c.p.priju, s.g.athira, t.p.neerajamol, k.madhavan and n.b.narasimha prasad (2012) groundwater...
TRANSCRIPT
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Proceedings of the Fifth International GroundwaterConference
(IGWC-2012)
On
The assessment and management of groundwater resources in
hard rock systems with special reference to basaltic terrain---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Editors
C.MayilswamiM.Thangarajan
P.S.KulkarniV.P. Singh
IGWC
Groundwater
Research Series # 5 (III)
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Proceedings of the Fifth International GroundwaterConference
(IGWC-2012)On
The assessment and management of groundwater resources in hard
rock systems with special reference to basaltic terrain
Volume III
Water and environment
Editors
C.MayilswamiM.Thangarajan
P.S.KulkarniV.P. Singh
Published by
Department of Geology, Maulana Azad College, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India
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Foreword
The demand for water is ever increasing to meet the needs of the domestic,
agricultural and industrial for the last three decades. Groundwater resource is playing a majorrole in meeting the drinking water purpose also. Groundwater in hard rock regions with
limited renewable potential have to be managed judiciously to ensure adequate supplies ofdependable quantity and quality. In the last three decades, the exploitation of groundwaterincreased many folds but vagaries of monsoon due to change in climatic condition reduced therainfall at many places resulting in to reduction in surface run off and replenishment to the
depleting groundwater aquifer. Deepening of wells by the farmers in the hard rock aquifer
ends without any success resulting to debt trap. Reduction in rainfall due to change in climaticcondition not only reduces the recharge to the aquifer to meet the demand for domestic,industrial and agricultural demand but also enhances the pollution level in groundwater. It is
therefore imperative for the proper assessment, development and management of groundwaterresources to overcome, or at least minimize such problems, a necessity was felt for suitable
interaction among researchers, field hydro-geologists, planners and water users.I believe and hope that the International Groundwater conference (IGWC-2012) on
The assessment and management of groundwater resources in hard rock systems withspecial reference to basaltic terrain organized jointly by Maulana Azad College of Arts,
Science and Commerce, Aurangabad, International Groundwater Congress (IGWC), India andGEOFORUM (MS) at Aurangabad will throw more light on the assessment and management
of groundwater resources in hard rock region of crystalline and basaltic terrain under extremeclimatic condition. The pre-conference proceedings will provide information about essential
data and new emerging techniques to assess the potential groundwater resources in hard rockregions, augmentation of groundwater resources through artificial recharge, effective remedial
measures to contain the migration of pollutants and the community based groundwaterresources management.
I congratulate all the editors viz., Drs. M.Thangarajan, C.Mayilswami, P.S. Kulkarniand Prof.V.P.Singh for their effort to bring out the beautiful pre-conference proceeding
volume.
December , 2012 Dr. S.B. Varade
President, (GEOFORUM)
Assosiation of Geologists and Hydrogeologists
Maharashtra, India.
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Preface
Groundwater plays a major role in the life style of mankind. The world wide rapidgrowth of population and increased Industrial and agricultural activities led to the great
demand for water from surface and ground. The exploitation of groundwater increased manyfolds in the last three decades but the vagaries of monsoon due to change in climatic condition
either reduced the rainfall at many places or increased the rainfall resulting in to reduction insurface run off and replenishment to the depleting groundwater aquifer else flooding many
places. It is reported that farmers resorted to deepen the bore wells in the hard rock aquiferwithout any success resulting in to debt trap. Depletion of water level in many wells due to
greater demands results in to the enhancement of pollution level It is therefore very importantto plan for the proper assessment, development and management of groundwater resources to
overcome, or at least minimize such problems, a need was felt for suitable interaction amongresearchers, field hydro-geologists, planners, NGOs and water users. IGWC-2012 was
planned at Aurangabad to discuss all issues
The editorial committee has received more than 420 abstracts from India and abroad and more
than 275full length papers on different themes of the conference. These papers were previewed by anexpert committee and selected about 250papers for the inclusion in the pre conference proceedingvolume. These papers have been grouped in to the following six sections:
1. Water Resources Evaluation and Management2. Application of RS & GIS in Water Resources Assessment3. Recharge Process and Artificial Recharge Mechanism4. Groundwater Pollution Assessment and Management5. Groundwater Modeling6. Groundwater Management Issues/Options and Policies
The above six sections have been classified in to four major groups viz. (i)Water resources evaluation
and management (ii) Recharge process & Agriculture stress (iii) Water and environment and (iv)Modeling and management aspects of groundwater
Groundwater management needs assessment, which in turn needs a model. A model needs a set of
mathematical equations to describe the system. The equations have to be solved through a set of
characteristic parameters, initial and boundary conditions of the aquifer system, which in turn have to
be obtained through field investigations. Field investigations need a set of procedures, which in turn
needs guide lines to carry out field investigations. We hope that the present volume will cater the
needs of the planners, field hydrologists, young groundwater scientists as well as users to a large
extent in India and elsewhere in their effort towards better development and management of
groundwater resources in a more optimal and judicial manner.
Editors
C.MayilswamiM.Thangarajan
P.S.KulkarniV.P. Singh
Aurangabad
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Acknowledgements
We thank all the sponsors and co-sponsors to organize IGWC-2012 at Maulana Azad College
of Arts, Science & Commerce at Aurangabad, Maharashtra and to support to bring thisvolume. It is but for the solid support of the Madam Padmashree Mrs. R. Zakaria (the
president of Maulana Azad Educational Trust, Aurangabad) the conference would not havebeen organized at Aurangabad and we are grateful to her.
We thank all authors of invited papers, keynote papers and contributed papers who have
responded very well in submitting abstracts and full length paper in time as well participatingin the conference.
The staffs at the Department of Geology are thanked for their solid support in the arrangement
of manuscript
Principal, Dr. Maqdoom FarooquiChairman Organizing Committee,
IGWC-2012, Aurangabad
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Contents
Water and environment
1. Challenges in investigating and remediating contaminated groundwater sites - Udai P.
Singh page no 16-24
2. Improved Human Health Risk Characterization for Regions with Arsenic-
Contaminated Groundwater -Edward A. McBean page no 25-25
3. Climate Change Impact on Groundwater in Cheliff-Zahrez basin (Algeria) -M. Meddi
and A. Boucefiane page no 26-38
4. Groundwater pollution due to nitrate leaching in Jaffna peninsula of Sri Lanka - C.S
De Silva page no 39-50
5. Cadmium and Nitrate Removal by Novel Nano Biopolymer Alginate Complex - Ali
Mahdavi, Anahita Esmaeilian and Hossein Ghaforian page no 51-51
6. Water quality studies of the Kapadak river basin, south-western Bangladesh with
special emphasis on environmental degradation - Mrinal Kanti Roy, Pulin Chandra
Roy, Nasir Ahmed, Md.Monriruzaman and Md.Shadat Hossain page no 52-89
7. Impacts on Groundwater of Open Pit Coal Mining in Bangladesh Context - A.H.M.
Selim Reza and Md. Emdadul Haque page no 90-99
8. Numerical Investigation of Magnetic Effect on Migration of Pollutant in Groundwater
-A.A. Dare and M. Sasaki page no 100-107
9. Assessment of Salinity intrusion and its impact on groundwater quality- Case study in
downstream of Bentota River Basin- Sri Lanka - Ranjana. U. K. Piyadasa, K.D and
Dhineshika Chandrani page no 108-114
10.Sustainability of irrigation with Barapukuria Coal-Mine Drainage, NW Bangladesh:An Environmental Impact Study -Joydeb K. Dutta, Chowdhury S. Jahan, Quamrul H.
