Course: The frozen planet (S175)Using specially-shot film from the BBC Frozen Planet team, the course investigates the ecosystems, plants and animals that prosper in the polar regions, the global climate, the influence of humans on the environment and the motivations of early explorers.

Learning with The Open UniversityThe Open University (OU) is Europe’s largest academic community. With more than 210 000 students learning with us each year and with around 600 courses available in a range of fascinating and challenging subjects, you’re sure to be inspired. We call our flexible study method ‘Supported Open Learning’ – it’s study that fits around you and your life.

Taking an OU course will be stimulating and rewarding. It could point you in the right career direction and if you want, you can follow a programme towards a qualification such as a certificate, a diploma or a degree.

Choose from courses in: Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology, Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities, Business and Management, Childhood and Youth, Computing and ICT, Education, Development and International Studies, Health and Social Care, Languages, Law, Mathematics and Statistics and Psychology.

Beginning to studyIf you have no experience of higher education, deciding to become an undergraduate student can be a big step. Our short courses such as The frozen planet have been specially designed as a great way to experience OU study.

The frozen planet (S175)Exploring the wonders of the polar world, this short course is about the science of the frozen planet, which covers over one-third of the Earth at any one time. You will also learn about the current management of the polar regions and their fate in the near future.

If you have an interest in science, other Open University courses on offer include:

Science starts here (S154)The course is specifically for people who have done little or no science before, and whose maths is rusty (or non-existent!). Exploring the role that water plays in sustaining life – from the journey of a glass of water through the body to the effects of pollution – this ten-week course provides a gentle introduction to the basic maths and scientific vocabulary needed for Exploring science (S104), our 60-credit interdisciplinary science course.

Understanding the weather (S189)Learn about weather patterns, the physical processes that determine the weather, and the extent to which weather can be forecast.

Volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis (S186)Discover how and why earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions occur and the hazards they pose.

Plants and people (S173)Explore the impact that plants and their products have on our everyday lives.

Supporting you all the wayWhatever you decide to do we’re right behind you and you’re never alone. On many courses you’ll benefit from support from a tutor or study adviser who can be contacted by telephone or online. Your Regional/National Centre is also on hand to answer any queries you may have.

Find out moreTo learn more about our courses and qualifications and to find out what it’s like to be an OU student:

visit our website at www.open.ac.uk

call our Student Registration & Enquiry Service on 0845 300 60 90

email mailto:general-enquiries@open.ac.uk or

write to The Open University, PO Box 197, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6BJ

For information about Open University broadcasts and associated learning, visit our website: www.open.ac.uk/openlearn/whats-on

The Open University has a wide range of learning materials for sale, including self-study workbooks, DVDs, videos and software. For more information visit the website: www.ouw.co.uk

Published in 2011 by The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, to accompany the series Frozen Planet, first broadcast on BBC1, Autumn 2011.

Copyright © The Open University 2011

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright holders.

Enquiries regarding extracts or the re-use of any information in this publication should be sent to The Open University’s Acquisitions and Licensing Department – email Rights-General@openmail.open.ac.uk or call 01908 653511.

Edited by The Open University

Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by CKN Ltd.

The Open University is incorporated by Royal Charter (RC 000391), an exempt charity in England & Wales and a charity registered in Scotland (SC 038302)

ProductionBBC Series Producer: Alastair FothergillOU Academic Consultants and Authors: Mark Brandon and David RobinsonBroadcast and Learning Executive: Janet SumnerBroadcast Project Manager: Diane MorrisGraphic Designer: Glen DarbyEditor: Bina SharmaCurriculum Manager: Kat Garrow

AcknowledgementsGrateful acknowledgement is made to the following image sources for the poster and insert:

© istock Josef Friedhuber© Andy Barker www.nopolarbears.co.uk © Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program© General Photographic Agency/Getty Images© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS© Illustrated London News Ltd/Mary Evans© International Feature Service/Getty Images© Maria Itina/iStockphoto.com© Mary Evans/AISA Media© National Oceanography Centre. British Antarctic Survey© Robert Harding Picture Library Ltd/Alamy© Bain News Service/Library of Congress© Premier Ship Models Ltd© Earth Observatory NASA© Mila Zinkova: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en © Nick Powell, National Science Foundation. U.S. Federal Government © Robert E. Peary/National Geographic Stock© Winstonwolfe© www.defense.gov

SUP 01767 3For more information about the series visit www.open.ac.uk/openlearn/frozenplanet

500

500

500

500

500

500

500

50

0

500

500

500

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

2000

2000

2000

2000

2000

2000

2000

2000

2000

2000

20

00

3000

3000

3000

3000

3000

3000

3000

3000

3000

3000

4000

4000

4000

4000

40

00

4000

40

00

4000

5000

5000

5000

4000

3500

3500

3500

3000

3000

3000

3000

2500

2500

2500

2500

2500

2000

2000

2000

2000

2000

2000

2000

2000

2000

1500

1500

1500

1500

1500

1500

1500

1500

1500

1000

10

00

1000

1000

1000

10

00

1000

1000

1000

500

500

500

500

500

500

50

0

500

500

15°W

30°W

45°W

60°W

75°W

90°W

105°W

120°W

135°W

150°W

165°W

180°

165°E

150°E

135°E

120°E

105°E

90°E

75°E

60°E

45°E

30°E

15°E

0°

65°S 70°S 75°S 80°S 85°S 85°S 80°S 75°S 70°S 65°S

65°S

70°S

75°S

80°S

85°S

80°S

75°S

70°S

65°S

Mt. Jackson

3100

3184

2330

1670

1925

4897

VinsonMassif

Table

1875

2065

2812

Saratoga

3400

3675

4285

3400

3110 3500

Mt Erebus

4025

4528Mt. Kirkpatrick

4350

3794

3490

4165

1221

3070

3355

1395

2588

3630

2695

2678

2390

South Magnetic Pole

South Geomagnetic Pole

(2004)

(2004)

4087

ORCADAS (ARGENTINA)

SIGNY (UK)

GENERAL BERNARDOO'HIGGINS (CHILE)

(ARGENTINA)MARAMBIO

(ARGENTINA)ESPERANZA

5 ARTIGAS (URUGUAY)

6 BELLINGSHAUSEN (RUSSIA)

7 GREAT WALL (CHINA)

4 KING SEJONG (KOREA)

3 JUBANY (ARGENTINA)

2 ARCTOWSKI (POLAND)

1 COMANDANTE FERRAZ (BRAZIL)

11

ROTHERA (UK)

PALMER(USA)

HALLEY(UK)

(S. AFRICA)

(NORWAY)

SANAE IV

TROLL

NOVOLAZAREVSKAYA(RUSSIA)

SYOWA(JAPAN)

PROGRESS II (RUSSIA)ZHONGSHAN (CHINA)

MIRNY (RUSSIA)

DUMONT D'URVILLE(FRANCE)

SCOTT BASE (NZ)McMURDO (USA)

9 PRESIDENTE EDUARDO FREI (CHILE)

10 ESTACIÓN MARÍTIMA ANTÁRCTICA (CHILE)11 CAPITÁN ARTURO PRAT (CHILE)

8 ESCUDERO (CHILE)

1-10

(UK)

VOSTOK

KUNLUN

CONCORDIA(FRANCE

AND ITALY)

(RUSSIA)

(CHINA)

AMUNDSEN-SCOTT

(USA)

CASEY (AUSTRALIA)

DAVIS (AUSTRALIA)

MAWSON (AUSTRALIA)

MAITRI(INDIA)

NEUMAYER (GERMANY)

BELGRANO II(ARGENTINA)

SKY-BLU

FOSSIL BLUFF(UK)

SAN MARTIN(ARGENTINA)

VERNADSKY(UKRAINE)

LEXAA NDER ISLAND

Clarence I.

Elephant I.

Laurie I.

Joinville Island

Smith I.

Nelson I.

Robert I.

Anvers I.

Smyley I.

KingGeorge I.

