i

CRESCENTIA NWAEZE UGWUONA

SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF LANGUAGE

CONTACT IN UBOLO SPEECH COMMUNITY,

ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA

ARTS

Linguistics

Okeke,chioma m

Digitally Signed by: University of Nigeria,

Nsukka

DN : CN = okeke,chioma m

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

ii

TITLE PAGE

SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF LANGUAGE CONTACT IN UBOLO

SPEECH COMMUNITY, ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA

BY

CRESCENTIA NWAEZE UGWUONA

PG/Ph.D/05/39874

A Ph.D THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE

STUDIES IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) IN

LINGUISTICS BY THE UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

JANUARY, 2013

iii

APPROVAL PAGE

This thesis has been approved for the Department of Linguistics, Igbo and other

Nigerian Languages, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

BY

_______________________ ____________________

PROF. (MRS) G.I. NWAOZUZU DR. C.U. AGBEDO

THESIS SUPERVISOR THESIS SUPERVISOR

_______________________ ______________________

INTERNAL EXAMINER INTERNAL EXAMINER

________

______________

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

_______________________ ____________________

PROF. C.N. OKEBALAMA PROF. ANYANWU

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT DEAN OF FACULTY

iv

DEDICATION

To the evergreen memory of my best friend, the rock of our family, the love

of my life, mentor and husband, Hon. Ugwuona Victor who dug up a treasure and

sacrificed all effort to give his wife and children sound education, but never lived

to reap the fruit. Victor, your spirit lives on.

To my God-sent children – Odinaka, Ogonna and Chinemerem for their

love, patience, understanding and prayers throughout the course of this research

work.

To the Almighty God, the source of all true knowledge, the creator of the

universe and the sustainer of life. Lord, render me worthy of these your noble free

gifts.

v

ABSTRACT

Most linguistic studies on language contact based on Igbo language had in the

past been focused on the speech patterns of urban dwellers. Very few studies were

based on the speech patterns of rural speech communities. This study investigates

the effects of language contact in a rural speech community of Ubolo, Enugu State,

Nigeria, using a sociolinguistic approach. The researchers selected seven

linguistic groups in the area of study. They are Ubolo (the indigenous community),

Awka, Onitsha and Owerri from different regional linguistic groups of Igboland.

Others include: Hausa, Idoma and Yoruba from other ethnolinguistic groups in

Nigeria. From each of the ethnolinguistic groups, three respondents were chosen.

The researcher relied mostly on unstructured oral interview, direct observations,

group discussions, and interactive sessions with people from different linguistic

groups and surreptitious recordings for data collections. We also sourced data

from secondary sources such as textbooks, journals and Internet. The data

collected for the study were analyzed using Higa’s directionality model of analysis.

From the study, five basic issues that influenced language contact in Ubolo speech

community were established from the factors examined. These are trade/historical

antecedents, access roads, border between Ubolo speech community and Idoma,

migrations, population mobility and the influx of people mostly for commercial

reasons. More specifically, the research revealed the effects of language contact

on the speech pattern of the community examined to include linguistic borrowing,

code-switching, and hyperadoptation. In addition, it was discovered that the

factors that influenced linguistic borrowing in the area of study include: Domain

or the contact area, age, convergence, prestige, referee design, and interaction.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I, humbled by this completed research work, grateful for the patience and

tolerance you have exercised, mindful of the sacrifice borne, I thank and appreciate

my doyenne and doyen – Prof. (Mrs) G.I. Nwaozuzu, and Dr. C.U. Agbedo. This

research would not have been completed without the unyielding effort of these my

noble and renowned supervisors. For a couple of years, Prof. (Mrs) G.I. Nwaozuzu

and Dr. C.U. Agbedo have endured sacrifices for this work that I cannot begin to

imagine. The research work stands better off for the constructive criticism rendered

by these brave and selfless supervisors. I am grateful to you for constantly setting

the bar that high so that one never ever becomes complacent. I thank you for all

you have achieved in this work, and I look forward to partner with you people in

the days ahead. My debt to you people is beyond measure. You made this happen

and I am forever grateful for what you have scarified to get it done.

I am also mindful of all those on whose shoulders I have climbed during this

work. I am sincerely gratitude to my late husband Hon. Victor Ugwuona, the

initiator of this programme. Vic, you showed me the importance of hard work,

respect and humility. I wish you were still alive to witness this. I owe more thanks

and prayers to you than you can see me pay. May God continue to grant your soul

a perfect rest – amen.

vii

Grateful for his encouragement, I want to appreciate the Head of the

Department, Prof. C.N. Okebalama for his genuine pieces of advice throughout the

course of this work. He is really a father. Remain blessed. Prof. Nwadike has been

wonderful in his encouragement and suggestions. Prof., ‘Anwuchula’.

