THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF MUSIC

VOCAL REGISTERS OF THE COUNTERTENOR VOICE

BASED ON SIGNALS RECORDED AND ANALYZED IN VOCEVISTA

By

RAYMOND CHENEZ

A treatise submitted to the

College of Music

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Doctorate of Music

Degree Awarded

Spring Semester 2011

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERSThe quality of this reproduction is dependent on the quality of the copy submitted

In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscriptand there are missing pages these will be noted Also if material had to be removed

a note will indicate the deletion

All rights reserved This edition of the work is protected againstunauthorized copying under Title 17 United States Code

ProQuest LLC789 East Eisenhower Parkway

PO Box 1346Ann Arbor MI 48106 - 1346

UMI 3477195

Copyright 2011 by ProQuest LLC

UMI Number 3477195

ii

The members of the committee approve the treatise of Raymond Chenez defended on March 20

2011

_______________________________________

Wanda Brister Rachwal

Professor Directing Treatise

_______________________________________

Seth Beckman

University Representative

_______________________________________

Roy Delp

Committee Member

_______________________________________

Larry Gerber

Committee Member

_______________________________________

David Okerlund

Committee Member

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank all the individuals who made this treatise possible To the

countertenors who participated Dan Bubeck Anthony Roth Costanzo Todd Doering Brennan

Hall Michael Kapinus Nathan Medley Reginald Mobley Andrew Rader Steven Rickards

Peter Thoreson and Jay White Thank you for your willingness in lending your voices to this

project I would especially like to thank Steven Rickards for his generous hospitality and help in

arranging the assistance from many of the above-mentioned singers

To Donald Miller I extend my thanks for your assistance during this process Without

your research this treatise would not have been possible

To David Okerlund thank you for your commitment to this project I enjoyed all the

time spent analyzing VoceVista signals and discussing the voice I truly appreciate your efforts

and assistance

To my voice teachers Wanda Brister Rachwal and Roy Delp I would like to thank you

for everything you have given me over the past five years You have gone above and beyond

your duties as voice teachers and have made a lasting impact on my life

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures v

Abstract x

INTRODUCTION 1

METHOD 6

UPPER REGISTER 19

MIDDLE REGISTERS 31

CHEST REGISTER 42

CONCLUSIONS 63

GLOSSARY 65

APPENDICES 69

A HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE APPROVAL LETTER 69

B INFORMED CONSENT LETTER 71

BIBLIOGRAPHY 73

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 75

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 11 Manuel Garcia IIlsquos table of registers 3

Figure 12 Peter Gileslsquo system of registration 4

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone 7

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown 8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22 9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22 10

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown 12

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25 13

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25 14

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract 15

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B) 16

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech 17

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B) 19

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 20

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 21

vi

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 22

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 22

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 24

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 24

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B) 26

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B) 28

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B) 29

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx 30

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 32

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 32

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 34

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 34

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H3 35

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 36

vii

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 37

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 38

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B) 39

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B) 40

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B) 41

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 43

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 44

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 45

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B) 46

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 47

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 47

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B) 48

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 49

viii

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 50

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B) 51

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B) 52

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 52

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B 53

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B 54

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 55

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 55

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 56

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 57

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 58

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 58

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) 59

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano 60

ix

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B) 61

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 62

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 62

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments 64

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERSThe quality of this reproduction is dependent on the quality of the copy submitted

In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscriptand there are missing pages these will be noted Also if material had to be removed

a note will indicate the deletion

All rights reserved This edition of the work is protected againstunauthorized copying under Title 17 United States Code

ProQuest LLC789 East Eisenhower Parkway

PO Box 1346Ann Arbor MI 48106 - 1346

UMI 3477195

Copyright 2011 by ProQuest LLC

UMI Number 3477195

ii

The members of the committee approve the treatise of Raymond Chenez defended on March 20

2011

_______________________________________

Wanda Brister Rachwal

Professor Directing Treatise

_______________________________________

Seth Beckman

University Representative

_______________________________________

Roy Delp

Committee Member

_______________________________________

Larry Gerber

Committee Member

_______________________________________

David Okerlund

Committee Member

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank all the individuals who made this treatise possible To the

countertenors who participated Dan Bubeck Anthony Roth Costanzo Todd Doering Brennan

Hall Michael Kapinus Nathan Medley Reginald Mobley Andrew Rader Steven Rickards

Peter Thoreson and Jay White Thank you for your willingness in lending your voices to this

project I would especially like to thank Steven Rickards for his generous hospitality and help in

arranging the assistance from many of the above-mentioned singers

To Donald Miller I extend my thanks for your assistance during this process Without

your research this treatise would not have been possible

To David Okerlund thank you for your commitment to this project I enjoyed all the

time spent analyzing VoceVista signals and discussing the voice I truly appreciate your efforts

and assistance

To my voice teachers Wanda Brister Rachwal and Roy Delp I would like to thank you

for everything you have given me over the past five years You have gone above and beyond

your duties as voice teachers and have made a lasting impact on my life

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures v

Abstract x

INTRODUCTION 1

METHOD 6

UPPER REGISTER 19

MIDDLE REGISTERS 31

CHEST REGISTER 42

CONCLUSIONS 63

GLOSSARY 65

APPENDICES 69

A HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE APPROVAL LETTER 69

B INFORMED CONSENT LETTER 71

BIBLIOGRAPHY 73

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 75

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 11 Manuel Garcia IIlsquos table of registers 3