Mazumder M. Motin and S. Jaman N. Sultana and M. Aminul Ahasan page no 115-
139
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11.The Comparison of Wheat Straw, Sawdust and Sand Filters Impact on the Physical
and Chemical Properties of Brackish Water - Ghorbani, B. and Pourvaezi, R. page no
140-151
12.Fluoride and Arsenic in Groundwater: Mobilization and Mitigation - Jacks G.,
Bhattacharya P. and von Bromssen M. page no 152-179
13.Groundwater quality with special reference to salinity intrusion in cochin area,
Kerala - C.P.Priju, S.G.Athira, T.P.Neerajamol, K.Madhavan and N.B.Narasimha
Prasadpage no 180-197
14.Assessment of soil contamination due to heavy metal accumulation from Thane to
Belapur industries zone, Mumbai, India -Ajaykumar K. Kadam, Sanjay S. Kale
and
K. M. Sawant page no 198-226
15.Pollutant Dispersion in Groundwater: Its Degradation and Rehabilitation - Naveen
Kumar and Sanjay K Yadav page no 227-239
16.Impact of Climate Change on Groundwater - Avdhesh Tyagi, Ph.D., P.E., Nicholas
Johnson, Logan Dyer, and Taylor Davis page no 240-250
17.Biofilms for textile industry wastewater treatments - Kavitha. B, P. Doraisamy and M.
Maheswari page no 251-267
18.Combined anaerobic-aerobic treatment of dye industry effluent - Madhuri
Sahasrabudhe and Girish Pathadepage no 268-268
19.Compaction and Hydraulic Conductivity Analysis of Fly ash of B.T.P.S. for the
construction of a Natural Geoliner -Neha Shreya and Dr. Biswajit Paul page no 269-
294
20.Hydrochemistry from proximity basalt and granite of dvp margin, India - Sahebrao
Sonkamble, Harish Kumar Agre, Ashalata Sahya and N.C. Mondal page no 295-313
21.Developing management strategies to ameliorate the groundwater quality of
Parambikulam-Aliyar basin of Tamil Nadu - P.Jothimani, C.Mayilswami, A.
Valliammai and S.Chellamuthu page no 314-324
22.Dispersion of fluoride in Huvinhalla watershed, Karnataka - K.N.Kulkarni and
S.C.Puranik page no 325-332
23.Dissemination and distribution of fluoride in groundwater, Hirehalla watershed,
Karnataka - S.M.Hiremath and S.C.Puranik page no 333-340
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24.Distillery spentwash impact on ground water quality - P. Latha and P. Thangavel
page no 341-347
25.Effect of municipal waste water of Rahuri tahsil on groundwater quality -
S. D. Dahiwalkar, S. A. Kadam and S. D. Gorantiwar page no 348-258
26.Seismic Groundwater Hazards: State of the Art -Hugo A. Loiciga page no 358-368
27.Electrochemical Processes for Environmental Applications - Special Emphasize on
CECRI technologies- S. Vasudevan page no 368-385
28.Effect of Phosphate and Silicate on Remediation of Arsenic from Drinking Water
using Zero Valet Iron Sandeep Kale, Rakesh Thakare and Pravin D. Nemade Page
no 385-385
29.Evaluation of Groundwater and its suitability for Agriculture in Periyar Main Canal
Command Area : A geospatial approach - V.Kumar, P. Selvan, and Dr.S.Chandran
Page no 386-405
30. Evaluation of groundwater quality in mining regions of south-east Hating, India -
Sanjay Kumar Sharma, A.L. Ramanathan and V. Subramanian Page no406-419
31.Evaluation of groundwater suitability for domestic and irrigational purposes: a case
study from Vemula Area, Kadapa District, Andhra Pradesh, India -L. Chandra Sekhar
Reddy, S.M. Deshpande, K.V. Ramana Reddyand
K.R. Aher Page no 420-429
32.Evaluation of Nitrate Contamination in Water Supply Wells: In a part of Jammu City,
J&K, India - Priya Kanwar, G. K. Sharma and K. P. Singh Page no 430-444
33.Evaluation of probabilistic simulation of pathogen removal at two river bank filtration
sites in India - Thakur A.K., Ojha C.S.P.and V.P. Singh Page no 445-469
34.Evolution of Hydrochemical Facies and Assessment of Groundwater quality for
Irrigation use in the Bewas river basin, Central India - L.P. Chourasia and S.H. Adil
Page no 470-490
35.Fluoride Contamination in Groundwater from Bhadravati Tehsil, Chandrapur District,
Maharashtra - Y. A Murkute and P.P.Badhan Page no 491-512
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36.Fluoride Estimation in Ground Water and Human Health in Selected Villages of
Salem District (Tamil Nadu) Dr. D. Janagam, Saravana kumar and M. Jeyamani
Page no 513-534
37.Occurrence of fluoride in groundwater in a part of Vaniyar river basin, Tamil Nadu,India - G.Jagadeshan and L.Elango Page no
38.Fluoride pollution in groundwater of Dongergaon, Chhattisgarh - G. R. Banjare K.
S. Patel, B. L. Sahu, R. Dewangan, R. K. Patel and L. Matini
39.Groundwater quality near mining area and development of heavy metal pollution
index -Bably Prasad, Puja Kumara, Shamima Bano and Shweta Kumara
40.Geochemical Characterization of Groundwater in Phreatic Aquifer in the Vaniar
Watershed, Salem and Dharmapuri Districts, Tamil Nadu, India - S.G.D. Sridhar, P.
Nandakumaran and G. Kanagaraj Page no 541-553
41.GIS for precise spatial filtering of non suitable groundwater quality zone in upper
Thirumanimuttar sub-basin, Cauvery river, Tamil Nadu, India - M.Suresh,
B.Gurugnanam, S.Kumaravel and M.Senthil Kumar Page no 554-560
42.Groundwater quality analysis for irrigational use in Cumbum valley Theni district
Tamil Nadu, India - Sankar, S. Venkateswaran, M.Suresh, M. Vijay Prabhu and
S.A.Palanisamy Page no 561-576
43.Groundwater quality assessment of Lucknow in Ganga alluvial plain, northern India -
Nupur Srivastava, Dharmendra Kumar Jigyasu and Munendra Singh Page no 577-
610
44.Evaluation of Chemical Quality of Groundwater in parts of Sirsa
(Haryana),Mansa,Bhatinda and Muktsar districts, SW Punjab with emphasis on
Uranium in relation to human health -N.Kochhar,V.Dadwal,M.Rishi,N.K.Sharma and
V.Balaram Page no 611-626
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45.Fluoride toxicity zone demarcation using GIS techniques in Pennagaram taluk,
Dharmapuri district, South India - S.A.Palanisamy, M.Suresh, M.Vijay Prabhu and
P.Karthikeyan Page no 626-638
46.Groundwater quality in Raipur city - N. S. Dahariya, K. S. Patel, R. Dewangan, R. K.
