criminal justice: an emerging academic profession and discipline

Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 4. PP. 303-314 (1976). Pergamon Press. Printed in U.S.A.

CRIMINAL JUSTICE: AN EMERGING ACADEMIC PROFESSION AND DISCIPLINE

REED ADAMS

University of North Carolina et Charlotte

UNCC Station, Charlotte, North Carolina 28223

ABSTRACT

The recent history and current trends of criminal justice educational programs are examined in light of traditional definitions of professions, disciplines, and sciences. The author con- cludes that criminal justice is clearly emerging as a unique academic profession and as a nontraditional discipline. The nature of contempomry criminal justice education is discussed to develop predictions of its directions.

Recent years have seen major changes in higher education. Included in these changes is a large increase in the number of criminal justice degree programs. At the same time that law enforcement and corrections are emerging as professions, financial support has become available to social agencies on a level unprecedented in our nation’s history, and advances in the effectiveness and efficiency of our formal social control systems are occurring.

Because of these developments and others, a recognition of criminal justice as a distinct academic discipline has emerged. Its development has not been hurried, for the forerunners of the modern criminal justice programs began in our universities during the early part of this

, century (Boostrom, 1974; Brandstatter, 1973; Foster, 1974; Myren, 1970; Senna, 1974; Tenny, 1971). However, because criminal justice has not developed as have some other academic disciplines, and since its relationship to the community is different from that of most social and behavioral sciences, it is appropriate that its status as a profession, as an academic discipline, and as a science be questioned (Beto and Marsh, 1974; National Advisory Commission, 1973; Senna, 1974).

Rofession, Discipline, and Science Defined

The concept of a profession has been thoroughly discussed (Hall, 1967, 1968, 1969;

303

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Vollemer and Mills, 1966). Hall (1967:34) identifies the structural components of a profession as follows:

1. Creation of a fill-time occupahon. This involves the performance of functions that may have been previously performed as well as new functions and can be viewed as reaction to needs in the wider social structure.

2. The establishment of a training model. This reflects both the knowledge base of a profession and the efforts of early leaders to improve the lot of the profession.

3. The formation of professional associations. The formation of associations is often accompanied by a change in the occupational title, attempts to more clearly define the exact nature of the professional task, and efforts to eliminate practitioners who are deemed incompetent by the emergent professionals.

4. The formation of a code of ethics. These ethical codes are concerned with both internal (collegiate) and external (client and public) relations. They are designed to be enforced by the professional associations themselves, and, ideally, are given legal support.

The nature of discipline and science may be less clear. A science is a branch of sys- tematized knowledge, oriented around a scientific method, that is generally recognized as a distinct field of study. A discipline is a branch of knowledge requiring scholarly research and study, generally recognized as a distinct field of study.

Are these definitions presently applicable to criminal justice? If so, is it appropriate that these developments have occurred? Answers to these questions may be suggested by a consideration of what our society has asked of academic criminal justice and how the universities and colleges have responded.

The Criminal Justice Mandate

In recent years salaries in the criminal justice system have increased and public attitudes towards law enforcement and corrections have changed making criminal justice a more desirable career. The Law Enforcement Education Program and some local and state agencies have provided financial assistance to many criminal justice practitioners returning to college. It is likely these conditions contributed to the national trend towards greater use of educational services by criminal justice personnel (Hoover, 1975).

Changes in the nature of the criminal justice system have created a need for increased numbers of well-educated employees (Saunders, 1970). In 1972 there were nearly a million employees in our nation’s criminal justice system (Turner and Kindermann, 1974). In f=cal year 1973 alone, the federal Law Enforcement Assistance Administration block grant program allocated over $841 million to the states’ criminal justice systems (LEAA, 1973). Demands on all aspects of the system are increasing and total expenditures of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration reach into billions of dollars. Moreover, the demand by the criminal justice system itself for college-educated personnel has increased dramatically in recent years (Foster, 1974).

There are indications that criminal justice agencies increasingly prefer line personnel with

Criminal Justice: An Emerging Academic Profession and Discipline 305

academic majors in criminal justice (Foster, 1973, 1974; Cocks, 1974). The North Carolina Criminal Justice Training and Standards Council recently adopted an education specification recommending that: “all other qualifications being equal, preference be given to applicants possessing a degree in a criminal justice area” (Faircloth, 1974). Criminal justice agencies and professional associations in several states have adopted this position.’ Also, Hoover (1975) has shown a strong relationship between criminal justice as a major and selection as a police recruit. This trend may increase as more departments of criminal justice are developed and as criminal justice agencies increasingly have an alternative to traditional academic majors among job applicants.