Figure 12 Peter Gileslsquo system of registration 4

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone 7

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown 8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22 9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22 10

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown 12

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25 13

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25 14

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract 15

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B) 16

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech 17

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B) 19

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 20

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 21

vi

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 22

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 22

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 24

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 24

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B) 26

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B) 28

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B) 29

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx 30

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 32

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 32

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 34

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 34

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H3 35

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 36

vii

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 37

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 38

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B) 39

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B) 40

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B) 41

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 43

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 44

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 45

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B) 46

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 47

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 47

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B) 48

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 49

viii

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 50

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B) 51

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B) 52

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 52

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B 53

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B 54

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 55

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 55

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 56

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 57

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 58

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 58

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) 59

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano 60

ix

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B) 61

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 62

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 62

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments 64

ii

The members of the committee approve the treatise of Raymond Chenez defended on March 20

2011

_______________________________________

Wanda Brister Rachwal

Professor Directing Treatise

_______________________________________

Seth Beckman

University Representative

_______________________________________

Roy Delp

Committee Member

_______________________________________

Larry Gerber

Committee Member

_______________________________________

David Okerlund

Committee Member

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank all the individuals who made this treatise possible To the

countertenors who participated Dan Bubeck Anthony Roth Costanzo Todd Doering Brennan

Hall Michael Kapinus Nathan Medley Reginald Mobley Andrew Rader Steven Rickards

Peter Thoreson and Jay White Thank you for your willingness in lending your voices to this

project I would especially like to thank Steven Rickards for his generous hospitality and help in

arranging the assistance from many of the above-mentioned singers

To Donald Miller I extend my thanks for your assistance during this process Without

your research this treatise would not have been possible

To David Okerlund thank you for your commitment to this project I enjoyed all the

time spent analyzing VoceVista signals and discussing the voice I truly appreciate your efforts

and assistance

To my voice teachers Wanda Brister Rachwal and Roy Delp I would like to thank you

for everything you have given me over the past five years You have gone above and beyond

your duties as voice teachers and have made a lasting impact on my life

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures v

Abstract x

INTRODUCTION 1

METHOD 6

UPPER REGISTER 19

MIDDLE REGISTERS 31

CHEST REGISTER 42

CONCLUSIONS 63

GLOSSARY 65

APPENDICES 69

A HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE APPROVAL LETTER 69

B INFORMED CONSENT LETTER 71

BIBLIOGRAPHY 73

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 75

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 11 Manuel Garcia IIlsquos table of registers 3

Figure 12 Peter Gileslsquo system of registration 4

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone 7

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown 8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22 9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22 10

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown 12

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25 13

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25 14

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract 15

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B) 16

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech 17

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B) 19

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 20

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 21

vi

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 22

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 22

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 24

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 24

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B) 26

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B) 28

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B) 29

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx 30

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 32

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 32

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 34

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 34

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H3 35

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 36

vii

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 37

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 38

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B) 39

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B) 40

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B) 41

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 43

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 44

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 45

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B) 46

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 47

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 47

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B) 48

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 49

viii

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 50

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B) 51

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B) 52

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 52

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B 53

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B 54

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 55

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 55

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 56

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 57

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 58

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 58

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) 59

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano 60

ix

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B) 61

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 62

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 62

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments 64

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank all the individuals who made this treatise possible To the

countertenors who participated Dan Bubeck Anthony Roth Costanzo Todd Doering Brennan

Hall Michael Kapinus Nathan Medley Reginald Mobley Andrew Rader Steven Rickards

Peter Thoreson and Jay White Thank you for your willingness in lending your voices to this

project I would especially like to thank Steven Rickards for his generous hospitality and help in

arranging the assistance from many of the above-mentioned singers

To Donald Miller I extend my thanks for your assistance during this process Without

your research this treatise would not have been possible

To David Okerlund thank you for your commitment to this project I enjoyed all the

time spent analyzing VoceVista signals and discussing the voice I truly appreciate your efforts

and assistance

To my voice teachers Wanda Brister Rachwal and Roy Delp I would like to thank you

for everything you have given me over the past five years You have gone above and beyond

your duties as voice teachers and have made a lasting impact on my life

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures v

Abstract x

INTRODUCTION 1

METHOD 6

UPPER REGISTER 19

MIDDLE REGISTERS 31

CHEST REGISTER 42

CONCLUSIONS 63

GLOSSARY 65

APPENDICES 69

A HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE APPROVAL LETTER 69

B INFORMED CONSENT LETTER 71

BIBLIOGRAPHY 73

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 75

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 11 Manuel Garcia IIlsquos table of registers 3

Figure 12 Peter Gileslsquo system of registration 4

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone 7

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown 8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22 9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22 10