JONESMTNS

KOHLER

CRARY MTNS

Haag

THURSTONISLAND

HUDSON

SIPLEISLAND

SEGNAR D

RO

F

WA

TS

ON

ES

CA R P M

EN

T

OHIO RANGELA GORCE

MTNS

Rawson Mtns

RANGE

QUEEN

MAUD

MOUNTAINS

EXECUTIVECOMMITTEE

RANGE

Hay

sM

tns

Com

mon

wea

lth R

a

CH

URC

HILL

Britan

nia

Ra

PR

INC

E A

LB

ER

T M

OU

NTA

INS

Prince

RoyalSociety Ra

DA

NC

O C

OA

ST

OS

CA

R II C

O

AST

SNIATNUOM

EIG

HT

S C

OA

ST

BAKU

TIS C

OAST

RUPPERT COAST

HO

BBS COAST

CO

AS

T

SH

IRA

SE

COAST

D

UFEK COAST

COAST

THIEL

WHITMOREMOUNTAINS

MOUNTAINS

FOYN

C

OAST

KINS IL COW AST

SAUNDERSC

OA

ST

QUEEN

ALEXANDRA Miller Ra

Cook Mtns

MARIE

BYRD

LAND

V I C

T O

R I A

L A

N D

T R

A N

S A

N T A R C T I C M O

U N

T A

I N S

OATES LAND

GEORGE V

LAND

TERRE

WILKES

LAND

LAND

QUEEN MARYLAND

PRINCESS

ELIZABETH

LAND

KEMP

ENDERBY

DRONNING MAUD

LAND

COATS LAND

W E S T A N T A R C T I C A

KNI

VE

RG

HC

RO

B

CO

AST

PENNELL

Roosevelt I.

Ames

Range

FloodRange

AlexandraMtns

Edw

ard VII Peninsula

WISCONSINRANGE

Deep Freeze Range

AdmiraltyMtns

Anare Mountains

BO

WER

S M

TNS

USAR

P

Wilson E S TA O

C O A S T

G E O R G E V C O A S T

E L P I

S

T S A O C

NEPTUNE RANGE

SHACKLETON

THERON MOUNTAINS

RANGE

ARGENTINA

PecoraEscarpment

Cordiner Peaks

PE

NS

AC

OLA

MO

UN

TAIN

S

LU

ITP

OLD

CO

AS

T

A H T R Ä M E S S E S N I R P N

O R

K

K Y S

T

P R I N S E S S E R A G N H I L D K Y S T

VESTFJELLA

HEIM

EFRO

NTF

JELL

A

KIRW

ANVEGG

ENBORG

MASSIV

ETAHLMANNRYGGEN

H.U

.SV

ER

DR

UP

FJE

LLA

ORVINFJELLAWOHLTHATMASSIVET

Mülig Hofmanfjella

HOELFJELLA

Dronning

E A S T A N T A R C T I C A

BungerHills

MAWSON

LarsemannHills

GUSTAV

HANSENMTNS

DISMALMTNS

MTNS

MTNS

NYEMTNS

Tula

FRAMNES

BULL MTNS

MTNS

P R I N C E C SH A N R T L E S M

ADÉLIE

A D É L I E C

O A S T

NORDENSKJÖLDCOAST

BehrendtMtns

Sweeney

LatadyMtns

Hutton

WernerMtns

Mtns

Mtns

B

OW

MAN COAST BLACK COAST

ELLSWORTH LAND

Charcot I.

Latady I.

HERITAGE RANGE

LES NE TINER GAN

HTRE OLL WS

AMUNDSEN

FO

RR

ES

TAL

RA

NG

E

LAND

P R

I N S

H A

R A

L D K Y TS

TS

AO

C DDUB

TS

AO

C A

NIR

BA

S

TSAOC E

RA

ZN

AB

TS

AO

C SEKLIW

QU

EE

N M

AR

YC

OA

ST

KNO

X C

OAS

TC

OA

ST

KIN

G LE

OP

OLD

AN

D

QU

EE

N A

STR

ID C

OA

ST

COAST

Scott Island

Peter I Øy

Greenwich I.Livingston I.

Brabant I.

Biscoe

Islands

AdelaideIsland

James Ross Island

EN

GLIS

H C

OA

ST

Spaatz I.

WA

LG

RE

EN

CO

AS

T

MTNS

DL

UO

G

HORLICK M

OUNTAINS

Hart Hills

RANGE

Holland Ra

Olav Mtns

MO

UN

TAIN

SH

ILLA

RY

CO

AS

T

SH

ACKLE

TON

CO

AST

CO

AS

T

SC

OT

TRoss I.

Victory Mountains

MTN

S

Hills

CH

RISTENSEN CO TAS

ING

RID

VestfoldHills

GROVEMTNS

MA

WS

ON

CO

AS

T

KE

MP

CO

AS

T

ESCARPMENT

NAPIER

SCOTT

Mtns

Tange Promontory

Bjerkø

Pen

COASTCHRISTENSENLARS

LAND

KRONPRINSOLAV KYST

FabiolafjellaBELGICAFJELLA

SØR RONDANE

T H O R S H A V N H E I A N E

F I M B U L H E I M E N

A D D I V M I E H D U A

M

CAIRD C

OAST

WhichawayNunataks

RANGE

DufekMassif

ISLAND

BERKNER

PATUXENTNunataks

EG

RE

BM

UZ

TS

AO

C

TSAO

C N

AYR

B

SHETLAND

SOUTH

ISLANDS GR

AH

AM

LAN

D

PALMER LAND

A N

T A

R C

T I C P E N I N S U L ALASSITER COAST

TS

AO

C E

LLI

VR

O

HaubergMtns

MAC ROBERTSON

WILHELM II

LAND

WIL

HE

LM

II

BALLENY

ISLANDS

RANGE

Deception I.

DA

VIS

CO

AS

T

FALLIÉRES COAST

Coronation I.

SOUTH ORKNEY ISLANDS

S E A S S T E R S IN DI R K P Y S T

LOUBET CO

AST

GRAH

AM

CO

AST

AMUNDSEN

ABYSSAL PLAIN

SEAMOUNTS

SEAMOUNTS

SCOTT

CH

AR

CO

T DEEP-S

EA FAN

BE

LLIN

GS

HA

US

EN

AB

YSS

AL P

LA

IN

POWELL

BASIN

AMERY

BASIN

GUNNERUSBANK

K E

R G

U E

L E

N P

L A

T E

A U

E N D E R B Y A B Y S S A L P L A I N

EGDIR S

UREN

NU

G

WEDDELL

ABYSSAL

PLAIN

SOUTH SANDWICH

FRACTURE ZONE

HG

UO

RT

DN

AL

TE

HS

HT

UO

S

EG

DIR

AITO

CS

HTU

OS

DE GERLACHE

AM

UN

DS

EN

RID

GES

E G D I R C I T C R A T N A - C I F ICA P

MAUD

RISE

EG

DIR

DIR

TS

A

RONNE

ICE SHELF

FILCHNER

ICE

SHELF

LARSENICE

SHELF

Bra

nsf

ield

Marguerite

WilkinsIce

Shelf

HOLLICK KENYON

PLATEAU

ROCKEFELLER

PLATEAU

ICE SHELF

ROSS

GEORGE VI SOUND

AB

BO

T IC

E S

HE

LF

Pin

eIs

land

Gl.

Thwaites Gl.

Sulzberger

Bay

Rutford

maertS ecI snavE

Ice Stream

Horlick Ice Stream

Patuxent

Ice Stream

Foundation

Ice Stream

Axel Heiberg Gl.

reicalG

ero

mdr

ae

B

.lG dor

miN

reicalG dry

B

DrygalskiIce Tongue

Nin

nis

Gl.

Mert

z G

l.

HenryIce

Rise

Recovery Glacier

RIIS

ER -

LARSE

NIS

EN

NESINESDNU

MA

WEGENERISEN

NANSENISEN

CARSTEN

Slessor Glacier

SHELF

BRUNT

ICE

FIM

BU

LIS

EN

Hellehallet

BORCHGREVINKIS

EN

Lambert Gl.AMERY ICE

SHELF

WEST

ICE

SHELF

SHACKLETON

SHELF

Law

Dome

ICE

Davis

Sea

Dumont d'Urville

Sea

ROSS SEA

AMUNDSEN

SEA

BELLINGSHAUSEN

SEA

V N I I O HK AÅ VH G N O K

Bay

Geo

rge

VI Ic

e S

he

lf

WordieIce Shelf

Support Force Glacier

Str

ait

W E D D E L L S E A

Thie

l

Trough

IceRise

Korff

DoakeIce Rumples

LyddanIce Rise

S O U T H E R N O C E A N

Prydz

Bay

S O U T H E R N O C E A N

SHELF

ICE

GETZ

VOSTOKSUBGLACIAL LAKE

DOME

DOME

ARGUS

CIRCE

baleen whales

phytoplankton

krill 400 x lifesize relative to whale

100 x lifesize relative to krill

digestive system showing green pigment from phytoplankton consumed

five pairs of paddle-like swimming legs

gills

1 cm

translucent, pink cuticle with some red spots

large compound eye

antenna

six filter legs

wandering albatrossDiomedea exulans

krill Euphausia superba

killer whaleOrcinus orca

3

2

1

wing span can be over 3 m

wing colour becomes whiter with age

PENGUINSPenguins are an iconic symbol of Antarctica but of the 17 species only two are truly Antarctic; the emperor which forms large colonies on the sea ice and the Adélie which lives in the winter pack ice and in coastal waters in summer. Other polar species such as the chinstrap and gentoo breed on the Antarctic Peninsula, nesting on ice-free slopes or open beaches whilst the macaroni and king penguins breed mainly on sub-Antarctic islands like South Georgia.

