csep552 distributed systems · distributed systems are hard! • distributed systems are hard...
TRANSCRIPT
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CSEP552
Distributed Systems
Dan Ports
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Agenda• Course intro & administrivia
• Introduction to Distributed Systems
• (break)
• RPC
• MapReduce & Lab 1
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Distributed Systems are Exciting!
• Some of the most powerful things we can build in CS
• systems that span the world, serve millions of users, and are always up
• …but also some of the hardest material in CS
• Incredibly relevant today:everything is a distributed system!
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This course• Introduction to the major challenges in building
distributed systems
• Key ideas, abstractions, and techniques for addressing these challenges
• Prereq: undergrad OS or networking course, or equivalent — talk to me if you’re not sure
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This course• Readings and discussions of research papers
• no textbook — good ones don’t exist!
• online discussion board posts
• A major programming project
• building a scalable, consistent key-value store
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Course staffInstructor: Dan [email protected] office hours: Monday 5-6pmor by appointment (just email!)
TA: Haichen [email protected]
TA: Adriana [email protected]
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Introduction to Distributed Systems
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What is a distributed system?
• multiple interconnected computers that cooperate to provide some service
• examples?
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Our model of computingused to be a single machine
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Our model of computing today should be…
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Our model of computing today should be…
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Why should we build distributed systems?
• Higher capacity and performance
• today’s workloads don’t fit on one machine
• aggregate CPU cycles, memory, disks, network bandwidth
• Connect geographically separate systems
• Build reliable, always-on systems
• even though the individual components are unreliable
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What are the challenges in distributed system design?
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What are the challenges in distributed system design?
• System design: - what goes in the client, server? what protocols?
• Reasoning about state in a distributed environment - locating data: what’s stored where? - keeping multiple copies consistent - concurrent accesses to the same data
• Failure - partial failures: some nodes are faulty - network failure - don’t always know what failures are happening
• Security
• Performance - latency of coordination- bandwidth as a scarce resource
• Testing
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But it’s easy to make a distributed system that’s less scalable and less reliable than a
centralized one!
We want to build distributed systems to be more scalable, and more reliable.
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Major challenge: failure
• Want to keep the system doing useful work in the presence of partial failures
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A data center• e.g., Facebook, Prineville OR
• 10x size of this building, $1B cost, 30 MW power • 200K+ servers • 500K+ disks • 10K network switches • 300K+ network cables
• What is the likelihood that all of them are functioning correctly at any given moment?
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A data center• e.g., Facebook, Prineville OR
• 10x size of this building, $1B cost, 30 MW power • 200K+ servers • 500K+ disks • 10K network switches • 300K+ network cables
• What is the likelihood that all of them are functioning correctly at any given moment?
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Typical first year for a cluster• ~0.5 overheating (power down most machines in <5 mins, ~1-2 days to recover)
• ~1 PDU failure (~500-1000 machines suddenly disappear, ~6 hours to come back)
• ~1 rack-move (plenty of warning, ~500-1000 machines powered down, ~6 hours)
• ~1 network rewiring (rolling ~5% of machines down over 2-day span)
• ~20 rack failures (40-80 machines instantly disappear, 1-6 hours to get back)
• ~5 racks go wonky (40-80 machines see 50% packetloss)
• ~8 network maintenances (4 might cause ~30-minute random connectivity losses)
• ~12 router reloads (takes out DNS and external network for a couple minutes)
• ~3 router failures (have to immediately pull traffic for an hour)
• ~dozens of minor 30-second blips for dns
• ~1000 individual machine failures
• ~10000 hard drive failures
[Jeff Dean, Google, 2008]
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Part of the system is always failed!
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—Leslie Lamport, c. 1990
“A distributed system is one where the failure of a computer you didn’t know existed
renders your own computer useless”
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And yet…• Distributed systems today still work most of the time
• wherever you are
• whenever you want
• even though parts of the system have failed
• even though thousands or millions of other people are using the system too
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Another challenge: managing distributed state
• Keep data available despite failures: make multiple copies in different places
• Make popular data fast for everyone: make multiple copies in different places
• Store a huge amount of data: split it into multiple partitions on different machines
• How do we make sure that all these copies of data are consistent with each other?
