critical thinking a literature review
TRANSCRIPT
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Table of Contents
I. General Definitions of Critical Thinking2II. Misrepresentations about Critical Thinking3III. Critical Thinking and Information ProcessingIV. Critical Thinking and Education.V. Critical Thinking for Science EducationVI. Critical Thinking for Agricultural Education.VII. Critical Studies in Critical ThinkingVIII. Critical Thinking Skills vs. Dispositions.IX. Critical Thinking SkillsX. Critical Thinking Dispositions.XI. Discipline-specific Critical ThinkingXII. Predictors and Correlates of Critical Thinking Skill.XIII. Teaching for Critical Thinking..XIV. The Need for Critical Thinking in Biotechnology Education...XV. References.
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General Defi ni tions of Cri tical Thinking
Over the last several decades, critical thinking has been discussed and contemplated in
educational circles. Many definitions of critical thinking have been offered. In 1991, Pascarella
and Terenzini compiled several definitions, stating that critical thinking typically involves the
individuals ability to do some or all of the following: identify central issues and assumptions in
an argument, recognize important relationships, make correct inferences from data, deduce
conclusions from information or data provided, interpret whether conclusions are warranted on
the basis of the data given, and evaluate evidence or authority (p. 118).
Critical thinking involves the formation of logical inferences (Simon & Kaplan, 1989).
Some scholars and educators erroneously assume critical thinking to be higher order thinking or
cognitive processing (Paul, 1994). According to Elder and Paul (1994), Critical thinking is best
understood as the ability of thinkers to take charge of their own thinking. This requires that they
develop sound criteria and standards for analyzing and assessing their own thinking and
routinely use those criteria and standards to improve its quality.
Critical thinking can be set apart from problem solving (Hedges, 1991) in that problem
solving is a linear process of evaluation, while critical thinking is a comprehensive set of abilities
allowing the inquirer to properly facilitate each stage of the linear problem-solving process.
According to Chafee (1988) critical thinking is "our active, purposeful, and organized
efforts to make sense of our world by carefully examining our thinking, and the thinking of
others, in order to clarify and improve our understanding" (p.29). According to Halpern (1989)
critical thinking is "thinking that is purposeful, reasoned and goal directed. It is the kind of
thinking involved, in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and
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making decisions" (p. 5). Simply put, critical thinking is the "reasonable and reflective thinking
that is focused upon deciding what to believe or do" (Norris & Ennis, 1989, p. 18).
Misrepresentations about Cri tical Thinking
Critical thinking is looked at and viewed in many different ways. To gain a more
complete understanding of critical thinking, it is useful to look at what critical thinking is not.
Critical thinking is not about being superior to someone else. It is different from problem
solving, and it is not higher order thinking or cognitive processing. Many scholars engage in,
what Richard Paul refers to as pseudo critical thinking, which is a form of intellectual
arrogance masked in self-delusion or deception, in which thinking is deeply flawed (1994, p.
14). Other well-meaning educators simply use the term critical thinking in place of other types
of information processing that are very similar to, but at the same time different from critical
thinking, such as problem solving.
Dr. Lowell Hedges (1991) is one researcher who understood the difference between
problem solving and critical thinking. He contended that problem solving is a linear process of
evaluation, while critical thinking is an overlying set of abilities that allow the inquirer to
properly facilitate each stage of the linear problem-solving process.
Chart of Hedges views on critical thinking and problem solving .
Critical Thinking Problem Solving
1. The ability to identify and formulateproblems, as well as the ability to solve
them.
1. Recognizing a problem situation.
2. The ability to recognize and use inductivereasoning, as well as the ability to solve
them.
2. Defining the problem
3. The ability to draw reasonableconclusions from information found in
various sources, whether written, spoken,tabular, or graphic, and to defend ones
3. The ability to comprehend, develop, and useconcepts and generalizations.
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conclusions rationally.
4. The ability to comprehend, develop, anduse concepts and generalizations.
4. Testing hypotheses and gathering data.
5. The ability to distinguish between factand opinion.
5. Revising hypotheses and testing revised ornew hypotheses.
6. Forming a conclusion.
Cri tical Thinking and Inquir y-based Learning inEducation
Since education is our principal means of preparing students our future citizens for
an active and responsible life within our technologically-based society, school at all levels should
become the focus for the fostering/development of critical thinking (Costa, 1991). According to
Nelson (1994), Enabling students to think critically is one of the central objectives of liberal and
professional education.
