to combine critical social theory with a reflective phenomenological approach.



393

Phase 2 Conduct qualitative researches

Analyse data meta-matrix

Figure 1. A diagram illustrating the methodology flow-charts showing the progression of the research.

However, Habermas (1987a, p. 341) points out that “any methodology that systematically neglects the interpretive schemata through which social action is itself mediated, is doomed to failure.” Habermas demands the “grasping of ‘meaning’ that is constitutive of social reality.” Hence the qualitative nature of this type of research approach is only enhanced by “experiential accounts or lived-experience descriptions (which) are never identical to lived experience itself…” (p. 342). In similar vein with Habermas’ concepts, Van Manen (2000, p. 2) says

“…all recollections of experiences, reflections on experiences, descriptions of experiences, taped interviews about experiences, or transcribed conversations about experiences are already transformations of those experiences. The upshot is that we need to find access to life's living dimensions while hoping that the meanings

Philosophical Perspective

Interpretivist/Qualitative

Ethnographic reflective

practitioner

practice

Research Instruments

Analyse recurring Theme Content analysis of

Relevant literature

Review coy documents

Data Collection 1. Analyse data

2.Crystallisation

Phase 3

Analyse data

Meta-matrix on

Professional practitioner

Practice case research

Reflective interpretation of data to convince general

phenomenon e.g. Employing

Habermas critical social theory



394

we bring to the surface from the depths of life's oceans have not entirely lost some the natural quiver of their undisturbed existence” (Van-Manen, 2000, p. 2).

Moreover, focus group case study research allows cross-case analysis and comparison, and the investigation of a particular phenomenon in diverse settings (Yin, 1994, p. 46). As the adoption of knowledge management process systems, particularly in Australia, are still in the emergent phase, the author felt that the case research methodology would be most appropriate. Hence, case study research is best utilised when the goals of the researcher and the nature of the research topic influence the selection of a strategy (Yin, 1994, p. 47). Focus group case research is particularly appropriate for certain types of problems, such as those in which research and theory are in the early, formative stages (Yin, 1994, p. 47).

3.0. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES In summary, the literature review above has attempted to provide an overview of the ontological and epistemological context pertaining to action and reflective practitioner research. The aim of this research is to develop a model of explicating tacit knowledge by employing ethnographic research methodology. Under this approach, the researcher should be a member of the work group or culture being researched. Thus the researcher’s responses, thoughts, and experiences are important and should be included in the empirical data and analysis. From this, the researcher can glean warranted assertions from his or her own lived experience as well as from others’ experience.

3.1. Discussion Of Case Scenario

University #A is an Australian university based in Perth. University #A is one of the main universities in Australia and has a total of 15000 students. University #A offers a broad range of degree programmes from undergraduate to doctoral studies.

3.2. Analysis Framework: A Case Study Of An Australian University

In this section the author illustrates a workshop in investigating the adoption of a Knowledge Management Process Systems that reflective practice approach in International Professional Research may be a catalyst to developing expertise.

The list below sets out the order in which a heuristically critical reflective practitioner approach was achieved through the criteria of action research realignments to augment the author’s ethnographic experience of being professionally involved in the development of knowledge sharing through Knowledge Management Process Systems at an Australian university called University #A.



395

Figure 2: A diagram illustrating the methodology flow-charts showing the order in which a heuristically critical reflective practitioner approach (Sourced from the Introduction and Conclusion chapters of the Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice by Peter Reason and Hilary Bradbury, Sage Publications).

The methodology chosen for this pilot study was qualitative and the information set out here is a compilation of discussions and debates surrounding the issues of knowledge sharing (tacit knowledge) through the use of Knowledge Management Process Systems within University # A. The comments were from structured workshop settings designed to achieve specific outcomes for this paper.

The analysis was based on systematic content coding (Morgan, 1998) and largely utilised a participant approach, which relies on interviewee quotations to illustrate themes and support key findings (Geissler and Zinkhan, 1998).

The following section illustrates a pilot study which the author investigated the possibilities of explicating tacit knowledge by employing the above

A1: be both aimed at and grounded in

the world of practice,

A5: aim to leave some lasting

capacity amongst those

involved, encompassing

first, second and

third person perspectives.

Heuristically critical

reflective

practitioner

approach

A2: be explicitly and

actively

participative:

research with, for

and by people

rather than on

people, ,

A6: critically communicate the

inquiry process instead of

just presenting its results

and some reflections on it.

A4: address questions that are

of significance to the

flourishing of human

community and the more

than human world,

A3:draw on a wide range of ways

of knowing—including

intuitive, experiential, and

presentational as well as

conceptual—and link these

appropriately to form

theory,



396

model (refer to fig 1 & 2). Six doctoral students were formed into two focus groups (Group AA and BB) and asked to think about how they, and others, might react to the interview questions.

4.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

4.1. Analysis based upon Action Research criteria list

Table 3 provides the respondents profile. Firstly, under the column 2, it provides the rating of the response to the interpreting quotes from the interviews based upon the Action Research criteria listed on the appendix section. Ranks are determined on the basis of strongly agreed that is due to the fact that the respondents were asked to rank 5 if it is perceived to be the most effective, rank 4 if it is perceived to be the second most effective, etc.

Secondly, these important quotes, which are usually semi-structured, unstructured, or even dialogical, should be written down, checked, and commented upon to become the key empirical data which are described, placed into context under the ‘bouncing theory’ (refer to column 1), related them to the research themes/cases/philosophy/approach (refer to column 5). Thirdly, these important quotes are analysed with regard to informing theory of Reflexive verisimilitude (appearance of truth) (refer to column 3).

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

Participants

Bouncing Theory

Action Research Criteria list

Reflexive verisimilitude (appearance of truth)

Cases/ Philosophy/ Approach

For example, Group AA responds

1.McClane and Mento (1991), 2. Fitzsimmons (2000)

A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 (Strongly Agree) AR1, AR4, AR6, AR8, AR9, AR10 (Strongly Agree High 5)

1. Habermas’ context of lifeworlds 2. People lifeworlds concerns as management issues.

The philosophy of 1.Zimmerman (1999) 2.Kanter (2000),

Table 3 provides the respondents profile. To help the reader, the author has added the following section that describes and analyses all the research interviews conducted with the focus group participants at University #A. The responds from the focus group were as follows: The author: What do you think about the role of ‘Knowledge Management

Process Systems’ knowledge repositories in supporting knowledge sharing through the process of explicating tacit knowledge in your research area?



397

What do you think of the proposition that “knowledge equals power” in the context of the political infrastructure of your organisation?

Focus Group AA: nitially, we have to define our core skills and knowledge for our professional services. For example, as a doctoral research fellow, we know that knowledge relating to our skills, experiences and the art of conducting researches are very valuable, but it all stored in the heads of the best-informed people, the experienced researchers. Such knowledge is mostly tacit, and the formulation of some parts of it is necessary. Through Knowledge Management Process Systems, we see that such tasks can be performed, and we have seen that the organisational knowledge can be proactively managed. Our new Forum knowledge repositories achieved a modest but noticeable growth in participation. Without the Knowledge Management Process Systems Forum, University #A’s capacity to encourage collaboration among all knowledgeable staff would have been seriously restricted. I also noticed that these highly knowledgeable and skilled individuals hold positions in high levels of management.

Reflexive Practitioner: In the above quote, focus Group AA describes the way that the creation and use of University #A ICT (a knowledge management process system) knowledge repositories explicated tacit knowledge in the research area. Their point that the most experienced researchers are the best-informed people appears to be consistent with McClane and Mento (1991), and Fitzsimmons (2000) (see Ch 2). They found that by converting tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge would enable an individual to learn and acquire the relevant information, thereby increasing his or her personal knowledge. They further suggested that knowledge is power and argued that management and interest groups that control information indirectly control power. Focus Group AA’s last sentence supports the assertion that Knowledge Management Process Systems knowledge repositories support collaboration within the process of explicating tacit knowledge. His statement about the need for tacit knowledge to be formulated and proactively managed seems to be in a similar vein to the philosophy of Zimmerman (1999) and Kanter (2000), who argue that control of information is often seen to be crucial to the sustainability of management structures within an organisation. Thus, embedding ideology into knowledge and information to achieve ulterior intentions are frequent organisational practices (Personal reflection).

Action-researcher (to add other authenticating perspective): In the above reflexive verisimilitude (appearance of truth), the voice of the focus Group AA captured vital qualities of Habermas’ context of lifeworlds. He viewed best-informed people lifeworlds concerns as management issues. These issues created a compromise between administrative managers (who had managerial control and power) in the administrative office and the research staff at the laboratory studios. The perceptions of the focus Group AA were that they should secure some forms of representative positions in the head office when



398

The author: To what extent can organisational changes resulting from the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge by means of Knowledge Management Process Systems be effected through interaction that promotes openness and allows for serendipity?