ICE SHELVES

FOOD WEBSOcean circulation and the Antarctic marine ecosystem are inextricably linked. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current circumnavigates the continent forming the only global ocean and also isolating the wildlife in one of the largest ecosystems in the world. The northern edge of this current is called the Polar Front but in older times it was known as the Antarctic Convergence. South of this towards the continent are the cold nutrient-rich polar waters. Compared with many ecosystems the food web is relatively simple: the central component is a shrimp-like crustacean called krill which can be several cm long.

emperor Adélie

122 cm

60 cm

Penguins are well adapted to the Antarctic marine habitat. Their flippers are modified wings and they ‘fly’ underwater, leaping clear every few metres to save energy and to take a breath. Reduced blood flow to the extremities conserves heat. The deepest dive measured is over 500 m. They feed mainly on fish, squid and krill, their diet varying with the season and availability. Adult penguins have no land predators. At sea, their characteristic colours act as camouflage; dark when seen from above and light when seen from below against the light, reflective surface of the water. Emperor penguins, unlike other species, breed and incubate their eggs in the depths of the Antarctic winter when air temperatures may be –60 0C and the winds are fearsome.

Penguins are highly sensitive to environmental conditions and populations shift location as conditions change. The graph below shows changes in the numbers of penguins over time near Palmer Station on Anvers Island. The long-established Adélie colony has seen an influx of chinstrap and gentoo penguins in recent times.

CLIMATE The coldest temperature recorded on the surface of the Earth was –89.2 ºC in Antarctica at the Russian Vostok Station – but is it like that all over? At the edge of the continent there are warm summer temperatures of approximately 0 °C, and winter temperatures of –12 °C. Far inland the picture is very different. At Vostok whilst there is still a clear seasonal cycle, the summer is short and marked by a rapid rise and then rapid fall in temperature. Winter is approximately 6 months long with temperatures sometimes below –60 °C.

GEOLOGY

SCENERY

Although the largest ice shelves are changing little in size, six of the shelves on the Antarctic Peninsula have collapsed since the 1970s and another, the Wilkins, is part way through breaking up. This area has experienced some of the fastest warming on Earth, which has increased the summer melting of snow on the ice shelves. The warming has been linked to anthropogenic climate change. Satellite imagery has given us a 'window from above' to observe these break-ups and to track the movement of the resulting icebergs. For example, in February 2010 an iceberg the size of Luxembourg broke away from the continent. It contained enough fresh water to supply a third of the world's population for a year.

The supergiant iceberg B9B was over 90 km long when it collied with the Mertz Glacier in 2010.

Gentoo penguins Chinstrap penguins

FACT The frozen planet team filmed co-operative hunting behaviour which allowed the killer whales to take prey much larger than themselves.

FACT Antarctic krill are a central pillar of the ecosystem of Antarctica.

FACT The wandering albatross has the largest wing span of any living bird. The population is decreasing and there are around 25 000 pairs, with long-line fishing causing substantial adult mortality.

FACT Leopard seals are a very effective marine predator lurking at the ice edge by breeding colonies waiting for a penguin to dive in.

B9B iceberg

The krill feed on algae which capture energy from sunlight converting carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates for food. The dense swarms of krill make up the main food source for most animals including seals, whales, penguins, marine birds and fish. This simple three-step food chain with so-called ‘top predators’ all able to feed on krill enables efficient transfer of energy from the smallest animals through to the largest animal ever to have lived on Earth – the blue whale. There are few other species but generally huge numbers of each of them. For example, there are 35 species of sea-birds living south of the Polar Front compared with more than 120 in the Arctic. With few steps, the Antarctic marine ecosystem is potentially fragile and under growing pressures from human activity such as over-fishing and krill harvesting, as well as the effects of climate change.

A N TA R C T I C A

0 2500

kilometres

typical summer extent (February)

typical winter extent (September)

Antarctic Polar Front

180°

90°W 90°E

0°

80°S

70°S

60°S

50°S

In winter as the Sun disappears for longer and longer each day the temperatures fall. Coastal regions gain heat from the sea and so stay relatively warm but inland the heat loss is so great that the temperature falls very rapidly to effectively the lowest it can reach. With no further cooling possible and no source of heating from the Sun or the ocean, the temperature stays approximately constant, producing the so-called ‘coreless winter’. This relatively constant winter temperature is perhaps the major difference between inland Antarctica and the rest of the planet. At locations like Vostok the difference between winter and summer is astonishing at over 40 °C, whilst in coastal regions it is much less, at 20 °C, but still larger than in the UK, for example. These atmospheric climate variations have a huge bearing on the life than can live in Antarctica.

Seasonal sea ice extents and Antarctica without the ice

Scientific investigations on the Antarctic ice.

Mount Erebus was discovered by James Clark Ross in 1841 and it has a permanently bubbling lava pool.

At the edge of the Antarctic continent incredible ice draped mountains rise from the sea. This is the Lemaire Channel.

Antarctica was once part of a much larger, ancient continent called Gondwana that fractured into segments which drifted apart to form the continents we recognise today. The force which drives the continental movement comes from movements of molten rock deep within the Earth. When the molten rock reaches the surface it forms volcanoes. The very first explorers observed large volcanoes such as Erebus and Deception in their travels. Mount Erebus is a classically shaped volcanic cone which often has a cloud of steam rising from a pool of lava in the vent. In contrast Deception Island is the wreck of a large volcano which has been flooded by sea water after an explosive eruption – but even today some of the waters are volcanically heated.

The dominant colours of the Antarctic scene are blues and whites and in bright sunlight with still water, the coastline can look very beautiful – but it is also very deceptive. The weather can change suddenly and an idyllic scene can become one of whistling winds so strong that you cannot stand up and driving snow that blots out the view, reducing the visibility and making everything white. So it is a very beautiful but a very harsh environment in which there are relatively few animal and plant species, all of which can only exist close to the coast.

Mount Erebus

Lemaire Channel

B9B

As Antarctica became completely isolated, snow that fell on it did not melt in the summers and layers of ice built up until about 35 million years ago the great ice sheets formed that we recognise today. Now, only a tiny fraction of the continent is not covered in ice – and virtually all of this is on the coasts. Inland the ice can be over 4 km thick and only the tops of the tallest mountains which poke through the ice are bare rock. This vast ice sheet contains enough water to raise sea level by over 50 m if it were all to melt. Radar can map the mountains and valleys hidden beneath the ice. In 2008 an active volcano was discovered whose ash field covers an area larger than Wales.

At polar coasts a thick floating platform of ice called an ice shelf can form where glaciers flow out onto the ocean surface. The largest are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf which can be more than 1 km thick close to land, and only 100 m thick at their seaward edge. Ice is lost from Antarctica through the 'calving' of icebergs from these shelves where they fracture to give birth to drifting glacial ice as much as 2000 square km and 400 m thick – although most of this is submerged below the ocean’s surface. In some regions the floating ice shelves are also rapidly melting from their lower surface as warm water floods beneath and is in contact with the cold ice.

typical summer extent of ice

Take away the ice cover and the shape of Antarctica would be quite different. There would be thousands of small islands and vast mountain ranges bigger than the Alps stretching acoss the continent that remained.

typical winter extent of ice

Antarctic Polar Front

Height above sea level (m)

For more information www.open.ac.uk/openlearn/frozenplanet

atm

osp

heri

c te

mp

erat

ure

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

–60

–50

–40

–30

–20

–10

0

°C

month of the year

dorsal fin

Individual killer whales can be identified from photographs of their fin and the grey patch behind it.

blow hole

flipper

fluke

leopard seal Hydrurga leptonyx

large front flippers with claws

silver coat with dark spots

rear flippers used for swimming

long whiskers

sharp teeth

ROTHERA

VOSTOK

1773First crossing of the Antarctic CircleOn 11th December 1772, Captain James Cook and his crew sighted an iceberg and came to the edge of an endless pack of ice. For two months Cook sailed along the pack ice looking for a route further south and on 17th January 1773, his ships became the first to cross the Antarctic Circle.

1700 1800 1900

1800Seal industry establishedAmericans from New England arrived to set up the first seal industry in Antarctic waters, with a base on South Georgia.

1841Search for the South magnetic poleJames Clark Ross commanded an expedition to search for the magnetic pole. He discovered what is now the Ross Sea and two mountains, Mt. Erebus and Mt. Terror, which he named after his ships.