Critical thinking in education calls on students to evaluate their own thought process
(Kalman, 2002). Critical thinking accompanies a movement in education toward inquiry-based
or problem-based learning. According to Schamel and Ayres (1992), s tudents learn best by
doing, or preparing their own questions based on their observations rather than participating in a
predetermined exercise with a forgone conclusion.
Students are fully engaged in learning and cooperative group learning helps students
interact with one another (Ahern-Rindell, 1999).
Critical Thinki ng for Agricultural Education
Agricultural educators have attempted to study critical thinking as it relates to levels of
cognition, learning styles, distance education, pre-service teacher preparation, and critical
thinking dispositions at secondary and post-secondary levels. Rollins (1990) used the Cornell
Critical Thinking test, which is not subject-specific to determine the critical thinking of high
school agriculture students (n = 668) in Iowa. He found that seniors were better critical thinkers
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than sophomores, that reading score accounted for 28% of the variance in critical thinking, and
that GPA and leadership positions accounted for 2%.
Many of the critical thinking studies in agricultural education deal with levels of
cognition and higher order thinking. Cano and Martinez (1991), who simply defined critical
thinking as A set of thinking skills needed to answer a particular question (p. 24) sought to (1)
determine the cognitive level of performance of Ohio agricultural education students (n = 385) as
measured by the Developing Cognitive Abilities Test (DCAT), (2) the critical thinking ability of
agricultural education students as determined by the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal
(W-GCTA), and the relationship between DCAT and W-GCTA scores. All of the students
scored the lowest on the critical thinking portion of the DCAT. Additionally, Cano and Martinez
found a linear relationship between critical thinking and grade level as measured by the DCAT.
In their study, all students were found to score the lowest on the Inference sub-skill as measured
by W-GCTA, and again, 12th grade students scored higher on critical thinking than all of the
others. In 1993, Cano used the DCAT and the W-GCTA and found that agricultural education
students scored at higher levels of cognition than the average of other disciplines.
Torres and Cano (1995) also used the DCAT with a random sample of agricultural
students (n = 196) from The Ohio State University. They also found that (1) the students scored
the lowest on the critical thinking portion of the DCAT and that (2) there was no significant
difference in critical thinking accounting for gender. Torres (1999) also introduced baseline
information regarding preservice teachers. He reported that preservice teachers are more likely
to emphasize basic and application thinking skills and abilities than skills and abilities requiring
critical thinking.
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Whittington (1995, 2000), who concentrates on higher order thinking because she
believes it is a key component of critical thinking has studied faculty and critical thinking. In a
study of 28 faculty at the University of Idaho she found that faculty members (1) wanted to teach
at all levels of cognition, (2) actually taught at low levels of thinking 98% of the time actually,
(2) aspired to teach at levels higher than where they were assessed, (4) had favorable attitudes
toward teaching at higher levels of cognition, and that (5) faculty who had experienced more
educational activities held more favorable attitudes towards teaching at higher cognitive levels.
Whittington (1997) has also shown that the factor having the greatest effect on thinking
opportunities was the instructor.
Torres and Cano (1995b) and Rudd, Baker, and Hoover (2000) hypothesized critical
thinking was related to learning styles using the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT). Torres
and Cano found that learning style predicted 9% of the variance in critical thinking and Rudd,
Baker, et al found no significant difference between learning style and critical thinking. The
definition of critical thinking Rudd, Baker, et al provided for critical thinking is noteworthy.
They defined critical thinking as A reasoned, purposive, and introspective approach to solving
problems or addressing questions with incomplete evidence and information for which an
incontrovertible solution is unlikely (p. 5).
Whether or not distance education delivery methods are effective ways to teacher critical
thinking has also been a evaluated by some agricultural educators. Miller and Pilcher (1999)
found that instructors taught at the same levels of instruction for teaching critical thinking in
traditional and off-campus courses. Ricketts, Irani, and Joness (in press) results generally
supported the contention that distance learners were not significantly different than traditional
learners with respect to perceptions of course effectiveness, opportunities to think critically and
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critical thinking disposition; however, traditional learners were significantly different from
distance learners in terms of change in some critical thinking disposition subscale factors,
including truth-seeking and inquisitiveness.
