cross-cultural ethnobotanical exploration of...

NeBIO I www.nebio.in I March 2019 I 10(1): 35-46

Received 3 June 2018 I Accepted 13 March 2019 I Published online 31 March 2019

Citation: Teron. 2019. Cross-cultural ethnobotanical exploration of diversity and utilization of medicinal plants in Karbi Anglong district, Assam,

Northeast India. NeBIO 10(1): 35-46

Acknowledgements

This study was undertaken with financial grant provided by University Grants Commission, New Delhi as Research Award (2016-18). Also, the

Institutional Biotech Hub (Department of Biotechnology, Govt. of India), Department of Life Science & Bioinformatics, Assam University- Diphu

Campus, is acknowledged for infrastructural support.

Copyright © Teron. 2019. NECEER, Imphal allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by adequate credit

to the author(s) and the source of publication.

NeBIO, An International Journal of Environment and Biodiversity Official publication of North East Centre for Environmental Education (NECEER), Imphal I ISSN 2278-2281 (Online), 0976-3597 (Print) I www.nebio.in

CROSS-CULTURAL ETHNOBOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF DIVERSITY AND UTILIZATION OF

MEDICINAL PLANTS IN KARBI ANGLONG DISTRICT, ASSAM, NORTHEAST INDIA

Robindra Teron Department of Life Science & Bioinformatics, Assam University- Diphu Campus, Diphu, Karbi Anglong, Assam- 782 462, India

Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Northeastern region of India, with diverse human races and cultures coupled with enormous biodiversity, presents a fertile ground for

ethnobotanical research. In the present communication, a comparative account of medicinal plants used among the Karbi, Tiwa and

Pnar ethnic groups of Karbi Anglong, Assam is discussed. Field study was undertaken during May 2016 to December 2017 and data

was collected following group discussion, semi-structured interview and participant observation methods. This study documented 201

medicinal plants under 173 genera and belonging to 74 botanical families. Cross-cultural analysis of results revealed the Karbis use

184 (91%) medicinal plants followed by the Pnar and Tiwa with 41 (20.4%) and 34 (16.9%) plants respectively. There is similarity in

medicinal plant use- 23 (11.4%) plants between Karbi-Tiwa, 28 (13.9%) plants between Karbi-Pnar and 13 (6.5%) medicinal plants

between Tiwa-Pnar. Thirteen medicinal plants are common among the three ethnic groups studied. The medicinal plants are used for

treatment of 22 disease conditions/ailments. The result shows 85 (42.3%) medicinal plants are used for dietary purpose. Cross-cultural

ethnobotanical study reflects the pattern of plant use in different societies and exchange of local knowledge (dynamism). It has

implications for protection of intellectual property of vulnerable indigenous people.

KEYWORDS: Cross-cultural ethnobotany, medicinal plants, diversity, utilization.

Introduction

Northeastern region of Indian, a landlocked region comprising of

eight states namely Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram,

Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim, is acclaimed

for harbouring human and cultural diversity. About 130 major

tribal groups are settled in the region (Dutta and Dutta, 2005).

Gifted with diverse topographic and climatic conditions resulting

in a great range of ecological habitats, the region also includes

two global biodiversity hotspots, the Eastern Himalaya and Indo-

Burma. Among other heritages, the ethnic communities are rich

repository of traditional knowledge and their healing practices are

as diverse as their culture (Ramashanker et al., 2015). People of the region possess vast knowledge of medicinal plants which is

the chief source of primary healthcare. The diversity of medicinal

plants is extraordinary but despite sincere efforts documentation

of folk medicinal knowledge is far from complete for which the

Northeast India still remained ethnic storehouse of unexplored

medicinal plants (Chakraborty et al., 2012). With unique quality of diverse human races and cultures coupled with enormous

biodiversity, the region is considered as a fertile ground for

ethnobotanical and anthropological research. Ethnobotany

(ethnos: people; botany: plants), deals with the total natural and traditional relationship and the interactions between man and his

surrounding plant wealth that includes the use of plants by both

tribal and non-tribal communities without any implication of

primitive or developed societies (Jain, 1976b; Wickens, 1990).