Patel and L. Matini Page no 639-643
47.Groundwater Quality Mapping for Using Geospatial Technology in parts of Veeranam
Command Area, Tamil Nadu, South India -R.Ayyandurai, M.Suresh, M.Vijay Praphu,
S.A.Palanisamyand P.Karthikeyan Page no 644-679
48.Monitoring of groundwater quality in the Parambikulam - Aliyar basin of Tamil Nadu
- P. Jothimani, C.Mayilswami, A. Valliammai and S.Chellamuthu Page no 680-690
49.Groundwater regime of Mandu Plateau, Dhar District, Madhya Pradesh, India -
S.F.R. Khadri Page no 691-713
50.Hydrochemical Analysis and Evaluation of Groundwater Quality in Parts of
Kancheepuram District, Tamil Nadu, India - G.Kanagaraj, S.G.D.Sridhar,
S.Mahalingam and S. Natchimuthu Page no 714-728
51.Hydrogeochemical Studies in the Granite and Basaltic Terrains, Andhra Pradesh, India
- V.Varalakshmi and B.Venkateswara Rao Page no 729-739
52.Hydrogeochemistry of shallow and deep aquifers from Anjani and Jhiri river
catchment (tapm006) Jalgaon district, northern Maharashtra, India - R. B. Golekar, S.
N. Patil, M.V. Baride and D. R. Yeole Page no 740-757
53.Assessment of Hydro-chemical Parameters of Ground Water Around Distilleries
situated at Dharmabad, Dist Nanded - Sayyed Hussaina, Mazahar Farooquib, C,
Vidya Pradhanb and Pathan Mohd Arifc Page no 758-758
54.Impact of septic tanks on shallow groundwater quality in Kakinada coastal aquifers -
Y. Satyaji Rao and A.K. Keshari Page no 759-805
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55.Impact of Treated Paper Mill Effluent Irrigation on Groundwater Qualities -
Balusamy, A, C. Udayasoorian, R.M. Jayabalakrishnan, S. Paul Sebastian and S.
Ponmani
56.Impacts of Urbanization on Groundwater Quality in a Hard Rock Terrain of BelgaumCity, Karnataka -B. K. Purandara and N. Varadarajan Page no 806-815
57.Influence of treated paperboard mill effluent irrigation on yield of chillies -
S.Ponmani, C.Udayasoorian, S.Paul Sebastian, R.M.Jayabalakrishnan and A.
Balusamy 816-820
58.Investigation of low cost adsorbent for removal of arsenic from drinking water
Gupta and Sunil Kumar Page no 821-836
59.Isotopic and hydrochemical characterization of pollutants of groundwater aquifer at
Najafgarh drain basin area, Delhi, India - Shilpi Saxena, J.P.Shrivastava, Bhishm
Kumar and M.S.Rao Page no 837-854
60.Physical, chemical and environmental studies on Cauvery river in parts of Tamil Nadu
(Mettur and Bhavani) P.Karthikeyan andR.Venkatachalapathy Page no 854-867
61.Physico-chemical characteristics of Masooli reservior Parbhani district, Maharashtra,
India - Kadam, S.U. and Md. Babar Page no 868-879
62.Quantitative and qualitative assessment of groundwater resources - Mahejabeen N.
Sayyad and.Shazia.K.Mirza Page no 880-885
63.Recycling options for palm oil industry solid wastes - Kavitha.B., G. Rajannan and P.
Jothimani Page no 886-895
64.Study of physical environment and its impact on land use pattern of Sangamner area,
Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra, India - K.K. Deshmukh and N.J. Pawar
Page no 966-981
65.The Utility of Bayesian Neural Networks in Hydrogeochemical Studies: An xample
from West Coast, India - Saumen Maiti, Gautam Gupta and Vinit. C. Erram Page no
982-1001
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66.Thermal-Hydraulic-Geochemical Coupled Processes around Disposed High Level
Nuclear Waste in Deep Granite Hosted Geological Repositories: Frontier Areas of
Advanced Groundwater Research in India -RK Bajpai Page no 1002-1015
67.Variation of Hardness in Groundwater of Guwahati on GIS Platform - S.R. Kumar and
D.S. Rathore Page no 1016-1029
68.Water quality deterioration and its impact on Public Health due to Solid waste
dumping in Salem (Tamil Nadu) -Dr. (Mrs) D. Janagam, M. Jeyamani and B. Suresh
Page no 1030-1047
69.Water quality impacts of artificial rechargeA case study of Central Gujarat -
R. S. Kurothe, Gopal Kumar, D. R. Sena and S. P. Tiwari Page no 1048-1064
70.Geochemistry of groundwater from the Upper Vel river basin, part of Pune District,
Maharashtra - Gaikwad.S.K, Kouhsari M and Pawar, N.J. Page no 1065-1091
71.Fluoride poisoning in groundwater of Birbhum district, West Bengal - impact on
human health and the management by bioremediation - Bidisha Bagh, Amit Roy and
Santanu Ray Page no 1092-1101
72.Removal of Iron in Groundwater by using Coconut Shell -Mausumi Raychaudhuri, S.
Raychaudhuri, Sucheta Mohanty and Ashwani Kumar Page no 1102-1108
73.Adsorption study for the removal of lead A disposable measure - Syed Ummul
Khair Asema, Maqdoom Farooqui and M. A. Malik Page no 1109-1119
74.Hydrochemistry of Surface and Ground Water of Dehradun District Of Uttarakhand,
India - Kanchan Deoli Bahukhandi and B Sukesh K Bartarya Page no 1120-1130
75.Comparative Study For Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium By Electrolytic Iron And
High Carbon Iron Filings (HCIF) - Rajneesh Kr. Srivastava, Gaurav Kr. Yadav and
Alok Sinha Page no 1130-1164
76.Estimation of Fluoride and other Physico-Chemical Parameters of Groundwater in
Gangajalghati Block of Bankura District, West Bengal - S. K. NAG and Shreya Das
Page no 1165-1175
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77.Trace Elements in Groundwater of Yamuna Krishni Interfluve Area, Western Uttar
Pradesh - Rashid Umar, Fakhre Alam , Izrar Ahmed and Arina Khan Page no 1176-
1187
78.Impact of solid waste on the health of Rag Pickers in Aurangabad District - Yogita
L.Padme and Satish L.Padme Page no 1188-1190
79.Estimation of Fluoride Ions From the Ground Water At Dharmabad, District Nanded,
Maharashtra - Sayyed Hussain, Syed Yousuf Hussain, Vidya Pradhan and Mazahar
Farooqui 1190-1193
80.Study of fluoride concentration in ground water of Parbhani Maharashatra, India -
D.R.Deshmukh and M. S. Kadam Page no 1194-1198
81.Decontamination of Lead (Pb) Containing Root-zone Water using the wetland plant
Carex pendula -Brijesh K. Yadav and Maarten A. Siebel Page no 1199-1217
82.Corrosivity Scenario of Groundwater in Tezpur, Assam - S.R. Kumar, A.K. Singh and
S.P. Rai Page no 1218-1229
83.Groundwater Quality Management -Dr. S.B. Ubale, Dr. S. M. Masoom and Dr. M.N.