Cri tical Thinking and Science Education
A current theme in science teaching reform is the emphasis on active, inquiry-based
teaching and learning (National Research Council, 1996). Inquiry-based learning is a method of
instruction focusing on the student and their ability to design a process for use in solving a
problem, requiring higher levels of cognition (Uno, 1999). While inquiry-based learning takes
the focus away from memorization of specific scientific concepts, there is supporting evidence
that students learn as much factual information as they would in a traditional lecture/lab setting
(Gabel, 1994). However, inquiry students tend to retain the information longer (Gabel, 1994)
and usually experience higher self-efficacy and process skills than students in traditional science
courses (Ebert-May, Brewer, and Allred, 1997).
The case has been made for teaching critical thinking skills in school. Science
classrooms provide many opportunities for inquiry-based or problem-based learning. However,
in order for this inquiry-based learning to happen, changes must take place in science classrooms
to move away from rote and passive application of learned formulas toward the use of critical
thinking as the primary tool of learning (Zoller, Ben-Chaim, and Ron, 2000).
Cri tical Thinking for Biotechnology Education
One of the difficulties associated with attempting to develop greater understanding of
biotechnology among our students is that the science is relatively sophisticated, rapidly
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changing, and often difficult for students to grasp. Further complicating the educational process
is the fact that studies have suggested that most consumers get their information on
biotechnology from the media (Hoban, 1998). Indeed, studies indicate that most of the public's
information about biotechnology comes from the mass media, even though their level of trust in
what they learn is relatively low (Hallman & Metcalf, 1995). This is true of agricultural
educators as well. In a study of teachers of agriculture from three southern states, Iverson (1998)
found that the major source for information about biotechnology was the mass media, primarily
newspapers. On the other hand, respondents felt their most trustedsource of information about
biotechnology was the land grant university.
Despite these challenges, some university-level agricultural educators have begun
teaching courses solely focused on biotechnology and/or to include it as a course topic in agri-
sciences curricula. Arguably, the ultimate objective of such educational efforts among
agricultural institutions of higher learning is to enhance understanding and acceptance of food
biotechnology. But how can we determine whether or not these objectives are actually being
achieved? As agricultural educators, we may have the educational objective of wanting our
students to know more about the science associated with biotechnology, its benefits, perceived
risks, and attendant potential social issues. But while we can measure knowledge acquisition
based on exposure to information, that does not necessarily inform us of actionable outcomes
associated with values, belief systems, attitude formation, and change.
The literature has consistently shown that simple exposure to information will not
necessarily influence knowledge, attitude or change behavior (Rogers, 1995; Salwen & Sacks,
1997; Goldberg, Fishbein & Middlestadt, 1997). As nationally known biotechnology educator
Thomas Zinnen (2000) has pointed out, however, there is a distinction that needs to be made
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between individual understanding of biotechnology and acceptance of biotechnology-derived
products. For one to lead to the other may require higher order thinking and evaluation that
operates beyond mere exposure to factual information in the classroom or elsewhere. Therefore,
it may not be enough to produce educational curricula and conduct instruction that contain
balanced, fact-based, objective information in an attempt to raise awareness and enhance
knowledge acquisition. It may be equally important to determine how to develop such
instruction so as to specifically focus on enhancing a students ability to think and reason
critically about biotechnology. This would have the added benefit of ensuring that our future
graduates in the food and agricultural sciences are equipped with strong reasoning and thinking
skills that will help them act, communicate and educate effectively about this important topic.
According to Howe and Warren (1989), science or environmental education topics, such
as biotechnology, provide a good mechanism for developing critical thinking skills for several
reasons. First, science education provides topics and problems that cut across the school
curriculum and can improve the integration of knowledge. Second, science education provides
real issues that can be studied or simulated. Last, science education topics can be adjusted to the
developmental levels of students.
Cri tical Studies in Criti cal Thinking
The Delphi Study
Peter Facione (1990) conducted a Delphi study, which will be described in the next
section where a group of critical thinking experts drafted the following definition of critical
thinking (CT). They concluded:
"We understand critical thinking to be purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in
interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential,
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conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that
judgment is based. CT is essential as a tool of inquiry. As such, CT is a liberating force in
education and a powerful resource in one's personal and civic life. While not synonymous with
good thinking, CT is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded,
flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making
judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent is
seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and
persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and circumstances will permit.
