CrimeCSC301Fall2016

HowardRosenthal

LessonGoals�  Understandwhatcomputercrimeis�  Understandtheoriginsofhackingandhowithasevolvedovertime

�  Understandidentitytheftandmethodstodetectandavoidit

�  Understandingthelawsoftheworld-wide-web

2

Introduc>on

�  Criminalshavealwaysexistedandtheycommitcrimesforavarietyofreasons�  Economicgain�  Spying�  Terrorism�  Industrialespionage�  Personalrevenge�  Politicalgain�  Mischiefandvandalism

�  Alloftheabovecanbedonefromabasementtoday,oftenwithgreatanonymity

�  WiththeWWWcrimesnoweasilycrossnationalboundaries�  Differentcountriesmayhavecompletelydifferentlawsandpenalties�  Someusesofcomputers(pornography,blasphemy,libel)mayornot

becrimesindifferentcountries,andmayincurcompletelydifferentpenalties

3

4

TheThreePhasesofHacking(1)�  Hackinghasevolvedfromitsearliestdays,whereitwasatermforacomputerenthusiasttotoday’shackingwhichismaliciousandpotentiallyextremelydangerous

�  Phase1:TheJoyofProgramming(1960sand1970s)�  AtthistimetheworldwasnotconnectedviatheInternet�  Hackerswereexpertenthusiastswhowroteinterestingand

provocativecode�  Theyweremostinterestedinseeingwhattheycoulddowith

computers,frommainframesdowntothefirstprogrammablecalculators

�  Theywantedtoextendtheirknowledgeandthecapabilitiesofthecomputers

�  Typicallytheyweresanctionedasgraduatestudentsorresearchersatcorporationsorforthegovernment

�  Theywereknownnotjustfortheircreativity,butinmanycasesfornotbeingextremelycarefulintestingtheircode�  Thustheoriginalquote“Hehackedsomethingtogether”

5

TheThreePhasesofHacking(2)�  Phase2:TheStartofMaliciousProgrammingandTheft(1970s-1990s)�  Conditions

�  Computersgrewbeyondthemainframetoencompassmini-computersandthenpersonalcomputers�  Therewasagrowthinbusiness-to-businessconnectivity

�  Computersmovedfromworktoalsoencompassthehome�  Athomenetworkingwasstillverylimited–theyusedaphoneconnection–andpersonalbusinesssuchasbankingwasn’ton-line

�  YoumightaccessanencyclopediaordictionarybyloadingupaCD�  GrowthofIllegalActivities

�  Growthofmischiefandmaliciousness�  Computervirusesstartedappearing

�  Oftenspreadindocuments�  Spyingstartedtotakeoff�  Bankingcrimesexpanded

�  Muchofthecrimeinvolvedinternalemployeeswhoeitherstoleorspied�  Interestingly,manyhackerswereeventuallyhiredbythe

governmentandindustrytodevelopdefensesagainsthacking

6

TheThreePhasesofHacking(3)�  Phase3:ComputerHackingintheAgeoftheInternetandWorldWideWeb

(1990s-present)�  Conditions

�  EveryoneisnowconnectedtotheInternetthroughtheircomputers,phones,televisionsandmanyotherdevices

�  CommerceisnowconductedontheInternetbyeveryone�  Banking�  Shopping�  Billpaying�  Christmascards

�  Largeamountsofvaluablepersonalinformationisavailableatsocialmedia,aswellasgovernmentandprivateindustrysites

�  Thenetworksarealleasilyaccessible�  GPSbecomesubiquitous,andmovesfrommilitaryluxurytopersonalnecessity�  Infrastructureincludingwaterandpowerareconnectedtothenetwork,andare

potentiallysubjecttocompletedestructionwithoutapersoneverleavingthecomfortoftheirseat

�  Militarysystemsbecomefullyintegratedandnetworked�  Livesaresavedandlostbasedonthenetworksortheirpenetration�  Networkplanningandallocationbecomesathirdpillarofbattlefieldplanningalong

withmaneuverandlogistics�  Armiescannolongerfightwithouttheirnetworks

�  Example–Friendvs.Foeidentification�  Militaryoftenreliesoncommercialcommunications,includingcommercialsatellitesfor

routine,yetcritical,activities7

TheThreePhasesofHacking(4)�  Phase3:ComputerHackingintheAgeoftheInternetandWorld

WideWeb(1990s-present)(cont.)�  Criminalactivityexplodes

�  Thehackersareoftenone(ormore)stepsaheadoftheprovidersandcustomers�  Hackersdividedbetweenteenpranksters,professionalcriminalsand

governmentorterroristoperatives�  Copyrighttheftofelectroniccontentincludingmoviesandmusic,sometimesby

professionals,othertimesbygroupsofstudents�  Thepotentialfinancial,politicalormilitaryrewardsforasuccessfulhackare

tremendous�  Weseeeverythingfrompolitical(WikiLeaks)toeconomic(theftofcreditcards

ashappenedtoTarget)toespionage(Snowden)torevenge(Sonyhade-mailsofmanyofitshighprofilestarsstolen)