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown 12

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25 13

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25 14

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract 15

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B) 16

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech 17

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B) 19

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 20

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 21

vi

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 22

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 22

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 24

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 24

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B) 26

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B) 28

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B) 29

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx 30

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 32

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 32

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 34

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 34

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H3 35

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 36

vii

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 37

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 38

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B) 39

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B) 40

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B) 41

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 43

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 44

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 45

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B) 46

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 47

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 47

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B) 48

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 49

viii

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 50

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B) 51

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B) 52

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 52

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B 53

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B 54

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 55

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 55

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 56

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 57

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 58

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 58

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) 59

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano 60

ix

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B) 61

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 62

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 62

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments 64

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures v

Abstract x

INTRODUCTION 1

METHOD 6

UPPER REGISTER 19

MIDDLE REGISTERS 31

CHEST REGISTER 42

CONCLUSIONS 63

GLOSSARY 65

APPENDICES 69

A HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE APPROVAL LETTER 69

B INFORMED CONSENT LETTER 71

BIBLIOGRAPHY 73

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 75

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 11 Manuel Garcia IIlsquos table of registers 3

Figure 12 Peter Gileslsquo system of registration 4

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone 7

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown 8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22 9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22 10

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown 12

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25 13

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25 14

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract 15

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B) 16

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech 17

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B) 19

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 20

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 21

vi

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 22

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 22

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 24

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 24

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B) 26

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B) 28

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B) 29

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx 30

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 32

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 32

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 34

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 34

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H3 35

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 36

vii

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 37

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 38

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B) 39

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B) 40

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B) 41

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 43

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 44

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 45

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B) 46

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 47

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 47

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B) 48

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 49

viii

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 50

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B) 51

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B) 52

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 52

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B 53

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B 54

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 55

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 55

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 56

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 57

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 58

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 58

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) 59

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano 60

ix

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B) 61

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 62

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 62

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments 64

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 11 Manuel Garcia IIlsquos table of registers 3

Figure 12 Peter Gileslsquo system of registration 4

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone 7

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown 8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22 9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22 10

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown 12

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25 13

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25 14

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract 15

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B) 16

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech 17

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B) 19

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 20

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 21

vi

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 22

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 22

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 24

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 24

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B) 26

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B) 28

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B) 29

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx 30

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 32

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 32

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 34

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 34

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H3 35

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 36

vii

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 37

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 38

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B) 39

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B) 40

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B) 41

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 43

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 44

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 45

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B) 46

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 47

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 47

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B) 48

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 49

viii

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 50

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B) 51

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B) 52

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 52

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B 53

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B 54

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 55

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 55

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 56

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 57

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 58

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 58

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) 59

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano 60

ix

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B) 61

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 62

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 62

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments 64

vi

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 22

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 22

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1 24

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2 24

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B) 26

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B) 28

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B) 29

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx 30

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 32

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 32

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 34

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 34

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H3 35

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 36

vii

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 37

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 38

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B) 39

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B) 40

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B) 41

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 43

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 44

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 45

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B) 46

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 47

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 47

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B) 48

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 49

viii

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 50

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B) 51

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B) 52

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 52

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B 53

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B 54

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 55

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 55

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 56

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 57

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 58

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 58

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) 59

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano 60

ix

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B) 61

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 62

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 62

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments 64

vii

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2 37

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 38

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B) 39

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B) 40

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B) 41

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 43

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 44

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 45

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B) 46

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 47

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 47

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B) 48

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 49

viii

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 50

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B) 51

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B) 52

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 52

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B 53

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B 54

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 55

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 55

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 56

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 57

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 58

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 58

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) 59

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano 60

ix

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B) 61

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 62

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 62

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments 64

viii

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 50

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B) 51

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B) 52

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B) 52

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B 53

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B 54

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 55

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 55

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 56

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 57

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 58

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 58

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) 59

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano 60

ix

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B) 61

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 62

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 62

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments 64

ix

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B) 61

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3 62

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4 62

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments 64

x

ABSTRACT

Todaylsquos countertenors possess vocal ranges similar to the mezzo-soprano and are trained

to sing with a vibrant focused tone Little research has been conducted on the registers of the

countertenor voice Advancement in vocal techniques in the countertenor voice from the late

20th

century to the present has been rapid This treatise attempts to define the registers of the

countertenor voice and is intended as a resource for singers and teachers The voices of eleven

North American countertenors were recorded and analyzed using VoceVista Pro software which

was developed and designed by Donald Miller Through spectrographic and electroglottographic

analysis the registers of the countertenor voice were identified and outlined

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Questions often arise with regard to registers and where they fall in the countertenor

voice The most prominent vocal pedagogy books devote little attention to the countertenor

including Richard Millerlsquos The Structure of Singing William Vennardlsquos Singing The

Mechanism and the Technic and James McKinneylsquos The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal

Faults In most books on pedagogy there is no mention of the voice type or only a brief

paragraph is provided

Although the use of terminology has evolved the first significant description of registers

for the countertenor voice was written in 1841 by Manuel Garcia II in A Complete Treatise on