Focus Group BB: For example, when our university rethought its strategies of sourcing for funding its new projects and the types of research to undertake, the adoption of these new strategies in relation to research projects stretched our previous, established, goals. For example, by having all decisions making by the administrative headquarter staff, using teams from different faculty, having a common budget constraints for all faculty department, linking individual performance to research output success, and establishing a “platform team” that brings together researchers, academic staff, administration staff and identify new research projects created new problems. The details of these activities and steps in coordinating the tasks involved were clearly distinguished in an electronic interactive format such as an e-mail distribution list, promoting community awareness of the agenda. Initially, there was a team of senior research staff who felt that there was a level of competition amongst certain individuals, which worked against the sharing of knowledge. We then discovered that the interactive format of Knowledge Management Process Systems assisted in overcoming of these barriers. Knowledge Management Process Systems not only influenced the organisational culture but also encouraged the deeper knowledge of colleagues and mutual trust that are positive signs indicating effective group work. These promote openness and the development of a workable approach system for improving our work. Openness promotes wide exposure and broadcasting through on-line interactions. This provides space for serendipity.

involved in making decisions regarding the type of research and research budget issues. Focus Group AA realised that the key to such resources lay in the hands of best-informed people in their organisation. The Knowledge Management Process Systems Forum (part of University #A ICT) has already opened the door showing all workshop staff members a way to increase their knowledge and to use this knowledge to the advantage of their employer and mostly, themselves. An opportunity that was unthinkable just a few years ago.

Reflexive Practitioner: Focus Group BB states that organisational changes resulting from the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge by means of University #A ICT (a knowledge management system) can be effected through its interactive format. They further suggest that University #A ICT facilitates and fosters the sharing of knowledge on a widespread scale. The author notes that radical changes affecting organisational culture involve organising regular meetings and stimulating candidate dialogue. Focus Group BB’s contribution supports the assertion that the interactive



399

In the above section, the author discusses a range of strategies in regard to the sharing and managing of University #A’s tacit knowledge (see Reflexive Practitioner and Action-researcher (to add other authenticating perspectives).

Under the section of Reflexive Practitioner and Action-researcher, it is also intended to facilitate and assist the reader in having a deeper understanding of the development, activities and pertinent issues revealing the epistemology and practice in a narrative fashion, which has elements of a confessional ethnography (Van Maanen, 1995, p. 8).

format design promotes openness and allows for serendipity (Personal reflection).

Action-researcher (to add other authenticating perspective): Focus Group BB have crystallised their perspective through Habermas’ Critical Social Theory where he reflects his thoughts about their lived experience in dealing with serendipity situations. These serendipitous actions form an integral part of their learning action.

Reflection on the above Theme. As a reflective practitioner, the author can now reveal and explore his interpretation of Habermas’ theory of communication action in providing a framework for analysing changes within social-cultural contexts for knowledge management practice (Ngwenyama, 1997a). Habermas’ theory of communicative action provided a fruitful framework for practitioners to understand human behaviour that is oriented to attaining rational thinking. This human activity may allow a sustaining knowledge sharing culture within an organisation. Furthermore, the knowledge sharing culture can become more meaningful because a person using a communicative action in trying to enact coherent meaning of the action and the action situation, this person will involve intersubjective and cooperative reflexivity (Ngwenyama, 1997a, p. 150). In doing so, it allows a person to express his/her personal voice, perspectives, and interpretation on how s/he encounters his/her experience through manifestation based upon mainly in his/her day to day work in adopting Knowledge Management Process Systems. In addition, the author sees communication as an emotional as well as an intellectual act. Therefore, communicative action involves not only understanding what the speaker or writer means, but how well a person recreates a meaning that another person intends. In light of this, it is important to understand how the sharing of tacit knowledge evolved and developed as knowledge was interpreted, questioned, constrained, and used in various social-cultural contexts. As mentioned in the previous section, in the author experience, University #A’s ICT knowledge repositories have often enabled the transformation of tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge.



400

The dialogues in the text box above underpins the epistemological issues

and assumptions that highlight the professional practice of University #A’s doctoral students in their adopting the role of knowledge facilitators. In this light, the manifestation of a lived research setting experience is revealed through the participant’s dialogue from University #A, and the author, the reflexive practitioner, with the voice of his own psyche (at times representing in Jungian terms, the innate wisdom of the anima) referred to as the action-researcher (Wong, 2003).

Each voice in the above text box expresses a personal perspective and interpretation of the research action. In this writing, the author believes that he may be able to capture the important qualities of lived research experience as well as a sense of the appearance of truth. Discovering a meaning and its appearance by means of dynamic question and answer dialogues with my readers creates this emergence. The voices of participants from University #A are interspersed throughout the dialogue to help to create a sense of authenticity. Occasionally, hearing the voice of the author own psyche (as action-researcher) adds other authenticating issues to the research findings (Wong, 2003). 5.0. CONCLUSION

The author exposed the development of his "living thesis paradigm" theory (Whitehead, 2002) through a multi-voice dialogue about the life-world of his focus group of doctoral candidates from University #A. Firstly, as a journeying practitioner researcher the author describe his "big picture" view of managing organisational tacit knowledge through the adoption of Knowledge Management Process Systems.

In the methodology section, the author translates and interprets the

transcripts of his participants. Secondly, in the reflexive practitioner's perspective the author describes his development journey towards the evaluative criteria for judging the merit of the research by addressing his understanding of knowledge management and compares it with the literature. The author then highlight the dilemma the author faced in translating theory into practice, and relate it to the organisational knowledge sharing culture. Thirdly, in the action-researcher's perspective the author discusses the influence of the philosophical framework with the provision of other authenticating point of views. These three viewpoints relate the research outcomes from the thoughts and reflections from a personal life-world to the broader setting of the practitioner's world (Wong, 2003).

Through this action-researcher perspective the author has come to understand the local situation by thinking reflexively, analysing evidence and writing his story of this inquiry (Richardson, 1994, p. 518).

Limitations of the study

The limitations of this workshop study pertain to the information gathered through the limited interviews. The veracity of the data gathered rests solely on the integrity and knowledge of the interviewed participants.



401

Future research The following issue may be worthy of further investigation: To what extent are the skills and processes of reflective practice, if taught at the undergraduate level, transferable to the post-graduate stage and early professional life? 6.0 REFERENCES [1] Denzin, N. K., and Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of qualitative

research. California: Sage Publication. [2] Lyotard, F. (1986) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge

Manchester: Manchester University Press. Morgan, D. L. (1998). Focus Groups as Qualitative Research. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.

[3] Moon, J (2000) Reflection in Learning and Professional Development.

London: Kogan Page Press. [4] Ngwenyama, K. O. and Lee. A. S. (1997a). Communication richness in

electronic mail: Critical social theory and the contextuality of meaning. MIS Quarterly, Minneapolis, 21(2), 145-168.

[5] Overmeer, W. J. A. M., Friedman, V. J., and Lanzara, G. F. (1998).

Managing as Design: Business Education for the 21st Century - Reflective Practitioner: Paper #4. On-line Conference in Memory of Don Schön, and his "The Reflective Practitioner", 23

rd February 1998.

[6] Proctor, K (1993). Tutors professional knowledge of supervision and the

implications for supervision practice. In J Calderhead and P Gates.(Eds). Conceptualising Reflection in Teacher Development. London: Falmer Press.

[7] Standing, C. and Benson, S. (2000) Organisational Culture and

knowledge Management. Proceedings of the Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems. Hong Kong.

[8] Schon, D A (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. Averburt Press,

Aldershot. Schon, D A (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco:Jossey Bass Press.

[9] Smyth, J (1989) Developing and sustaining critical reflection in teacher

education, Journal of Teacher Education, 40, (2), pp 2-9. [10] Whitehead, J (1993). The Growth of Educational Knowledge, Creating

Your Own Living Educational Theories, Hyde Publications, Bournemouth.



402

[11] Whitehead, J. (1998). Developing research-based professionalism through living educational theories. An address to the Educational Studies Association of Ireland, Trinity College, Dublin. [On-line] October, 12)

[12] Whitehead, J. (2002). What counts as evidence in self-studies of

teacher education practices? Williams, M. Campbell. (2000). Discussing research writing styles. In Proceedings of the World Congress of Action Research. Edith Cowan University: Western Australia.

[13] Williams, M. Campbell. (2000). Using heuristic self-study to research

information systems education. In Proceedings of the International Association of Information Management Conference. Brisbane, Australia

[14] Williams, M. Campbell. (2001). A Self Study of Teaching Reform in a

University Information Systems Course: “….it all went wrong…”. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research [On-line Journal], 2(3). Available at: http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs.htm.

[15] Wong, E. S. and Williams, C. (2002). Reflective Practitioner Research

Applied to information systems, Reality or Illusion? Paper presented at the Third International Web-B Conference 2002.

[16] Wong, E. S. (2003). Action Research Philosophy: The Fountain of Living

Research. Perth: Centre of Professional Practitioner Resources Publication. Wong, E. S. (2003). Action Research: The Living Thesis. Perth: Centre of Professional Practitioner Resources Publication.