�  Companieshavehadtoshutdownorlimitaccesstotheirnetworksviaseverefirewallsandotherrestrictions�  Companiesmayscanallincominge-mail,deleteattachments,etc.

�  DenialofServiceattacksfloodcompaniesorentirenetworkswithdatafromdifficulttotraceanonymoussources

�  Enticement�  Youaresentane-mailaskingyoutoclickonalinkthatmayperform

mischief(sendane-mailtoeveryoneinyouraddressbook)orsomethingmoremaliciousthatdisablesyourcomputeruntilyoupayaransom

8

Hack>vismandPoli>calHacking�  Thereisadifferencebetweenpositivepoliticalactivitiesandthosethatmay

beillegal�  Legalactivities

�  Expositionofyouropinions�  Advertising�  Fundraising�  Publicationofinformationobtainedlegally

�  Illegalactivities�  Writingorgraffitionanotherwebsite�  Disablinganothercompany’sorperson’swebsite�  Anyformofillegaltheftoffundsorinformation(note:youneedawarrantto

accessinformation)�  Somecountiesarefarmorerestrictivethanothersintheareaofpolitical

activity�  Criticismofthegovernmentorgovernmentofficialsisacrimeinsome

countries

9

ProfessionalHacking

�  Sometimesthebestpeopletotestasystemarehackers�  Manycompaniesandgovernmentagencieshirehackerstofind

vulnerabilitiesintheirsystems�  HackerOneisareputablebug-bounty-as-a-servicefirm

�  TheDoDhassetupaHackthePentagonpilotprogramwithinlimitsrightnow,runbyHackerOne�  Mustregister

�  EligibleparticipantsmustbeaU.S.person,andmustnotbeontheU.S.TreasuryDepartment'sSpeciallyDesignatedNationalslistofpeopleandorganizationsengagedinterrorism,drugtraffickingandothercrimes.

�  Somehackersworkbenevolently�  Theygivethesoftwarecompanyalimitedchancetofixthesecurity

flaworbugbeforepublicizingit�  Feelthiscreateshighermotivationtofixaproblemwithinaspecified

timeframe

10

HackingAsForeignPolicyandasaMilitaryWeapon

�  Governmentstodayareexploringeachother’swebdefenses�  RussiahasdisablednetworksinGeorgiaandtheUkrainebefore

invasions�  ChinahasusedtheInternetforextensiveindustrialespionage�  TheUnitedStatesandIsraelcreatedtheStuxnetvirustoinfectIranian

centrifuges�  Thisvirushas“escaped”andisnowinfectingotherindustrialsystems

�  TracesofRussiansnoopingcanbefoundacrossourentirepowergrid�  WhiletheDoDismoreproactive,otherU.S.agenciesdesignedtheir

sitesoriginallyformoretransparencyandarenowplayingcatch-up�  AirTrafficcontrollersdidn’tevenneedtologontotheirsystemswith

ausernameandpasswordaslateas2011�  Therearenosecuritystandardsatthistimeforautomateddriving�  Cellphonesystemsarestillwaitingforthefirstmajorhackingattack

11

TechnologyExcursion-Stuxnet

12

HackingandtheLaw

�  ComputerFraudandAbuseActof1984(amended1989,1994,1996,2001,2002(inthePatriotAct),and2008(bytheIdentityTheftEnforcementandRestitutionAct)�  Coversareasunderfederaljurisdictionincluding

�  Federalcomputersystems�  Financialsystems�  Interstateorinternationalcommerceorcommunications�  Internetactivity�  Cellphones

�  Madeitillegalto�  Accessanycomputerwithoutpermission�  Impairgovernmentoperations,transportation,infrastructure,etc.inanyway�  Damageordestroyanyelectronicinformationincludingviacomputerviruses�  Initiatedenialofservice�  Commitfraud–includingidentitytheft�  Disclosepasswords