1899First to overwinter on landCarsten Borchgrevink and the crew of the Southern Cross landed at Cape Adare, A picture drawn on the inside of their hut by Kolbein Ellefsen is still visible today.

1910The Terra Nova ExpeditionCaptain Scott arrived in Antarctica with ambitious scientific plans and the intention of reaching the South Pole. The first extended sledge journey in mid-winter was undertaken to collect emperor penguin eggs for embryological research.

1914The Imperial Trans-Antarctic ExpeditionShackleton’s ambitious plan to complete a Trans-Antarctic crossing ended when Shackleton’s ship Endurance was crushed in the ice. The rescue of all of his party without loss is one of the great stories of the ‘Heroic Age’

1928The first flight to the poleAdmiral R. E. Byrd, who had already attempted a flight over the North Pole led an expedition that established the first ‘Little America’ base. On 28th November 1929 he flew to the South Pole and back.

1996Lake Vostok discoveredRussian and British scientists established the existence of a large lake similar in size to Lake Ontario, 3 km under the ice below the Russian Vostok Research Station, which had been established in 1955.

1912Second to the South PoleCaptain Scott and four companions reached the South Pole, man-hauling sledges, on 17th January. The whole party perished on the return journey in weather conditions that were exceptionally bad for that time of the year.

1921Shackleton’s last expeditionShackleton set off for Antarctica again but on 5th January 1922 he died in South Georgia and is buried there. There is an apt quotation from Browning on his grave. This was the last expedition of the 20 year ‘Heroic Age’ of exploration.

1943Operation TabarinA military force established three British bases on the Antarctic Peninsula. When the war ended, the bases became scientific stations.

1956New US base at poleThe Amundsen-Scott base was built at the South Pole by US marines, for the International Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957/8. It has been replaced by new facilities since and continues to be staffed all the year round.

1961The Antarctic TreatyThe treaty came into force on 23rd June and established the continent as a de-militarised zone, with territorial claims set aside. The treaty promotes international co-operation and remains in force indefinitely. Forty-six countries are signatories.

1985Hole discovered in ozone layerIn a paper published in Nature, three British Antarctic Survey scientists reported the presence of an area of depletion of the ozone layer, over Antarctica.

SU

P01

7672

1907The Nimrod ExpeditionShackleton led an expedition to the same area as the 1901 expedition he had been on with Scott. With two companions he got within 97 miles of the South Pole.

1910The Amundsen ExpeditionRoald Amundsen arrived in Antarctica with the sole purpose of reaching the South Pole. The single-minded approach, better equipment, the use of dogs and a shorter route all contributed to his success.

1911First to the South PoleRoald Amundsen reached the South Pole with 4 dog teams on 14th December.

1901The Discovery ExpeditionRobert Falcon Scott led an expedition to the Ross Sea area with the purpose of undertaking scientific research and exploration. Ernest Shackleton was a member of the team. It was this expedition that established the pattern of Antarctic exploration for the next 20 years, now known as ‘The Heroic Age’.

1958First crossing of continentAs part of the IGY, teams led by Edmund Hilary and Vivian Fuchs met at the South Pole, each having set off from opposite sides of the continent, using tracked vehicles and air support. Fuchs then went on to complete the journey across Antarctica, a feat that Shackleton had hoped to achieve in 1914.

1823James Weddell reaches 74 degrees SouthJames Weddell sailed south in search of seals and from Cook’s track went a further 200 miles south without finding land. The sea he navigated is now known as the Weddell Sea.

1840First to land on Antarctica?On 20th January the Frenchman Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d'Urville, landed from his ship Astrolabe and became, arguably, the first person to set foot on Antarctica.

1892First fossils collectedCaptain Carl Larsen landed on the Antarctic Peninsula and collected the first fossils from the continent, which provide proof that the climate was once much warmer.

1970

0

5000

10 000

15 000

20 000

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

0

200

400

600

800

1000

Adélie penguins

gentoo penguins

chinstrap penguins

gen

too

and

chi

nstr

ap b

reed

ing

pai

rs

years

Changes in the number of breeding pairs of three species of penguin in populations on the Antarctic Peninsula

may eat up to 3600 kg of krill each day

Arctic Circle 66°34’N

North Magnetic Pole(2006)

NorthGeomagneticPole (2006)

Mt. Odin

Ledyakaya

Ukpik Peak

Gory Kamen

Kebnekaise

Pik Pobeda

Keele Peak

Mount Hayes

Mount Logan

Barbeau Peak

Newtontoppen

Dansketinden

Galdhøpiggen

Mt. Macdonald

Pik Mus-Khaya

Mount Nirvana

Gora Narodnaya

Mount McKinley

Slættaratindur

Haakon VII Topp

Gunnbjørn Fjeld

Mount Blackburn

Hvannadalshnúkur

Haltiatunturi

882

2616

1744

2210

1717

23471920

1549

1951

3238

1963

2839

2105

2277

1809

1834 1328

2749

1678

3694

2021

2113

1887

2409

1472

2147

1860

3003

1894

2760

2119

4216

1750

2972

6194

2959

2453

2773

4996

2469

4016

5226

5959

5489

W R A N G E L

A B Y S S A L

P L A I N

GREENLAND

ABYSSAL

PLAIN

DUMSHAF

ABYSSAL

PLAIN

ICELANDIC

PLATEAU

I R M I N G E R B A S I N

AL

PH

AR

I DG

E

BOTHNIA

GULF

OF

B EL

OY

EM

OR

E(W

hite

Sea)

N O R W E G I A N S E A

G R E E N L A N D S E A

B A R E N T S S E A

KA

RS

KO

YE

MO

RE

L A P T E V Y K H

M O R E

C H U K C H I

S E A

B E A U F O R T

S E A

AM

UN

DS E N

GU L F

L I N C O L N

S E AP

AR

RY

CH

AN

NE

L

M' C

L UR

E

S T RA I T

Priof

nce

Wales

Strait

V i sc

ou

nt

vi

Me

ll l

eS

o u n d

P r i n c e R e gI

e n t n l e t

GU

LF

OF

BO O

T H I A

P e e l S o u n d

M ' C L I N T O C K

C H A N N E L

Hadley Bay

Prince

Albe

rtSo

und

Co

ron

ati

on G

ulf

Qu

ee

nM

au

d

Gu l f

P R I N C EG U S T A F A D O L F

S E A

Ha

ze

nS t r a i t

Ba

r ro

wS

t ra

i tL

an

ca

ste

rS

ou

nd

Pe

ar y

C h a n

n e l

C h .S v e r d r u p

N o r w e g i a n

B a y

B e l c

he

rC

h.

Jo

ne

sS

ou

nd

W e l l i gn t on

Ch

.

Na

n s e n S n d

Gr

ee

l y

F j .

Eureka Snd.

A d m i r a l t y

I nel

t

Dolphi

an

nd

Union Str.

S m i t h S n dKennedy Ch.

Robe o Cs n h.K a n eB a s i n

N A R E SS T R A I T

B A F F I N

B A Y

D A V I S

S T R A I T

W a n d e l

H a v

D E N M A R K

S T R A I T

Vatnajökull

L A B R A D O R

S E A

HU

DS

ON

ST

RA

IT

U n g a v a

B a y

Cum

berla

ndSo

und

Frob

ishe

r Bay

B A S I N

F O X E

H U D S O N

B A Y

FO

XE

CH

AN

NE

L

Roes Welcome Sound

Chesterfield

Inlet

Committee Bay

F

t

r a

r

n

S

k l i nt a i

V i c t o r i aS tr a i t

Breið fja örður

Faxaflói

Hún

afló

i

Ka

ng

e r t i t t i v a q

Kn

og

O

cs

a r sF j .

Inde ep ndence Fj.

Qeqertarsuup Tunua

Uummmaq

ann

Fjord

Qi m

us s

er i

ar s

ua

q

P E C H O R S K O Y E

M O R E

(Ka

r aS

ea)

(L a p t e v S e a)

Y a n s k i y

Z a l i v

G u b aB u o r k h a y a

Proliv Shokal’skogo

Z a l i v

O b s k a y aG

u ba

B a y d a r a t s k a y a G u b a

Y e n i e vs s k y Z a l i v

O l e n e k s k i y

V O S T O C H N O - S I B I R S K OY E

M

OR

E

P r o l i v L o n g a

A n a d y r s k i y

Z a l i v

B E R I N G S E A

P e n z h i n s k a y a

Gu b a

G i z h i g i n s k i y a

G u b a

S E A O F O K H O T S K

S o u n d

N o r t o n

E t a l i n S t r .

K o t z e b u e S n d .