[17] Van Manen, M. (1995). Researching lived experience. Canada: Althouse

Press. University Western Ontario. [18] Van Manen, M. (2000). Inquiry: Empirical Methods [On-line]

Available: http://www.phenomenologyonline.com

[19] Yin, R. K. (1994). Case study research design and methods. (2nd Ed.) California: Sage Press.



403

IMPLEMENTATION OF OUTCOME-BASED EDUCATION (OBE) IN UPM:

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES (SLOs) IN UPM

MOHD GHAZALI MOHAYIDIN

(Faculty of Agriculture) GHAZALI MUSTAFA TURIMAN SUANDI ROSELAN BAKI

(Faculty of Education) NORFARYANTI KAMARUDDIN NOR AZIRAWANI MAN AZURA ADAM SITI NORZIAH ABDULLAH (Centre for Academic Development) Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43300 UPM Serdang, Selangor [email protected]


ABSTRACT - The move towards applying outcome-based education (OBE) in teaching and learning at tertiary education level has become one of the most important topics in recent years. Education authority is giving greater attention to evaluate outcomes of education projects. Apart from the three learning domains; namely, cognitive, psychomotor and affective, the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) has determined and listed eight learning outcomes for higher education institutions. These learning outcomes are important in providing wholesome quality education to students. The Centre for Academic Development at UPM has conducted a study starting from the second Semester of the 2005/2006 academic year to determine the extent to which these learning outcomes have been achieved. Results of the study will be used to develop effective intervention strategies that can be practiced to achieve the desired SLOs. This includes the development of: guidelines for identifying and defining SLOs, strategies for selecting suitable teaching approaches, guidelines for selecting appropriate assessment techniques and development of policies and guidelines to implement OBE. Questionnaires were distributed to UPM lecturers and the data were analysed using descriptive statistics. The result shows the overall achievement according to different domains were as follows: cognitive domain was at level 4, psychomotor domain at level 4 and affective domain at level 3. The Ministry’s set of learning outcomes revealed the following result: The highest score went to the outcome of providing KNOWLEDGE to students, while the least achievable learning outcome was MANAGERIAL AND ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS. The results infer low order thinking skills were highly observable and soft-skills among students were lacking and this problem needs to be addressed quickly and effectively. Keywords: OBE, teaching and learning



404

domains, learning outcomes 1.0 INTRODUCTION

The move towards applying the OBE in handling teaching and learning instructions at tertiary education has been one of the most widely considered topics in educational sector in recent years. Concerns on the fact that the education system widely practiced ill-adequately prepare graduates to face challenges in life and at work places in the 21st Century have prompted people across the world to explore new ways of designing and re-branding academic and educational curriculum.

OBE was developed and has been in practiced since 1950s in Malaysia. It is now being implemented at all levels of education especially at higher institutions of learning. OBE is an education philosophy organized according to several basic beliefs and principles for the learners to practice in order to become successful in life when they finish their studies. It starts with the belief that students can benefit from any educational program only when the instructional outcomes can be measured as a result of any instructions. Higher educational institutions should be able to monitor the levels of outcomes expected from any academic courses through the propagation of quality teaching by qualified lecturers. This will in-turn result in meaningful learning experiences for the students. Instructions should be strategized in accordance with the desired exit outcomes. This would be largely dependent on relevant instructional strategies utilized by the lecturers in order to achieve relevant skills with high standards of achievement in line with high expectations of all students.

At its most basic level, OBE is where the school and community first determine what skills and knowledge students should possess upon graduation, then work backwards from there to develop curriculum, strategies and materials to help students achieve those goals, or “exit outcomes”

[1]. Generally, in OBE

learning, all educational programs and instructional efforts are designed to have produced specific, lasting results in students by the time they leave school. Schools that have successfully implemented OBE programs which ascribed auspicious results. Alhambra High School in Phoenix, Arizona, reported significant improvements in attitude and performance by both students and teachers within the first year

[2]. And, after four years of OBE, the Sparta School

District in Illinois achieved radical gains in grades and test scores in spite of its previous financial and labor problems

[3].

In Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), the teaching and learning

instructions are conducted using the semester system where one academic year is divided into two semesters. During the course of each semester students will be given instructions according to the aims and objectives of each subject/course offered by the university. Evaluations on students’ academic performance are conducted in the forms of quizzes, assignments, examinations and other forms of assessment such as practical works and field practices.

There are 64 academic programs offered by 16 academic faculties in UPM. Each program needs to fulfil a total number of credit hours for a student



405

to undertake before he or she is considered qualified for a degree in that program. Some of the programs prescribed major and minor courses in related fields as a requisite to qualify for a degree. The academic courses offered by each faculty can be divided into three different categories; the university courses, core courses and elective courses. The core courses are compulsory for all students to take, lest, their study will be considered incomplete. While the university and elective courses are courses offered for the purpose of enriching students’ general knowledge in fields related to their programs. Students have the freedom to choose from the list of courses provided by the university.

UPM has a vision to become an internationally renowned university. Though the University has achieved much and made great strides in recent years, particularly in the areas of research and innovation, there is still much to be desired and done before UPM can attain the status of a first-class, world-renowned institution of higher learning. If UPM is to achieve its goal of becoming an overall excellent institution, it must address the claims made by some quarters that the University is not actually producing world-class, 'top quality' graduates that are highly sought after by prospective employers. For example, there are anecdotal evidences that come from government officials, the media as well as industry representatives in Malaysia which indicate that many UPM graduates are found to be having difficulty and weak in the skills of communication and creative self-expression to such an extent that they even have difficulty in getting through their job interviews. Once hired, many are said to be lacking in higher-order and lateral thinking skills, creativity, analytical skills and other skills required to make them efficient and proficient problem solvers and decision makers.

In order to produce quality graduates at UPM, teaching and learning instruction, assessment procedures and techniques should be highly tailored for the desired exit oucomes. UPM’s goal of producing first-class graduates should be reflective in the teaching and learning objectives which are observable and achievable via the adequate and appropriate teaching and learning approaches and strategies. Assessment should possess high degree of discriminating effect that classifies student according to their actual skills and abilities. There is a wealth of assessment methods used in higher education to assess students’ achievements. The choice of assessment procedure should be tailored to meet the learning needs of students.

The intended goal also implies that UPM lecturers should be equipped with first-class quality of teaching instruction and are capable of delivering the finest education to their students. Lackadaisical instructional strategies with lacklustre attitude would not be at all warranted. There is a need to be flexible in approaching and creative in strategising while meeting the needs of both students and lecturers in the process of achieving the course learning objectives. Lecturers can chose suitable learning methods such as PBL, SCL and other relevant approaches. There is also a need for lecturers to undergo courses in aptitude assessment to determine their teaching styles and preferences, including obtaining personality and socio-historical profiles that underlie their educational beliefs and practices. This type of assessment can provide much



406

toward determining the training needs of lecturers that will ensure the right ingredients that are necessary to make the needs of students.

The purpose of OBE is to equip all students with the knowledge and competencies needed for their future success. Thereby, it is necessary to implement programs and conditions that maximize learning experiences. The objectives of the study are:

1. To establish a baseline information on teaching and learning practices.

2. To determine students’ performance in regards to existing teaching and learning practices

3. To develop effective intervention strategies to achieve SLOs in terms of the followings: a. Developing guidelines for identifying and defining SLOs. b. Developing strategies for selecting appropriate Teaching

approaches. c. Developing guidelines for the selection of appropriate

Assessment Techniques. d. To develop policies and guidelines for the

implementation of outcome-based education (OBE). 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Learning outcomes can serve as a benchmark to measure a success of

a university. Learning outcomes as ‘being something that student can do now that they could not do previously … a change in people as a result of a learning experience’

[4]. Learning outcomes can be used in a way that meets the needs of

all stakeholders in university (i.e. the student, the lecturer and external parties). It has been theorized that learning outcomes consists of three broad categories or domains of learning. Table 1 shows the three domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains

[5].

Table 1: Learning Domains

Domain Learning Domains Teaching Strategies/ Teaching approach

Cognitive (“Thinking” domain)

Involves the acquisition of information and refers to the learner’s intellectual abilities, mental capacities and thinking processes.

1. Lecture 2. One-to-one instruction 3. Computer-based

instruction

Affective (“ Feeling” domain)

Involves increasing internalization or commitment to feelings expressed as emotions, interests, attitudes, values or beliefs.

1. Case study 2. Role-playing 3. Simulation 4. Games 5. Group discussion

Psychomotor (“Skills” domain)

Involve acquiring motor abilities and the capabilities to perform perceptual-motor tasks.

1. Demonstration 2. Practice



407

"Student learning outcomes," on the other hand, encompass a wide

range of student attributes and abilities, both cognitive and affective, which are a measure of how their college experiences have supported their development as individuals. Cognitive outcomes include demonstrable acquisition of specific knowledge and skills. Affective outcomes are also of considerable interest; how has their college experience impacted students' values, goals, attitudes, self-concepts, worldviews, and behaviors? Besides, psychomotor domains which involve physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skills areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures or techniques.