The Art of Singing He describes the countertenor voice as follows

Counter-Tenor Voice The highest voice of the man This clear and nimble voice

whose range is the same as that of the contralto voice and is composed of the same

cords extends from

In this voice the chest register blends very well with the falsetto register but although

more thin and more effeminate than all the other masculine voices it blends poorly with

the head register which is exclusively reserved for the woman1

Garcialsquos table of registration is shown in Figure 11 In observing his classifications for

female voices he has placed the ―falsetto register in the middle of the range It is evident his

usage of the term had different implications when he wrote the treatise than it does now In 1894

he revised his terminology to chest medium (falsetto for male voice) and head2

In observing his register system for the countertenor voice Garcia has placed it as the

highest male voice capable of ascending past the tenor in the chest voice to Bb4 with a possible

1 Manuel Garcia II A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing Part One (New York Da Capo Press

1984) 21

2 Clifton Ware Basics of Vocal Pedagogy The Foundations and Process of Singing (McGraw-Hill 1998)

114

2

extension to C5 In comparing the tenor to the countertenor the ranges are identical in the

falsetto register In the head register the countertenor is given a possible extension to F5

Garcia evidently believed in a three-register system for the countertenor with different

options for employing chest and falsetto in the same range In comparing this model with his

tenor model it seems as if these voices were similar in function

The voice of the present-day countertenor functions differently from the way it was

described by Garcia While the countertenor employs the chest register as part of the overall

range he uses it only for the lowest tones The contemporary countertenor would not extend his

chest voice nearly as high as C5

3

3 Garcia 21-22

Figure 11 Manuel Garcia IIlsquos table of registers3

4

4 Giles 176

Figure 12 Peter Gileslsquo system of registration4

5

In 1994 the most recent system of registration in the countertenor voice was devised by

Peter Giles Figure 12 compares the countertenor voice with other male and female voice-types

In observing his countertenor model Giles shows a wide range of register possibilities for the

voice

Registration in the singing voice is a widely-debated subject Among singing teachers a

wide range of terminology and concepts still exist While pedagogues have devised systems and

written numerous documents and books on registration for many voice types the registers of the

countertenor voice have been addressed minimally

Donald Miller through recent technical advances has provided a means to analyze the

voice Dr Miller began his career as an opera singer and voice teacher He has sung over 25

leading roles and was a professor of voice at Syracuse University for over two decades In the

late 1970s he turned his focus toward voice science In 1987 he devoted himself to research on

the acoustics and physiology of the singing voice as an associate of the Groningen Voice

Research Lab in the Netherlands Dr Miller is responsible for the design and development of

VoceVista software first introduced in 19965

One of the main benefits of VoceVista has been the ability to identify register transitions

and the elements that are involved in these transitions The purpose of this treatise is to develop

a further understanding of registration in the countertenor voice with the use of VoceVista

5 Donald Miller Resonance in Singing Voice Building through Acoustic Feedback (Princeton NJ Inside

View Press 2008) back cover

6

CHAPTER TWO

METHOD

Eleven North American countertenors were recorded and analyzed using VoceVista-Pro

software (version 33)6 The age of the participants ranged from 23 to 55 years Because of this

range in age the experience of the singers varied At minimum all of the participants held a

bachelorlsquos degree in music All of the participants had professional performing experience

Each singer was asked to sing a standard set of vocalises encompassing nearly the

entirety of his vocal range The lowest recorded pitch was G3 This starting point was chosen to

identify the transition coming from the chest voice to the head voice Because the modal (chest)

voice has been researched and studied at length pitches below G3 were not recorded The

highest recorded pitch was C6 which only one of the eleven countertenors was capable of

producing Due to differences in vocal range each singer did not perform every vocalise

Each participant was instructed to warm up prior to the recording During the process

they were given the freedom to play their own pitches from a piano before each vocalise they

were instructed to sing No accompaniment was provided while they vocalized Because the

purpose of this study was to analyze the best examples possible each singer was given the

opportunity to record an exercise as many times as necessary to exemplify his best singing

Two signals were obtained in the process an audio signal and an electroglottograph

(EGG) waveform The equipment used to record these signals included a Dell Inspiron 1470

laptop Tascam USB audio interface an EGG module EGG neck-strap and a headset

microphone A photograph of this equipment is shown in Figure 21

6 VoceVista-Pro is voice analysis software designed and developed by Donald Miller

7

All of the signals were recorded using the laptop computer while running VoceVista-Pro

software (v 33) The EGG module was used to process the EGG and audio signal The

electrodes used to transmit the EGG signal were positioned on either side of each participantlsquos

larynx with a Velcro strap

A headset microphone was used in order to maintain a consistent distance between the

singerlsquos mouth and the microphone The headset microphone is an omnidirectional electret

microphone with a flat response in the frequency range of interest (ca 70 to 8000 Hz) The EGG

module was inserted into the Tascam interface which connected to the computerlsquos USB port

and allowed for volume control over the audio and EGG signals All of the signals were initially

recorded at a low level to prevent overloading and were later normalized to 85 with Adobereg

Auditionreg to create a consistent standard for analysis

The audio signal obtained through the microphone provided a spectrogram and power

spectrum in VoceVista Figure 22 shows an example of a spectrogram a power spectrum and a

waveform envelope This figure shows a D major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor

Anthony Roth Costanzo

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone

8

The spectrogram is extracted from Figure 22 and shown in Figure 23 In this example a