Thus, educating good critical thinkers means working toward this ideal. It combines developing
CT skills with nurturing those dispositions which consistently yield useful insights and which are
the basis of a rational and democratic society" (p. 3).
The multiple definitions of critical thinking and confusion concerning its specificity led
to the need for further refinement of the composition of the critical thinking construct. Facione
(1990) assembled a group of forty individuals (52% from Philosophy, 22% from Education, 20%
from Social Sciences, 6% from Physical Sciences) recognized by their colleagues as having
special experience and expertise in CT instruction, assessment, or theory. Facione (1990)
employed the powerful qualitative research methodology known as the Delphi Method was used
to develop the theoretical framework used for this study. The Delphi study (Facione, 1990),
which ran from February of 1988 until November of 1989, consisted of six rounds of questions
and response. The findings of the Delphi Report are as follows:
1. Critical thinking includes the dimensions of skill and disposition.2. There was consensus that critical thinking could be improved in several ways. The
experts agreed that a person could critically examine and evaluate one's own
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reasoning processes, that they could learn how to think more objectively and
logically, that they could expand their repertoire of those more specialized procedures
and criteria used in different areas of human thought and inquiry, and that they could
increase their base of information and life experience (p. 4).
3. "While CT skills themselves transcend specific subjects or disciplines, exercisingthem successfully in certain contexts demands domain-specific knowledge, some of
which may concern specific methods and techniques used to make reasonable
judgments in those specific contexts"(p. 5).
4. "There is a critical spirit, a probing inquisitiveness, a keenness of mind, a zealousdedication to reason, and a hunger or eagerness for reliable information which good
critical thinkers possess but weak critical thinkers do not seem to have...the affective
dispositions are necessary for the CT skills identified to take root and to flourish in
students" (p. 11).
5. "It is inappropriate use of the term to deny that someone is engaged in CT on thegrounds that one disapproves ethically of what the person is doing. What 'CT' means,
why it is of value, and the ethics of its use are best regarded as three distinct
concerns" (p. 12).
6. "A good critical thinker...is habitually disposed to engage in, and to encourage othersto engage in a wide range of contexts and for a wide variety of purposes. Although
perhaps not always uppermost in mind, the rational justification for cultivating those
affective dispositions which characterize the paradigm critical thinker are soundly
grounded in CT's personal and civic value. CT is known to contribute to the fair-
minded analysis and resolution of questions. CT is a powerful tool in the search for
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knowledge. CT can help people overcome the blind, sophistic, or irrational defense
of intellectually defective or biased opinions. CT promotes rational autonomy,
intellectual freedom and the objective, reasoned and evidence-based investigation of a
very wide range of personal and social issues and concerns" (p. 13).
Many of the findings of the Delphi study are addressed in one way or another in this
investigation. The first finding as stated above indicated that critical thinking includes the
dimensions of skill and disposition. This consensual agreement among the experts was a
reiterated point of critical thinking scholars preceding them (Dewey 1933; Norris and Ennis
1989), but Facione (1990) and his group of experts went a step further. They identified a set of
specific skills and sub-skills for the skill dimension and a specific set of attitudes for the
disposition dimension (Facione 1990).
Critical Thinking Skil ls
The critical thinking skills that were identified by the panel of experts were used in this
study because they most closely matched the definition of critical thinking that we have adopted
for this study, which was "Critical thinking is a reasoned, purposive, and introspective approach
to solving problems or addressing questions with incomplete evidence and information and for
which an incontrovertible solution is unlikely" (Rudd, Baker et al. 2000), p. 5) and because
subsequent studies have been conducted to validate their usage (Facione 1990; Jones, Hoffman et
al. 1994; Jones, Hoffman et al. 1995; Giancarlo 1996; Giancarlo 1996).