M a c k e n z i e

B a y

Storfjorden

Erik

Erik

sens

tretet

A

RC

T I C

OC

EA

N

AT

LA

NT

I CO C E A N

OlyutorskiyZaliv

Franklin Bay

Liverpool Bay

HomeBay

500

500

3000

500

1000

2000

500

1000

2000

500

500

1500

1000

2500

2000

3000

1000

2000

3000

3000

2000

3000

4000

1000

1000 2000

3000

Tok

Vík

Kem’

Vivi

Tura

Amga

Lazo

Verkhoyansk

Atka

Korf

Elsa

Nikel

Izhma

BulunTiksi

Tabor

Pevek

Uelen

Eagle

Ivalo

Mezen’

Mikun’

Ivdel’

Tol’ka

Igarka

Dikson

Baykit

Ekonda

Yessey

Suntar

Arylukh

Nyurba

Aykhal

Olenek

Namtsy

Khonuu

Omolon

Ayanka

Déline

Wha Ti

Noatak

Galena

TananaNenana

Circle

Dombås

Namsos

Kolari

Dalvík

Kuzomen

Konosha

Bugrino

Kanin Nos

Krasino

Malyye Karmakuly

Sergino

Amderma

Urengoy

Tarko-Sale

Seyakha

Kostino

Noginsk

Nordvik

Batamay

Menkere

Tit-Ary

Susuman

Tavatum

PalatkaGizhiga

Markovo

Iul’tin

Wrigley

McGrath

Selawik

Cordova

Mosjøen

Kokkola

Itilleq

Kulusuk

Gremikha

Zheshart

Plesetsk

Berezovo

Yartsevo

Vanavara

Inarigda

Khatanga

Udachnyy

Vilyuysk

Zhigansk

Siktyakh

Sagastyr

El’dikan

Khandyga

Oymyakon

Druzhina

Seymchan

Orotukan

ZyryankaBilibino

Cherskiy

Khatyrka

Vankarem

Kugaaruk

Paulatuk

Old Crow

Alakanuk

Kaktovik

Storuman

Daneborg

Belomorsk

Tazovskiy

Ust’-Port

Saskylakh

Olekminsk

Tas-Tumus

Ust’-Maya

Churapcha

Kazach’ye

Yagodnoye

Ust’-Nera

Ambarchik

Egvekinot

Lutselk’e

Sleetmute

Sodankylä

Blönduós

Borgarnes

Novyy Port

Volochanka

Chelyuskin

Ese-Khayya

Chokurdakh

Kamenskoye

Hall BeachPond Inlet

Whale Cove

Hooper Bay

Unalakleet

Point Hope

Holy Cross

Glennallen

Fort Yukon

Wainwright

Kautokeino

Savissivik

Isachsen

Kullorsuaq

Siorapaluk

Kópasker

Nar’yan-Mar

Yerbogachen

Novorybnaya

Ust’-Olenek

Kytalyktakh

Nizhneyansk

Ust’-Omchug

Deputatskiy

Olyutorskiy

Mys Shmidta

Provideniya

Umingmaktok

Repulse Bay

Clyde River

Cape Dorset

PrudhoeBay

Uummannaq

Ust’-Tsil’ma

Mukhomornoye

Beringovskiy

Qikiqtarjuaq

Tsiigehtchic

Djúpivogur

Berdigestyakh

Srednekolymsk

Leningradskiy

Ushakovskoye

Gambell

Meynypil’gyno

Coral Harbour

Colville Lake

Nahanni Butte

Krasnovishersk

Verkhneimbatsk

Ugol’nyyeKopi

Bathurst Inlet

Pelly Crossing

Delta Junction

Arctic Village

Stykkishólmur

Siglufjörður

Russkoye Ust’ye

Vopnafjörður

Seyðisfjörður

MountainVillage

Troitsko-Pechorsk

Severo-Yeniseyskiy

Upernavik Kujalleq

Resolute

Gjoa Haven

Rae-Edzo

Faro Mayo

Nome

Mora

Alta

Bodø

Kemi

Höfn

Alert

Kenai

Piteå

Falun

Boden

Vardø

Molde

Hamar

Kotka

Vaasa

Eureka

Arviat

Ulukhaktok

TulitaInuvik

Teslin

Dawson

Palmer

Bethel

Seward

Valdez

Barrow

KirunaNarvik

Gjøvik

Tornio

Narsarsuaq

Quaqtaq

Salluit

Aklavik

Wasilla

Ludvika

Harstad

Ålesund

Joensuu

Kajaani

Qaanaaq(Thule)

Paamiut

Selfoss

Purtuniq

IvujivikAkulivik

Kimmirut

Igloolik

Taloyoak

Echo Bay

Carcross

Carmacks

Kotzebue

Soldotna

Jokkmokk

Borlänge

JessheimHønefoss

Tasiilaq

Keflavík

Akureyrí

Kangirsuk

Kugluktuk

Hay River

Gällivare

Härnösand

Steinkjer

Mo i Rana

Kemijärvi

Enontekiö

Rovaniemi

Upernavik

Puvirnituq

Arctic Bay

Baker Lake

Fort Smith

Pine Point

Enterprise

Fort Liard

Ross River

Skellefteå

Hudiksvall

Hammerfest

Nanortalik

Ísafjörður

Vyborg

Grise Fjord

Pangnirtung

Tuktoyaktuk

Watson Lake

Lillehammer

Kangaatsiaq

Kangerlussuaq

Inta

Kangiqsujuaq

Rankin Inlet

Fort Simpson

Norman Wells

Beaver Creek

Örnsköldsvik

Kristiansund

Lappeenranta

Qeqertarsuaq

Cambridge Bay

Sachs Harbour

Qasigiannguit

Neskaupstaður

Nadym

Onega

Lensk

Fort Good Hope

Fort McPherson

Fort Resolution

Fort Providence

Haines Junction

Megion

Vel’sk

Usinsk

Kovdor

Kotlas

Mirnyy

Ittoqqortoormiit

Nyagan’

Yugorsk

Talnakh

Segezha

Pechora

Qeqertarsuatsiaat

Dudinka

Vorkuta

Apatity

Anadyr’

Chesterfield Inlet

Nyandoma

Koryazhma

Salekhard

Raduzhnyy

Strezhevoy

Kayyerkan

Sortavala

Priozërsk

Kondopoga

Sovetskiy

Muravlenko

Labytnangi

Gubkinskiy

Sosnogorsk

Kostomuksa

Podporozh’ye

Kandalaksha

Severomorsk

Kirkenes

Pituffik(Thule Air Base)

Severoural’sk

VelikiyUstyug

LodeynoyePole

Khanty-MansiyskNy-Ålesund

Barentsburg

Longyearbyen

Aasiaat

Sisimiut

Maniitsoq

Ilulissat

Hornsund

Station Nord

Umeå

Pori

OuluLuleå

Gävle

Lahti

Turku

Nuuk

Tromsø

Bergen

Kuopio

Iqaluit

Tampere

Lerwick

Helsinki

Tórshavn

Qaqortoq

Fairbanks

Anchorage

Sundsvall

ÖstersundTrondheim

Jyväskylä

Reykjavík

Whitehorse

Yellowknife

Ukhta

Surgut

Yakutsk

Noril’sk

Murmansk

Noyabr’sk

Syktyvkar

Arkhangel’sk

Nefteyugansk

Severodvinsk

Petrozavodsk

Novyy Urengoy

Nizhnevartovsk

Kolym

a Ozhog

ina

Belay

a

Palyvaam

Anadyr’

Shaybove

yem

Om

olon

Bol’shoy Anyuy

Indig

irka

Alazeya

YanaBytantay

Dulgalakh

Ad

ych

a

Lena

Lena

Lena

Olenek

Olenek

Anabar

Pop

igay

Kheta

Nizbnyaya

Taymyra VerkhTaym

yra

Vivi

Koch

echum

Nizhnyaya Tunguska

Taym

ura

Ch

un

ku

Podk

amen

naya

Tun

gu

ska

Tem

benc

hi

Niz

hnya

ya

Tunguska

Yenisey

Yenisey

Kureyka

Nadym

Malaya

Ob’

Pechora

Mezen’

Mezen’

Severnaya Dvina

Onega

Kem

’

Ounasjoki

Kem

ijoki

Kalixälven

Piteälven

Skellefteälven

Umeälven

Faxälven

Indalsälven

DalälvenKlarälven

StoraLuleälven

Iijoki

Kalajoki

Kem

ijoki

Alta

eyla

Glåm

a

Begna

ÞjórsáKreppa

Hayes

Back

Quoich

Lorillard

Back

ElliceThelon

Slave

Mackenzie

Lia

rd

Liard

Yukon

Yukon Yuko

n

Tanana

Copper

Susitna

Yuko

n

Kobuk

Noatak

Colville

Sag

avanirktok

Ch

an

da

lar

Mead

e

Koyu

kuk

Ku

sko

kwim

Teslin

Pelly

Ste

wart

Peel

Porc

upin

e

Arctic Red

South Nahanni

Redstone

Keele

Anderson

Gre

at B

ear

Horton

Hornaday

Rae

Coppermine

Bu

rnsid

e

Ku

ujju

a

Hay

Kazan

Thle

wia

za

Kazan

TrysilelvaLågen

Lågen

Pon

oy

Svir’

Sukh

ona

Yug

Vym’

Vashka

Pinega

Pechora

Kol

va

Kam

a

Izhma

Vycheg

da

Usa

Ob’

Ob’

Irtyshe

Severnaya

Sos’va

Ob’

Vakh

Taz

Pur

Pyasina

Tung

usk

a

Kotuy

Kotuy

Aldan

Amga

Aldan

Vilyuy

Vilyuy

Muna

Tyun

g

Markha

Chona

Indi

girk

a

Mam

a

Kolyma

Ko

rko

do

n

Talts

on

Great BearLake

Great

Slave Lake

Lacla Martre

DubawntLake

BakerLake

Nueltin L.