�  Penaltiesaresevere�  Upto10yearsforafirstoffensepluscompensationandpenaltiesforalldamage

13

SummaryofCFAAProvisions(a)Whoever—(1)havingknowinglyaccessedacomputerwithoutauthorizationorexceedingauthorizedaccess,andbymeansofsuchconducthavingobtainedinformationthathasbeendeterminedbytheUnitedStatesGovernmentpursuanttoanExecutiveorderorstatutetorequireprotectionagainstunauthorizeddisclosureforreasonsofnationaldefenseorforeignrelations,oranyrestricteddata,asdefinedinparagraphy.ofsection11oftheAtomicEnergyActof1954,withreasontobelievethatsuchinformationsoobtainedcouldbeusedtotheinjuryoftheUnitedStates,ortotheadvantageofanyforeignnationwillfullycommunicates,delivers,transmits,orcausestobecommunicated,delivered,ortransmitted,orattemptstocommunicate,deliver,transmitorcausetobecommunicated,delivered,ortransmittedthesametoanypersonnotentitledtoreceiveit,orwillfullyretainsthesameandfailstodeliverittotheofficeroremployeeoftheUnitedStatesentitledtoreceiveit;(2)intentionallyaccessesacomputerwithoutauthorizationorexceedsauthorizedaccess,andtherebyobtains—(A)informationcontainedinafinancialrecordofafinancialinstitution,orofacardissuerasdefinedinsection1602(n)[1]oftitle15,orcontainedinafileofaconsumerreportingagencyonaconsumer,assuchtermsaredefinedintheFairCreditReportingAct(15U.S.C.1681etseq.);(B)informationfromanydepartmentoragencyoftheUnitedStates;or(C)informationfromanyprotectedcomputer;(3)intentionally,withoutauthorizationtoaccessanynonpubliccomputerofadepartmentoragencyoftheUnitedStates,accessessuchacomputerofthatdepartmentoragencythatisexclusivelyfortheuseoftheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesor,inthecaseofacomputernotexclusivelyforsuchuse,isusedbyorfortheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesandsuchconductaffectsthatusebyorfortheGovernmentoftheUnitedStates;(4)knowinglyandwithintenttodefraud,accessesaprotectedcomputerwithoutauthorization,orexceedsauthorizedaccess,andbymeansofsuchconductfurtherstheintendedfraudandobtainsanythingofvalue,unlesstheobjectofthefraudandthethingobtainedconsistsonlyoftheuseofthecomputerandthevalueofsuchuseisnotmorethan$5,000inany1-yearperiod;(5)(A)knowinglycausesthetransmissionofaprogram,information,code,orcommand,andasaresultofsuchconduct,intentionallycausesdamagewithoutauthorization,toaprotectedcomputer;(B)intentionallyaccessesaprotectedcomputerwithoutauthorization,andasaresultofsuchconduct,recklesslycausesdamage;or(C)intentionallyaccessesaprotectedcomputerwithoutauthorization,andasaresultofsuchconduct,causesdamageandloss.(6)knowinglyandwithintenttodefraudtraffics(asdefinedinsection1029)inanypasswordorsimilarinformationthroughwhichacomputermaybeaccessedwithoutauthorization,if—(A)suchtraffickingaffectsinterstateorforeigncommerce;or(B)suchcomputerisusedbyorfortheGovernmentoftheUnitedStates;(7)withintenttoextortfromanypersonanymoneyorotherthingofvalue,transmitsininterstateorforeigncommerceanycommunicationcontainingany—(A)threattocausedamagetoaprotectedcomputer;(B)threattoobtaininformationfromaprotectedcomputerwithoutauthorizationorinexcessofauthorizationortoimpairtheconfidentialityofinformationobtainedfromaprotectedcomputerwithoutauthorizationorbyexceedingauthorizedaccess;or(C)demandorrequestformoneyorotherthingofvalueinrelationtodamagetoaprotectedcomputer,wheresuchdamagewascausedtofacilitatetheextortion

14

HowareHackersCaught

�  Learntothinklikeahacker�  Readthehackernewsletters�  Lookatthehackerwebsitesandchatsites

�  Rememberthecourtdoesallow“freespeech”discussionofillegalacts

�  Employhackers�  Setupstingsknownashoneypotstolureinhackers

�  Thentrackeverythingtheydo

�  Trackallpotentiale-mailbeingusedtohack

15

WhatIsComputerForensics(1)�  Computerforensicsistheapplicationofinvestigationandanalysistechniquestogatherandpreserveevidencefromaparticularcomputingdeviceinawaythatissuitableforpresentationinacourtoflaw.�  Thegoalofcomputerforensicsistoperformastructuredinvestigationwhilemaintainingadocumentedchainofevidencetofindoutexactlywhathappenedonacomputingdeviceandwhowasresponsibleforit.