Faciones study (1990) concluded that at the very core of critical thinking are
interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self- regulation. Inference is
comprehending and expressing meaning about a wide variety of experiences, beliefs, procedures,
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rules, etc. Analysis was found to be about identifying the relationship between statements,
questions, concepts or descriptions to express beliefs, judgments or reasons. The experts thought
that evaluation was about assessing credibility of statements and representations of others as well
as assessing the logical strength of statements, descriptions or questions. Inference was found to
be the ability to draw reasonable conclusions and/or hypotheses based on facts, judgments,
beliefs, principles, concepts or other forms of representation. The experts in the Delphi study
found explanation to be about stating and justifying the results of one's reasoning using each of
the aforementioned abilities. Self-regulation, the last skill was found to be the ability of an
individual to monitor their own personal cognitive activities to make sure that they are engaged
in critical thinking.
Several studies have been conducted to confirm the Delphi consensus statement. The
1990 Delphi report describing the ideal critical thinker was put to the test by Giancarlo (1996)
using the California-Q sort method, which was a technique derived from the work of Block
(1961). A national expert panel concerning critical thinking sorted 100 Q-sort items to achieve a
result that would characterize the ideal critical thinker. The results would validate the critical
thinking skills identified in the theoretical framework in this study. The following study would
secure national recognition of the viability of critical thinking skills.
Jones, Hoffman, Moore, Ratcliff, Tibetts, and Click (1995; 1994) further validated the
use of critical thinking skills through a 1993/1994 national survey and replication study
conducted by the National Center for Higher Education Teaching, Learning and Assessment at
The Pennsylvania State University. As a result of this study skills, along with dispositions
became recommended outcomes of post-secondary education.
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Cri tical Thinking Dispositions
Critical thinking is dependent upon a persons disposition to use it (Paul , 1992).
Disposition to think critically can be defined as consistent willingness, motivation, inclination
and an intention to be engaged in critical thinking while reflecting on significant issues, making
decisions and solving problems (Facione et al. 1995, Facione et al. 1997). According to Zoller,
Ben-Chaim and Ron (2000), a students disposition to think critically is a necessary pre-
condition for critical thinking and greatly affects critical thinking capability.
In developing the widely used Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, Glaser (1941)
defined critical thinking as the "(1) attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the
problems and subjects that come within the range of one's experiences, (2) knowledge of the
methods of logical inquiry and reasoning and (3) some skill in applying those methods" (p. 5-6).
Later, in 1997, Taube reported statistical and empirical evidence of skills and dispositions, two
distinct factors of critical thinking.
Experts continue to agree that critical thinking includes the dimensions of skill and
disposition (Dewey 1933; Norris and Ennis 1989). In 1990, Facione and his group of experts
identified a set of specific skills and sub-skills for the skill dimension and a specific set of
attitudes for the disposition dimension (Facione 1990). Facione (2001) developed the CCTDI
(California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory), in order to measure these skills, sub-skills
and attitudes. The constructs used are Truth-Seeking, Open-mindedness, Analyticity,
Systematicity, Self-confidence, Inquisitiveness, and Maturity (Facione, Facione et al. 2001). The
following construct descriptions are from the CCTDI test manual (Facione, Facione, &
Giancarlo, 1996).
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1. Analyticity targets the disposition of being alert to potentially problematic situations andanticipating possible results or consequences.
2. Self-confidence refers to the level of trust one places in ones own reasoning process.3. Inquisitiveness is innate curiousness about acquiring information and which motivates the
message recipient to learn more.
4. Maturity addresses cognitive Maturity and mature thinkers are disposed to approachproblems, inquiry and decision making realizing that some situations have more than one
plausible option and that decisions must sometimes be made without the benefit of
having all the relevant information about the situation.
5. Open-mindedness addresses the state of respecting the right of others with differingopinions.
6. Systemacity targets the disposition to being organized, orderly, focused and diligent inseeking information.
7. Truth-seekingdescribes thinkers who are eager to seek the truth even if the results do notsupport ones own interests or preconceived opinions.
Although Faciones work has seemingly been the only attempt at measuring critical thinking
dispositions, its validity has been brought into questions by a study conducted by Moore, Rudd,
and Penfield (submitted for publication). This study examined the reliability of the subscales of
the CCTDI as well as the factor strength of the whole instrument. During factor analysis, the
data obtained in the Moore, Rudd, et al study did not fit the seven scale structure outlined by
Facione and associates (Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo). Analysis of the seven factor structure
resulted in only 51 of the 75 items on the instrument with factor loadings greater than .30 and
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four to 11 items loading on seven factors. The seven factor structure had a sum of Eigenvalues
of 25.33 and explained 27.2% of the variance.