With profound gratitude and great humility, I want to thank my great friend

and mentor, Prof. (Mrs) C.I. Ikekeonwu who most often show concern and ask

useful questions about the state of the work. Her encouragement and directives

actually helped a lot in this work. Prof., I appreciate you a lot.

I want to express my gratitude to our young, erudite and dynamic senior

lecturer Dr. B.M. Mbah for the privileges and constructive criticism rendered in

this work. Dr. B.M. Mbah made me to understand that most often, good work is

never a given. It must be earned, and so it has been with this present work. Dr. I

owe more thanks to you than you can see me pay.

I owe a special debt of gratitude to Mr Anasiudu, Dr (Mrs ) R.I. Okorji, Dr

(Mrs) E. E Mbah, Dr Mrs. J. Uguru, and Dr. C.U Ugwuoke of the Sociology

Department for their careful reading and feedback. Their careful and diligent

proofreading has greatly improved the entire work, great friends, thank you.

Other colleagues in the department who have contributed in one way or the

other to the success of this work are Dr. E.S. Ikeokwu, Mrs Onyejekwe, Dr.

Eucharia Eze, Mrs Akaeze, Mrs M.I. Nwaeze, Maazi Chuma Okeke, Mr.

viii

Babarinde, Mr. J. Onu, Miss G.I. Obasi, Miss Beniter, Miss Nneji, Mr. Ahamefula,

and Mr Waya, I am sincerely grateful to all of you for your various contributions in

shaping this work.

Part of the credit and honour of this work should go to my senior brother Prof.

Emeka Nwaeze whose astounding brilliance nudged me and encouraged my love

for knowledge. Emeka and his wife Rhonda, through their generosity have

continued to give me their moral and financial support throughout the course of

this research work. Their assistance is beyond measure. Prof., I am always proud of

you.

Nwaeze Raphael and his wife Nwadimkpa ensured that I got all the data I needed

from Ubolo Echichi and Ubolo Eke. I am ever mindful of your financial and

material support for this work. They gave me the gift of hope and faith each time

they are around me. May God reward you abundantly. Tony Ojobo, I appreciate all

your financial support during the course of this work. You are a great cousin

indeed. My sister Mrs. Victoria Eze (Mama Ifeanyi) and my sister- in -law Mrs.

Anthonia Ugwu (Mama Chidi) always show great concern for this work. I thank

you people for your encouragements.

I am grateful to my contemporaries and non teaching staff in the

Department, Mr C. Ojobo, Mrs Ugama, Miss Patience, and Maryrose for their

encouragements and concern during the course of this work. May God reward you

ix

people abundantly.

I am not unaware of those before me whose work provoked, challenged and

opened up new world to me, that is, the authors and publishers of the texts I have

consulted in enriching this work. Their works showed me endless possibilities out

there. May God reward each and every one of you accordingly. In a special way, I

appreciate my dad, Uroko Nwaeze for his encouragement throughout the course of

this research work. Papa, may God reward you with many more years so that I will

be tapping from your wealth of wisdom and experience. I sincerely want to

appreciate, Rev. Fr. Simeon Ugwueze, Rev. Fr. (Dr) L. Chinagorom, and Dr.

(Mrs.) Ngozi Nwodo for their prayers and encouragements. Great and noble

mentors, remain blessed.

I am grateful for my God-sent children, Odinaka, Ogonna, and Chinemerem

for their incredible patience, prayers and understanding with this untiring mummy;

throughout the course of this work. May God fill you people with His Holy Spirit,

long life, good health, wisdom and prosperity.

In all, may all glory, all thanks, and all appreciations go to the miracle

working God ; who have picked me from nobody to somebody through the people,

some of whom I have mentioned here. This victory whole and entire belongs to

you, the Almighty God.

x

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- i

Approval page -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ii

Dedication -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- iii

Abstract -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- iv

Acknowledgements -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- v

Table of contents -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- x

Conventions and Symbols used -- -- -- -- -- -- -- xv

Linguistic map of Nigeria -- -- -- -- -- -- xvi

Linguistic map of Igboland -- -- -- -- -- -- -- xvii

Map of Ubolo -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- xviii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1

1.1 Background of the Study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem -- -- -- -- -- -- 4

1.3 Research Objectives -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 5

1.4 Research Questions -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 6

1.5 Purpose of Study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 6

1.6 Significant of the Study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 7

1.7 Scope of the Study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9s

xi

1.8 Limitation of the Study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 11

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 12

2.1 Theoretical Studies -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 12

2.2 Empirical Studies -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 28

2.3 Summary of Literature Review -- -- -- -- -- -- 63

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Research Methodology -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 67