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Thinking about distributed state involves a lot of subtleties
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Thinking about distributed state involves a lot of subtleties• Simple idea: make two copies of data so you can tolerate
one failure
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Thinking about distributed state involves a lot of subtleties• Simple idea: make two copies of data so you can tolerate
one failure
• We will spend a non-trivial amount of time this quarter learning how to do this correctly!
• What if one replica fails?
• What if one replica just thinks the other has failed?
• What if each replica thinks the other has failed?
• …
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A thought experiment• Suppose there is a group of people, two of whom
have green dots on their foreheads
• Without using a mirror or directly asking each other, can anyone tell whether they have a green dot themselves?
• What if I tell everyone: “someone has a green dot”?
• note that everyone already knew this!
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A thought experiment
• Difference between individual knowledge and common knowledge
• Everyone knows that someone has a green dot, but not that everyone else knows that someone has a green dot, or that everyone else knows that everyone else knows, ad infinitum…
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The Two-Generals Problem• Two armies are encamped on two hills surrounding
a city in a valley
• The generals must agree on the same time to attack the city.
• Their only way to communicate is by sending a messenger through the valley, but that messenger could be captured (and the message lost)
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The Two-Generals Problem• No solution is possible!
• If a solution were possible:
• it must have involved sending some messages
• but the last message could have been lost, so we must not have really needed it
• so we can remove that message entirely
• We can apply this logic to any protocol, and remove all the messages — contradiction
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What does this have to do with distributed systems?
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Distributed Systems are Hard!• Distributed systems are hard because
many things we want to do are provably impossible • consensus: get a group of nodes to agree on a
value (say, which request to execute next) • be certain about which machines are alive and
which ones are just slow • build a storage system that is always consistent
and always available (the “CAP theorem”)
• (we’ll make all of these precise later)
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We will manage to do them anyway!
• We will solve these problems in practice by making the right assumptions about the environment
• But many times there aren’t any easy answers
• Often involves tradeoffs => class discussion
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Topics we will cover• Implementing distributed systems: system and protocol design
• Understanding the global state of a distributed system
• Building reliable systems from unreliable components
• Building scalable systems
• Managing concurrent accesses to data with transactions
• Abstractions for big data analytics
• Building secure systems from untrusted components
• Latest research in distributed systems
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Agenda• Course intro & administrivia
• Introduction to Distributed Systems
• (break)
• RPC
• MapReduce & Lab 1
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RPC• How should we communicate between nodes in a
distributed system?
• Could communicate with explicit message patterns
• CS is about finding abstractions to make programming easier
• Can we find some abstractions for communication?
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Common pattern: client/server
Client Server
request
response} do
some work
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Obvious in retrospect
• But this idea has only been around since the 80s
• This paper: Xerox PARC, 1984 Xerox Dorados, 3 mbit/sec Ethernet prototype
• What did “distributed systems” mean back then?