Teron » Cross-cultural ethnobotanical exploration of diversity and utilization of medicinal plants in Karbi Anglong district, Assam NeBIO 10(1): 35-46

36 ISSN 2278-2281 (Online), 0976-3597 (Print) I www.nebio.in

Probably the oldest science known to mankind, ethnobotany today

is a multidisciplinary science forging strong linkages with many

disciplines. Ethnobotany is built on strong foundation of people-

plant interactions that centers on the knowledge of utilization and

management of biodiversity referred as Traditional Knowledge

(TK). This knowledge is acquired through long years of

observations and trial and error and is not substantiated by any

scientific hypothesis and experiments. It is not static but highly

dynamic; any change, whether loss in, or addition to TK among

any human society is referred as dynamism of TK (Jain, 2005).

Ethnomedicines and healthcare practices of the ethnic groups in

Karbi Anglong have not been properly investigated. But

ethnomedicinal knowledge and traditional healthcare practices

among different cultures is gradually declining for various

reasons. No comprehensive description of the flora as well as

medicinal plants of the district is available except a few mentions

in the flora of undivided Assam, Flora of Assam in 5 volumes

(Kanjilal et al., 1934-40) and Assam’s Flora (Chowdhory, 2005). Destruction of natural habitats due to jhum (slash and burn)

practice and monoculture has put medicinal plants at risk of

extinction. There is urgent need to study and document valuable

traditional knowledge of medicinal plants of different ethnic

groups before it is lost. Scattered information on ethnomedicinal

plants of Karbi Anglong have been reported from time to time

(Borthakur, 1976a; Gogoi et al., 2005; Teron and Borthakur, 2013,

2016; Terangpi et al., 2014; Teronpi et al., 2015).

In the present communication, a comparative account of

medicinal plants used among the Karbi, Tiwa and Pnar ethnic

groups is discussed. Ethnobotany has been increasingly used to

study pattern of plant-use by human societies in different

ecological zones of the world. Since antiquity, human have

exploited plants as source of primary healthcare practices. Over

80% people of the developing countries are still dependent upon

traditional medicine derived from natural resources (Fansworth et al., 1985), yet less than 10% of the plant species have been examined for their pharmaceutical properties (Stix, 1993). A

comparative study of ethnobotany of four tribes of the Amazon

was reported by Prance (1973). Similar cross-cultural study of

ethnic knowledge on medicinal plants was also undertaken

among the tribal groups of the Nilgiris in Western Ghats, India

(Navaneethan et al., 2011). A cross-cultural comparison was made to prepare database of medicinal floras used against

snakebites and to identify candidate families and genera for

further studies (Molandera et al., 2012) and for bioprospecting strategies (Saslis-Lagoudakis et al., 2011). In a recent study, cross-cultural study of folk plant uses was conducted among

Albanians, Bosnaiks, Gorani and Turks in south Kosovo (Mustafa

et al., 2015).

Material and methods

Study site and the people

Karbi Anglong district with its Headquarter at Diphu, represents

one of the hill districts of Assam. The district lies between

latitudes 250 30' to 26036' N and longitudes 920 90' to 93054' E

covering a geographical area of 10,434 sq km. It is bounded by

Nagaland in the east, Meghalaya in the west, Golaghat and

Nagaon districts in the north and Dima Hasao district in the south.

The district comprises of two detached parts – the Western part

also referred as Hamren subdivision with its Headquarter at

Hamren and the eastern part comprising of Diphu and Bokajan

subdivisions with their respective Headquaters at Diphu and

Bokajan (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Map of Karbi Anglong district, Assam where the present

study was undertaken.

Karbi Anglong is inhabited by many ethnic groups such as Karbi,

Dimasa, Tiwa, Pnar, Rengma Naga, Kuki, and other plain tribes.

For historical reasons, the Karbi, Tiwa and Pnar ethnic groups

have been considered for the present study. They are recognized

as Scheduled Tribes (Hills) in Assam state. While the Karbis are

distributed all over the district, Tiwa and Pnar are mostly

concentrated in Hamren subdivisional area but the three groups

since history have settled in the same geographical area and

maintained cordial relationships. The Karbi follow patriarchal

system of family whereas Tiwa and Pnar maintain matrilineal

family system. They practice traditional customs and traditions

unique and distinct from each other. But there is striking similarity

in healthcare and beliefs related to health. One important

semblance among the people is the belief in of multiplicity of

gods/deities and considers these deities as the causes of

diseases and illness. They perform many magico-religious

practices to appease deities in return for recovery of the patient.