D major scale is displayed Donald Miller describes the spectrogram as reading like music ―from

left to right in the time dimension7 In this example a green vertical cursor is placed on A4 of

the scale In the lower right a time marker of 2507 milliseconds (ms) is displayed This

indicates the exact moment of the sound sample in which the green cursor is placed Miller

describes the vertical dimension of the spectrograph as follows

The vertical dimension shows frequency In the usual narrow-band display the

fundamental frequency designated F0 is the lowest band The bands above it

represent overtones which are all integer multiples of the fundamental For

example if the fundamental is 220 hertz (Hz or cycles per second) the series of

overtones is 440 660 880 etc These are all harmonics which follow the

pattern of the well-known harmonic series The fundamental is designated H1

H2 is an octave higher H3 a perfect fifth above that etc8

7 Miller 7-8

8 Ibid 7-8

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown

9

The term ―fundamental frequency that Dr Miller refers to is the pitch the human ear

actually hears For purposes of this treatise the fundamental frequency will be referred to as

―H1 (Harmonic 1) F0 can also be used as a label but will not be used in this document In

Figure 23 the fundamental frequency is shown as the lowest horizontal band Above it are

overtones which are labeled H2 H3 H4 etc The colors shown in the spectrogram represent

levels of intensity (amplitude)9

On the right side of Figure 22 is the power spectrum which is displayed separately in

Figure 24 Miller describes the power spectrum as follows ―The power spectrum has just two

dimensions frequency and amplitude displayed in the horizontal and vertical dimensions

9 Ibid 7-8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22

10

respectively It is best understood as a very narrow time-slice through a spectrogram10

The

power spectrum (Figure 24) represents the exact moment in time in which the cursor is placed in

the spectrogram (Figure 23) The harmonics from the spectrogram (Figure 23) are displayed

from left to right in the power spectrum (Figure 24) Miller describes this display as showing

―the series of harmonics with a precise gradation of amplitude in decibels One can thus see

which frequency components are dominant at any given moment and by how many decibels

they prevail over other components 11

10 Ibid 8-9

11

Ibid 8-9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Questions often arise with regard to registers and where they fall in the countertenor

voice The most prominent vocal pedagogy books devote little attention to the countertenor

including Richard Millerlsquos The Structure of Singing William Vennardlsquos Singing The

Mechanism and the Technic and James McKinneylsquos The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal

Faults In most books on pedagogy there is no mention of the voice type or only a brief

paragraph is provided

Although the use of terminology has evolved the first significant description of registers

for the countertenor voice was written in 1841 by Manuel Garcia II in A Complete Treatise on

The Art of Singing He describes the countertenor voice as follows

Counter-Tenor Voice The highest voice of the man This clear and nimble voice

whose range is the same as that of the contralto voice and is composed of the same

cords extends from

In this voice the chest register blends very well with the falsetto register but although

more thin and more effeminate than all the other masculine voices it blends poorly with

the head register which is exclusively reserved for the woman1

Garcialsquos table of registration is shown in Figure 11 In observing his classifications for

female voices he has placed the ―falsetto register in the middle of the range It is evident his

usage of the term had different implications when he wrote the treatise than it does now In 1894

he revised his terminology to chest medium (falsetto for male voice) and head2

In observing his register system for the countertenor voice Garcia has placed it as the

highest male voice capable of ascending past the tenor in the chest voice to Bb4 with a possible

1 Manuel Garcia II A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing Part One (New York Da Capo Press

1984) 21

2 Clifton Ware Basics of Vocal Pedagogy The Foundations and Process of Singing (McGraw-Hill 1998)

114

2

extension to C5 In comparing the tenor to the countertenor the ranges are identical in the

falsetto register In the head register the countertenor is given a possible extension to F5

Garcia evidently believed in a three-register system for the countertenor with different

options for employing chest and falsetto in the same range In comparing this model with his

tenor model it seems as if these voices were similar in function

The voice of the present-day countertenor functions differently from the way it was

described by Garcia While the countertenor employs the chest register as part of the overall

range he uses it only for the lowest tones The contemporary countertenor would not extend his

chest voice nearly as high as C5

3

3 Garcia 21-22

Figure 11 Manuel Garcia IIlsquos table of registers3

4

4 Giles 176

Figure 12 Peter Gileslsquo system of registration4

5

In 1994 the most recent system of registration in the countertenor voice was devised by

Peter Giles Figure 12 compares the countertenor voice with other male and female voice-types

In observing his countertenor model Giles shows a wide range of register possibilities for the

voice

Registration in the singing voice is a widely-debated subject Among singing teachers a

wide range of terminology and concepts still exist While pedagogues have devised systems and

written numerous documents and books on registration for many voice types the registers of the

countertenor voice have been addressed minimally

Donald Miller through recent technical advances has provided a means to analyze the

voice Dr Miller began his career as an opera singer and voice teacher He has sung over 25

leading roles and was a professor of voice at Syracuse University for over two decades In the

late 1970s he turned his focus toward voice science In 1987 he devoted himself to research on

the acoustics and physiology of the singing voice as an associate of the Groningen Voice

Research Lab in the Netherlands Dr Miller is responsible for the design and development of

VoceVista software first introduced in 19965

One of the main benefits of VoceVista has been the ability to identify register transitions

and the elements that are involved in these transitions The purpose of this treatise is to develop

a further understanding of registration in the countertenor voice with the use of VoceVista