ShermanBasin

AmadjuakLake

NettillingLake

Kasba L.

Yathkyed L.

AberdeenLake

GarryLake

ContwoytoLake

LakeHazen

Napaktulik L.

Mackay L.

Aylmer L.

Lynx L.

Point L.

Hottah L.

Aubry L.

EskimoLakes

TeshekpukLake

OzeroKrasnoye

Vilyuyskoye

Vodokhranilishche

OzeroTaymyr

OzeroLabaz

Ozero Pyasino

OzeroKhantayskoye

OnezhskoyeOzero

Vyg Ozero

OzeroSegozerskoye

Ozero Topozero

Oulujärvi

Inarijärvi

Lokantekojärvi

Paijänne

Hornavan

Storsjön

Siljan

Mjøsa

Stora Lulevatten

Orivesi

Pielinen

OzeroImandra

Ladozhskoye

Ozero

Ozero Beloye

Z E M L Y AF R A N T S A

I O S I F A(RUS.)

ZemlyaAleksandry

ZemlyaGeorga

ZemlyaVil’cheka

OstrovGreemBell

NO

VA

YA

ZE

ML

Y

A

OstrovKolguyev

OstrovVaygach

M. Men’shikova

OstrovBelyy

ArkhipelagNordenshel’da

OstrovaArkticheskogoInstituta

OstrovaSergeya Kirova

OstrovSverdrup

OstrovUshakova Ostrov

Vize

OstrovUyedineniya

S

Y

EV E R N A

A

ZE

M

L Y

A

Ostrov

Bol’shevik

Ostrov

O. Oktyabr’skoyRevolyutsii

Komsomolets

Mys Arkticheskiy

OstrovShmidta

RudolfaOstrov

O. Bol’shoy

O. Vil’kitskogoO. Sibiryakova

Begichev

Ostrov

Kotel’nyy

OstrovNovayaSibir’

N O V O S I B I R S K I Y

E

O S T R O V A

Lyakhovskiye

Lyakhovskiye

LY A K H SO V K I Y E

OS

T

RO V A

OstrovaDe - Longa

OstrovVrangelya

O. Geral’d

MysBuorkhaya

M. Svatoy Nos

O. Stolbovoy

O. Bel’kovskiy

O. Bol’shoy

O. Malyy

M. Kamennyy

M

ys Chelyuskin

M. Zhelaniya

M. Flora

Mys Kanin Nos

Kol’skiy

Poluostrov

Poluostrov Kanin

C h u k o t s k I y

P o l u o s t r o v

Z A P A D N O -(W E S T

R A V N I N AP L A I N S)

S I B I R S K A Y AS I B E R I A N

S I B I R S K O Y ES I B E R I A N

S R E D N E -(C E N T R A L

P L O S K O G O R ’ Y EP L A T E A U)

G y d a n s k i y

P o l u o s t r o v

Nordkapp

Åland

Nunivak I.

King I.

C. P

rince

ofW

ales

Point Hope

Icy Cape

Point BarrowCape Halkett

Herschel I.

Demarcation Point

Cape Bathurst

Cape Dalhousie

Cape Parry

C. Lambton

C. Baring

Peel Pt.

C. Kellett

C. Prince Alfred

C. Man

ning

C. Leopold M’Clintock

C. Isachsen

HubbardC. Thomas

Alert Pt.

Ward Hunt I.Cape Discovery

Cape Columbia

CapeLyon

B A N K S

I S L A N D

V I C T O R I A

I S L A N D

Me

l vi l

l eI s

l an d

PrincePatrickIsland

MackenzieKing I. Borden I.

Brock I.

EllefRingnes I.

AmundRingnes I.

Ax

leH

e i be r g I.

E L L E S M E R EI S L A N D

D e v o n

I s l a n d

B a t u rhs t I.

Cornwallis I.

PA

RR

Y

IS

LA

DN

S

S VD R U

E RP

I SN

L AD S

Bylot I.

BA

FF

IN

IS

LA

ND

S o m e r s e tI s l a n d

B o o t h i a

W o l l a s t o n

P e n. P r i n c e A l b e r t

P e n i n s u l a

B r o d e u r

B o r d e n

P e n i n s u l a

P e n i n s u l a

P e n i n s u l a

P r i n c e o f W a l e s I.

KingWilliam I.

PrinceCharles I.

Disko Ø

Resolution I.

Akpatok I.

Salisbury I.

Nottin

gham

I.Mansel I.

Coats I. Rowley I.

S o u t h a m p t o n

I s l a n d

Fo

xe

Pe

ni n

su

l a

P e n i n s u l e

d ’ U n g a v a

Kent P

en.

Adelaide Pen.

SimpsonPen.

C. Sre

cosby

Minto

HeadPelly Pt.

Dundas

Pen.

C. Margaret

Cape Parker

C. Liverpool

C. Craufd

or

C. Henry Kater

C. DyerC. Mercy

C. H

opes Advance

C. DorchesterKap Morris

Jesup

BridgmanP e a r y

L a n d

ScoresbyLand

KONG

FREDERIK VIII

LAND

KONGFREDERIK IX

LANDSøndre Strømfjord

DRONNINGINGRIDLAND

K N U D R A S M U S S E N L A N DKap

Nordostrundingen

KapBismarck

Shannon Ø

Kangikajik

Kap Farvel

Horn

BjargtangarKolbeinsey

Reykjanestá

Hraunhafnartangi

Fontur

Bar sneshornð

Vestmannaeyjar

JAN MAYEN(NOR.)

BJ RN YA(NOR.)

Ø Ø

FAROE ISLANDS(F ROYAR)(DEN.)

Ø

Nordaustlandet

Edge yaø

Barents yaø

S rkappø

Sju yaneø

Kong KarlsLand

Kvit yaøO. Viktoriya

SHETLANDISLANDS (UK)

QU

EE

N

EL

IZ

AB

ET

H

IS

LA

ND

S

F r a n k l i n M o u n t a i n s

P e l l yM o u n t a i n s

S e w a r d

P e n i n s u l a

OstrovaMedvezh’i

O. Ayon

St. Lawrence I.

St. Matthew I.

Mys Shelagskiy

M. Dezhneva

M. Chukotskiy

Mys Navarin

C. Dominion

C. Kendall

C. Low

BellPen.

AlexanderKap

Hans Ø

KapYork

C

A

FE

DE

RA

T

I

O

N

R

U

S

S

I

A

N

N

A

D

A

A L A S K A

(U S A)

G R E E N L A N D

(K A L A A L L I T N U N A A T)

I C E L A N D

NO

RW

AY

Hopen

165°W

150°W

135°W

120°W

105°W

90°W

75°W

60°W

45°W

30°W

15°W

0°

15°E

30°E

45°E

60°E

75°E

90°E

105°E

120°E

135°E

150°E

165°E

180°

65°N 70°N 75°N 80°N 85°N 85°N 80°N 75°N 70°N 65°N

65°N

70°N

75°N

80°N

85°N

85°N

80°N

75°N

70°N

65°N

100 0 100 200 300 400 500 statute miles

100 0 100 200 300 400 500 nautical miles

200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 kilometres

1:10 000 000Scale correct at 71

Projection: Polar StereographicSpheroid: WGS84

°N

THE ARCTICScale 1:10 000 000 Sheet BAS (Misc)15BEdition 1 2010

Preferred reference for this map:British Antarctic Survey. 2010. 1:10 000 000 scale map.Series BAS (Misc) Sheets 15A and 15B. Cambridge, British Antarctic Survey.

Antarctica and the Arctic,

Map design and compilation by A. Cook, A. Cziferszky and A. Fox, 2007 and 2010.

Published by the BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB ET, UK.