In addition, they also use many plants as well as animal products

to manage scores of ailments and disease conditions. Common

form of healing practices include rituals, topical or local

application, oral therapy, aroma therapy, bathing, charms and

other forms of administration.

Ethnobotanical field study and data collection

A cross-cultural ethnobotanical exploration was conducted among

the Karbi, Tiwa and Pnar ethnic tribes and document plant

knowledge with special reference to medicinal plants. During the

period (May 2016 t0 December 2017) the following places was

visited for field study-Hamren, Dokmoka, Lumbajong Development

Block, Bakalia, Chowkihola, Tumpreng, Baithalangso, Ulukunchi

and Bakhu. Group discussion, semi-structured interview and

participant observation methods (Alexiades, 1996; Cunningham,

2001; Martin, 1995) was employed to collect data on medicinal

plants and healthcare practices from informants of different age



groups and gender. Permission from village heads was obtained

for conducting field study and prior consent of informants was

also obtained in accordance with ethics of ethnobiological

research (ISE, 2006). Medicinal plants were collected with the

help of informants and identified using floras (Hooker, 1875-1897;

Kanjilal et al., 1934-1940; Balakrishnan 1981, 1983). Nomenclature of medicinal plants was updated using online

database, www.theplantlist.org.

Result and discussion

Taxonomic diversity of medicinal plants:

The number of medicinal plants documented during cross-cultural

ethnobotanical exercise among three ethnic groups (Karbi, Tiwa

and Pnar) of Karbi Anglong district, Assam is presented in Table 1.

The result shows 201 medicinal plants under 173 genera and

belonging to 74 botanical families are used by the ethnic groups.

The result also reveals greater number of medicinal plants have

been recorded among the Karbi with 184 species (91%) followed

by the Pnar and Tiwa with 41 (20.4%) and 34 (16.9%) plants

respectively (Fig. 2). This unequal distribution of plant knowledge

probably may be attributed to prevalence of Karbi settlements all

over the district and access to more natural resources than the

Tiwa and Pnar who have restricted distribution in the district. The

list of medicinal plants included four members of pteridophytes

namely Hippochaete debilis (Equisetaceae), Helminthostachys zeylanica (Ophioglossaceae), Pyrosia obovata (Polypodiaceae) and

Amblovenatum opulentum (Thelypteridaceae). The family Leguminosae has largest representation with thirteen species.

Cross-cultural perspective of medicinal plant exploitation:

Medicinal plants are used for management of various ailments or

disease conditions and there is variation in distribution of

medicinal plant knowledge across culture. While the Karbi use

184 medicinal plants for health management, the Tiwa and Pnar

people use 34 and 41 medicinal plants respectively. The list of

medicinal plants however, is not exhaustive as many medicinal

plants may still remain to be recorded. Recognition of plants as

medicinal varies as also the use of same plant for different

ailments. However, there is certain amount of overlapping of

medicinal use of plants among the people- 23 (11.4%) plants

between Karbi-Tiwa, 28 (13.9%) plants between Karbi-Pnar and

13 (6.5%) medicinal plants between Tiwa-Pnar. Thirteen plants

have common use for healthcare among the three ethnic groups

studied. A total of 22 disease conditions/ailments have been

categorised and the number of medicinal plants recorded for each

category is given in parenthesis (Fig. 3) - body pain (03), ulcer (01),

gastrointestinal problems (44), antipyretic (14), urinary problems

(09), masticatory (02), cosmetics (01), piles (01), tonic (02),

galactagogue (02), beverage (10), gynaecology (04), antidote (24),

cuts & wounds (22), anti-inflammatory (10), insecticide (09),

antihelminthic (02), dermatitis/allergy (12), analgesic (20),

appetizer/food additive (17), cold & cough (10) and jaundice (16).