5 Donald Miller Resonance in Singing Voice Building through Acoustic Feedback (Princeton NJ Inside

View Press 2008) back cover

6

CHAPTER TWO

METHOD

Eleven North American countertenors were recorded and analyzed using VoceVista-Pro

software (version 33)6 The age of the participants ranged from 23 to 55 years Because of this

range in age the experience of the singers varied At minimum all of the participants held a

bachelorlsquos degree in music All of the participants had professional performing experience

Each singer was asked to sing a standard set of vocalises encompassing nearly the

entirety of his vocal range The lowest recorded pitch was G3 This starting point was chosen to

identify the transition coming from the chest voice to the head voice Because the modal (chest)

voice has been researched and studied at length pitches below G3 were not recorded The

highest recorded pitch was C6 which only one of the eleven countertenors was capable of

producing Due to differences in vocal range each singer did not perform every vocalise

Each participant was instructed to warm up prior to the recording During the process

they were given the freedom to play their own pitches from a piano before each vocalise they

were instructed to sing No accompaniment was provided while they vocalized Because the

purpose of this study was to analyze the best examples possible each singer was given the

opportunity to record an exercise as many times as necessary to exemplify his best singing

Two signals were obtained in the process an audio signal and an electroglottograph

(EGG) waveform The equipment used to record these signals included a Dell Inspiron 1470

laptop Tascam USB audio interface an EGG module EGG neck-strap and a headset

microphone A photograph of this equipment is shown in Figure 21

6 VoceVista-Pro is voice analysis software designed and developed by Donald Miller

7

All of the signals were recorded using the laptop computer while running VoceVista-Pro

software (v 33) The EGG module was used to process the EGG and audio signal The

electrodes used to transmit the EGG signal were positioned on either side of each participantlsquos

larynx with a Velcro strap

A headset microphone was used in order to maintain a consistent distance between the

singerlsquos mouth and the microphone The headset microphone is an omnidirectional electret

microphone with a flat response in the frequency range of interest (ca 70 to 8000 Hz) The EGG

module was inserted into the Tascam interface which connected to the computerlsquos USB port

and allowed for volume control over the audio and EGG signals All of the signals were initially

recorded at a low level to prevent overloading and were later normalized to 85 with Adobereg

Auditionreg to create a consistent standard for analysis

The audio signal obtained through the microphone provided a spectrogram and power

spectrum in VoceVista Figure 22 shows an example of a spectrogram a power spectrum and a

waveform envelope This figure shows a D major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor

Anthony Roth Costanzo

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone

8

The spectrogram is extracted from Figure 22 and shown in Figure 23 In this example a

D major scale is displayed Donald Miller describes the spectrogram as reading like music ―from

left to right in the time dimension7 In this example a green vertical cursor is placed on A4 of

the scale In the lower right a time marker of 2507 milliseconds (ms) is displayed This

indicates the exact moment of the sound sample in which the green cursor is placed Miller

describes the vertical dimension of the spectrograph as follows

The vertical dimension shows frequency In the usual narrow-band display the

fundamental frequency designated F0 is the lowest band The bands above it

represent overtones which are all integer multiples of the fundamental For

example if the fundamental is 220 hertz (Hz or cycles per second) the series of

overtones is 440 660 880 etc These are all harmonics which follow the

pattern of the well-known harmonic series The fundamental is designated H1

H2 is an octave higher H3 a perfect fifth above that etc8

7 Miller 7-8

8 Ibid 7-8

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown

9

The term ―fundamental frequency that Dr Miller refers to is the pitch the human ear

actually hears For purposes of this treatise the fundamental frequency will be referred to as

―H1 (Harmonic 1) F0 can also be used as a label but will not be used in this document In

Figure 23 the fundamental frequency is shown as the lowest horizontal band Above it are

overtones which are labeled H2 H3 H4 etc The colors shown in the spectrogram represent

levels of intensity (amplitude)9

On the right side of Figure 22 is the power spectrum which is displayed separately in

Figure 24 Miller describes the power spectrum as follows ―The power spectrum has just two

dimensions frequency and amplitude displayed in the horizontal and vertical dimensions

9 Ibid 7-8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22

10

respectively It is best understood as a very narrow time-slice through a spectrogram10

The

power spectrum (Figure 24) represents the exact moment in time in which the cursor is placed in

the spectrogram (Figure 23) The harmonics from the spectrogram (Figure 23) are displayed

from left to right in the power spectrum (Figure 24) Miller describes this display as showing

―the series of harmonics with a precise gradation of amplitude in decibels One can thus see

which frequency components are dominant at any given moment and by how many decibels

they prevail over other components 11

10 Ibid 8-9

11

Ibid 8-9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

2

extension to C5 In comparing the tenor to the countertenor the ranges are identical in the

falsetto register In the head register the countertenor is given a possible extension to F5