�  Itisthepracticeofcollecting,analyzingandreportingondigitaldatainawaythatislegallyadmissible.Itcanbeusedinthedetectionandpreventionofcrimeandinanydisputewhereevidenceisstoreddigitally.

16

WhatIsComputerForensics(2)�  Keytechniquesinclude

�  Cross-driveanalysis�  Atechniquethatcorrelatesinformationfoundonmultiplediskdrives.Theprocess,

stillbeingresearched,canbeusedtoidentifysocialnetworksandtoperformanomalydetection

�  Liveanalysis�  Theexaminationofcomputersfromwithintheoperatingsystemusingcustom

forensicsorexistingsystemadministrationtoolstoextractevidence�  Usefulwhendealingwithencryptingfilesystems,forexample,wheretheencryption

keysmaybecollectedand,insomeinstances,thelogicalharddrivevolumemaybeimaged(knownasaliveacquisition)beforethecomputerisshutdown

�  Deletedfilerecovery�  Acommontechniqueusedincomputerforensicsistherecoveryofdeletedfiles.

Modernforensicsoftwarehavetheirowntoolsforrecoveringorcarvingoutdeleteddata

�  Thisispossiblesincemostmodernoperatingsystemsandfilesystemsdonotalwayserasephysicalfiledata,allowinginvestigatorstoreconstructitfromthephysicaldisksectors

�  Stochasticforensics�  Advancedmathematicaltoolsusedtoanalyzefordatatheft

�  Steganography�  Theprocessofanalyzingimageryforhiddendata.Oftenusedtodiscoverchild

pornography

17

Viola>onofTermsofUse–IsitACrime?� Mostwebsiteshaveatermsofusepolicythatyouimplicitlyorexplicitlyagreeto

�  Ingeneralitmaybeacontractviolationtoviolatethetermsofuse,butcourtshaveruledthatitisnotacriminaloffense� Whataboutsomeonewholiesabouthisage?� Whataboutbullying?

� Whiletheabovecasesmaynotbeprosecutedunderviolationofpolicyrulestheyareprosecutableunderrulescontrollingrelationshipswithminorsandwithgenerallawsregardingbullyingandharassment

18

19

WhatisIden>tyTheS?�  Identitytheftoccurswhenonepersonsuccessfullyrepresentsthemselvesasanother

person,whetherforfinancialgain,orforsomeother,usuallycriminalpurpose�  Directtheftfromaccounts�  Creditcardmisrepresentation�  Loanfraud�  Benefitsclaims�  Falseincometaxfilingsandrefundcollection

�  Todayweareespeciallyvulnerablebecauseweinteractwithsystemsthroughaseriesofnumbersorcodes,oftenwithoutdirectphysicalandverifiableidentification�  SocialSecuritynumbers�  Driver’slicensenumbers�  Passportnumbers�  Creditcardnumbers�  Accountnumbers�  Employeenumbers�  Loannumbers�  Utilitynumbers

�  Ifsomeonestealsyouridentitybigproblemscanensue�  Falseclaimsandliens�  Lawsuitsformoney�  Impacttocreditratingthatmightbehardtoclearevenafterevidenceispresented�  Canevenbemisidentifiedasacriminal

20

HowIsIden>tyTheSAchieved�  Thievescanusemanydifferentmethodstostealyouridentity

�  Fraudulentspamaskingyoutoconfirmanidentitybyenteringallkindsofinformation-Phishing�  Thesiteoftenlookslegitimate,butoftenhasastrangeURL

�  Threateningmessagesorphonecalls�  PersonsoftenclaimtobefromtheIRS

�  Infectingyourcomputerandthenrecordingyourkeystrokesasyouconnect,viauserIDandpasswordtoasecuresite