Plant medicines are administered through one of these methods:

topical or local application, oral therapy, aroma therapy, bathing

and charms. Two plants namely Allium sativum and Schefflera venulosa are used in magico-religious practices for negation of evil influence. Among other significant results, is dietary use of

medicinal plants though the consumers may be ignorant about the

health benefits of such edible medicinal plants. In the present

study also 85 (42.3%) medicinal plants are exploited as food. This

result reiterates the food-medicine nexus and the blurred

boundary between the two use categories. It also suggests the

health benefits of traditional foods and the pressing need for

investigation of edible wild plants and their management by

indigenous people around the world.

Figure 2. Utilization of medicinal plant among Karbi, Tiwa and

Pnar of Karbi Anglong, Assam.

Figure 3. Medicinal plants by ethnic groups of Karbi Anglong, Assam for management of various ailments.



Table 1. Diversity of medicinal plants used by ethnic groups of Karbi Anglong district, Assam.

Sl. no. Medicinal Plants Parts used Prescription

Karbi Tiwa Pnar

ACANTHACEAE

1 Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. Leaf Stomachache & fever

2 Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Kuntze Leaf Antidote for dog bite

3 Eranthemum suffruticosum Roxb. Lead Skin infection

4 Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. Root Antidote

5 Justicia comata (L.) Lam. Leaf Ringworm

6 Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis (Hardw.) Mabb. Flower Stomach pain Stomachache, dysentery Stomachache, fever

7 Thunbergia grandiflora (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Roxb. Leaf, stem Antidote; sore eye Blood coagulant

ACHARIACEAE

8 Gynocardia odorata R. Br. Fruit Insecticide

9 Hydnocarpus kurzii (King) Warb. Fruit Insecticide

ACORACEAE

10 Acorus calamus L. Rhizome Constipation Constipation Constipation, stomachache

AMARYLLIDACEAE

11 Allium sativum L. Leaf Snake & spider bites, cuts & wounds Sleeplessnes, condiment Condiment, caterpillar antidote

12 Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng. Leaf Appetizer

ANACARDIACEAE

13 Mangifera indica L. Fruit Dysentery Antidote

14 Rhus chinensis Mill. Fruit Constipation, dysentery

APIACEAE

15 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Leaf Constipation Constipation and gastritis

16 Coriandrum sativum L. Stem Jaundice

17 Eryngium foetidum L. Leaf Appetizer, condiment Flavour Flavor

APOCYNACEAE

18 Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don Bark, latex Dysentery; cut & wound

19 Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Root Fever, cough, stomach pain Stomach ailments Stomachache, fever

20 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. Bark Stomachache

ARACEAE

21 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Petiole Cuts & wound

22 Homalomena aromatica (Spreng.) Schott Rhizome Influenza

23 Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites Root, rhizome Jaundice

ARALIACEAE

24 Aralia armata (Wall. ex G.Don) Seem. Leaf Appetizer

25 Schefflera venulosa (Wight & Arn.) Harms Stem Negation of evil spirit

ARECACEAE

26 Areca catechu L. Fruit Food additive

27 Caryota urens L. Shoot Food additive



ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

28 Aristolochia indica L. Root Stomachache Stomachache

29 Aristolochia saccata Wall. Leaf, root Stomachache; fever; sprain & fracture Dysentery Constipation, stomachache

ASCLEPIADACEAE

30 Hoya globulosa Hk. f. Leaf Wound & cut

31 Marsdenia tinctoria R. Br. Leaf Dog bite

ASPARAGACEAE

32 Dracaena angustifolia (Medik.) Roxb. Leaf Cut & wound

BALSAMINACEAE

33 Impatiens balsamina L. Flower Anti-leech Infection of fingers

BASELLACEAE

34 Basella alba L. Whole plant Jaundice

BEGONIACEAE

35 Begonia roxburghii A.DC. Rhizome Dermatitis Skin infection

36 Begonia hatacoa Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Rhizome Cut & wound; dysentery

37 Begonia thomsonii A.DC. Rhizome Cuts & burns Plant dermatitis

BIGNONIACEAE

38 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz. Bark, leaf Jaundice; stomachache Stomachache

BRASIICACEAE

39 Brassica sp. (Jangho) Seed Drowsiness

CAMPANULACEAE

40 Lobelia nummularia Lam. Fruit Headache

CAPPARACEAE

41 Crateva religiosa G.Forst. Bark Urinary complaints

CARICACEAE

42 Carica papaya L. Fruit Food additive Food additive

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

43 Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. Whole plant Dysentery, stomachache