Garcia evidently believed in a three-register system for the countertenor with different

options for employing chest and falsetto in the same range In comparing this model with his

tenor model it seems as if these voices were similar in function

The voice of the present-day countertenor functions differently from the way it was

described by Garcia While the countertenor employs the chest register as part of the overall

range he uses it only for the lowest tones The contemporary countertenor would not extend his

chest voice nearly as high as C5

3

3 Garcia 21-22

Figure 11 Manuel Garcia IIlsquos table of registers3

4

4 Giles 176

Figure 12 Peter Gileslsquo system of registration4

5

In 1994 the most recent system of registration in the countertenor voice was devised by

Peter Giles Figure 12 compares the countertenor voice with other male and female voice-types

In observing his countertenor model Giles shows a wide range of register possibilities for the

voice

Registration in the singing voice is a widely-debated subject Among singing teachers a

wide range of terminology and concepts still exist While pedagogues have devised systems and

written numerous documents and books on registration for many voice types the registers of the

countertenor voice have been addressed minimally

Donald Miller through recent technical advances has provided a means to analyze the

voice Dr Miller began his career as an opera singer and voice teacher He has sung over 25

leading roles and was a professor of voice at Syracuse University for over two decades In the

late 1970s he turned his focus toward voice science In 1987 he devoted himself to research on

the acoustics and physiology of the singing voice as an associate of the Groningen Voice

Research Lab in the Netherlands Dr Miller is responsible for the design and development of

VoceVista software first introduced in 19965

One of the main benefits of VoceVista has been the ability to identify register transitions

and the elements that are involved in these transitions The purpose of this treatise is to develop

a further understanding of registration in the countertenor voice with the use of VoceVista

5 Donald Miller Resonance in Singing Voice Building through Acoustic Feedback (Princeton NJ Inside

View Press 2008) back cover

6

CHAPTER TWO

METHOD

Eleven North American countertenors were recorded and analyzed using VoceVista-Pro

software (version 33)6 The age of the participants ranged from 23 to 55 years Because of this

range in age the experience of the singers varied At minimum all of the participants held a

bachelorlsquos degree in music All of the participants had professional performing experience

Each singer was asked to sing a standard set of vocalises encompassing nearly the

entirety of his vocal range The lowest recorded pitch was G3 This starting point was chosen to

identify the transition coming from the chest voice to the head voice Because the modal (chest)

voice has been researched and studied at length pitches below G3 were not recorded The

highest recorded pitch was C6 which only one of the eleven countertenors was capable of

producing Due to differences in vocal range each singer did not perform every vocalise

Each participant was instructed to warm up prior to the recording During the process

they were given the freedom to play their own pitches from a piano before each vocalise they

were instructed to sing No accompaniment was provided while they vocalized Because the

purpose of this study was to analyze the best examples possible each singer was given the

opportunity to record an exercise as many times as necessary to exemplify his best singing

Two signals were obtained in the process an audio signal and an electroglottograph

(EGG) waveform The equipment used to record these signals included a Dell Inspiron 1470

laptop Tascam USB audio interface an EGG module EGG neck-strap and a headset

microphone A photograph of this equipment is shown in Figure 21

6 VoceVista-Pro is voice analysis software designed and developed by Donald Miller

7

All of the signals were recorded using the laptop computer while running VoceVista-Pro

software (v 33) The EGG module was used to process the EGG and audio signal The

electrodes used to transmit the EGG signal were positioned on either side of each participantlsquos

larynx with a Velcro strap

A headset microphone was used in order to maintain a consistent distance between the

singerlsquos mouth and the microphone The headset microphone is an omnidirectional electret

microphone with a flat response in the frequency range of interest (ca 70 to 8000 Hz) The EGG

module was inserted into the Tascam interface which connected to the computerlsquos USB port

and allowed for volume control over the audio and EGG signals All of the signals were initially

recorded at a low level to prevent overloading and were later normalized to 85 with Adobereg

Auditionreg to create a consistent standard for analysis

The audio signal obtained through the microphone provided a spectrogram and power

spectrum in VoceVista Figure 22 shows an example of a spectrogram a power spectrum and a

waveform envelope This figure shows a D major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor

Anthony Roth Costanzo

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone

8

The spectrogram is extracted from Figure 22 and shown in Figure 23 In this example a

D major scale is displayed Donald Miller describes the spectrogram as reading like music ―from

left to right in the time dimension7 In this example a green vertical cursor is placed on A4 of

the scale In the lower right a time marker of 2507 milliseconds (ms) is displayed This

indicates the exact moment of the sound sample in which the green cursor is placed Miller

describes the vertical dimension of the spectrograph as follows

The vertical dimension shows frequency In the usual narrow-band display the

fundamental frequency designated F0 is the lowest band The bands above it

represent overtones which are all integer multiples of the fundamental For

example if the fundamental is 220 hertz (Hz or cycles per second) the series of

overtones is 440 660 880 etc These are all harmonics which follow the

pattern of the well-known harmonic series The fundamental is designated H1

H2 is an octave higher H3 a perfect fifth above that etc8

7 Miller 7-8

8 Ibid 7-8

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown

9

The term ―fundamental frequency that Dr Miller refers to is the pitch the human ear

actually hears For purposes of this treatise the fundamental frequency will be referred to as

―H1 (Harmonic 1) F0 can also be used as a label but will not be used in this document In