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A single-host systemfloat balance(int accountID) { return balance[accountID];}
void deposit(int accountID, float amount) { balance[accountID] += amount return OK;}
client() { deposit(42, $50.00); print balance(42);}
standard function calls
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Defining a protocol request "balance" = 1 { arguments { int accountID (4 bytes) } response { float balance (8 bytes); } }
request "deposit" = 2 { arguments { int accountID (4 bytes) float amount (8 bytes) } response { } }
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Hand-coding a client & serverclient() { s = socket(UDP)
msg = {2, 42, 50.00} // marshalling send(s, server_address, msg) response = receive(s) check response == "OK"
msg = {1, 42} send(s -> server_address, msg) response = receive(s) print "balance is" + response}
server() { s = socket(UDP) bind s to port 1024 while (1) { msg, client_addr = receive(s) type = byte 0 of msg if (type == 1) { account = bytes 1-4 of msg // unmarshalling result = balance(account) send(s -> client_addr, result) } else if (type == 2) { account = bytes 1-4 of msg amount = bytes 5-12 of msg deposit(account, amount) send(s -> client_addr, "OK") }}
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Hand-coding a client & serverclient() { s = socket(UDP)
msg = {2, 42, 50.00} // marshalling send(s, server_address, msg) response = receive(s) check response == "OK"
msg = {1, 42} send(s -> server_address, msg) response = receive(s) print "balance is" + response}
server() { s = socket(UDP) bind s to port 1024 while (1) { msg, client_addr = receive(s) type = byte 0 of msg if (type == 1) { account = bytes 1-4 of msg // unmarshalling result = balance(account) send(s -> client_addr, result) } else if (type == 2) { account = bytes 1-4 of msg amount = bytes 5-12 of msg deposit(account, amount) send(s -> client_addr, "OK") }}
Hard-coded message formats!
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Hand-coding a client & serverclient() { s = socket(UDP)
msg = {2, 42, 50.00} // marshalling send(s, server_address, msg) response = receive(s) check response == "OK"
msg = {1, 42} send(s -> server_address, msg) response = receive(s) print "balance is" + response}
server() { s = socket(UDP) bind s to port 1024 while (1) { msg, client_addr = receive(s) type = byte 0 of msg if (type == 1) { account = bytes 1-4 of msg // unmarshalling result = balance(account) send(s -> client_addr, result) } else if (type == 2) { account = bytes 1-4 of msg amount = bytes 5-12 of msg deposit(account, amount) send(s -> client_addr, "OK") }}
Hard-coded message formats!
Lots of boilerplate code!
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RPC Approach
• Compile protocol into stubs that do marshalling/unmarshalling
• Make a remote call look like a local function call
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RPC Approach
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Client & Server StubsClient stub: deposit_stub(int account, float amount) { // marshall request type + arguments into buffer // send request to client // wait for reply // decode response // return result } To the client, looks like calling the deposit function we started with!
Server stub: loop: wait for command decode and unpack request parameters call procedure build reply message containing results send reply pretty much exactly the code we just wrote for the server!
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Hides complexity of remote messaging
float balance(int accountID) { return balance[accountID];}
void deposit(int accountID, float amount) { balance[accountID] += amount return OK;}
client() { RPC_deposit(server, 42, $50.00); print RPC_balance(server, 42);}
standard function calls
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Is all the complexity really gone?
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Is all the complexity really gone?
• Remote calls can fail!
• Performance: maybe much slower
• Resources might not be shared (file system, disk)
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Dealing with failure• Communication failures
• Host failures
• Can’t tell if failure happened before or after
• was it the request message or the reply message that was lost?
• did the server crash before processing the request or after?
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At-least-once RPC
• Have client retry request until it gets a response
• What does this mean for client and server programmers?
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At-least-once RPC
• Have client retry request until it gets a response
• What does this mean for client and server programmers?
• Requests might be executed twice
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At-least-once RPC
• Have client retry request until it gets a response
• What does this mean for client and server programmers?
• Requests might be executed twice
• OK if they’re idempotent
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Alternative: at-most-once
• Include a unique ID in every request (how to generate this?)
• Server keeps a history of requests it’s already answered, their ID, and the result
• If duplicate, server resends result
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At-least-one vs at-most-once
• Discussion: which is most useful? When?
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Can we combine them?• “Exactly-once RPC”
• Use retries and keep a history on the server
• Not possible in general: what if the server crashes? how do we know whether it crashed right before executing or right after?