CHLORANTHACEAE

44 Chloranthus elatior Link Leaf Smooth delivery

CLUSIACEAE

45 Garcinia lanceifolia Roxb. Leaf, fruit Pox Dysentery

46 Garcinia pedunculata Roxb. ex Buch.-Ham. Pericarp Antidote Dysentery

COMBRETACEAE

47 Combretum album Pers. Bark Masticatory

48 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Fruit Constipation; dysentery

49 Terminalia chebula Retz. Fruit Stomachache; cough, fever, flu

COMMELINACEAE

50 Floscopa scandens Lour. Shoot Smooth child delivery

COMPOSITAE



51 Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. Leaf Cuts & wounds Cuts & wounds Cuts & wounds

52 Bidens pilosa L. Fruit Beverage

53 Conyza japonica (Thunb.) Less. Whole plant Insect repellant

54 Elephantopus scaber L. Whole plant, root Fracture Stomach pain

55 Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex DC. Tender shoot Dysentery

56 Eupatorium cannabinum L. Leaf Skin infection

57 Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. Leaf Cut & wound

58 Mikania micrantha Kunth Leaf Blood coagulant

59 Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) R.K.Jansen. Head Toothache

60 Tagetes erecta L. Shoot Jaundice

61 Vernonia sp. Leaf Energy booster for pregnant woman

CONVOLVULACEAE

62 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Stem Jaundice

CRASSULACEAE

63 Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken. Leaf Gall bladder stone

CUCURBITACEAE

64 Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. Fruit Fever

65 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Tuber Stomachache

66 Cucumis melo L. Fruit Fever

67 Cucumis sativus L. Fruit Urinary complaints

68 Cucurbita moschata Duchense Leaf Fracture & sprain

69 Cucurbita pepo L. Fruit Urinary problem

70 Gymnopetalum chinense (Lour.) Merr. Fruit Dysentery

71 Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Blume) Cogn. Fruit dysentery

72 Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. Leaf Wasp sting; fracture

DIOSCOREACEAE

73 Dioscorea alata L. Tuber Snake & spider bites

74 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Bulbil Snake bite

75 Dioscorea hispida Dennst. Tuber Insecticide

DIPTEROCARPACEAE

76 Shorea robusta Gaertn. Root Wound healing

77 Vatica lancaefolia (Roxburgh) Blume Bark Dysentery

EQUISETACEAE

78 Hippochaete debilis (Roxb. ex Vaucher) Ching Leaf Jaundice

EUPHORBIACEAE

79 Croton joufra Roxb. Leaf Beverage

80 Baliospermum solanifolium (Burm.) Suresh Leaf Beverage

81 Croton tiglium L. Fruit Clear bowels

82 Euphorbia hirta L. Tender shoot Galactagogue

83 Jatropha curcas L. Leaf, latex Headache; wound & cut Toothache; blood coagulant



84 Ricinus communis L. Leaf Headache

85 Tragia involucrata L. Root Intestinal worms

HYPHOXIDACEAE

86 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Rhizome Blood clotting, relieve pain

LAMIACEAE

87 Clinopodium umbrosum (M.Bieb.) Kuntze Leaf Condiment Condiment

88 Elsholtzia strobelifera (Benth.) Benth. Seed Condiment Flavor

89 Pogostemon linearis (Benth.) Kuntze Whole plant Headache

90 Ocimum killimandscharicum Gurke Leaf Condiment; insecticide Curry flavor Flavor, insecticide

91 Pogostemon pubescens Benth. Leaf Bodyache

92 Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb. Leaf, flower Stomachache