The outcomes also serve the following purposes:

• The specific outcomes of the learning areas are organized so that UPM can prepare learning programmes appropriate for each phase of education.

• Lecturers will prepare lessons and activities to assist student in meeting the required outcomes.

• The student will be assessed to see if he or she can demonstrate the outcomes. The results of the assessment show whether the student is competent or still needs assistance in order to achieve a particular outcome.

• If a student still needs assistance, more activities are designed around the same outcomes in the learning programme. These activities address the learner’s weaknesses.

• If the student is competent, he or she can start working on more complex outcomes

The purpose of student learning outcomes is to ensure that the graduates acquire the essential core of a university-educated person in keeping with the university’s mission and its strategic plan. In addition, the learning outcomes provide an opportunity for graduates to acquire the knowledge and skills.

The MoHE has determined and categorized the learning outcomes[6] for

the local institutions of higher learning as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 demonstrates the skills expected of each category of domains. These eight learning outcomes are the most influential factors in providing quality education.



408

Figure 1: Categories of Learning Outcomes

i. Knowledge - Demonstrate possession of a body of knowledge of the

relevant discipline. - Ability to apply the knowledge. - Apply principles to new situation.

ii. Professionalism, Values, Attitudes, Ethics

- Possess technical knowledge and skills with commitment to a set of shared values.

- Have autonomy to enforce the values. - Have responsibility to promote, protect and enhance the

values for the benefit of the consumers, the profession, self and society at large.

iii. Social skills and responsibility

- Able to participate in appropriate community actions in collaborative multidisciplinary and multi sectoral teams.

- Demonstrate understanding and sensitivity to as well as respect of cultural diversity and beliefs.

Psychomotor/ Practical/ Technical Skills

Knowledge

Professionalism, values, attitudes,

ethics

Life Long Learning & Information Management

Communication Skills

Critical Thinking & Scientific Approach

Managerial & Entrepreneurial Skills

Social Skills & Responsibility



409

iv. Psychomotor, practical and technical skills

- Possess knowledge, skills and attitudes for the effective and efficient execution of psychomotor, practical and technical skills.

v. Communication skills

- Able to create an environment of sensitivity to cultural and personal factors for effective communication and improved interactions with and among: o Peers o Supervisors o Members of work team o Colleagues o Public

vi. Life long learning and information management

- Able to use ICT to assist in work processes. - Able to anticipate and show willingness to participate in

charge by reflecting on own limitations and self assess, accepting peer evaluation and undertaking continuous self-directed study.

vii. Critical thinking and scientific approach

- Able to apply problem-solving process in learning. - Synthesize data from different sources and apply

probability theory and evidence to refine hypotheses.

viii. Managerial and entrepreneurial skills - Ability to apply the principles of management in business

activities. - Able to access and use information from various sources

for problem solving and decision-making.

Teaching approach can be defined as the behaviours or actions that lecturers and learners exhibit in the learning exchange. Teaching behaviours reflect the teachers’ beliefs and value about the learner’s role in the exchange

[7].

Learners’ behaviours provide insight into the ways learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the environment in which learning occurs

[8].

Each teacher is unique and can use his or her style to be as effective an

educator as possible[7]. In the teaching and learning contexts, teaching effectively

is a learned skill requiring knowledge of educational process, mastery of the instructional methods, and an ability to use with a variety of learners and setting.



410

3.0 METHODOLOGY

This study covers both diploma and degree programs in UPM. The instrument was developed by a research team. The instrument has been developed by focusing on two (2) major domains, they are; teaching and learning taxonomy (cognitive, psychomotor, affective) and MoHE learning outcomes. Levels and explanation for each domain are as shown in Appendix 1.

The instrument also measures the attainment level of learning outcomes

that have been developed by MoHE for courses that have been taught in the semester. The scale is from 1 to 10 where 1 indicates the lowest attainment level of learning outcomes and 10 indicates the highest attainment level.

By the same token, the instrument covers respondents’ profile and the background for courses taught. The respondents are UPM lecturers from all faculties. The instrument was distributed to the departments in faculties according to the number of degree courses taught at week 10th. The instrument was distributed to all lecturers from each faculties via the Head of Department who will in-turn sent the completed ones back to CADe. All the course offered from 16 faculties are categorized into three clusters which are Social Sciences, Biosciences & Medical and Physical Sciences & Engineering. Courses offered by Faculty of Educational Studies, Faculty of Human Ecology, Faculty of Economics and Management and Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication are categorized under Social Sciences cluster while Faculty of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences are categorized under the cluster of Biosciences and Medical. Faculty of Engineering, Faculty of Science, Faculty of Design and Architecture, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology and Faculty of Environmental Studies are chosen to represent the cluster of Physical Sciences and Engineering. About 700 course lecturers responded from 1678 courses offered (43.2%) in Semester I 2006/ 2007 and 598 course lecturers responded from 1691 courses offered (33.7%) in Semester II 2006/ 2007. Table 2 shows the responses from each cluster.

Table 2: Response Rate

Cluster Semester I 2006/2007

Semester II 2006/2007

n % n %

Social Sciences 301 43.0 215 36.0 Biosciences & Medical 197 28.1 197 32.9 Physical Sciences & Engineering 202 28.9 186 31.1

Total 700 100.0 598 100.0

n = number of response received



411

The data was analyzed using descriptive analysis to determine the frequency, mean and standard deviation. Analysis of variance using ANOVA to see whether there are significance differences between teaching and learning domains and learning outcomes among clusters of Social Sciences, Biosciences & Medical and Physical Sciences & Engineering. 4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Teaching and Learning Domain

4.1.1 Cognitive

The cognitive domains involve knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. These domains consist of six major categories starting from the simplest behaviour to the most complex one. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. Table 3 illustrates the following interpretation; (i). 25.9% (average) of the lecturers from Semester I 2006/2007 were able to attain level 4 of the cognitive domains (i.e. analysis) in their teaching instructions. (ii) 27% (average) of the lecturers from Semester II 2006/2007 were able to attain level 4 of the cognitive domains (i.e. analysis) in their teaching instructions. (iii) All levels of cognitive domains were fairly utilized by lecturers from all clusters. It shows that fairly equal emphasized were given towards utilizing all the domains in cognitive skills.

Table 3: Percentage of Levels of Perception in Cognitive Domains among UPM Lecturers by Clusters

Cluster Semester I 2006/2007 Semester II 2006/2007

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

Social Science

2.3 4.3 17.9 24.6 19.9 30.9 2.3 5.1 22.3 19.5 20.5 26

Biosciences & Medical

3.0 15.2 23.4 19.8 17.8 20.8 3.6 8.1 29.4 25.4 11.2 21.8

Physical Sciences & Engineering

3.0 7.4 27.7 33.2 17.8 10.9 1.1 4.8 22.0 36.0 15.1 18.8

Average 2.8 9.0 23.0 25.9 18.5 20.9 2.3 6.0 24.6 27.0 15.6 22.2

Key: 1- Knowledge 2- Comprehension 3- Application 4- Analysis 5- Synthesis 6- Evaluation



412

4.1.2 Psychomotor

The psychomotor domain consists of physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques. Table 4 illustrates that 30.6% of the lecturers (average) Semester I 2006/2007 generally perceived that they have achieved psychomotor domains of level 3 (Guided Response). In Semester II 2006/2007, 28.6% of the lecturers (average) perceived that they have achieved psychomotor domains of level 4 (Mechanism).

Table 4: Percentage of Levels of Perception in Psychomotor Domains among

UPM Lecturers by Clusters


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Social Science

5.3 14.0 27.9 15.6 12.6 15.6 9.0 8.8 12.1 23.7 12.6 13.5 14.0 7.9


8.6 8.1 28.4 25.4 14.2 9.6 5.6 4.6 10.2 24.9 37.1 7.1 12.2 0


5.9 9.9 35.6 28.7 8.4 10.4 1.0 2.2 8.6 26.9 36.0 10.2 9.7 3.8

Average 6.6 10.7 30.6 23.2 11.7 11.9 5.2 5.2 10.3 25.2 28.6 10.3 12.0 3.9

Key: 1- Perception 2- Set 3- Guided Response 4- Mechanism 5- Complex Overt Response 6- Adaptation 7- Origination

4.1.3 Affective

This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. 37% of the lecturers (average) perceived that they have attained affective domains of level 3 (Responding to Phenomena) in Semester I 2006/2007. 36.5% of the lecturers (average) from Semester II 2006/2007 have also attained level 3 of the affective domains. The other skills in the affective domains were fairly utilized by the lecturers as illustrated in Table 5.