Naik 1230-1239
84.Microbial accumulation of metallic nanoparticles by bioreduction - Aditi
Bhattacharya., Smita Tulapurkar Page no 1240-1240
85.Use of GIS for Management and Surveillance of Groundwater Quality - S.R. Kumar,
D.S. Rathore and A.K. Singh Page no 1241-1257
86.Groundwater quality assessment of Buldhana district, MS, India - Pradnya P. Jangle,
Devyani S. Bendale and Yogita V. Jadhav Page no 1241-1257
87.Groundwater Quality and Pollution Susceptibility Around Nagod Area, Satna District,
Madhya Pradesh, India R.N. Tiwari,U.K. Mishra,Ajay Mishra and Amit Mishra Page
no 1258-1270
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88.Physico and chemical characteristics of groundwater in and around Marutha Nathi
river at Pattiveeranpatti of Dindigul district due to the discharge of sewage and
industrial effluent - A.Jesu,L.Prabhu Doss Kumar,K.Kandasamy, J.Ramkumar,
A.Pandiarajan and Dr.M.S.Dhennadayalan Page no 1271-1284
89.Assessment of Irrigation Water Quality of Groundwater of Sirmaur area, Rewa
District, Madhya Pradesh, India - U.K. Mishra, R.N. Tiwari, A.K.Tripathi, A.K. Mishra
and Raghuraj Tiwari Page no 1285-1297
90.Heavy metal analysis of groundwater samples representing Basaltic aquifer r-
Jeerakhun, Veeraj, Nowbuth and Manta DeviPage no 1298-1316
91.Impact of hard rocks on groundwater fluoride level in parts of Pambar river sub-basin,
Tamil Nadu - L.Kalpana and L.Elango Page no 1317-1349
92.Identification of seawater intrusion by geochemical signatures in North Chennai
Coastal Aquifer and mitigation measures through Managed Aquifer Recharge -Indu S.
Nair, S.Parimala Renganayaki and L. Elango Page no 1350-1361
93.Geochemistry and Genesis of Fluoride Contaminated Groundwater From Parts of
Warora Area, Chandrapur District, Central India - A. N. Dongre, S. M. Deshpande,
M. S. Dubey and G. D. Gaikwad Page no 1362-1380
94.Improved Human Health Risk Characterization for Regions with Arsenic-Contaminated Groundwater -Edward McBean
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Water and environment
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Fifth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC-2012) on the assessment and management of groundwater
resources in hard rock systems with special reference to basaltic terrain.
Editors: C.Mayilswami, M.Thangarajan, P.S.Kulkarni & VP. Singh
GROUNDWATER QUALITY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SALINITYINTRUSION IN COCHIN AREA, KERALA
C.P.Priju*, S.G.Athira
1, T.P.Neerajamol, K.Madhavan and
N.B.Narasimha Prasad
Centre for Water Resources Development and Management
Kunnamangalam, Kozhikode 673 571, Kerala
E-mail:[email protected]
1Department of Marine Geology and Geophysics
Cochin University of Science and TechnologyLakeside Campus, Cochin 682 016, Kerala
ABSTRACT
Hydro-geochemical characteristics of groundwater in phreatic aquifers around Cochin area,
Kerala, were studied to understand the groundwater salinity and the role of anthropogenic
activities on water quality. The study area covers Cochin City and adjoining townships,
receives industrial effluents from FACT, HIL, IRE, TCC, CRL, Zinc and Aluminium smelting
industries etc. and domestic sewerage from urban centres. Forty six dug well/filter point
water samples were collected and analysed for the physico-chemical parameters viz. pH,
temperature, EC, alkalinity, salinity, turbidity, TDS, chloride (Cl-), total hardness, Ca
2+, Mg
2+,
Na+, K
+, SO4
2and Fe
2+to understand the distribution and source of contaminants. The
hydrochemical parameters were correlated and statistically evaluated from correlation
coefficients, bivariate plots, cluster analysis and factor analysis. Hydro-geochemical facies
and water type of the samples were identified with the help of geochemical plots such as
Hill-Piper diagram, US Salinity Diagram and Pie diagram. Chemical analysis of water samples
indicates, the most dominant cations are Na+
and Ca2+
and anions viz. Cl-and SO4
2-, followed
by Mg2+
and K+. Hill-piper plots show the dominant water type is Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3
hydrochemical facies followed by Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl and Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl facies. Cross-plots
and correlation coefficients reveal good correlation between Cl- content with EC & Na+, andtotal hardness (TH) with EC, Ca
2+& Mg
2+. Total dissolved solids (TDS) also has good
correlation with Ca2+
, Mg2+
, Na+, K
+, Cl
-& SO4
2.
*Conference speaker
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INTRODUCTION
The quality of groundwater is the resultant of the processesand reactions that act on the
water from the moment it condensed in the atmosphere to the time it is discharged by a
well or spring and vary from place to place with the depth of water table. There are many
sources that contribute contaminants to the groundwater, e.g., land disposal of solid wastes,
sewage disposal on land, agricultural activities, saline intrusion, urban runoff and polluted
surface water. Kerala, the southernmost state of India has unique hydrogeological
characteristics. Both qualitatively and quantitatively, the coastal zones of Kerala witnessed
serious groundwater problems in recent years. Several studies invariably showed water
quality in the aquifers situated in the coastal zones of Kerala is deteriorating alarmingly
amidst plenty of water all around due to high population pressure, intense human activities,
inappropriate resource use and absence of proper management practices (CWRDM, 1984,
Basak and Nazimuddin, 1987, Kunhambu, 2003, Laluraj et al., 2005, CPCB, 2007).
The present study attempts to illustrate the scenario of groundwater quality in Cochin area.
The area is under severe stress due to large scale developmental activities and increasing
rate of urbanization, leading to environmental degradation. Owing to high demand of
groundwater to cater a large population in the coastal zone of Cochin, mitigation of the
quality deterioration of groundwater in coastal aquifers was initiated through groundwater
recharge programs. The coastal sedimentary formation serves as an excellent condition for
aquifer and the average groundwater potential of this region estimated is more than 0.3
MCM/km2 (CGWB, 1992). During rainy seasons, the sea becomes rough and encroaches
towards land and during summer seasons the saline water finds its way through tidal
channels and mix up with shallow coastal aquifers.
Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has carried out hydrogeological studies and
exploratory drilling of both sedimentary and hard rock areas along central Kerala.
Exploration for groundwater in Ernakulam district was taken up during the years 1965-66,
1974-75, 1983-87, 1989-90, 1998-2001 and 2002. Systematic hydrogeological surveys were
carried out in different parts of Ernakulam district by Najeeb and Dhinagaran (1989), Najeeb
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(2006, 2007). Detailed study of the groundwater conditions of the entire district were carried
out by SIDA (Swedish International Development Agency) assisted Coastal Kerala Ground
Water Project during the period 1983-88 (CGWB, 1992). CGWB studies during April 2006
revealed that the ground water quality of the shallow aquifers of Ernakulam district is
generally good. The exploratory drilling data shows groundwater quality in deeper aquifers is
generally good in most of the hard rock areas in the district. However, it has also revealed
the presence of inland salinity in some areas namely Deshom and Sreemoolanagaram, where
the Electrical Conductivity (EC) is very high (> 17,000 S/cm at 25C). Central Pollution
Control Board (2007) has reported most of the wells in Cochin area are surrounded by
industries and are unfit for drinking. Umadevi et al., (2010) has carried out a study in the
coastal zone of Cochin and found that, in some stations the groundwater quality is poor and
in rest of the stations it is satisfactory and needs attention on proper sanitation and waste
disposal. Most of the studies form Cochin area report changes in quality of groundwater
during different seasons (CWRDM, 1984, Laluraj et al., 2005, CPCB, 2007). Salinity is found to
be increasing during post monsoon season. Sea water intrusion was also reported from
Ernakulam coast (Bhosle and Kumar, 2000).