Printed by Victoria Litho Ltd.

3 0© BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY, Natural Environment Research Council, 2010

DATA SOURCES AND REFERENCES

Topography, infrastructure and :

Bathymetry:

Digital Elevation Model backdrop:

Detailed listing of sources:

place-names

Compiled from a variety of publicly available sources and with reference to , 10th edition.

IOC, IHO and BODC. 2003. The Centenary edition of the GEBCO digital atlas, published on behalf of theIntergovernmental Oceanographic Commission and the International Hydrographic Organization as part of the GeneralBathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO); British Oceanographic Data Centre, Liverpool. www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/gebco

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,National Geophysical Data Center, 2006. 2-minute Gridded Global Relief Data (ETOPO2v2)www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/fliers/06mgg01.html

The representation of political features on this map does not necessarily imply acceptance by the UK Government.

The Times Atlas of the World

www.antarctica.ac.uk/ipymap1/

The authors thank members of the Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, for their review of this map.

80°N

90°E

0°

180°

90°W

70°N

60°N

Seasonal sea ice extents

Typical summer extent (September), 1979-2000

Typical winter extent (March), 1979-2000

September extent in 2009

March extent in 2009

0 2500

kilometres

Source:

National Snow and Ice Data Center.http://nsidc.org/data/seaice_index/

80°N

90°E

0°

180°

90°W

70°N

60°N

Arctic Boundaries

10°C July isotherm

Boreal forest treeline

Source:

Permafrost and July isotherm: based onmap by Arctic Monitoring andAssessment Programme (AMAP)www.amap.noTreeline: based on UNEP/GRID Arendal(2002). Arctic Environmental Atlashttp://maps.grida.no/arctic/ [Geo-2-418]

Continuous permafrost

Discontinuous permafrost

0 2500

kilometres

BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEYBAS Miscellaneous Series

Sheets BAS (Misc)15A and 15B

ANTARCTICA AND THE ARCTIC

Scale 1:10 000 000

CAMBRIDGE, UK 2010

Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard in Spring (Linda Bakken)

The polar regions are remote and harsh but have strong links with the rest of the globe throughocean and atmosphere circulation. The Arctic, in particular, is recognised as a sensitive barometerof environmental change with some areas warming faster than anywhere else on Earth.The Arctic region has rich marine ecosystems, seasonal terrestrial wildlife and indigenous cultureswith a hunter-gatherer tradition. Increasing exploitation of rich Arctic mineral and hydrocarbonresources, coupled with rapid environmental change, are likely to bring positive and negativesocial/economic changes and pose threats to ecosystems. Polar science is crucial inunderstanding our planet and our impact on it and in coming decades will have a critical role ininforming policy developments and managing change.UK researchers have been active in the Arctic region since the early days of exploration andcontinue to contribute substantially. Much of the research is funded by Research Councils UK, andparticularly the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), of which British Antarctic Survey(BAS) is a component institute. There is a NERC Arctic Research Station located at ,Svalbard and the UK is establishing links with other polar research nations to access furtherinfrastructure pan-Arctic. NERC have established an Arctic Office at British Antarctic Survey tosupport UK research in the high north, provide advice to policy makers and develop internationalcooperation across all aspects of Arctic research.

Ny-Ålesund1000

0

Bathymetry(isobaths in m)

500

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

0

200

500

1000

2000

3000

Elevation (m)

Coastline

Contours (500 m interval) over permanent ice

Spot height (m)

Rivers

Lakes

Town: large, medium, small

Primary road

Major railway

Airport: International, Large Military / National, Small

National Boundary

Permanent Ice / Glaciers

Topographic Symbols

Mount McKinley6194

THE ARCTIC AND UK SCIENCE

For more information about NERC Arctic research, see www.arctic.ac.uk and www.nerc.ac.uk

For more information about the British Antarctic Survey, see www.antarctica.ac.uk

caribouRangifer tarandus

polar bearUrsus maritimus

arctic wolfCanis lupus arctos

arctic codArctogadus glacialis

The Arctic defined and seasonal sea ice extents

HABITATS

Arctic cotton-grass Eriophorum scheuchzeri meadow at the beginning of the Landmannalaugar trek in Iceland.

Narwhal

Walrus

FACT The arctic wolf is one of the few mammals that can withstand the sub-zero temperatures and the 5 months of darkness in the Arctic.

FACT Reindeer (also called caribou) are widespread in tundra and taiga and there are both wild and domestic herds.

FACT The polar bear is symbolic of the Arctic but it is declining in numbers and is at risk from global warming reducing the ice on which it lives and hunts.

The Arctic provides diverse habitats for people and wildlife – ranging from the icy wastes of the tundra to the ice cap of Greenland and the icy waters of the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Circle (66033' N) is the approximate limit of the summer midnight sun and complete darkness of polar night but this is not a good definition for the ‘Arctic’. A more common measure is a line around the planet south of which the mean temperature in July is above 10 0C. It sounds warm but below this temperature trees do not prosper and so the 10 0C isotherm (line of equal temperature) corresponds to the northern limit of trees and is used to define the Arctic.

ANIMALS

The Arctic supports many populations of animals. On the tundra, arctic hare, lemming, musk ox and caribou are food for higher predators such as the arctic fox, wolf and wolverine. In the oceans, tiny plankton are food for fish, seals, walrus and whales. The walrus is particularly striking with its wrinkled skin, ivory tusks and layers of thick blubber which protects against the cold water and wind when on shore. The narwhal is smaller and highly specialised, feeding on benthic prey – mostly flatfish – under the pack ice. It is particularly vulnerable to climate change due to its narrow geographical range and diet. The king of Arctic predators in both the land and marine habitats is the polar bear. Well adapted to life on the pack ice, and well camouflaged, it feeds primarily on small seals but will take anything else going, even berries and vegetation in summer.

The Arctic Ocean is very deep reaching over 4000 m in some places and it is mostly covered by sea ice averaging 2–3 m thick. The ice is in constant motion and drifts around the polar basin under the influence of winds and currents, breaking up during storms and then refreezing. Some of the Arctic land mass including Greenland is covered with a thick ice sheet formed from compacted snow. The ice-free regions have a treeless tundra where the soil is frozen (called permafrost) to a depth of many metres. During the summer when the top layer of the permafrost melts there are streams, marshes, lakes and bogs. Anthropogenic climate change is a severe threat to the tundra. The 10 0C isotherm will migrate northwards and carbon stored in the frozen ground will be released in the form of greenhouse gases.

Arctic fox

SEA ICE

Sea ice is formed by the freezing of seawater at temperatures of around –1.8 0C. At the start of winter, cold air chills the sea surface until it reaches this freezing point. A soupy mixture of ice crystals and cold water known as frazil ice then develops which damps out the ocean waves. As it becomes calmer the ice crystals can either form a sheet of ice or if there are still significant ocean waves, it forms so-called pancake ice that consists of relatively small rounded ice floes 1–3 m wide. Both the sheet ice and pancake ice can then freeze together to form larger ice floes. More seawater can freeze onto the bottom and snow falls on the surface increasing their thickness to typically 2–3 m although in the Antarctic this is less. A large area of this ice is called pack ice and can have floes kilometres wide. As the ice grows, salt in the water is squeezed out and so it is much fresher than the sea water in which it grows. The annual pack ice has a maximum extent in March and minimum extent in September. In the central Arctic Ocean ice which partially melts but survives the winter to grow again is called multi-year ice and its year-round persistence has created a unique biota and the development of ice-endemic species.

POLLUTANTS Compared with most regions of the world, the Arctic remains a 'pristine wilderness' but within its vulnerable and fragile ecosystem we can now detect anthropogenic pollutants such as cadmium, dioxins, selenium, PCBs, mercury and even radioactive fallout. The transport of pollutants from industrialised regions in the lower latitudes to the Arctic is by the winds and ocean currents. Winds deposit surface pollutants relatively rapidly on the ice and tundra whereas absorption in the ocean is slower. In the Arctic Ocean pollutants can be frozen into the sea ice. The harsh polar climate means contaminants degrade slowly and they can quickly become concentrated due to their significantly lengthened life span. As pollutants enter the food chain on, for example, the tundra, herbivores will accumulate a dose. As predators eat the herbivores bioaccumulation means that their dose will be more significant and recent measurements show elevated concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) within the fat of polar bears. The Arctic is polluted because the rest of the world is polluted. It is ironic that the traditional, land-based economy of northern aboriginal populations which was based on an abiding respect for natural ecosystems is threatened most by the effects of non-indigenous pollution.