413

Table 5: Percentage of Levels of Perception in Affective Domains among UPM Lecturers by Clusters


1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

Social Science

2.0 13.6 28.6 27.2 28.6 0.5 13.0 29.3 23.7 27.9


2.0 17.8 35.0 29.4 15.7 3.0 13.2 41.1 27.4 13.2


3.5 16.3 47.5 24.8 7.9 3.2 18.8 39.2 28.0 8.1

Average 2.5 15.9 37.0 27.1 17.4 2.2 15.0 36.5 26.4 16.4

Key: 1- Receiving Phenomena 2- Responding to Phenomena 3- Valuing 4- Organizing Values 5- Internalizing Values

The result shows that from general perspective, the level of perception perceived by all lecturers in the domains used in their teaching instruction in Semester I 2006/2007 and Semester II 2006/2007 were consistent. As shown in Table 6, most of the lecturers perceived that they have achieved cognitive domains of level 4 (Analysis), psychomotor domains of level 4 (Mechanism) and affective domains of level 3 (Valuing). The analysis shows that the utilization of each of the three domains was diminishing as they moved to Semester II 2006/2007.

As illustrated in Table 8, lecturers from Social Science cluster gained the highest mean on teaching and learning domain; cognitive (4.32), psychomotor (3.80), and affective (3.58) as compared to the Biosciences & Medical and Physical Sciences & Engineering clusters. Based on Table 7, it shows that lecturers from Social Sciences cluster were utilizing teaching and learning domains in their teaching and learning instructions.

Table 6: Means of Levels of Perception in Teaching and Learning Domains among UPM Lecturers

Taxonomy Semester I 2006/2007


Mean Level Taxonomy level

Mean Level Taxonomy level

Cognitive 4.16 4 Analysis 4.07 4 Analysis Psychomotor 3.82 4 Mechanism 3.63 4 Mechanism Affective 3.45 3 Valuing 3.29 3 Valuing



414

Table 7: Means of Levels of Perception in Teaching and Learning Domains among UPM Lecturers by Clusters

Taxonomy Cluster Semester I 2006/2007


Total Mean

Cognitive Social Science 4.48 4.16 4.32 Biosciences &

Medical 3.96 3.96 3.96


3.88 4.09 3.99

Psychomotor Social Science 3.99 3.61 3.80 Biosciences &

Medical 3.80 3.56 3.68


3.59 3.80 3.70

Affective Social Science 3.67 3.49 3.58 Biosciences &

Medical 3.39 3.28 3.34


3.17 3.11 3.14

4.1.4 Analysis of Variance for Teaching and Learning

Domains

There is a significant difference between the level of perception of utilization of teaching and learning domains by lecturers from different clusters in Semester I 2006/2007. As shown in Table 8, the means of the perception level of achievement in teaching and learning domains from Social Science cluster are as follows; Cognitive - 4.48, Psychomotor - 3.99, Affective - 3.67. These are higher compared to those achieved by the lecturers from other clusters. This shows that the three major domains in teaching and learning were adequately applied by all lecturers in their instructions.

For Semester II 2006/2007, it is seen that there is no

significant different between the level of perception among lecturers form different clusters especially in the two domains of cognitive and psychomotor.



415

Table 8: Analysis of Variance

Taxonomy Cluster Semester I 2006/2007 Semester II 2006/2007

Mean SD F Sig-F

Mean SD F Sig-F

Cognitive Social Sciences

4.48 1.33 15.27 0.00* 4.16 1.59 0.97 0.38


3.96 1.46 3.96 1.42


3.88 1.20 4.09 1.33

Psychomotor Social Sciences

3.99 1.70 4.07 0.02* 3.61 1.99 1.05 0.35


3.80 1.55 3.56 1.45


3.59 1.31 3.80 1.43

Affective Social Sciences

3.67 1.09 14.55 0.00* 3.49 1.33 5.27 0.01*


3.39 1.02 3.28 1.08


3.17 0.92 3.11 1.08

Note: * The mean difference are significance at the 0.05 level

4.2 Learning Outcomes As shown in Table 9, majority of the lecturers perceived that they are highly fluent in attaining all the eight elements of learning outcomes as proposed by MoHE for all courses. It constitutes 62.6% of attainment in Semester I 2006/2007 and 65.3% for Semester II 2006/2007 of the total samples. The details of the percentage levels of attainment of learning outcomes for all courses using eight elements of learning outcomes by clusters are shown in Appendix 2.

Table 9: Percentage Perception Level of Attainment of Learning Outcomes

through Courses by Cluster



1 2 3 1 2 3

Social Science 6.5 25.3 68.3 7.6 18.6 73.8 Biosciences & Medical 13.2 25.0 61.9 13.9 21.6 64.6 Physical Sciences & Engineering 12.6 26.2 57.5 14.8 27.6 57.6

Average 10.8 25.5 62.6 12.1 22.6 65.3

Note: 1- Low 2-Moderate 3-High



416

Using the Likert scale ranging from 1 to 10, where 1-3 indicates ‘Low’, 4-6 indicates ‘Moderate’ and 7-10 indicates ‘High’, it is noticed that the overall perception ranged from low to high, the MANAGERIAL AND ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILL were regarded as ‘Low’ in terms of attainment, while the rest lies in the region from ‘Moderate’ to ‘High’. The highest perception level goes to the KNOWLEDGE SKILLS where in both semester it was ranked the highest at 8.33 and 8.37 respectively (Table 10). Except for MANAGERIAL AND ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILL which ranked as ‘Low’ (i.e. 5.23 and 5.18 respectively) the rest of the learning outcomes were fairly perceived at ‘High’ levels of achievement.

The details of the means levels of attainment of learning

outcomes for all courses using eight elements of learning outcomes by clusters are shown in Appendix 3.

Table 10: Mean Score for the Attainment of Learning Outcomes through Courses

Learning Outcomes through Courses

Semester I 2006/2007


Mean Score

SD Mean Score

SD

Life Long Learning and Information Management

7.17 2.03 7.45 2.19

Communication Skills 6.83 6.83 6.79 2.41

Critical Thinking and Scientific Approach

7.06 1.89 7.20 2.18

Managerial and Entrepreneurial Skills

5.23 2.65 5.18 2.77

Psychomotor / Practical / Technical Skills

6.66 2.49 6.59 2.72

Knowledge 8.33 1.57 8.37 1.92

Social skills and Responsibility 6.90 2.27 6.74 2.60

Professionalism, Values, Attitudes and Ethics

7.06 2.27 6.94 2.56

Note: 0-3 =Low, 4-6= Moderate, 7-10= High

4.2.1 Analysis of Variance for Learning Outcomes

Illustrated in Table 11, there is a significant difference in the attainment of different learning outcomes (Life Long Learning and Information Management, Communication Skills, Managerial and Entrepreneurial Skills, Psychomotor / Practical / Technical Skills, Knowledge, Social skills and Responsibility and Professionalism, Values, Attitudes and Ethics) by lecturers from different clusters in Semester I 2006/2007 and Semester II 2006/2007. On the other hand, there is no significant difference in the attainment of learning outcomes in courses related to Critical Thinking and Scientific Approach among different clusters.



417

Table 11: Analysis of Variance

Taxonomy Cluster Semester I 2006/2007 Semester II 2006/2007

Mean SD F Sig-F

Mean SD F Sig-F


Social Science

7.43 1.79 4.25 0.02* 7.82 1.79 5.09 0.01*


6.99 2.22 7.20 2.49


6.97 2.13 7.28 2.17


Social Science

7.35 1.85 17.53 0.00* 7.64 1.90 20.86 0.00*


6.47 2.23 6.45 2.52


6.42 1.97 6.28 2.53


Social Science

7.12 1.77 0.36 0.70 7.18 1.93 0.48 0.62


6.97 2.08 7.13 2.30


7.06 1.89 7.34 2.27


Social Science

5.64 2.55 8.94 0.00* 5.83 2.55 9.86 0.00*


5.19 2.76 4.84 2.92


4.64 2.59 4.75 2.71


Social Science

6.43 2.54 3.61 0.03* 6.20 2.75 3.68 0.03*


7.04 2.54 6.85 2.65


6.65 2.33 6.78 2.68

Knowledge Social Science

8.50 1.46 3.30 0.04* 8.70 1.55 9.79 0.00*


8.28 1.67 8.51 1.75


8.14 1.60 7.90 2.29



418

Social skills and Responsibility

Social Science

7.63 1.89 31.31 0.00* 8.06 1.90 55.94 0.00*


6.54 2.35 6.46 2.60


6.17 2.38 5.59 2.64


Social Science

7.79 1.75 30.93 0.00* 7.86 1.96 23.66 0.00*


6.64 2.54 6.55 2.74


6.37 2.36 6.32 2.60

Note: * The mean difference are significance at the 0.05 level

5.0 CONCLUSION

In the effort of producing first class graduates with wholesome quality, characteristics and aptitudes in UPM, we need to consider assessment procedure and approaches that are truly valid and reliable to measure the learning outcomes of the students. The goal of the producing first class student must be commensurated by first class teaching instructions. The assessment procedure used to assess students’ performance must possess high degree of discriminating effect so that students’ categorization in term of their academic performance is highly reliable.

Based on the preceding data and discussion, it is hoped that the directions towards achieving their objectives of the study will be laid out.

REFERENCE

[1] Adam Blust, 1995. The Debate Over Outcome Based Education, News & Views, March 1995.