Di scipl ine-specifi c Cri tical Thinking
While critical thinking skill and disposition can be defined as separate entities, both are
thought to be open to educational influence, particularly when meaningfully, contextually bound
(Brown 1997). Critical thinking is a valuable skill that, once learned, can be applied in many
different disciplines; however, researchers have contended that there is a need to think critically
within specific disciplines. According to Glaser, critical thinking is, in part, attitude of being
disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of
one's experiences (1941, p. 5-6).
Ennis advocates contextual, domain, or subject specific critical thinking for several
reasons. First, background knowledge is necessary for making justified critical thinking
judgments. Second, critical thinking varies from discipline to discipline and, third, a full
understanding of a discipline requires the ability to think critically in the discipline (Ennis 1990).
(Halliday 2000) argues that critical thinking is to be used in the context of specific
disciplines. He quotes Dunne and Morgan from their article in Irish Educational Studies.
"Critical thinking is best developed through an engagement with different areas of
knowledge rather than as an autonomous skill to be taught in itself. It is through cutting
its teeth on actual topics, themes, an issues and problems as these arise within diverse
content domains that thinking can acquire the kind of differentiation subtlety and sense of
relevance that help to make it truly critical" (Dunne and Morgan, 1995, p. 115).
According to Guthrie, Alao & Rinehart (1997), there is a need to situate literacy learning,
such as critical thinking skills, within content areas in order to drive learning and increase both
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literacy ability and knowledge in the content area. Finally, Facione (1990) found that "While CT
skills themselves transcend specific subjects or disciplines, excercising them successfully in
certain contexts demands domain-specific knowledge, some of which may concern specific
methods and techniques used to make reasonble judgements in those specific contexts"(p. 5).
The success of domain-specific critical thinking has been demonstrated in research. In a
study of 254 seventh grade French speaking science students, researchers found a statistically
significant mean gain in pre-test post-test investigation of CCTDI scores (t=4.54, p
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suggest that critical thinking skill accounts for 16.8% of the variance in critical thinking
disposition and vice versa.
In the largest known study to identify relationships between critical thinking skill and
disposition, as well as other demographic factors, (Facione and Facione 1997) conducted a five-
year longitudinal investigation of 7,926 students from 50 different college level programs.
Positive correlations were found between overall disposition and strength of critical thinking.
Examples of the types of analyses run with the large data set were a sample of 1557 nursing
students that showed weak positive correlations (r=.201, p
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an extensive review of the literature only one report placed age in the predictor category. (Torres
and Cano 1995) conducted a study of 92 agriculture seniors while testing for the relationship of
learning style to critical thinking. The control variables, age, gender, and GPA, accounted for
13% of the critical thinking variance. However, it is not possible from their study to know
whether age was really significant or not as the control variables were looked at as one.
The majority of the studies in the literature show age as having no significant difference
or no relationship to critical thinking (Cillizza 1970; Feely 1975; Facione 1990; Facione 1991;
Claytor 1997; Jenkins 1998; Rodriquez 2000; Rudd, Baker et al. 2000; Thompson 2001). One
reason for this maybe homogeneity of age in most of the groups studied.
Gender
Gender as a predictor of critical thinking skills or dispositions was a variable that has
been evaluated by nearly all of the critical thinking studies. One of the first to consider gender in
their critical thinking research was (Wilson 1989). He studied the critical thinking ability of
(n=203) entering college freshmen using the Watson-Glaser test and ACT College Reports. He
found that ACT standard scores significantly accounted for 28.41% of the variance in WGCTA
raw scores, but also that gender was a significant predictor or critical thinking skill.
Costa, McCraes and Sanchezs study (as cited in (Facione, Giancarlo et al. 1995)
examined the relationship of personality. Both studies looked at genders influence on critical
thinking in addition to personality and found that females were more open-minded and mature in
their thinking, while males were more analytical.
(Walsh 1996) conducted a study of 499 male and female undergrads. Along with highest
eventual degree and major, gender was a variable predicting variance in critical thinking
disposition. In a study of College of Agricultural and Life Sciences undergraduates at the
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University of Florida that evaluated learning style and critical thinking disposition, (Rudd, Baker
et al. 2000) found significant gender differences (alpha = .03) for scores of the CCTDI. Males
scored an average of 288.1 while females at the university scored 297.8.