STUDY AREA
The study area extends between 9.83 to 10.90 N latitude and 76.20 to 76.38 E longitude
covering Cochin City and surrounding areas (Figure 1). Vembanad Lake cover major part of
the study area and it is underlain by recent to sub-recent sediments. Vembanad Lake is
connected to Lakshadweep Sea through a major inlet at Cochin. The area receives discharge
from Periyar River in the north and Muvattupuzha River from the southern part.
Chitrapuzha, a small stream flowing from the eastern part also drain into the Lake. The study
area and its vicinities are conspicuous with a number of industries. A large amount of
effluents comes from the industries viz., Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore Ltd. (FACT),
Hindustan Insecticides, Indian Rare Earths, Travancore Cochin Chemicals (TCC), Cochin
Refineries Ltd. and Zinc-Alumina ore smelting (Hindustan Zinc and Indian Aluminium
Company). About 260 million m3/day of effluents from these industries are liberated into the
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Cochin backwaters. During the SW monsoon season (June-September), the rainfall exceeds >
300 cm and the influx of water and sediment into the lagoon is higher, whereas in the non-
monsoon season, the river influx reduces and tidal influence gains momentum with an
increase in salinity longitudinally leading to mixed type of estuarine conditions in Vembanad
lake (Rasheed et al., 1995; Priju and Narayana, 2007). The estuarine water gets diluted
considerably near Muvattupuzha river mouth in the south and at Periyar river mouth in the
northern part during the monsoon. The salinity values range between 10 x 10-3
and 35 x 10-3
during the non-monsoon period and from 0 to 27 x 10-3
during monsoon (Balachandran,
2001).
Geomorphologically the study area is characterized by various landforms viz., lagoons,
barrier islands, beach ridges, paleo-strandlines, alluvial plains, marshy plains and floodplains.
The major part of the study area consists of Vembanad Lake, the largest estuarine-lagoon
(backwater) system on the west coast of India. A series of sand dunes oriented parallel to the
general direction of the coastline hinders at places the flow of the rivers, thereby trapping
sediments and enlarging the alluvial plains. The shoreline is generally straight trending - SSE
with minor variations and lies as a narrow and low-lying land. Groundwater occurs in shallow
aquifer condition and it dominantly consists of sandy soil with varying silt and clay content.
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Figure 1: Study area with well water sampling locations
The objective of the present study is to assess the status of groundwater quality in Cochin
area. The study also focused on identifying the nature of contaminants in different parts of
the study area, in view of the rapid urbanization and salinity intrusion.
METHODOLOGY
Water samples from 42 shallow wells and 4 filter point wells were collected during pre-
monsoon period (Table 1).
Table 1: Sampling details and observed lithology of the sample locations
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Sampl
e No.
Type of
Well
Depth
(mbgl)
Water
tableObserved lithology
1 OW 5.5 4.4 Sandy clay
2 OW 1.5 0.9 Alluvial plain of river-clayey soil
3 OW 4.8 4.1 Laterite
4 OW 1.9 1.1 Black clayey sand5 OW 2.6 0.8 Clayey sand
6 OW 3.6 1.2 Clayey soil
7 OW 11.2 8.5 Laterite
8 OW 7.4 4.5 Laterite
9 OW 8.0 5.0 Top soil (0-1m), 1-3.7m laterite followed by
lithomarge clay
10 OW 6.4 4.4 Laterite
11 OW 7.9 6.1 Laterite in the top followed by weathered rock
12 OW 10.7 3.0 Clayey soil and alluvium
13 OW 3.6 1.8 Clayey soil followed by clay in the bottom.
Laterite abutment
14 OW 3.2 1.6 Clayey sand
15 OW 1.9 0.8 Clayey sand
16 OW 2.4 1.4 Sandy soil-grey colored fine sand
17 OW 1.9 0.6 Grey colored fine sand with clay and iron
content
18 OW 2.6 1.5 Sandy soil with shells (0-1 m) followed by
laterite
19 OW 5.6 4.2 Clayey sand
20 OW 3.8 2.5 Clayey sand
21 OW 2.7 1.0 Sandy soil22 OW 2.8 1.8 Clayey sand
23 OW 2.2 1.4 Clayey soil with shells
24 FP - - Black sand
25 FP - - Clayey sand
26 OW 2.7 1.7 Clayey soil
27 FP - - Sandy clay
28 OW 1.1 0.7 Clayey sand
29 OW 0.8 0.3 Clayey sand
30 OW 5.9 - Clayey sand
31 OW 2.2 1.3 Clayey soil32 OW 1.6 1.0 Clayey soil
33 OW 1.8 1.1 Black colored clayey soil
34 OW 2.3 1.2 Riverine alluvium with black colored clayey soil
35 OW 2.0 1.1 Clayey sand
36 OW 1.9 1.4 Clayey sand
37 OW 1.7 0.7 Clayey sand
38 OW 2.2 1.2 Clayey sand
39 OW 2.2 1.6 Clayey sand
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40 OW 1.8 1.0 Clayey soil-fine clayey sand
41 OW 1.6 0.6 Sandy clay
42 OW 2.2 0.9 Clayey sand
43 FP - - Sandy soil
44 OW - - Clayey sand
45 OW 1.6 0.6 Sandy clay46 OW - - Sandy soil
OW: Open well, FP: Filter point
Water sampling was carried out using stainless steel sampler. Clean pre-rinsed polyethylene
plastic bottles of 1-litre capacity were used to store water samples. The bottles were
properly sealed, labeled and transported to the laboratory for analysis. The pH, TDS,
electrical conductivity etc of the samples was measured immediately in the field using
Eutech pH
meter and salinity by Salinometer.
The concentration of major ions (cations and anions) was analyzed in the laboratory as per
the Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water (APHA, 2005). Sodium
and potassium in the water samples was analyzed using Flame photometer. Calcium and
magnesium was estimated by EDTA titrimetric method, and chloride content was
determined by argentometric titration using standard silver nitrate as reagent. Carbonateconcentration of the water samples was determined titrimetrically. Sulphate concentration
and turbidity determination were carried out following turbidity method using Nephlo
Turbidity meter (Table 2).