[2] Briggs, David A., 1988. "Alhambra High: A 'High Success' School." Pg.

46, 2: 10-11. [3] Brown, Alan S., 1988. "Outcome-Based Education: A Success Story."

Pg. 46, 2: 12. [4] Watson P., 2002. “The Role and Integration of Learning Outcomes into

the Educational Process”. Active Learning in Higher Education 3(3), 205-219.

[5] Bloom, B.S., 1977. “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The

Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain”. New York: Longman.



419

[6] University Putra Malaysia, 2004. “Module 1 Learning Outcomes Initiative, How to develop Outcome-Based Programmes”. Centre for Academic Development (CADe), UPM.

[7] Heimlich J. E., and Norland E., 2002. “Teaching Style: Where Are We

Now?”. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. No. 93: 17-25.

[8] Ladd P., and Ruby R. Jr., 1999. “Learning Style and Adjustment Issues

of International Students”. Journal of Education for Business 74, no. 6: 363-367.



420

Appendix 1: Teaching and Learning Domains

a. Cognitive Domain

Level Examples and Key Words

C1. Knowledge Recall data or information.

Examples: i. Recite a policy. ii. Name the different parts of the

machine from memory to students. iii. Quote the safety rules.

Key Words: define, describe, identify, label, list, match, name, outline, recall, reproduce, select, state.

C2. Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.

Examples: i. Rewrite and explain the principles of

written tests. ii. Explain in one’s own words the steps

for performing a complex task. iii. Translate an equation into a computer

spreadsheet.

Key Words: convert, defend, estimate, explain, infer, interpret, paraphrase, predict, rewrite, summarize, and translate.

C3. Application Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Apply what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.

Examples: Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test.

Key Words: apply, compute, construct, demonstrate, discover, manipulate, modify, predict, prepare, relate, show, solve.

C4. Analysis Separate material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.

Examples: i. Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by

using logical deduction. ii. Recognize logical fallacies in

reasoning. iii. Gather information from a department

and select the required tasks for training.

Key Words: analyze, break down, compare, contrast, diagram, deconstruct, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, identify, illustrate, infer, outline, relate, select, separate.



421

C5. Synthesis Build a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.

Examples: i. Write a laboratory manual. ii. Design a machine to perform a specific

task. iii. Integrate training from several sources

to solve a problem. iv. Revise and process to improve the

outcome.

Key Words: combine, compile, compose, create, devise, design, explain, generate, modify, organize, plan, rearrange, reconstruct, relate, reorganize, revise, rewrite, summarize, write.

C6. Evaluation Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

Examples: i. Select the most effective solution. ii. Hire the most qualified candidate. iii. Explain and justify a new budget.

Key Words: appraise, compare, conclude, contrast, criticize, critique, defend, discriminate, evaluate, interpret, justify, summarize, support.

b. Psychomotor Domain


P1. Perception The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.

Examples: Detect non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjust heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjust the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet. Key Words: choose, describe, detect, differentiate, distinguish, identify, isolate, relate, select.

P2. Set Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person’s response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets).

Examples: Know and act upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Show desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the "Responding to phenomena" subdivision of the Affective domain. Key Words: begin, display, explain, move, proceed, react, show, state, and volunteering.



422

P3. Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.

Examples: Perform a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follow instructions to build a model. Respond to hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift. Key Words: copy, trace, follow, react, reproduce, respond.

P4. Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.

Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a tractor. Key Words: assemble, calibrate, construct, dismantle, display, fasten, fix, grind, heat, manipulate, measure, mend, mix, organize, sketch.

P5. Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance.

Examples: Maneuver a tractor into a tight parking spot. Operate a computer quickly and accurately. Display competence while playing the piano.

Key Words: assemble, build, calibrate, construct, dismantle, display, fasten, fix, manipulate, measure, mend, mix, organize, sketch.

P6. Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.

Examples: Respond effectively to unexpected experiences. Modify instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task). Key Words: adapt, alter, change, rearrange, reorganize, revise, and vary.

P7. Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based

Examples: Construct a new theory. Develop a new and comprehensive training programming. Create a new gymnastic routine.

Key Words: arrange, build, combine, compose,



423

upon highly developed skills. construct, create, design, initiate, originate.

c. Affective


A1. Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.

Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.

Key Words: ask, choose, describe, follow, give hold, identify, name, point to, select, reply, use.

A2. Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attend and react to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).

Examples: Participate in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practice them.

Key Words: answer, assist, aid, comply, conform, discuss, greet, help, perform, practice, present, read, recite, report, select, write.

A3. Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner’s overt behavior and are often identifiable.

Examples: Demonstrate belief in the democratic process. Sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Show the ability to solve problems. Propose a plan to social improvement and follow through with commitment. Inform management on matters that one feels strongly about.

Key Words: demonstrate, differentiate, explain, follow, form, initiate, invite, join, justify, propose, report, select, share, study, work.

A4. Organizing values: Organize values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolve conflicts between them, and create a unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.

Examples: Recognize the need for balance between freedom and responsible behaviour. Accept responsibility for one’s behaviour. Explain the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accept professional ethical standards. Create a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritize time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self. Key Words: adhere, arrange, combine,



424

compare, complete, defend, explain, formulate, generalize, identify, integrate, modify, organize, prepare, relate, synthesize.

A5. Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).

Examples: Show self-reliance when working independently. Cooperate in group activities (displays teamwork). Use an objective approach in problem solving. Display a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revise judgments and change behavior in light of new evidence. Value people for what they are, not how they look.

Key Words: discriminate, display, influence, listen, modify, perform, practice, propose, revises, serve, solve, verify.



425

Appendix 2: Percentage Perception Level of Attainment of Learning Outcomes through Courses by Cluster

Learning Outcomes



1 2 3 1 2 3


Social Science 2.7 24.6 72.8 3.7 13.0 83.3 Biosciences & Medical

10.2 24.4 65.5 10.2 15.7 74.1


8.9 26.2 64.9 7.5 21.5 71.0



12.2 32.0 55.8 14.2 28.4 57.4


8.4 8.4 54.0 15.1 32.8 52.2



8.1 26.9 65.0 7.1 22.3 70.6


6.4 27.2 66.3 9.1 17.2 73.7



32.0 29.9 38.1 35.5 32.5 32.0


35.6 35.1 29.2 31.7 40.9 27.4



14.2 19.3 66.5 12.7 21.8 65.5


10.9 29.7 59.4 14.0 21.0 65.1

Knowledge Social Science 0.3 10.3 89.4 1.9 4.2 94.0 Biosciences & Medical

2.5 10.2 87.3 2.0 6.1 91.9


1.0 16.8 82.2 7.5 8.1 84.4



11.7 30.5 57.9 14.2 24.4 61.4

Physical Sciences &

15.3 34.7 50.0 19.4 41.4 39.2



426

Engineering Professionalism, Values, Attitudes and Ethics


14.7 26.4 58.9 15.2 21.3 63.5


14.4 31.7 54.0 14.0 38.2 47.8

Total 10.8 25.5 62.6 12.1 22.6 65.3

Note: 1- Low 2-Moderate 3-High

Appendix 3: Mean Score for the Attainment of Learning Outcomes through Courses by Clusters

Learning Outcomes Cluster Semester I 2006/2007 (Mean)

Semester II 2006/2007 (Mean)


Social Science 7.43 7.82 Biosciences & Medical 6.99 7.20 Physical Sciences & Engineering

6.97 7.28

Communication Skills Social Science 7.35 7.64 Biosciences & Medical 6.47 6.45 Physical Sciences & Engineering

6.42 6.28



7.06 7.34



4.64 4.75



6.65 6.78

Knowledge Social Science 8.50 8.70 Biosciences & Medical 8.28 8.51 Physical Sciences & Engineering

8.14 7.90



6.17 5.59



6.37 6.32



427

PROGRAM PENINGKATAN PROFESIONAL: PEMANTAP PEGAWAI AKADEMIK INSTITUSI PENGAJIAN TINGGI

MANSOR AHMAD TURIMAN SUANDI SIDEK AB. AZIZ JURAIDAH MOHAMAD AMIN LAILAWATI BAKAR YASMINANI MOHAMAD HARYATI ABDULLAH

Pusat Pembangunan Akademik, UPM


ABSTRACT - Perubahan keperluan dan perkembangan dalam pasaran kerja kini menjadikan institusi pengajian tinggi sebagai organisasi penjana tenaga kerja yang dinamik. Cabaran menghasilkan tenaga kerja professional yang berkualiti perlu ditangani oleh setiap entiti dalam institusi khasnya tenaga pengajar atau pegawai akademik yang dipertanggungjawabkan secara langsung untuk membentuk, memimpin dan melahirkan graduan yang berkualiti dan berdaya saing. Pegawai akdemik institusi pengajian tinggi perlu memberi tekanan dan tumpuan dalam tiga aspek iaitu pengajaran dan pembelajaran, penyelidikan dan perkhidmatan profesional. Bagaimanakah pegawai akademik mampu untuk terus maju dalam menghadapi cabaran untuk mendidik generasi akan datang dan memberi sumbangan dalam penyelidikan dan perkhidmatan profesional? Pegawai Akademik Universiti Putra Malaysia telah menyahut cabaran ini dengan merangka satu pendekatan untuk menangani isu ini secara keseluruhan dan program tersebut dikenali sebagai Program Peningkatan Profesional hasil penjenamaan semula Putra SATRIA. Program pembangunan yang dirangka merupakan inisiatif bagi profesion akademik dan merangkumi ketiga-tiga aspek penting pegawai akademik universiti iaitu pembangunan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran, penyelidikan dan perkhidmatan profesional. Sejumlah kursus telah disenaraikan dalam program yang ditawarkan oleh Pusat Pembangunan Akademik. Kursus dalam program ini boleh diguna pakai untuk Kursus Induksi, Penilaian Tahap Kecekapan dan pemantapan kerjaya pegawai akademik UPM. Ia memberikan peluang kepada pegawai akademik untuk mengikuti program yang sesuai dengan tahap setiap individu dan dikendalikan oleh tenaga pakar dalaman universiti. Program sebegini perlu dilaksana oleh semua institusi pengajian tinggi Malaysia bagi menjamin pemilikan tenaga akademik yang cukup kompetent bagi mancapai hasrat melahirkan graduan yang berkualiti dan berdaya saing.