Another study trying to ascertain learning style influence on critical thinking combined
gender with age and GPA to achieve a significant variance (13%) in critical thinking (Torres and
Cano 1995). Since GPA is consistently related to critical thinking, this finding fails to indicate
genders influence.
There have been just as many studies indicating the null nature of gender effect on
critical thinking. Using the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, critical thinking was
found to be independent of gender, neurotic and rigid personality types, as well as introvert and
extrovert measurements (Hoogstraten and Christiaans 1975). The Watson Glaser Critical
Thinking Appraisal was also used by (Jenkins 1998) when he also found that gender was not a
predictor of critical thinking.
Other studies using assessments from CCTST to CCTDI to author-developed instruments
have also found that gender is not related to or a predictor of critical thinking. In developing and
validating an instrument to evaluate critical thinking skills of nurses, gender and ethnicity were
found to be independent of critical thinking skills (Claytor 1997).
(Rodriquez 2000) studied the critical thinking of (n=60) registered nurses. None of the
individual predictors, age, degree, career path, years of experience, personality type, or gender
were statistically significant. (Thompson 2001) was another researcher who also found that
gender had no predictive value of critical thinking or learning style. (Pienaar 2000) conducted a
South African study of adolescents critical thinking in the context of political issues, and found
that gender, had no significant relationship with critical thinking ability.
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The aforementioned studies indicated that gender, as a predictor of critical thinking is still
a variable that should be included in the explanation of critical thinking skill.
Various potential predictors of critical thinking skills have been studied. The majority of
the studies in the literature show age as having no significant difference or no relationship to
critical thinking (Cillizza 1970; Feely 1975; Facione 1990; Facione 1991; Claytor 1997; Jenkins
1998; Rodriquez 2000; Rudd, Baker et al. 2000; Thompson 2001). The role of gender has not
been as conclusive. Some studies have shown gender to not be related to critical thinking skills
(Claytor 1997), while other studies have found a significant relationship between gender and
critical thinking skills (Rudd, Baker et al. 2000; Walsh 1996; (Wilson 1989).
Academic Achievement
While the role of gender in critical thinking is unclear, academic achievement status, as
exemplified, for example, by high GPA scores, has been shown to be related to critical thinking.
Giancarlo and Facione (2001) found that GPA was significantly correlated with four of the
CCTDI scales: Openmindedness, Analycity, Systemacity and Maturity. GPA was not found to
be significantly correlated, however, with Truth seeking, Confidence or Inquisitiveness.
Additionally, SAT scores have consistently been shown to be significantly correlated with scores
on critical thinking instruments (Facione & Facione, 1992; Erwin, 1996; Jacobs, 1995; Frisby,
1992) as have ACT scores (Mines et al., 1990; King et al., 1990). By extension, it could be
assumed that other hallmarks of high academic achievement, for example, selection as an
undergraduate honors program participant, might be similarly related to CCTDI scores.
In 1993, Torres did a study where he surveyed all seniors in the College of Agriculture at
The Ohio State University. The only thing he found predictive of critical thinking was a
student's cumulative GPA while in college.
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Psychographics
Torres and Cano (1995) surveyed 92 agriculture seniors and found that learning style
predicted 9% of the variance in CT and that it must be a significant variable in developing CT
skills. A conceptual model developed by Torres (1993) indicated that there were five major
factors contributing to complex mental operations or critical thinking abilities. They were
teacher-related variables, student-related variables, personal characteristics, learning style, and
other factors. Learning style and personal characteristics such as gender, age, and GPA were the
only variables looked at in this study. The three control variables, GPA, age, and gender, which
were not broken out individually accounted for 13% of the variance in critical thinking ability.
Controlling for the variance of the aforementioned variables, learning style (GEFT) accoounted
for 9% of the variance in senior students ability to think critically (t=3.38, p
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Existing I nstrumentation
Instrument Source
Contact Information
Testing
Purpose
Appropriate
AudienceCCTDI or The
California CriticalThinking DispositionInventory
Insight Assessment
217 La CruzMillbrae, CA 94030(650) 697-5628 Main
(650)692-0141 Faxwww.insightassessment.com
Measures the
attributes of truth-seeking, open-mindedness,
analyticity,systematicity,
inquisitiveness,confidence inreasoning, and
cognitive maturity
Community college
students, collegeand universityundergraduate
students, graduateand professional
school students,adults, and workingprofessionals
CCTST or TheCalifornia Critical
Thinking Skills Test
Insight Assessment217 La Cruz
Millbrae, CA 94030(650) 697-5628 Main(650)692-0141 Fax
To assess anindividual's or
group's criticalthinking andreasoning skills
To gather data for
program evaluationand research on
critical thinking skillsdevelopment
For use with adultsat community
college,undergraduate,graduate, and
professional schoollevels.