3.1 Area of Study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 67

3.2 Research Design -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 67

3.3 Research Population -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 67

3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique -- -- -- -- -- 68

3.5 Instrument for Data Collection -- -- -- -- -- -- 68

3.6 Administration of Instrument: Oral Interview -- -- -- 68

3.6.1 Methodological Problems -- -- -- -- -- -- 68

3.6.2 The Problems of the Interview and the Subsequent Solutions -- 69

3.6.3 Method of Data Analysis -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 70

xii

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Presentation and Analysis of Data -- -- -- -- -- 71

4.1 Factors that Influence Language Contact in Ubolo Speech Community --71

4.2 Sociolinguistic consequences of Language Contact in Ubolo Speech

Community -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 73

4.2.1 Lexical Borrowing in the New-Road --- -- -- 73

4.2.2 Lexical Borrowing from the Hausa Groups in the Goat Section Domain --75

4.2.3 Lexical Borrowing from Hausa, Owerri and Yoruba Linguistic Groups in

the Goat Section, New-Road Domain -- -- -- --- -- 77

4.2.4 Personal Names from Onitsha Linguistic Groups -- -- -- 78

4.2.5 Lexical Borrowing in the Native Drug Section of the New Road Domain-----

--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 79

4.2.6 Lexical Borrowing in Banana (Idoma) Section of the New Road Area

‘Domain’ -- -- -- -- -- -- - -- 80

4.2.7 Linguistic Borrowing in the Yam Section of the Main-Market ‘Domain -- --

-- -- 82

4.2.8 Lexical Borrowing in Ubolo-Ahq Main Market -- -- --

84

xiii

4.2.9 Lexical Borrowing in Ubolo-Eke and Ubolo Echichi -- --

84

4.3 Lexical Borrowing in the indigenous Home Domain -- --- 86

4.4 English Loan Words -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 86

4.4.1 Loan Creation/Coinages -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 87

4.4.2 Loan Words in Yam Section of the Ubolo-Ahq Market Domain 88

4.4.3 Loan Blends in the indigenous Home -- -- -- … … 88

4.5 Structural Borrowing in the New-Road Domain -- -- -- 92

4.5.1 Structural Borrowing in a Social Gathering -- -- -- -- 91

4.6 Code-Switching in Yam Section Domain -- -- -- -- 92

4.6.1 Code-Switching in the New-Road Domain -- -- -- -- 93

4.6.2 Code-Switching Between an Hausa man (buyer) and a Lady Hawker (seller)

in the New-Road Domain -- -- -- -- -- -- 94

4.6.3 Code Switching/ Mixing Between an Igbo Man (seller) and Hausa Man

(buyer) in New -Road Domain -- -- -- -- -- -- 95

4.6.5 Code-Switching Between an Onitsha Woman and an Ubolo Lady in the New-

Road Domain -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 97

4.6.6 Code-Switching of Hawkers within and Between Sentences in the New-

Road Domain -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- 97

4.6.7 Code-Switching as Observed in Ubolo-Ahq Main-Market Domain 99

xiv

4.7 Hyperadoptation (Hypercorrection) in New-Road Domain -- -- -- 100

4.7.1 Hypercorrection by Owerri Linguistic Group in New- Road --- --- --101

4.7.2 Hyperadoptation During an Occasion in one of the Villages -- --- 102

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Discussions of Finding from the Data Analysis -- -- -- --104

5.1 Factors that Influence Linguistic Borrowing in Ubolo Speech Community

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 104

5.2 The Dominant Language or Dialect in Different Domains/Regions as

Occasioned by Age -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 111

5.3 Findings of the Study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 116

CHAPTER SIX

Summary of Findings and Conclusion -- -- -- -- -- 117

References -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 121

Appendices -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 128

xv

CONVENTION AND SYMBOLS USED

- Low tone

- Step tone

D – Dominant language/dialect

S – Subordinate language/dialect

LWC – Language of Wider Communication

LMC – Lower Middle Class

UMC – Upper Middle Class

MC – Middle Class

Orthographic Representation

ẹ - reduced form of e usually realized as schewa // half open front vowel.

- reduced form of x often used as schewa // in northern

Igbo dialects.

ry – palatalized speech sound found especially in

northern Igbo varieties of the Igbo language.

CPs – Complimentizers

NPs – Noun phrases

PSC – Principle of System Compatibility

PSI – Principle of System Incompatibility.

xvi

Tone Marking Convention

In this work, we have adopted Green and Igwe (1963) convention whereby

all low tone / / and downstep // syllables are fully represented, while

high tone syllables are left unmarked.