93 Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Leaf Ringworm

94 Gmelina arborea Roxb. Flower, fruit Stomachache Toe infection

95 Premna pinguis C.B.Clarke. Tuber Toothache

96 Premna mollissima Roth Leaf Insecticide

97 Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm. Leaf Flavor

LECYTHIDACEAE

98 Careya arborea Roxb. Root Dysentery Diarrhoea, blood dysentery

LEGUMINOSAE

99 Erythrina stricta Roxb. Flower Tonic

100 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Leaf Ringworm

101 Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Shoot Jaundice

102 Crotalaria pallida Aiton Root Anti-inflammatory

103 Derris elliptica (Wall.) Benth. Leaf, root Antidote; ringworm

104 Hylodesmum podocarpum subsp. oxyphyllum (DC.)

H.Ohashi & R.R.Mill

Root Fracture

105 Entada rheedii Spreng. Seed Wound

106 Indigofera tinctoria L. Leaf Insecticide

107 Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet Root Jaundice

108 Mimosa pudica L. Root Jaundice; oral contraceptive Boils

109 Mucuna nigricans (Lour.) Steud. Seed Fever & cough

110 Tamarindus indica L. Leaf, fruit Antidote

111 Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. Bark Beverage

LINDERIACEAE

112 Picria fel-terrae Lour. Whole plant Fever Stomach pain, fever

MALVACEAE

113 Bombax ceiba L. Root Cough, urinary complaints

114 Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Whole plant Antidote, analgesic Antidote

115 Sterculia villosa Roxb. Bark Hydrocele

MARANTACEAE



116 Maranta arundinacea L. Rhizome Galactagogue Galactagogue

117 Phrynium pubinerve Blume Root Ear pain

MELIACEAE

118 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Leaf Pox

119 Dysoxylum gotadhora (Buch.-Ham.) Mabb. Seed Leprosy

MORACEAE

120 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Leaf, bark Beverage; masticatory

121 Ficus religiosa L. Bark Jaundice

122 Morus australis Poir. Fruit Urinary problems

MUSACEAE

123 Musa balbisiana Coola Fruit, sap Loose motion; cut & wound

124 Musa paradisiaca L. Sap Blood coagulant

125 Musa velutina H.Wendl. & Drude Sap Blood coagulant

MYRTACEAE

126 Myrcia bracteata (Rich.) DC. Leaf Beverage

127 Psidium guajava L. Shoot Dysentery Stomachache

NYCTAGINACEAE

128 Mirabilis jalapa L. Leaf Millipede bite

OLACACEAE

129 Erythropalum scandens Blume Bark Piles

130 Olax acuminata Wall. ex Benth. Leaf Body ache

ONAGRACEAE

131 Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell Twig Foot infection

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE

132 Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. Root Millipede bite

ORCHIDACEAE

133 Bulbophyllum sp. Pseudobulb Wound & sprain Dysentery

134 Papilionanthe teres (Roxb.) Schltr. Stem Wound

OXALIDACEAE

135 Averrhoa carambola L. Fruit Jaundice Jaundice

PANDANACEAE

136 Pandanus minimus H.St.John Leaf Flavor

PASSIFLORACEAE

137 Passiflora foetida L. Fruit Tongue sore

PEDALIACEAE

138 Sesamum indicum L. Leaf, seed Hair wash; appetizer Condiment Food additive, plant dermatitis

PHYLLANTHACEAE

139 Phyllanthus fraternus G.L.Webster Whole plant Jaundice

140 Phyllanthus emblica L. Bark Stomachache

PIPERACEAE



141 Piper nigrum L. Fruit Dog bite Toothache

142 Piper sp. Leaf Caterpillar allergy

PLANTAGINACEAE

143 Scoparia dulcis L. Leaf Colic pain; malaria; foot infection

PLUMBAGINACEAE

144 Plumbago indica L. Root Ringworm

145 Plumbago zeylanica L. Root Ringworm

POACEAE

146 Bambusa species Shoot Food additive

147 Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Leaf Beverage

148 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Whole plant Jaundice

149 Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Ness & Arn. ex Munro Shoot Food additive

150 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf Tuber Pharyngitis

151 Oryza sativa L. Grain Allergy; galactagogue

152 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. Shoot Jaundice

153 Saccharum officinarum L. Stem juice Jaundice Jaundice Jaundice

154 Setaria sp. (Taradung) Shoot Hiccup

POLYGONACEAE

155 Polygonum affine D. Don Leaf Sinus; ulcer; antidote

156 Polygonum microcephalum D. Don Leaf Mushroom poisoning Antidote Wound

POLYPODIACEAE

157 Pyrrosia obovata (Bl.) Ching Leaf Blood coagulant

RUBIACEAE

158 Coffea benghalensis B.Heyne ex Schult. Root Antidote for dog bite

159 Hedyotis scandens Roxb. Whole plant Beverage

160 Ixora thwaitesii Hook.f. Leaf Wound; analgesic after child birth Wound healing Waist pain; urinary problems

161 Ophiorrhiza ochroleuca Hook. f. Leaf Cut & wound

162 Paederia foetida Roxb. Leaf Constipation; urinary problems; jaundice

163 Morinda anguistifolia Roxb. Leaf Giddiness; urinary problems; dysentery; fever; toothache

RUTACEAE

164 Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa Fruit Constipation, apptizer