MIGRATIONMigration is the large-scale movement of an animal species from one place to another which is usually related to seasonal changes in weather, feeding, mating and breeding patterns. Within the Arctic with its huge seasonal variations many populations depend on migration to survive. Caribou make the longest overland migration. Each year ~3 million migrate across the tundra and larger herds move more than 3000 km southwards to seek greener pastures.

No carnivorous mammals have regular migrations but some wolf packs may travel with a caribou herd if food becomes scarce. In the ocean, bowhead whales travel north to the Arctic in summer to feed in the rich polar waters, but they must return south to warmer waters to give birth since the young whales don't have enough blubber to insulate themselves from the cold.

Herd of caribou pasturing on a snow patch on the Arctic tundra.

Arctic tern in flight.

Birds are also strongly migratory and during the short Arctic summer millions of birds arrive to breed. The arctic tern is perhaps the most incredible example of all. It lives in the Arctic in the northern summer and then migrates all the way to the Antarctic for the southern summer, thus feeding in biologically rich environments virtually the whole year. This round trip is over 70 000 km per year since the bird takes a meandering course to take advantage of the prevailing winds while migrating between the poles! It is also important to note that virtually all the indigenous Arctic peoples lead a semi-nomadic migratory lifestyle.

PEOPLE

Two Inuit women from Nunavut, Canada dressed in fur parkas and mukluks.

The Arctic has been inhabited for nearly 30 000 years and there are numerous indigenous ethnic groups. The Inuit are the most widespread, living in Alaska, Canada, Greenland and Siberia. In other regions of Siberia are the Chukchi, Koyaki and Yakuts. The Arctic tundra is also home to many nomadic reindeer herders such as the Nganasan and Nenets (Russia) in the permafrost area and the Sami in Sapmi (a cultural region spanning the northern reaches of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia). Most ethnicities have a clan-based social structure and a shamanistic and animistic belief system which stresses respect for the land and its resources. They have developed a unique ability to survive in their harsh environment and the few materials such as snow, ice, animal skins and bones have been used skilfully to create shelters, weapons and forms of transportation. There was usually a 'traditional' division of labour with the men hunting and fishing, while women took care of the children, cleaned, sewed, processed resources and cooked. The harshness and unpredictability of life in the Arctic ensured the native people lived with concern for the uncontrollable and in harmony with nature. One traditional Inuit saying is 'The great peril of our existence lies in the fact that our diet consists entirely of souls.'

80°N

90°E

0°

180°

90°W

70°N

60°N

Seasonal sea ice extents

typical summer extent (September), 1979–2000

typical winter extent (March), 1979–2000

September extent in 2009

March extent in 2009

0 2500

kilometres

80°N

90°E

0°

180°

90°W

70°N

60°N

Arctic boundaries

10 °C July isotherm

boreal forest treeline

continuous permafrost

discontinuous permafrost

0 2500

kilometres

During the last 30 years satellite measurements of Arctic sea ice extent reveal a rapid decline particularly at the end of each year's annual melt season and this is compelling evidence for anthropogenic climate change.

7

mill

ion

km2

sea

ice

years

1979

20072010

6

5

4

3

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

SU

P01

7672

A R C T I CFor more information www.open.ac.uk/openlearn/frozenplanet

barbels

antlers are larger in the male and are the largest relative to body size of all deer species.

caribou moss 1

caribou2

arctic wolf 3

FOOD WEB

Considered inhospitable, the Arctic environment is subject to bitter cold, strong winds, extensive ice cover and areas with total darkness during winter. There are huge changes between summer and winter conditions yet the Arctic is full of life and home to complex food webs. At the centre of the marine food web are the algae and phytoplankton that produce organic material using energy from the Sun.

After the darkness of the Arctic winter, daylight lengthens, winter snow on the sea ice melts and when enough light penetrates to the under-ice surface the algae within the ice and phytoplankton begin to grow. These become available as food for organisms higher in the food web – first zooplankton (ranging in size from a few mm to cm long), which in turn provide food for fish, squid, seals, whales and finally polar bears.

The terrestrial food web depends on the unique habitat of the Arctic tundra. Lichens dominate but the vegetation also consists of herbs, mosses and seasonal grasses, flowering plants and shrubs – depending on the availability of water. This vegetation can support populations of herbivorous reindeer, bison, musk ox, arctic hare and lemming. The highest levels in the food chain – the carnivores – are the arctic wolves and foxes, wolverines, snowy owls and again, the polar bear. Anthropogenic climate change is a severe threat to both the terrestrial and marine Arctic food webs and as temperatures rise, the melting of sea ice and frozen tundra will mean the structure of the food webs will change.

FACT Arctic cod are perfectly suited to polar life as they have anti-freeze proteins within their blood. Their wide distribution means they are a key component of the Arctic food chain and a primary food source for narwhals, belugas and seals.

43 000 years agoExpansion of human populationsAbout 43 000 years ago humans crossed the area now known as the Bering Strait and started the expansion into the Americas.

1500900 1800 1900

1576First search for the North-West PassageMartin Frobisher was the first person to search for a navigable route to the Orient through the Arctic. He returned with an Inuit captive and what he claimed was gold. The ore turned out to be iron pyrites – fool’s gold.

1845Search for the NW Passage turns to tragedySir John Franklin, with two ships – Erebus and Terror – sailed into the Canadian Arctic to attempt to find, and navigate through, the NW Passage. The ships were never seen again and all the crew perished. Some artefacts and human remains have been recovered since, notably by Dr John Rae in 1854.

1854Final link in NW Passage discoveredThe Arctic explorer Dr John Rae discovered the final link on 6th May. It is now known as the Rae Strait. The first traverse of the NW Passage used this route. Rae has never received the recognition he deserved both for finding traces of the Franklin expedition and discovering the NW Passage.

1888First crossing of GreenlandFridtjof Nansen made the first crossing of Greenland. He used skis, which may have been the first time they had been used in Arctic exploration.

1897Attempt to reach pole by balloonSalomon Andrée and two companions attempted to reach the pole in a balloon called Eagle. They disappeared, but the remains of their last camp, their bodies and some photographs were found in 1930.

1926First flight over North Pole?Admiral Byrd flew towards the pole on 8th May. He claimed to have reached it and then returned, a claim accepted at the time, but later shown to be impossible when the records of the flight and weather were re-examined in 1960.

1928Italia disasterThe Italian airship, Italia, reached the North Pole but crashed on the return journey. Nine of the crew survived and were rescued from the ice but the rescue took 49 days. Roald Amundsen set out in an aircraft to join the search but he and the aircraft were never seen again.

1931First attempt to cross Arctic by submarineSir Hubert Wilkins was the first person to attempt to take a submarine under the Arctic ice. The Nautilus was a decrepit ex-USA submarine which he hired for a dollar. The attempt was a failure though it pointed the way to future exploration.

1958First traverse of North Pole by submarineOn 4th August the US nuclear submarine Nautilus sailed across the Arctic and over the pole, beneath the ice. It was followed on 12th August by the USS Skate, which surfaced at the pole.

2007Fourth International Polar YearAn ambitious programme of research covered two full seasons in both the Arctic and Antarctica, with researchers from over 60 countries running over 200 projects between March 2007 and March 2009.

1908Frederick Cook claims poleCook made a journey through the Northern Arctic and claimed to have reached the pole. Although initially accepted, this claim is now accepted as incorrect.

1903First traverse of NW PassageRoald Amundsen completed the first journey through the NW Passage by ship, passing through the Rae Strait.

1948First person to stand at Pole?On 23rd April the Russian pilot P. A. Gordiyenko landed at the North Pole. Since the claims of others to reach the Pole have been contested, he can claim to be the first person to have stood, indisputably, at the North Pole.

1968First surface crossing of the Arctic OceanThe British Trans-Arctic expedition, led by Wally Herbert, set off to cross the Arctic using dog sleds. They reached the pole on 5th April 1969 and completed their traverse on 11th June. This was the last great adventure in the history of the poles.

983Eric the Red discovers GreenlandEric was a Norwegian living on Iceland. Exploring to the West of Iceland he discovered Greenland and settled there.

1893Drifting across the ArcticFridtjof Nansen and Otto Sverdrup, in the ship Fram, entered the ice in the Eastern Arctic near the New Siberian islands and allowed the ship to become frozen in. It drifted with the ice and emerged from the ice near Spitzbergen, three years later. During the voyage, Nansen attempted to reach the North Pole, getting closer than any previous expedition.

1909Robert Peary claims polePeary sledged to the pole on a similar route to the one that Cook claimed to have travelled. Although Peary’s claim to be first at the pole was accepted for some time, his readings have now been shown to be incorrect and he could not have reached the pole. However, it was still an heroic attempt.

1926First flight over North PoleThe Italian airship Norge, with Roald Amundsen on board flew over the North Pole on 12th May. Thus Amundsen and his companions became the first people to see the North Pole.