428

1.0 PENGENALAN Perkembangan semasa dalam era globlasasi semakin dinamik dan sukar ditangani menuntut institusi pengajian tinggi sebagai penjana tenaga kerja professional Negara turut berkembang dan sentiasa bersedia menghadapi cabaran. Semua entiti institusi pengajian tinggi khasnya ahli akademik perlu terus kekal ditahap optimum demi menghasilkan tenaga kerja professional untuk memenuhi keperluan Negara dan pasaran semasa. Ini memandangkan ahli akademik merupakan golongan yang berkhidmat secara langsung dalam menentukan kualtiti graduan yang dihasilkan. Ahli akademik ini perlu memainkan peranan sebagai mentor kepada mahasiswa disamping menjalankan tugas sebagai pengajar, penyelidik dan menyediakan perkhidmatan profesional kepada masyarakat sekitarnya. Bagaimanakah institusi dapat menyokong dalam melaksanakan tiga tanggungjawab berat yang perlu dipikul? Sebagai seorang ahli akdemik institusi pengajian tinggi, pengajaran dan pembelajaran menjadi keutamaan, penyelidikan perlu diberi penekanan dan perkhidmatan professional juga perlu dilaksanakan. 2.0 CABARAN PEGAWAI AKADEMIK UPM Universiti Putra Malaysia mempunyai lebih 1600 pegawai akademik yang telah diberi tanggung jawab secara langsung dalam mengilap dan menghasilkan graduan atau bakal tenaga kerja profesional yang berkualiti dan berdaya saing seperti yang termaktup dalam matlamat pertama universiti iaitu melahirkan graduan yang berkualiti, berdaya saing dan berupaya untuk terus maju melalui pembelajaran yang berterusan[1]. Sehubungan itu, ilmu pengetahuan pegawai akademik sendiri perlu berada ditahap yang maksima agar dapat mencapai matlamat yang telah disasarkan. Selain daripada tugas hakiki sebagai pembangun modal insan, pegawai akademik juga perlu menyahut cabaran untuk menjalankan penyelidikan dan tugas ini merupakan matlamat kedua universiti iaitu untuk menjadikan UPM, Universiti yang terkemuka dalam bidang penyelidikan. Tugas sebagai penyelidik bertambah berat dengan status UPM kini sebagai salah satu daripada 4 Universiti Penyelidikan sebagaimana yang telah diumumkan oleh Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi pada bulan November 2006. Cabaran untuk mengekalkan status ini merupakan satu cabaran yang perlu dihadapi universiti. Disamping itu juga tenaga profesional universiti ini juga dituntut untuk memberikan sumbangan dalam perkhidmatan profesional dan sebagai pakar rujuk untuk membantu dalam membangun dan memajukan negara. Ini juga termaktup dalam matlamat ke 8 universiti untuk meningkatkan kedudukan UPM sebagai pusat perkhidmatan pembangunan profesional dan pendidikan lanjutan. Tuntutan tanggung jawab yang berat dan batasan kemampuan pegawai akademik yang terhad ini memberikan ide kepada UPM untuk menghasilkan satu rangka tindakan dalam membimbing pegawai akademik untuk terus maju dan membangun dalam memberikan sumbangan dalam menghasilkan graduan yang berkualliti, melaksanakan penyelidikan yang berpotensi komersil dan terus memberi sumbangan dalam perkhidmatan profesional



429

UPM telah merangka program yang dikenali sebagai Putra SATRIA yang mempunyai pengisian mantap dan memberi impak kepada pegawai akademik universiti. Program Putra SATRIA adalah inisiatif yang berkenaan dengan bidang tugas profesion akademik di IPTA, iaitu pengajaran, penyelidikan dan khidmat profesional. Program Peningkatan Profesional atau Continuing Professional Development (CPD) yang dicadangkan ini meliputi kursus dalam perkhidmatan (induksi, kursus asas pengajaran-pembelajaran dan penilaian tahap kecekapan- PTK) dan kursus pemantapan kecekapan kerjaya dan profesionalisme para akademik. Kursus yang dipertanggungjawabkan kepada Pusat Pembangunan Akademik (CADe) di bawah program Putra SATRIA ini boleh diguna pakai untuk Kursus Induksi, Penilaian Tahap Kecekapan dan Pemantapan Kerjaya para Pegawai Akademik. 3.0 KENAPA CPD? Program CPD Universiti Putra Malaysia telah digubal dan dilaksanakan oleh tenaga pakar dalaman universiti dan Pusat Pembangunan Akademik telah dipertanggungjawakan untuk menjuarai tugasan ini. Pada peringkat permulaan satu kaji selidik telah dilaksanakan untuk mendapatkan maklum balas keperluan semasa pegawai akdemik. Daripada kajian yang dijalankan, latihan berterusan merupakan satu keperluan bagi pegawai akademik dalam menjalankan tugasnya dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran, penyelidikan dan perkhidmatan profesional. Lanjutan daripada itu satu focus group interview telah dilaksanakan untuk mengenalpasti secara terperinci keperluan berkenaan. Beberapa bengkel telah dilaksanakan untuk merangka dan mengubal satu program yang mampu memenuhi keperluan setiap peringkat pegawai akademik. Program ini telah dibincangkan dan dipersetujui oleh Jawatankuasa Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran universiti untuk dilaksanakan Program CPD UPM yang dimuatkan dalam Program Putra SATRIA mengariskan 6 ciri utama yang perlu diberi penekanan dalam membentuk dan memperkasa pegawai akademik universiti. SATRIA merupakan singkatan daripada 6 ciri utama yang perlu menjadi pegangan setiap ahli akademik institusi pengajian tinggi [2][3][4].

3.1 Scholar (Sarjana)



430

Merupakan seorang ahli akademik ternama yang mempunyai tahap keilmuan yang tinggi dan menguasai (master) bidangnya serta seorang pemikir yang mencetus dan menemukan idea dan pengetahuan (knowledge) baru dalam cabang bidang yang dikuasainya [2].

3.2 Agent of Change (Agen Perubahan) Pegawai akademik ialah role model dan agen perubahan kepada masyarakat, terutama sekali personaliti pelajar seterusnya menjadi penggerak ke arah kebaikan. Pegawai akademik perlu menampilkan diri sebagai seorang yang dinamik, maju, berdaya saing dan dapat mendorong seseorang melakukan kebaikan[3]. Hasil kerja dan amalan pegawai akademik juga boleh menonjolkan ciri kecemerlangan dan ketinggian kualiti yang boleh menjadi sumber orang ramai, terutamanya pelajar. Sebagai agen perubahan, pegawai akademik juga perlu pro-aktif dan perlu peka terhadap apa yang berlaku dan menilai kehendak masyarakat sekitar. Pegawai akademik berkeupayaan mengenalpasti keperluan perubahan, membuat keputusan, merangka, merancang serta melaksanakan pelan perubahan di samping berupaya menjangka kesan daripada perubahan tersebut.