�  Stealingfromsupposedlysecuresitesthathaveyourinformation�  Federalgovernment’sOfficeofPersonnelManagement(OPM)washackedand

allsecurityrelatedinformationwasstolenfromgovernmentandcontractorpersonnel

�  Storeshavehadtheircreditcardtransactiondatabaseshacked�  Scannersincludeskimmersthatreadandreportonyourtransactiontoan

alternatelocation–commonatgasstationsandtoalesserextentatgrocerystores

�  Sometimespeopleuseplainoldphysicaltheft�  Mostplacesdon’taskforIDs,andoftennotevenforsignatures,when

usingcreditcardsinordertoavoidcustomerinconvenience

21

SomeResponsesToIden>tyTheS�  Authenticatingwebsites

�  Browsers,e-mailvendorsandsearchengineshelpauthenticatewebsites�  Thirdpartytoolscanalsobeused�  IfsitestracetotheBahamas,Nigeria,orRomania,asexamples,beespeciallycautious

�  Authenticatingcustomers�  Manysitesnowrequiredualauthentication(i.e.respondingtoasecondarytextmessage,respondingto

asecretquestion,etc.beforeallowingaccesstoasiteormoreespeciallytomakechangestoyourpersonaldata

�  Manycreditcardcompanieswantyoutoinformthemwhenyoutravel,especiallywhenyoutravelabroad

�  Creditcardcompaniesmonitorcardsforanysuspiciousactivityandwillcallyoutoverifytransactions�  ThirdPartyTransactions

�  PayPalservesasanintermediarysothatyoudon’thavetoshareyourcreditcardnumberwithanunknownthirdparty–greatforpersontopersonsales

�  Newtechnologies�  Creditcardchipsremovethe“raised”creditcardnumbers,andaresaferthanstrips,althoughmost

chipcardsalsoincludestrips�  Notifyingcustomers

�  Companiesandeventhegovernmentarerequiredtonotifycustomersasquicklyaspossibleofthedetectionofsecuritybreaches

�  IdentityMonitoring�  Manypeoplepayaservicetomonitorforidentitytheft–LifeLock�  Thesecompaniespromiseassistanceinrepairinganybreach–oftenupto$1Mininsurance

�  IndemnificationofCustomers�  Mostcreditcardcompanies,stores,etc.willnotpenalizetheircustomersforclearcaseswhereacredit

cardhasbeenstolen

22

Biometrics

�  Biometricsareusedtoidentifyuniquecharacteristicsaboutaperson�  Fingerprints�  Voiceprints�  Retinalpatterns�  DNA

�  Somecellphonesalreadyusefingerprinttechnologytohelpgainaccesstoaphone

�  Defense/securityagenciesincludebiometricsaspartofthesecurityprotocolsforaccesstocertaintypesofinformation

�  Itisexpectedthateventuallycreditcards,orothernon-physicalmethods,willemploybiometricstoaidinidentification

�  Butasisalwaysthecase,criminalsmayfindwaysaroundthesemeasures�  Ifyouhackthedatabaseholdingthefingerprintrecordsyoucould

changeorcorruptit�  Thenthereisthemovieversionwhereyoujustcutofftheperson’s

fingers

23

24

Na>onalLawsandtheWWW�  Nationsaretryingtokeeptheirlawsuptodatewithrapidlychangingtechnologies�  Nationsoftenhavelawsthatdifferintermsoflegalityand/orseriousnessof

punishment�  Intellectualproperty�  Gambling�  Libel�  Privacy�  Spam�  Advertising

�  Canpeopleinonecountrywhereanactislegalbepunishediftheyvisitanothercountrywheretheactisillegal�  Thisoftenhappensincasesinvolvingpoliticalfreespeech

�  Francebanshatespeech–i.e.NaziMemorabilia�  Libellawsvarygreatlybetweencountries–somecountriesbananycriticismofthehead

ofstate�  Somecountriesdon’tallowadvertisingofcertainproducts–whathappenswhentheyare

advertisedontheweb�  ThingsthatareconsideredpornographicintheU.S.arenotconsideredsoinmany

Europeancountries

25

Poten>alApproachesToWebGovernance

�  Internationalagreements�  Allowsforgeneralgovernanceofsuchthingsasurldistribution,etc.�  Workswellwhenthereisacommonagreementabouttheillegality�  Butwhathappenswhenlet’ssay,athirdworldcountrydoesn’thave

lawstoenforcegenerallyagreedtoprinciplesoncyberfraudortheft’�  Authoritytoprevententry

�  Allowsacountrytoblocksites,servicesorparticularmaterialtomaintainconformancewiththeirownlaws

�  Ofcoursethisopensupthewebtocensorshipbydifferentcountriesinordertohidelegitimatenewsorotherinformation

�  Somecountriesmaybecomehavensforhackers,thievesorterrorists�  Becominganinternationallawyerinthisfieldmaybeanothergood

careerchoice�  Allisnothopelessaswedohaveinternationaltreatiesgoverningthe

seasandgoverningspace

26

FinalExercise� WhatelementswouldyouputintoaninternationalagreementgoverningtheWWW?