CRA or CaliforniaReasoning Appraisal
Insight Assessment217 La CruzMillbrae, CA 94030(650) 697-5628 Main
(650)692-0141 Faxwww.insightassessment.com
An intellectuallychallenging andhighly reliable testspecifically designed
to measure thosereasoning skills that
are essential tosuccess at theprofessional and
managerial levels
Individuals who areexpected to haveadvanced reasoningskills, that is, those
in the top 20% ofthe general
population.
Cornell Critical
Thinking Test, LevelX
Critical Thinking Press and
Software(formerly MidwestPublications)PO Box 448
Pacific Grove, CA 93950
Focuses primarily on
the evaluative aspectsof critical thinking,such as judging thereliability of reports
of observations thatother people make
Appropriate for
students in Grade 4through college
Cornell Critical
Thinking Test, Level
Critical Thinking Press and
Software
Focuses primarily on
the evaluative aspects
Appropriate for
advanced high
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Z (formerly MidwestPublications)
PO Box 448Pacific Grove, CA 93950
of critical thinking,such as judging the
reliability of reportsof observations that
other people make
school students,college students,
and adults
DCAT or DevelopingCognitive AbilitiesTest
Measures learningcharacteristics andabilities that
contribute toacademic
performance
Designed forstudents in grades 2-12
Ennis-Weir CriticalThinking Essay Test
Critical Thinking Press andSoftware
(formerly MidwestPublications)PO Box 448
Pacific Grove, CA 93950
A diagnostic andresearch tool for
analyzing the effectsof a specificcurriculum
Designed forsecondary and
college students
HCTSR or HolisticCritical Thinking
Scoring Rubric
Insight Assessment217 La Cruz
Millbrae, CA 94030(650) 697-5628 Main(650)692-0141 Fax
Supports multi-modalassessment, for it
provides evaluatorswith descriptors offour levels -- two
positive and twonegative -- where in
they can categorizethe critical thinkingevident to them in
projects, portfolios,presentations, essays,
etc. and the like
People who areusing reasoned
judgment toproblem solve andto make decisions
about what to do orwhat to believe
New Jersey Test ofReasoning Skills
I.A.P.C.Order DepartmentMontclair State University
Upper Montclair, NJ 07043Phone: 973-655-4277
[email protected] (973) 655-7834
Majority of the itemsdealing withdeduction
5th grade to collegelevel
TER or Test ofEveryday Reasoning Insight Assessment217 La CruzMillbrae, CA 94030
(650) 697-5628 Main(650)692-0141 Faxwww.insightassessment.com
To assess anindividual's orgroup's basic
reasoning skills
To secure essential
information as anelement in a
General population
Everyone with a
sixth grade orhigher reading level
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comprehensiveemployment
application process
To gather program
evaluation onreasoning and critical
thinking skills.
Quant-Q Insight Assessment217 La Cruz
Millbrae, CA 94030(650) 697-5628 Main(650)692-0141 Fax
Measures reasoningskills in relation to
quantitativelyoriented problems
Technologically andscientifically
oriented persons orprograms
Watson-Glaser
Critical ThinkingAppraisal
The Psychological
Corporation19500 Bulverde Road
San Antonio, Texas 78259http://www.psychcorpcenter.com/ pan_reqs/order.html
The WGCTA
produces a singlescore based upon the
assessment of fivecritical thinkingskills: Inference,
Recognition ofAssumptions,Deduction,
Interpretation, andEvaluation of
Arguments
9th grade and above
EMI: CriticalThinking Disposition
Inventory
Department of AgriculturalEducation and
CommunicationUniversity of FloridaPO Box 110540
Gainesville, FL 32611-0540
The EMI wasdeveloped from the
Delphi Report.
High school,college, and adult
audiences.
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