3.3 Teaching-Learning Expert (Pakar dalam Pengajaran-Pembelajaran) Pengajaran dan pembelajaran ialah tanggungjawab paling utama yang perlu dilaksanakan dengan sempurna oleh setiap pegawai akademik kerana tanpa pelajar, universiti tidak wujud. Setiap pegawai akademik perlu meningkatkan keberkesanan pengajarannya supaya pembelajaran akan berlaku dalam suasana yang kondusif[4][5]. Peningkatan strategi proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang optimum akan menghasilkan pengajaran yang berkesan dan di waktu yang sama proses pembelajaran pelajar akan berlangsung dengan lebih efektif. Pegawai akademik perlu menunjukkan komitmen serta displin yang tinggi terhadap tugas pengajaran dan pembelajaran serta dapat menyediakan bahan pengajaran dengan terancang, rapi dan sentiasa mengemaskini bahan pengajaran sesuai dengan perkembangan terkini. 3.4 Researcher (Penyelidik) Kesarjanaan seseorang pegawai akademik dapat diserlahkan melalui aktiviti penyelidikan. Pegawai akademik perlu menjalankan aktiviti penyelidikan yang bermutu dan berfaedah kepada masyarakat dan negara khususnya kepada UPM sebagai sebuah Universiti Penyelidikan. Pegawai akademik perlu menggunakan hasil kajian untuk diterjemahkan kepada amalan dan meningkatkan kualiti pengajaran. UPM memerlukan pegawai akademik yang akan memberikan impak. Melalui aktiviti ini ilmu akan dapat dikembangkan dan amalan dalam kehidupan dapat diperbaiki untuk memastikan bahawa pegawai akademik berketrampilan dalam bidang penyelidikan mereka perlu diberikan pendedahan dalam aspek penyediaan cadangan penyelidikan bagi tujuan mendapatkan geran daripada pelbagai pihak. Mereka juga perlu diberi latihan dalam aspek pengurusan



431

penyelidikan itu sendiri untuk memastikan bahawa setiap penyelidikan dapat disempurnakan mengikut tempoh yang telah ditetapkan. Selain itu, mereka perlu dilatih dalam aspek penulisan supaya setiap penyelidikan disempurnakan dengan penerbitan termasuk penulisan artikel dalam jurnal berwasit, prosiding, buku, modul dan kertas kerja pada peringkat nasional dan antarabangsa, paten dan nilai pasaran. 3.5 Innovator (Pencetus Inovasi) Sebagai ahli akademik yang berupaya mencetus inovasi dalam bidang yang dikuasai yang mendatangkan manfaat kepada organisasi, bangsa dan Negara. Sebagai pencetus inovasi, pegawai akademik juga perlu berinisitif tinggi dalam proses penambahbaikan melalui penemuan baharu dan mengeksploitasi idea dengan jayanya. Seorang pegawai akademik juga mampu menjadi peneraju penemuan, bukan sahaja sebagai pengguna. 3.6 Administrator (Pentadbir) Setiap pegawai akademik perlu membentuk kepemimpinan melalui aktiviti pentadbiran dan pengurusan sama ada pada peringkat jabatan, fakulti, kolej kediaman atau universiti. Pegawai akademik harus mempunyai kesedaran bahawa penglibatan dalam mana-mana jawatankuasa pada pelbagai peringkat adalah penting dalam membina ketrampilan mereka sebagai mentor kepada pelajar dan rakan yang lain, bukan sahaja dalam pengajaran dan penyelidikan tetapi juga aspek pentadbiran. Ini penting untuk diinsafi oleh pegawai akademik agar terlibat aktif dalam apa-apa juga aktiviti intelektual termasuk mesyuarat pelbagai jawatankuasa termasuk yang dikendalikan oleh pelajar apabila diperlukan kerana aktiviti tersebut merupakan wadah kecemerlangan bagi mereka membina idea mantap ke arah pemajuan diri, kumpulan dan organisasi.

5.0 KURSUS PROGRAM CPD Kursus Program CPD yang dirangka dapat memenuhi keperluan pembangunan pegawai akademik dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran, penyelidikan dan perkhidmatan professional. Ia juga disesuaikan dengan tahap setiap kumpulan pegawai akademik supaya dapat membantu dan memenuhi keperluan setiap individu sama ada pada peringkat asas, pertengahan mahupun lanjutan.

5.1 Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Program dalam kelompok pengajaran dan pembelajaran berfokus kepada pembangunan, perkembangan dan pemantapan pegawai akademik dalam aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Ia meliputi peningkatan dalam bidang kepakaran, keyakinan diri dan penerapan yang perlu dilakukan dalam bilik kuliah. Jadual 1 menyeraikan program berkenaan.



432

Jadual 1: Bidang fokus pengajaran-pembelajaran program CPD

5.2 Penyelidikan Bidang penyelidikan perlu member latihan merangkumi asas penyelidikan, penyeliaan pelajar siswazah, penulisan akademik dan pengkomersilan dan pematenan hasil penyelidikan. Program ini dilaksanakan dengan kerjasama Pusat Pengurusan Penyelidikan Universiti dan Pusat Inovasi dan Pengkomersilan, seperti dalam Jadual 2.



433

Jadual 2: Bidang fokus penyelidikan program CPD

5.3 Perkhidmatan professional Program dalam perkhidmatan professional lebih menekankan kepada pembangunan individu dalam pengurusan, pentadbiran dan kepemimpinan. Ia menjadikan pegawai akademik sebagai seorang yang boleh menjadi contoh, rujukan dan pemangkin perubahan sekitarannya.



434

Jadual 3: Bidang fokus perkhidmatan profesional program CPD

6.0 KESIMPULAN Perubahan dunia mencabar pegawai akademik untuk sentiasa bersaing bagi memenuhi kehendak semasa dan menjadi yang terbaik dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran, penyelidikan dan perkidmatan profesional. Universiti Putra Malaysia mengambil pendekatan yang paling wajar dalam menangani keperluan ini dengan menghasilkan program CPD sebagai pengisian dalam Program Putra SATRIA yang dibentuk khas untuk memantapkan tenaga akademik universiti. Program CPD yang dirangka dan dilaksanakan memberikan dorongan dan panduan kepada pegawai akademik dalam melaksanakan tanggungjawab mereka sebagaimana harapan institusi pengajian tinggi dalam memenuhi keperluan semasa. Ia juga meningkat dan memantapkan kualiti diri pegawai akademik sebagai penyelidik dan penyumbang kepakaran dalam masyarakat. Program yang dibentuk ini mendokong budaya pembelajaran berterusan yang perlu dimiliki oleh setiap insan untuk terus bersaing dan maju. Program ini memberikan satu alternatif kepada institusi pengajian tinggi dalam membangunkan tenaga pakar secara berterusan dan memenuhi tahap keperluan setiap pegawai akademik. Program CPD seharusnya dijadikan sebagai alternatif kepada kursus Penilaian Tahap Kecekapan (PTK) dalam usaha mempertingkatan lagi kecekapan dan profesionalisme kakitangan akademik IPTA. Program sedia ada perlu sentiasa dikemaskini dan diperbaiki bagi memenuhi keperluan dan kehendak semasa. Ia perlu dilaksanakan oleh semua institusi pengajian tinggi bagi menjamin pemilikan tenaga akademik yang cukup kompitent bagi mancapai hasrat melahirkan tenaga kerja profesional yang berkualiti, berdaya saing dan memenuhi keperluan semasa negara.



435

7.0 RUJUKAN [1] Universiti Putra Malaysia (2001). Pelan Strategi Universiti Putra Malaysia

2006-2010. Penerbit UPM, Serdang.

[2] Brenda Smith and Sally Brown (1997). Research Teaching and Learning

in Higher Education. Kogan Page, London.

[3] Gill Nicholls (2001). Profesional Development in Higher Education.

Kogan Page, London.

[4] Heather Fry, Steve Ketteridge, Stephanie Marshall (2001). A Handbook

for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Kogan Page, London.

[5] Heather Fry, Steve Ketteridge, Stephanie Marshall (2002). The Effective

Academic: A Handbook for Enhanced Academic Practice. Kogan Page,

London.

Anjung Visi Solution Sdn. Bhd Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA)Puncak Niaga Holdings BerhadAnjung Visi Solution Sdn. Bhd Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA)Puncak Niaga (M) Sdn Bhd

PERSIDANGAN PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN DI PERINGKAT PENGAJIAN TINGGI 2007 (CTLHE07)

12-14 Disember 2007Hotel Palace of the Golden Horses, Seri Kembangan Selangor

anjuran

Universiti Putra Malaysiadengan kerjasama

Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysiadan

Majlis Ketua Pusat Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran IPTA Malaysia

“...Teras Kedua Misi Nasional, 2006-2020 ialah meningkatkan keupayaan pengetahuan, kreativiti dan inovasi negara serta memupuk 'minda kelas pertama'. Kejayaan masa hadapan bergantung kepada mutu modal insan yang dimiliki, bukan sahaja dari segi intelek tetapi juga keperibadian.”

YAB Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad BadawiPerdana Menteri Malaysia

..................................................................................................

......

......

......

......................

Anjung Visi Solution Sdn. Bhd Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA)

PUNCAK NIAGA

Puncak Niaga (M) Sdn Bhd

Penaja Perdana

Aniotek Sdn Bhd

Mavisco (M) Sdn BhdUniversiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris

Penaja Utama

Penaja Bersama

Koperasi UPM Berhad

......

......

. ...

Sekretariat CTLHE07Pusat Pembangunan Akademik (CADe)

Tingkat 4 , Bangunan PentadbiranUniversiti Putra Malaysia

43400 UPM SerdangSelangor Darul Ehsan

T - 603 8946 6112 | F - 603 8946 6043 www.cade.upm.edu.my/ctlhe07/

ctlhe07_monograf 2

Documents