� Howwouldyoudefinetherulesforeachofthoseelements?

� TrytodothisfromtheviewpointnotjustoftheU.S.butofothernationsaswell.

27

TheSplitOnInterna>onalTelecommunica>onsAgreements

28

SignatoriesoftheFinalActs:89

AFGHANISTAN(signed) ALBANIE ALGÉRIE

(signed) ALLEMAGNE ANDORRE ANGOLA(signed)

ARABIESAOUDITE(signed)

ARGENTINE(signed) ARMÉNIE AUSTRALIE

AUTRICHE AZERBAÏDJAN(signed)

BAHREÏN(signed)

BANGLADESH(signed)

BARBADE(signed) BÉLARUS BELGIQUE BELIZE

(signed)BÉNIN(signed)

BHOUTAN(signed)

BOTSWANA(signed)

BRÉSIL(signed)

BRUNÉIDARUSSALAM

(signed)BULGARIE

BURKINAFASO(signed)

BURUNDI(signed)

CAMBODGE(signed) CANADA CAP-VERT

(signed)RÉPUBLIQUE

CENTRAFRICAINE(signed)

CHILI CHINE(signed) CHYPRE COLOMBIE COMORES

(signed)RÉPUBLIQUEDU CONGO

(signed)

RÉPUBLIQUEDE CORÉE(signed)

COSTA RICA CÔTE D'IVOIRE(signed) CROATIE

CUBA(signed) DANEMARK DJIBOUTI

(signed)RÉPUBLIQUE

DOMINICAINE(signed)EGYPTE(signed)

ELSALVADOR

(signed)

EMIRATSARABES

UNIS(signed)

ESPAGNE ESTONIE ETATS-UNIS

FÉDÉRATIONDE RUSSIE(signed)

FINLANDE FRANCE GABON(signed) GAMBIE GÉORGIE GHANA

(signed) GRÈCE GUATEMALA(signed)

GUYANA(signed)

HAÏTI(signed) HONGRIE INDE INDONÉSIE

(signed)

RÉPUBLIQUEISLAMIQUE

D'IRAN(signed)

IRAQ(signed) IRLANDE ISRAËL ITALIE JAMAÏQUE

(signed)

JAPON JORDANIE(signed)

KAZAKHSTAN(signed) KENYA KOWEÏT

(signed)LESOTHO(signed) LETTONIE LIBAN

(signed)LIBÉRIA(signed)

LIBYE(signed)

LIECHTENSTEIN LITUANIE LUXEMBOURG MALAISIE(signed) MALAWI MALI

(signed) MALTE MAROC(signed)

ILESMARSHALL

MAURICE(signed)

MEXIQUE(signed) MOLDOVA MONGOLIE MONTÉNÉGRO MOZAMBIQUE

(signed)NAMIBIE(signed)

NEPAL(signed)

NIGER(signed)

NIGÉRIA(signed) NORVÈGE

NOUVELLE-ZÉLANDE

OMAN(signed)

OUGANDA(signed)

OUZBÉKISTAN(signed)

PANAMA(signed)

PAPOUASIE-NOUVELLE-

GUINÉE(signed)

PARAGUAY(signed) PAYS-BAS PÉROU PHILIPPINES

POLOGNE PORTUGAL QATAR(signed)

KIRGHIZISTAN(signed) SLOVAQUIE RÉPUBLIQUE

TCHÈQUEROYAUME-

UNIRWANDA(signed)

SAINTE-LUCIE(signed)

SÉNÉGAL(signed)

SERBIESIERRALEONE(signed)

SINGAPOUR(signed) SLOVÉNIE SOMALIE

(signed)SOUDAN(signed)

SOUDAN DUSUD(signed)

SRI LANKA(signed)

RÉPUBLIQUESUDAFRICAINE

(signed)SUÈDE

SUISSE SWAZILAND(signed)

TANZANIE(signed)

THAÏLANDE(signed)

TOGO(signed)

TRINITÉ-ET-TOBAGO(signed)

TUNISIE(signed) TURQUIE(signed) UKRAINE

(signed)URUGUAY(signed)

VENEZUELA(signed)

VIET NAM(signed)

YÉMEN(signed)

ZIMBABWE(signed)