165 Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle Leaf Condiment

166 Citrus hystrix DC. Rind Condiment

167 Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. Rind Antidote

168 Citrus medica L. Rind Antidote

169 Citrus paradisi Macfad. Rind Antidote

170 Micromelum minutum (Forst. f.) Wt. & Arn. Stem Dysentery; to hasten process of delivery

171 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spr. Leaf Stomachache

172 Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack Root Labour pain; body pain; stomachache



173 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Shoot, root Intestinal worms; fever, cough Cough, fever Flavor, ringworm

SALICACEAE

174 Xylosma longifolia Clos Bark Dysentery

SAINDACEAE

175 Aesculus assamica Griff. Leaf Ear sore

SAURURACEAE

176 Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Leaf Bodyache

SIMAROUBACEAE

177 Brucea mollis Wall. ex Kurz Fruit, root Fever, dysentery

178 Picrasma javanica Blume Fruit Digestion

SOLANACEAE

179 Capsicum annuum L. Leaf, fruit Dysentery; stomach pain

180 Datura metel L. Fruit Dog bite

181 Physalis peruviana L. Fruit Analgesic

182 Solanum aculeatissinum Jacq. Fruit Toothache; insecticide

183 Solanum ferox L. Fruit Toothache

184 Solanum americanum Mill. Leaf Urinary problem; blood pressure

185 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Fruit Toothache

STERCULIACEAE

186 Rhamnus nepalensis (WaUich) M. Lawson Fruit Headache

THEACEAE

187 Camellia kissi Wall. Leaf Beverage

THELYPTERIDACEAE

188 Amblovenatum opulentum J.P. Roux Leaf Headache, rheumatism

THYMELAECEAE

189 Linostoma decandrum (Roxb.) Wall. ex Meisn. Root Ringworm

VITACEAE

190 Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Root Expectorant

191 Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Gangnep. Leaf Antidote

192 Cissus quadrangularis L. Leaf, Stem Fracture & sprain Cut & wound

ZINGIBERACEAE

193 Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansf. Rhizome Appetizer, fever

194 Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. Rhizome Cough, flu & phryngitis

195 Amomum koenigii J.F.Gmel. Leaf Beverage

196 Cheilocostus speciosus (J.Koenig) C.D.Specht Rhizome Snake bite

197 Curcuma caesia Roxb. Rhizome Dysentery

198 Curcuma longa L. Rhizome Cut & wound, antiseptic

199 Hedychium coronarium J. Koenig Rhizome Snake bite

200 Kaempferia galanga L. Rhizome Dog & pig bites; condiment Flavor

201 Zingiber officinale Roscoe Leaf, rhizome Condiment; cough, fever, flu Flavor, sprain



Conclusion

Today, traditional knowledge of indigenous people is at risk from

globalization and technology development. Acculturation and

systematic displacement of indigenous people from their natural

habitats may coerce people to abandon their traditional practices

and custom for western culture. There is need for more

aggressive ethnobotanical exploration among traditional societies

in various ecological regions of the world before their ingenious

plant knowledge is rendered to oblivion (Prance, 1991). One

apparent advantage of cross-cultural ethnobotanical study is it

can reflect the pattern of plant use in different societies and

exchange of local knowledge (dynamism) besides biodiversity

exploration, exploitation and conservation. It has implications for

protection of intellectual property of vulnerable indigenous

people. Ethnobotanical research should avoid misappropriation of

their resourceful knowledge instead give due recognition and

share benefits arising out of the research. The role of ethnobotany

in drug discovery is acknowledged by one and all (Cox and Balick,

1994: Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001). Ethnobotany touches all

levels of biodiversity (genetic, species and ecosystem) including

subspecific categories of plants and thus, it can be a practical tool

for exploration, utilization and conservation of biodiversity in an

area or region.

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