• Can make this work in most cases with a fault-tolerant server (Lab 3)
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RPCs in Lab 1• Our labs use Go’s RPC library to communicate
• Go provides at-most-once semantics
• sends requests over TCP; will fail if TCP connection lost
• Requests are executed in separate threads (“goroutines”)
• Need to use synchronization mechanism (e.g, channels & sync.Mutex) to synchronize accesses between threads
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RPCs Summary• Common pattern for client-server interactions
(but not all distributed systems work this way)
• RPC is used everywhere
• automatic marshalling is really useful; lots of libraries
• client stubs and transparency are useful,but transparency only goes so far
• Dealing with failures is still hard and requires application involvement
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Agenda• Course intro & administrivia
• Introduction to Distributed Systems
• (break)
• RPC
• MapReduce & Lab 1
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MapReduce
• One of the first “big data” processing systems
• Hugely influential used widely at Google Apache Hadooplots of intellectual children
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Motivation• Huge data sets from web crawls, server logs, user
databases, web site contents, etc
• Need a distributed system to handle these (petabyte-scale!)
• Challenges - what nodes should be involved? - what nodes process what data? - what if a node fails? - …
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MapReduce Model• input is stored as a set of key-value pairs (k,v)
• programmer writes map function map(k,v) -> list of (k2, v2) pairs gets run on every input element
• hidden shuffle phase: group all (k2, v2) pairs with the same key
• programmer writes reduce function reduce(k2, set of values) -> output pairs (k3,v3)
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Discussion
• Is this a useful model?
• What can we express in it?
• What can we not express in it?
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Counting words• Input: (text, _)
• Desired output: (word, # of occurrences)
• Map function: split text into words emit(word, 1)
• Reduce function: receives 1 element per word emit(word, number of elements received)
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Computing an inverted index
• Input: (document name, list of words)
• Desired output: (word, list of documents)
• Map: split document into words, for each word: emit(word, docname)
• Reduce: input is (word, {list of docnames}) identity function; that’s the output we wanted!
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How does this get implemented?
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Word count example
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Word count example• Input files: f1 = “a b”, f2 = “b c”
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Word count example• Input files: f1 = “a b”, f2 = “b c”
• master sends f1 to map worker 1 & f2 to worker 2 map(f1) -> (a,1) (b,1)map(f2) -> (b,1) (c,1)
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Word count example• Input files: f1 = “a b”, f2 = “b c”
• master sends f1 to map worker 1 & f2 to worker 2 map(f1) -> (a,1) (b,1)map(f2) -> (b,1) (c,1)
• once map workers finish, master tells each reduce worker what keys they are responsible for
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Word count example• Input files: f1 = “a b”, f2 = “b c”
• master sends f1 to map worker 1 & f2 to worker 2 map(f1) -> (a,1) (b,1)map(f2) -> (b,1) (c,1)
• once map workers finish, master tells each reduce worker what keys they are responsible for
• each reduce worker accesses appropriate map output from each map worker (the shared filesystem is useful here!)
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Word count example• Input files: f1 = “a b”, f2 = “b c”
• master sends f1 to map worker 1 & f2 to worker 2 map(f1) -> (a,1) (b,1)map(f2) -> (b,1) (c,1)
• once map workers finish, master tells each reduce worker what keys they are responsible for
• each reduce worker accesses appropriate map output from each map worker (the shared filesystem is useful here!)
• each worker calls reduce once per key, e.g.reduce(b, {1, 1}) -> 2
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MapReduce Performance• Why should performance be good?
• Parallelism: many separate map and reduce workersn workers => 1/n * runtime?
• What are the performance limitations?
• moving map output to reduce workers is expensive
• stragglers: can’t finish a phase until the last one finishes
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Failures
• What happens if a worker fails?
• What happens if a worker is just slow?
• What happens if the master fails?
• What happens if an input causes workers to crash?
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Lab 1• Intro to Go programming and a bit of
fault tolerance problems in distributed systems
• Part A: just Map() and Reduce() for word count
• Part B: write the master code to hand out map and reduce jobs to worker threads via RPC
• Part C: deal with worker failures (failed RPCs)
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Discussion
• What simplifying assumptions does MapReduce make and how do they help?
• Would a more general model be useful, and how?
• We’ll revisit MapReduce later in the quarter and compare it to other data analytic systems