The mandate for criminal justice education has been clearly stated in the reports of several significant and prestigious national commissions including the 1967 President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice and the 1973 National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. In addition to recommendations of increasing the educational level of the criminal justice practitioner, the latter commission suggested that criminal justice curricula from associate degrees through graduate degrees be developed, and that these curricula be relevant, pragmatic, and academically sound. The reports clearly did not advise that other disciplines be adapted to serve this end. The 1973 commission stated: “Criminal justice system curricula and programs should be established by agencies of higher education to unify the body of knowledge in criminology, social science, law, public administration, and corrections, and to serve as a basis for preparing persons to work in the criminal justice system . . . . A range of associate of arts programs through graduate offerings should be established as rapidly as possible” (National Advisory Commission, 1973: 170).

Finally, there appears to be a growing consensus among individual educators directly concerned with the criminal justice system that criminal justice is the most appropriate curriculum for individuals desiring a career in criminal justice (Beto and Marsh, 1974; Branting ham, 1972; Cocks, 1974; Hoover, 1975).

It might be argued that these events constituted a mandate for the universities and colleges to offer relevant, pragmatic, and academically sound programs in criminal justice.

Response of the Universities: Criminal Justice Edyzational Programs

The Joint Commission on Correctional Manpower and Training (Karacki and Calvin, 1968) surveyed the sixty-three degreegranting programs serving the field of corrections during the 1967-68 academic year. They indicated that while some programs in existence at that time were affiliated with sociology departments, most new programs were organizationally autonomous suggesting a trend towards greater professionalization. Kratcoski (1972) reported similar fmd- ings.

Tracy (197 1) surveyed the thirty-four academic institutions having criminal justice baccalaureate programs in 1968 and noted that during the period from 1965 to 1969 the number of programs increased 260 percent. Most of the programs were organizationally autonomous. They ranged in age from one year to thirty-four years, with the mean age being nine.

The International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP, 1975) reported that programs at all degree levels increased nationally by 596 percent from 196667 to 1975.76.

Tenny (1971) reported a review of the literature on criminal justice education and a survey of the twenty-eight colleges and universities receiving curriculum development grants from the office of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration in 1966. Identifying three types of criminal justice programs, the “training” program, the “professional” program, and the “social

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science” program, he found programs employed varying degrees of these qualities. While some of the programs were in sociology or political science departments, the characteristic recommendations by “outside evaluators” was that the programs be given departmental status. Tenny’s review of the literature drew upon Angel1 and Brashears (1969) Crockett (1968), and Eastman (1972), all surveys of criminal justice education in the United States. The four surveys indicated most programs were two-year programs, and most two-year programs were “professional” programs. Most included a heavy evening program emphasis, and served primarily in-service personnel. Summarizing the implications of the survey data, he stated: “. . . there is a gradual trend towards higher quality in these programs . . . . The data discloses quite clearly the need for such improvement. The typical college program is of two years duration with a training or pseudoprofessional cast to it, manned largely by part-time faculty with marginal academic qualifications, and catering to mostly an in-service student population. To say the least, this profile is not the most attractive one in higher education” (Tenny, 1971:51). Similar fhrdings have been reported by other investigators (Brown, 1965, 1974; Green, 1972; Presi- dent’s Commission, 1967; Saunders, 1970).

Piven and Alcabes (1965; 1969) reported an extensive survey of the criminal justice system. They concluded it was experiencing a manpower crisis and that existing educational resources could not meet the needs of that crisis. Yet, only a few years later, Devine and Merriner (1972) surveyed graduate schools of criminal justice and found thirty-six in existence or in the planning stages. The Institute for Research and Development in Criminal Justice Education reported a “conservative” national estimate of 15,000 criminal justice graduate students in the near future. They concluded: “ . . . we are convinced that programs in criminal justice - especially those at the graduate level - will continue to experience dramatic growth . . . by the year 1980, criminal justice students will receive at least 3.3% of the master’s degrees and at least 1.2% of the doctor’s degrees awarded” (Karman and Klyman, 1974a, 190-94, and 1974b). Another study reported that the number of criminal justice programs: “. . . has increased at a rate that has perhaps never been experienced in any other field of study” (Foster, 1974: 126). Other writers have substantiated the growth of this academic area (Brown, 1974; Foster, 1973 ; Green, 1972; Hemandez, 1975; Math&., 1972; Senna, 1974).

Hernandez’s (1975) project, designed as a complete enumeration of American graduate programs in criminal justice, identified 351 institutions offering these programs. He identified 109 institutions offering graduate degrees, including twenty universities reporting doctoral programs in criminal justice. Bums (1975) reported a similar survey of undergraduate programs.