Table 2: Analytical methodology adopted for the determination of water quality
Parameter Method
pH Digital pH meter
Temp. Digital Multi-parameter probe
Electrical conductivity Digital Multi-parameter probe
Total Alkalinity Titrimetry (using HCl)
Salinity Digital Multi-parameter probe
Turbidity Digital Nephlo Turbidity Meter
Total Dissolved Solids Digital Multi-parameter probe
Cl-
Titration (using Silver Nitrate) Method
Total Hardness, Ca2+
, Mg2+
EDTA Titrimetric Method
Na+, K
+Flame Photometer (SYSTRONICS Model: 1382)
SO42-
Digital Nephlo urbidity Meter (SYSTRONICS Model: 132)
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Fe2+
Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (M series)
Lithology of well sections and depth to water table were also recorded. It is observed that in
most of the places the soil formation is clayey sand to sandy clay. In some places the aquifer
is laterite with weathered crystalline basement. River alluvium, sandy soil, clayey soil and
fine sand were also found in other locations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The result of physico-chemical analysis of groundwater samples from the study area is
presented in Table 3. The ground elevation contours and ground water table contour
diagram of the study area is shown in the Figure 2. Hydrogeochemical relationship between
various physico-chemical parameters were obtained by employing statistical methods viz.,
piper plot, correlation coefficient and scatter diagram.
Table 3: Physico-chemical parameters (range and average) of groundwater
Measured parameter Minimum Maximum Average
Temperature ( C) 25.0 30.70 27.50
pH 5.90 8.60 7.70
Electrical conductivity 67.0 28700 1405
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) 31.0 2490 411
Salinity (ppt) ND 2.60 0.40
Turbidity (NTU) ND 14.80 0.920Alkalinity (mg CaCO3/L) 9.0 836 176
Total Hardness (mg CaCO3/L) 16.0 920 193
Calcium (mg/L) 3.0 208 53
Magnesium (mg/L) 1.0 107 19
Sodium (mg/L) 10.0 613 86
Potassium (mg/L) 1.0 106 14
Chloride (mg/L) 8.0 1465 161
Sulphate (mg/L) 2.0 192 36
Iron (mg/L) ND 0.30 0.02
ND Not Detected
Ground Elevation Contours
The study area covers mainly the low land coastal plain and part of lateritic mid land. The
ground elevation ranges from 0.3-47 m above MSL. The elevation contour diagram of the
study area was prepared from toposheet contours and SRTM data (Figure 2). The data shows
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a smooth gradient in the major part of the study area, except in the eastern side adjoining
midlands. In the eastern part, a maximum ground elevation of 47 m above MSL is noticed.
Also a dendritic drainage pattern is noted in this part (Figures 1-2). The elevation range in
the adjoining coastal plain is 0-8 m. The coastal plain part of the study area consist of various
geomorphic units - palaeostrandlines, floodplains, dendritic drainage, beach ridges and
swales, barrier islands, spits and bars, lagoon, tidal/mud flats and mangrove swamps etc.
(Narayana and Priju, 2006).
The lowland area that forms the western part comprises of backwaters, lagoons and artificial
channel networks. The midland areas lying east of the low land coastal plain has natural
drainages. As a whole the area has a slope downwards from east to west. Periyar River is the
major river in the region that enters into the northern part of the area. Chitrapuzha is
another small river found in the middle part covering Irumpanam-Kakkanad industrial belt.
Few low-medium elevation mounts are observed in the eastern part of the study area.
Groundwater Table Contours
A water table contour map was prepared based on the standing water level measurements
(for the period February-March 2011) to get an overall idea on groundwater accumulation
and flow patterns. Water table contours show lower elevations in the western part in the
coastal region.
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Figure 2: Contour plot of surface elevation, water table elevation and depth to water table
The water table has a very low gradient in the western part and it increases towards the
eastern part of the study area. Two water table mounts are found in the area; one in the
Edappally-Kakkanad area in the eastern part and another in the northeastern part in
Edathala. From the contour map, it can be inferred that the general groundwater movement
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is from east and northeast towards the west and southwest parts of the study area (Figure
2).
Field Measured Parameters
Temperature
The water temperature of the samples ranged from 25-30.7C. Spatially water temperature
in the wells near to the coast/coastal inlet is comparatively higher than the wells adjacent to
the river mouths. Temperature plays an important factor which influences the chemical,
biochemical and biological characteristics of the water body.
pH
pH of the water samples varied from 5.90-8.60 with average of 7.70. Most of the samples
have pH within the drinking quality limit (WHO, BIS and ICMR). The spatial plot of pH shows
that most part of the study area is covered with alkaline water. Alkalinity of water samples is
higher in the coastal region compared to midland areas. pH is an important ecological factor
that provides an important piece of information in many types of geochemical equilibrium or
solubility calculations (Figure 3).
Electrical Conduct ivi ty (EC)
The electrical conductivity (EC) of the water samples varied from 66.80-28700 S/cm with
average of 1405 S/cm. Higher EC was detected in the water samples collected from the
wells near to the lake in the areas viz., Vypin, Kadamakkudi, Mulavukad, Elangunnapuzha in
the northern part and Kumbalam, Marad, Trippunitura in the southern part. Electrical
conductivity is a measure of the capacity of water to conduct electric current and it signifies
the amount of total dissolved salts (Figure 3).
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
The TDS content in the water samples varied from 31-2490 mg/L with average of 412 mg/L.
In most part of the study area the water is fresh (TDS
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adjoining midlands. TDS content is generally affected by topography, lithology, burial
conditions, groundwater recharge, runoff and discharge conditions as well as human
activities. According to the level of TDS, groundwater can be divided into fresh groundwater
(TDS < 1000 mg/L), moderately salty water (1000 < TDS < 3000 mg/L) and salty water (TDS >
3000 mg/L). Water containing more than 500 mg/L of TDS is not desirable for drinking water
supplies, but in unavoidable cases 1500 mg/L is also allowed (Figure 3). Overall in the water
samples (46 nos.), the range in TDS are 12 samples (0-100 mg/L), 13 samples (100-250 mg/L),
10 samples (250-500 mg/L), 7 samples (500-1500 mg/L) and 4 samples (>1500 mg/L).
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Figure 3: Field measured water quality parameters (pH, EC, TDS and Salinity)
Salinity
The salinity of the water samples ranged from 0-2.60 ppt with average of 0.40 ppt. Salinity of
the well water samples is found to be increasing towards the western and southern parts of
the study area. Higher salinity (>1.0 ppt) was observed in Kadamakkudi, Vallarpadam,
Kumbalam, Marad and Trippunithura areas compared to the eastern parts. The groundwater
salinity is of two types - coastal salinity due to sea water ingress and inland salinity due to
processes other than the sea water ingress. The presence of high salt content may render
water unsuitable for domestic, agricultural or industrial use (Figure 3).
Laboratory analysis of water samples
The result of chemical analysis of groundwater samples is presented in the Table 3. The
parameters analyzed are major ions - cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+) and anions (HCO3-,
CO32-
, SO42-
and Cl-), Total Alkalinity, Total Hardness, Fe
2+and Turbidity.
Major Ions
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The concentration of the major ions in the water samples is shown in the Table 3. The ion
balance calculated is found within 10.0%. The results show that Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 type
hydrochemical facies is dominant with the major ions as Na+, Ca
2+and Cl
-. All the wells are
tapping groundwater from the shallow aquifers and there is more heterogeneity in the
major ion composition in the water samples. Thirty different hydrochemical facies are
identified among the water samples (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Hill-Piper plot of groundwater samples
Total Alkalinity (TA)
The total alkalinity of water samples range from 8.80-836 mg/L. Higher alkalinity (TA) is noted
in the southern (Trippunithura and Maradu) and northern (Varapuzha and Kadamakkudi) part
of the study area (Figure 5).
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Figure 5: Contour plot of major ions (TA,TH,Ca2+
,Mg2+
,Na+
and K+) in the water samples
The cause of alkalinity is the minerals which dissolve in water from soil and the alkalinity
values in water provide an idea of natural salts present. Alkalinity of water is its capacity to
neutralize a strong acid and it is normally due to the presence of bicarbonate, carbonate and
hydroxide compound of calcium, sodium and potassium.
Total Hardness (TH)
The hardness (TH) of the well water samples ranged from 16-920 mg CaCO3/L with an
average of 193 mg CaCO3/L. The results show that in most parts of the study area,
groundwater is fresh with TDS
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in drinking water is 200.0 mg/L (Goel and Sharma, 1996). Sodium is the most abundant
cation in seawater and its concentration generally increases towards the coast.
Potassium (K+)
Potassium content in the water samples varied from 1.20-106 mg/L with an average of 13.70
mg/L. Potassium content is higher in the water samples from Trippunitura, Marad,
Kadamakkudi, Kumbalam compared to other parts in the study area (Figure 5). The major
source of potassium in natural fresh water is weathering of rocks but the quantities increase
in the polluted water due to disposal of waste water.
Anions
Chloride (Cl-)
The Cl-
values in the water samples ranged from 8.10-1465 mg/L with an average of 161
mg/L. The Cl-content in most of the water samples are within the desirable limit as per BIS (1000 mg/L in one sample. Higher
chloride content in the water samples is mostly indicative of groundwater salinization caused
by seawater intrusion. Chloride content in the waters serves as an indicator of sewerage
pollution. People accustomed to higher chloride content in drinking water are subjected to
laxative effects.
Sulphate (SO42-
)
The SO42-
content in the water samples varied from 2.40-192 mg/L, with an average of 36
mg/L. Higher SO42-
content was found in the samples from Varapuzha, Vallarpadam,
Kumbalam and Marad areas. Generally SO42-
content is lesser in the areas with higher
elevation (Figure 6). Sulphate occurs naturally in waters as a result of leaching from gypsum
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and other common minerals. Discharge of industrial wastes and domestic sewerage tends to
increase the SO42-
concentration. Iron sulphides are present in sedimentary rocks from which
they can be oxidized to sulphate in humid climates; the latter may then leach into
watercourses so that groundwater is often excessively high in sulphate. The utility of water
for domestic purposes is severely limited by high sulphate concentrations (> 250 mg/L).
Iron (Fe2+)
Iron (Fe2+
) was detected in few samples (10 out of 46) and is at low concentration.The iron
content ranged between 0-0.30 mg/L. Higher Fe2+
content was noted in Kadamakkudi,
Varapuzha, Edavanakkad and Marad areas (Figure 6). The concentration of iron in natural
water is controlled by both physico-chemical and microbiological factors. Iron is an essential
element in both plant and animal metabolism. An additional factor involved in the mobility
of iron in ground water is the presence of bacteria. The Fe2+
values obtained for the water
samples are within the desirable limit (BIS, 1993).
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Figure 6: Contour plot of major ions (anions), Fe2+
and turbidity in the groundwater
samples
Turbidity
The turbidity level in the well water samples ranged from 0-14.80 NTU (av. 0.90 NTU).
Turbidity levels are higher in Marad, Elamkulam, Trippunitura, Fort Kochi areas in the
southern part as well as in Varapuzha, Edavanakkad areas in the northern part (Figure 6). In
most of the water samples, higher turbidity levels are due to colloidal and extremely fine
dispersions.
Hill-Piper plot and Ground water type
The Hill-Piper diagram is used to infer hydro-geochemical facies. The concept of
hydrochemical facies was developed in order to understand and identify the water
composition in different classes. A trilinear diagram was created to classify the groundwater
from different parts of the study area and to reveal any groupings, similarities or trends of
the samples. The HCO3-Cl-SO4 anion triangle plotted show groundwater samples have
bicarbonate and chloride type end members and sulphate is not present in significant
proportion. The Ca-Mg-Na cation triangle show that the major cations present in the sample
are Ca and Na. Ten water samples are Ca dominant, 18 of them are Na dominant, 3 are Mg
dominant and 15 samples are of mixed type. The two triangles projected onto the main
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diamond field account for a number of hydrochemical groupings (Figure 4). It shows that
alkaline earths (Ca+Mg) exceed alkalies (Na+K) and weak acids (SO 4+Cl) exceed strong acids
(HCO3+CO3). Different water types obtained is shown in the Table 4. Overall 30 groundwater
types are seen from the study area. The dominant hydrochemical facies (7 samples out of 46
samples) is Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 followed by Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl and Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl. Spatially Na-
Ca-Cl-HCO3 facies is distributed in the western part of the study area adjoining Vembanad
Lake and sea. Bicarbonates dominate in the eastern part of the study area.
Table 4: Hydrochemical facies of groundwater samples collected from Cochin area
Sample No. Water Type Sample No. Water Type
1 Ca-Mg-Na-Cl 24 Mg-Ca-Cl-HCO3
2 Mg-Ca-Na-HCO3 25 Ca-Cl-HCO3
3 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 26 Ca-Mg-HCO34 Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3 27 Ca-Na-HCO3
5 Mg-Na-Cl-HCO3 28 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl-SO4
6 Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl 29 Ca-Cl
7 Na-Ca-Mg-Cl-HCO3 30 Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl
8 Mg-Na-Cl 31 Na-Ca-HCO3
9 Na-HCO3-Cl 32 Ca-SO4-HCO3
10 Na-Cl 33 Ca-Na-SO4-Cl-HCO3
11 Na-Ca-HCO3-Cl-SO4 34 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl
12 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 35 Ca-Mg-Na-Cl
13 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl-SO4 36 Na-Cl-HCO3
14 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 37 Na15 Na-Ca-Cl 38 Ca-Mg-Na-HCO3-Cl
16 Ca-HCO3-Cl 39 Ca-Mg-HCO3-SO4
17 Ca-HCO3-Cl 40 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3
18 Ca-HCO3 41 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3
19 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl-SO4 42 Na-Cl
20 Ca-Na-HCO3 43 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3
21 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl 44 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl
22 Ca-Mg-Na-HCO3 45 Na-Ca-CO3-Cl
23 Mg-HCO3-Cl 46 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3
Hydro-geochemical relationships
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Correlation coeff icient
The correlation between various hydrogeochemical parameters are obtained from the
correlation coefficients (Table 5). The results show a very good correlation (0.619-0.916)
between TDS and TA, TH, Ca2+
, Mg2+
, Na+
, K+
, Cl-
, SO42-
. Good correlation (0.410-0.749) is
seen between TA and TH, Ca2+
, Mg2+
, Na+, K
+, Cl
-as well as TH and calcium, magnesium,
sodium, potassium, chloride, sulphate and iron (0.402-0.852). Ca2+
also shows good
correlation (0.523-0.745) with sodium, potassium, chloride and sulphate. Mg2+
show good
correlation (0.403-0.461) between sodium, chloride and iron. Na+
and K+, Cl
-, SO4
2-also
shows a very good correlation (0.471-0.854). Good correlation is also noted between K+
& Cl-
(0.611) and Cl-
& SO42-
(0.435). Correlation coefficients reveal various interrelationships
among cations, anions, alkalinity and total hardness in the groundwater samples.