Senna reviewed a cross section of programs dealing with criminal justice and found a variety of program types, but he observed a trend towards comprehensive criminal justice system-oriented curricula as reported by Hoover in 1975. Senna noted: “ . . . a tendency towards a more academic, yet in-field program. Emphasis is being given to a study of crime and the criminal justice system as the core element through the use of . . . professional courses . . . a broad attempt is made to understand these from the point of view of other academic disciplines and from interrelationships within operating systems” (Senna, 1974). He further noted the interdisciplinary quality of criminal justice, a productive relationship between academic criminal justice and the real world, and a progressive flexibility to the administrative facet of the programs. Similar findings were reported by Swank’s (1972) review of all criminal justice programs.

A Body of Knowledge

One vehicle for a delineation of a basic body of knowledge, or training model, is the

Criminal Justice: An Emsrging Academic Profession gnd Discipline 307

curriculum of a baccalaureate program. The basic subjects most appropriately comprising a criminal justice baccalaureate program have been thoroughly discussed (Brantingham, 1972; Beto and Marsh, 1974; Cocks, 1974; Edward, 1960; Fabian,’ 1965; Foster, 1974; Hawkins, 1966; Hoover, 1975; Kratcoski, 1972; Lejins, 1970; Marsh and Stickler, 1972; Mathias, 1969, 1972; McDowell, 1972; Mergen, 1972; Michael and Adler, 1933; Mueller, 1969; Myren, 1970; Northwestern University, 1920; O’Leary, 1973, 1976; Radzinowicz, 1962; Reckless, 1970; Senna, 1974; Swank, 1972; Szabo, 1964, 1965; UNESCO, 1957; Wolfgang, 1963). The con- figuration of courses generally agreed upon is set forth in table 1. The primary focus of this curriculum should be the criminal justice system and the relationships among its subsystems (Biles, 1971; Hoover, 1975). The effects on the system of a wide range of inputs, outputs, and feedback loops are also important issues. A baccalaureate program should require about thirty semester hours of such courses, and involve a maximum of about forty hours. Courses that are fundamentally training courses should not be included. Most of the coursework should be at an upper division level.

TABLE 1

MODEL CRIMINAL JUSTICE BACCALAUREATE DEGREE CURRICULUM

1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

6. 7. 8. 9.

10.

1.

2. 3.

4.

General Criminal Justice General Criminal Justice Theoretical Criminal Justice Research Methods in Criminal Justice Statistical Analysis in Criminal Justice Planning and Administration in Criminal Justice Personnel Supervision Ethics of Social Control Practicum Proseminar Directed Individual Study

1.

2. 3. 4. 5 , .

1.

2. 3. 4.

Luw Enforcement and Atbiic Safety Fundamentals of Law Enforcement and Public Safety ln a Criminal Justice System

5.

Investigation Process Law Enforcement and Community Relations Advanced Law Enforcement Administration

Adjudication Fundamentals of the Adjudication Process in a Criminal Justice System Criminal Procedure Evidence Constitutional Law Advanced Court Administration

Corrections Fundamentals of Corrections in a Criminal Justice System Clinical Criminology Community Corrections Institutional Corrections Advanced Correctional Administration

Juvenile Justice Fundamentals of Juvenile Justice in a Criminal Justice System ,

Ckiminalistics Fundamentals of Criminal&tics in a Criminal Justice System

Professional Assochgions

Professional associations of professors of criminal justice have expanded and matured in recent years, and have addressed some of the issues identified by Hall. The standards of the

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‘Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (Math& 1972) include a consideration of the balance between the academic and professional component in criminal justice curricula, the nature of the academic criminal justice professional, and the development of the Academy as a professional organization. Also, the Academy, intending to act as the accrediting body for collegiate- level criminal justice programs (Misner, 1975; ACJS, 1976) has recently adopted accreditation guidelines. Other professional organizations, such as the Southern Association of Criminal Justice Educators, the North Carolina Association of Criminal Justice Educators, and the Australian and New Zealand Society of Criminology have considered similar issues. Professional associations are found in all regions of the United States and in other areas of the world. Some of the associations have set standards for curricula and departmental organization and formally delineated the nature of academic criminal justice.

The academic community has produced a number of scientific journals devoted specifically to criminal justice. These include the official publication of professional criminal justice associations, e.g., the Southern Journal of Criminal Justice, International Annals of Crim- inology, Australia and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, and The Journal of Criminal Justice.

Code of Ethics

Establishing a code of ethics for the behavior of law enforcement officers and some other practitioners of social control has been attempted. No code has yet been developed to apply to the behavior of professional individuals in the field of academic criminal justice.

The Nature of Contemporary Criminal Justice

O’Leary reviewed the development of criminal justice and noted (1) the influence in recent years of the general growth of higher education - particularly vocationally oriented programs in the community colleges - (2) the strain for professionalism in the applied criminal justice field - (3) the growing awareness of criminal justice as a “system”, and (4) changes in the underlying assumptions of applied criminal justice. He argued these and other influences gave imputus to the growth of “. . . a new discipline - a criminal justice discipline . . . .” (O’Leary, 1976:55). That criminal justice has moved for some time towards acceptance as a distinct behavioral science equal in academic status to other disciplines may be seen from the developmental history of such programs as those at the University of Maryland or Florida State University. For the process to proceed in an efficient and rational manner, it would be helpful to recognize that criminal justice is at an important junction in its development and address those professional, ethical, academic, and applied issues that should be resolved for society to secure the maximum gain from the development of the field (Biles, 1971).

Criminal justice as a profession. Criminal justice clearly includes three of the four structural criteria of a profession identified by Hall. That a code of ethics has not yet emerged should be considered in light of the absence of a similar code for many other scholarly bodies.

Hall’s criteria suggest that those professors identified with criminal justice might legiti- mately be considered as comprising a profession. Since less objective criteria exists for the identification of a field of study as a science or as a discipline, dialogue among professionals may help to clarify the issues.

Criminal justice as a science. Criminal justice involves the study of all matters concerning crime and delinquency. The field may be seen as being comprised of four components: (I) the


study of the social, psychological, cultural, political, economic, and nonsocial determinants of criminal and delinquent behavior; (2) the analysis of the system of institutions designed to prevent and control crime and delinquency; (3) the examination of interactions between offenders and those institutions that seek to identify, apprehend, prosecute, and rehabilitate them; and (4) the search for improved means of meeting the goals of justice and social control. A broad approach, which includes all components of the system and studies the linkages between them, offers a sound basis for educating individuals who must eventually work within and provide leadership for the system, both now and in coming years.

In its study of crime and the criminal justice system, criminal justice employs the methodology used by other social and behavioral sciences, and has developed a body of knowledge. Insofar as the approach to problem solving is concerned, criminal justice is indistinguishable from other social and behavioral sciences. As these elements are generally used to define a science, then it seems reasonable to conclude that criminal justice is as much a science as other, similar scholarly endeavors.

Criminal justice as a discipline. Criminal justice, being focused upon education rather than training, is grounded in social and behavioral science theory and research, and it seeks to provide the student with an informed and rational understanding of the criminal justice system. The emphasis is as much on developing skills necessary to cope with unknown future problems as it is on learning how to deal with current situations. This means that criminal justice students must not only learn specific skills, but they must also develop an ability to handle problem solving at abstract levels of conceptualization and in a wide range of situations. This focus typifies the educational philosophy of criminal justice programs found in universities.

One writer has argued against the identification of criminal justice as a discipline (Olson, 1974). That position may be based in the belief that the issue is trivial, and argument over such a point may jeopardize other criminal justice goals (Myren, 1970). Yet, for other writers, criminal justice has been as legitimate and distinct as any other social and behavioral science discipline (Beto and Marsh, 1974; Biles, 1971; Boostrom, 1974; Ciopraga, 1972; Ellenberger, 1966; Mergen, 1972; Newman, 1975; O’Leary, 1973; Snodgrass, 1972; Swank, 1972; Szabo, 1964, 1965).

Identification of criminal justice as a discipline is less clear than its identification as a social or behavioral science or a profession. If discipline is to be so narrowly defined as to include only those branches of learning possessing wholly unique subject matters, methodologies, and theoretical frames of reference, then political science, public administration, economics, education, and business administration are not disciplines. Criminal justice cannot be rejected as a discipline because of the role it plays in the professionalization of law enforcement and corrections personnel, for such disciplines as medicine, education, architecture, social work, and engineering provide a precedent to the contrary (Beto and Marsh, 1974; Senna, 1974). It cannot be rejected as merely “interdisciplinary studies” and nothing more, for many other disciplines make interdisciplinary claims. Finally, it cannot be rejected as a discipline because of its restricted focus on one specific phenomenon, for such disciplines as political science and economics illustrate the acceptability of that position. Rather, it seems reasonable to argue that criminal justice, possessing the traits discussed, is an academic discipline.