Bivariate plots
Scatter plot of the water table elevation vs. chloride concentration shows an inverse
correlation (r2=-0.38). i.e., as the water table elevation decreases, the chloride concentration
increases (Figure 7). A positive correlation is seen between hardness (TH) vs. Calcium
(r2=0.77), Magnesium (r
2=0.69) and Electrical Conductivity (r
2=0.64). Positive correlation is
also seen between Conductivity (EC) vs. Chloride (r2=0.68) and Sodium vs. Chloride (r
2=0.63).
The ratio of Sodium and Chloride (Na+/Cl
-) plotted against log EC shows an inverse
correlation (r2=-0.23).
US Salinit y Diagram
The US Salinity diagram (specific conductance vs. sodium-adsorption ratio) shows that
majority of the water samples have medium-high salinity hazard (Figure 8). Among forty four
samples, 13 samples is of low salinity hazard, 19 samples show medium salinity hazard, 8
samples are of high salinity hazard and four samples are in the category of very high salinity
hazard. Three of the samples come under the category medium sodium (alkali) hazard.
Pie Diagram
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Pie diagram was plotted with the cations in the upper half and anions are in the lower half of
the circle, each taken as 100%. The circular plots (pie diagram) show that Ca2+
is the
dominant cation and HCO3-
is the dominant anion among the water samples collected.
Among the 46 samples analysed Ca2+
is dominant cation in 24 samples, Na+
dominant in 18
samples and Mg2+
dominant in 4 samples. Bicarbonate (HCO3-) is the dominant anion in 26
samples, Cl-dominant in 18 samples and SO4
-dominant in two samples.
Table 5: Correlation coefficient between different hydro-geochemical parameters (N=46)
Elev pH Tem
EC TDS Tur
Sal TA TH Ca
2+ Mg
2
+
Na+
K+
Cl- SO4
2-
Fe2
+
Elev 1.0
pH - 1.0Tem 0.1 0.0 1.00
EC 0.0 0.1 0.04 1.0
TDS - 0.1 - 0.2 1.0
Tur - 0.0 - - 0.0 1.0
Sal - 0.0 - 0.0 0.2 0.6 1.0
TA - 0.1 0.16 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.1 1.0
TH - 0.2 0.04 0.1 0.8 0.1 0.2 0.7 1.0
Ca2+
- 0.1 0.09 0.1 0.7 0.0 0.2 0.7 0.8 1.0
Mg2
- 0.2 - 0.1 0.6 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.3 1.0
Na+
- - 0.00 0.2 0.9 - 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.4 1.0
K+ - 0.0 0.09 0.2 0.7 - 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.8 1.0Cl
-- 0.0 - 0.1 0.8 - 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.6 1.0
SO4 0.0 0.0 - 0.1 0.5 - 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.4 1.0
Fe2+
0.0 0.0 - 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 1.0
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Figure 7: Bivariate plot showing interrelationship among various hydrochemical parameters
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Figure 8: US Salinity diagram of the water samples
CONCLUSION
The study is an attempt to find groundwater quality of Cochin area during pre-monsoon
season (2011). The study also aimed at assessing drinking water quality status of well
samples in different parts of the study area in view of rapid urbanization around Cochin. The
study area cover major part of Ernakulam district in central Kerala coast, extending from
Kalamassery in the north to Trippunitura-Maradu areas in the south (9.83-10.90 N latitude
and 76.20-76.38 E longitude). Cochin area has high population density and recent trend in
urban growth has increased the demand for freshwater manifold. Geomorphologically, the
area is covered with extensive backwaters/lagoon system and dynamic barrier-island
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complexes with ridge-swale topography. This forms an ideal condition for the study of
coastal aquifer system with respect to saline intrusion. The area is influenced by diurnal and
seasonal ebb-flood tidal flow, receives run-off from major rivers like Periyar and
Muvattupuzha in different seasons is found vulnerable to saline water ingress.
The surface elevation model shows a smooth gradient in the majority of the study area,
except in the eastern part adjoining the midlands. An elevation of 47 m above MSL is noted
in the eastern part and it ranges from 0-8 m above MSL in the coastal plain areas. A water
table contour map was prepared based on standing water level measurements (February-
March 2011) gives an overall idea on groundwater flow pattern. Water table is at a lower
elevation in the western part of the coastal plain. The water table has a lower gradient in the
western part and it generally increases towards eastern part of the study area.
The temperature of well water samples ranged from 25-30.7C. The pH of the samples varied
from 5.90-8.60 (av. 7.70). Most of the samples were found within the permissible limit
(WHO, BIS and ICMR). The electrical conductivity of the samples varies between 66.80-28700
S/cm (av.1405 S/cm). The TDS level in the water samples ranged from 31-2490 mg/L (av.
412 mg/L). The salinity of the water samples ranged from 0-2.60 ppt (av. 0.4 ppt). TDS levels
indicate that majority of the samples (25 samples) are within safe limit (250 mg/L) and rest
within 500 mg/L (10 samples) and > 500 mg/L (11 samples).
Different water types were obtained from Hill-Piper plots of hydrochemical data. The major
ions concentration in the study area shows Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 type is dominated and the major
ions are Na+, Ca
2+and Cl
-. All the wells are tapping groundwater from shallow aquifers, thus
there is more heterogeneity in the major ion concentration of water samples. From
hydrochemical facies diagram, 30 different water types were identified from the area (out of
46 samples).
Total alkalinity (TA) in the water samples ranged from 8.8-836 mg/L is found within
permissible limit. Total hardness (TH) of the water samples ranged from 16-920 mg CaCO 3/L
(av.193 mg CaCO3/L). Turbidity and iron content (Fe2+
) is reported only in few samples. The
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turbidity level of the water samples ranged from 0-14.8 NTU (av. 0.9 NTU). The chloride (Cl-)
content in majority of the water samples (31 samples) are within 100 mg/L, 10 samples in
100-250 mg/L and 5 samples above 250 mg/L.
The hydro-geochemical relationship of the samples was obtained from correlation
coefficients and bivariate plots. Bivariate plots show good positive correlation between
chloride vs. electrical conductivity, sodium vs. chloride, EC vs. total hardness, total hardness
vs. calcium & magnesium. Chloride content vs. water level elevation is inversely correlated.
Correlation coefficients among various hydro-geochemical parameters show
interrelationships between TDS, TA, TH and major ions. The US Salinity diagram indicates
that majority of the water samples is under medium-high salinity hazard. The circular plots
(pie diagram) show that Ca2+
is the dominant cation and HCO3-
is the dominant anion species
in the water samples.
ACKNOWLEDEMENTS
Authors thank Executive Director, Centre for Water Resources Development and
Management (CWRDM) for the permission and extending support for publishing this work.
This paper form part of the Plan N-40 project of CWRDM sanctioned under Kerala State
Council for Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE) funding. Authors thank Dr.
P.S.Harikumar, Head, Water Quality Division, CWRDM for extending the facility in analyzing
the water samples. One of the authors (CPP) thanks Department of Science and Technology,
Government of India for the funding under a research project (No.SR/FTP/ES-43/2007),
some of the samples collected in the program was used in this work.
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