Resistance to Criminal Justice

It would appear that given the seemingly clear social value of criminal justice programs, and a rationale for the identification of criminal justice as a legitimate academic discipline, univer-

310 REED ADAMS

sities would encourage their development. Yet, despite the reality of these matters, the establishment of criminal justice programs has sometimes proven difficult (Lejins, 1970). Criminal justice has presented a threat to other disciplines for it has proven to be a viable academic major attracting substantial numbers of students. Also, while criminal justice has offered substantial numbers of students, grant funds, and other scarce resources, American higher education has experienced increased costs, dwindling enrollments, and increased student demand for relevant educational services. At the same time, it appeared that academic areas previously unconcerned with the criminal justice system became anxious to serve law enforcement and corrections. It is important that universities and the applied criminal justice world give full support to criminal justice, and resist self-serving efforts by other disciplines that do not address broad criminal justice goals.

A structural element that has influenced the development of the discipline has been the occasional tendency of some scholars towards academic arrogance: to the degree that fields of study have been pragmatic, or hinted of nonacademic “professionalism,” they were sometimes thought to be out of place as academic areas in universities (Foster, 1974; Misner, 1975; Saunders, 1970). While this argument (which continues to be seen in the conflict between experimental and clinical psychology, and sociology and social work) has been in part based on the need to maintain the free spirit of inquiry necessary for the advancement of science, it may have been related to the understandable tendency to protect one’s own status and position. Certainly, this position avoided the question of justification of a curriculum in terms of its exact impact on the skills and lives of the students and on society.

Not surprisingly, some elements of the applied criminal justice system have provided a degree of resistance to the development of criminal justice. As hiring and promotion of the social control agent has become more closely tied to educational criteria, individuals within the established power structure without these qualifications have more frequently interpreted criminal justice as a threat. Universities should be aware of the extent to which these conditions exist and guard against these criteria, rather than more objective ones, serving as the basis of policy decisions concerning criminal justice.

Interdisciplinary Qualities

At the same time that other disciplines should be prevented from actions that may lessen the probability of criminal justice goals being achieved, the full range of scientific disciplines should maintain their involvement in criminal justice (Adams, 1974; Hoover, 1975; McDowell, 1972; Mergen, 1972; Newman, 1975; Radzinowicz, 1962; Trasler, 1966). The interdisciplinary qualities of criminal justice should be accentuated. Yet, this should not make criminal justice any less a discipline. Rather, as the participants of an international criminological conference concluded: “ . . . criminology is not part of any other science and . . . no science can claim priority within the field of criminology. Criminology, rather, was regarded as an autonomous interdisciplinary science which, to be viable, requires close cooperation between practice and theory” (Schneider, 1968:294). It might be argued that other disciplines that focus on specific areas of human affairs, e.g., business administration, political science, and economics, make interdisciplinary claims but retreat into provincialism when faced with the ramifications of actual interdisciplinary efforts. Criminal justice has a tradition of maximizing the contributions of all disciplines that should not be lost (Mergen, 1972).


CONCLUSIONS

It might be argued that criminal justice has emerged as a distinct academic discipline. Yet, it is not identical in nature to other social or behavioral science disciplines. Rather, it represents an academic innovation most closely identified by the National Academy of Sciences Social Science Research Council as applied behavioral science, academic in nature, yet focused on social needs at the level of social issues, policy, and planning (Brooks and Lindzey, 1969).

The immediate future of criminal justice, representing a new kind of academic discipline, may usefully include clarification of some of its structural elements. It _is hoped that the research base underlying criminal justice knowledge will show an accelerated growth curve, and the practical application of this knowledge in the area of social control will increase (Biles, 1971). Criminal justice ethics and the role of criminal justice in matters of social control among nations may prove to be among the most important and prominent issues of the future. But, the interdisciplinary nature of criminal justice will probably develop differently from similar qualities of other fields. Criminal justice will maintain strong ties to other disciplines, yet will continue its development as organizationally separate departments and schools.

The criminal justice of the future will encompass a broad spectrum of variables, crossing the boundaries of existing disciplines and ranging from biological investigation to the dynamics of large groups. Questions of who should control, who should be controlled, and the mechanics of that control, will eventually be resolved. The immense social importance of the discipline will be recognized. The distinction between the professional and academic degrees will grow in importance. However, most of the work necessary to achieve these goals has yet to be done.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Harry Allen, David Biles, Ray Michalowski, Robert Johnson, and H. J. Vetter provided valuable assistance in the development of this paper. An earlier version was presented at an annual meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences.

FOOTNOTE

’ Personal communication with Price Foster, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration.

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