Figure 23 the fundamental frequency is shown as the lowest horizontal band Above it are

overtones which are labeled H2 H3 H4 etc The colors shown in the spectrogram represent

levels of intensity (amplitude)9

On the right side of Figure 22 is the power spectrum which is displayed separately in

Figure 24 Miller describes the power spectrum as follows ―The power spectrum has just two

dimensions frequency and amplitude displayed in the horizontal and vertical dimensions

9 Ibid 7-8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22

10

respectively It is best understood as a very narrow time-slice through a spectrogram10

The

power spectrum (Figure 24) represents the exact moment in time in which the cursor is placed in

the spectrogram (Figure 23) The harmonics from the spectrogram (Figure 23) are displayed

from left to right in the power spectrum (Figure 24) Miller describes this display as showing

―the series of harmonics with a precise gradation of amplitude in decibels One can thus see

which frequency components are dominant at any given moment and by how many decibels

they prevail over other components 11

10 Ibid 8-9

11

Ibid 8-9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

3

3 Garcia 21-22

Figure 11 Manuel Garcia IIlsquos table of registers3

4

4 Giles 176

Figure 12 Peter Gileslsquo system of registration4

5

In 1994 the most recent system of registration in the countertenor voice was devised by

Peter Giles Figure 12 compares the countertenor voice with other male and female voice-types

In observing his countertenor model Giles shows a wide range of register possibilities for the

voice

Registration in the singing voice is a widely-debated subject Among singing teachers a

wide range of terminology and concepts still exist While pedagogues have devised systems and

written numerous documents and books on registration for many voice types the registers of the

countertenor voice have been addressed minimally

Donald Miller through recent technical advances has provided a means to analyze the

voice Dr Miller began his career as an opera singer and voice teacher He has sung over 25

leading roles and was a professor of voice at Syracuse University for over two decades In the

late 1970s he turned his focus toward voice science In 1987 he devoted himself to research on

the acoustics and physiology of the singing voice as an associate of the Groningen Voice

Research Lab in the Netherlands Dr Miller is responsible for the design and development of

VoceVista software first introduced in 19965

One of the main benefits of VoceVista has been the ability to identify register transitions

and the elements that are involved in these transitions The purpose of this treatise is to develop

a further understanding of registration in the countertenor voice with the use of VoceVista

5 Donald Miller Resonance in Singing Voice Building through Acoustic Feedback (Princeton NJ Inside

View Press 2008) back cover

6

CHAPTER TWO

METHOD

Eleven North American countertenors were recorded and analyzed using VoceVista-Pro

software (version 33)6 The age of the participants ranged from 23 to 55 years Because of this

range in age the experience of the singers varied At minimum all of the participants held a

bachelorlsquos degree in music All of the participants had professional performing experience

Each singer was asked to sing a standard set of vocalises encompassing nearly the

entirety of his vocal range The lowest recorded pitch was G3 This starting point was chosen to

identify the transition coming from the chest voice to the head voice Because the modal (chest)

voice has been researched and studied at length pitches below G3 were not recorded The

highest recorded pitch was C6 which only one of the eleven countertenors was capable of

producing Due to differences in vocal range each singer did not perform every vocalise

Each participant was instructed to warm up prior to the recording During the process

they were given the freedom to play their own pitches from a piano before each vocalise they

were instructed to sing No accompaniment was provided while they vocalized Because the

purpose of this study was to analyze the best examples possible each singer was given the

opportunity to record an exercise as many times as necessary to exemplify his best singing

Two signals were obtained in the process an audio signal and an electroglottograph

(EGG) waveform The equipment used to record these signals included a Dell Inspiron 1470

laptop Tascam USB audio interface an EGG module EGG neck-strap and a headset

microphone A photograph of this equipment is shown in Figure 21

6 VoceVista-Pro is voice analysis software designed and developed by Donald Miller

7

All of the signals were recorded using the laptop computer while running VoceVista-Pro

software (v 33) The EGG module was used to process the EGG and audio signal The

electrodes used to transmit the EGG signal were positioned on either side of each participantlsquos

larynx with a Velcro strap

A headset microphone was used in order to maintain a consistent distance between the

singerlsquos mouth and the microphone The headset microphone is an omnidirectional electret

microphone with a flat response in the frequency range of interest (ca 70 to 8000 Hz) The EGG

module was inserted into the Tascam interface which connected to the computerlsquos USB port

and allowed for volume control over the audio and EGG signals All of the signals were initially

recorded at a low level to prevent overloading and were later normalized to 85 with Adobereg

Auditionreg to create a consistent standard for analysis

The audio signal obtained through the microphone provided a spectrogram and power

spectrum in VoceVista Figure 22 shows an example of a spectrogram a power spectrum and a

waveform envelope This figure shows a D major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor

Anthony Roth Costanzo

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone

8

The spectrogram is extracted from Figure 22 and shown in Figure 23 In this example a

D major scale is displayed Donald Miller describes the spectrogram as reading like music ―from

left to right in the time dimension7 In this example a green vertical cursor is placed on A4 of

the scale In the lower right a time marker of 2507 milliseconds (ms) is displayed This

indicates the exact moment of the sound sample in which the green cursor is placed Miller

describes the vertical dimension of the spectrograph as follows

The vertical dimension shows frequency In the usual narrow-band display the

fundamental frequency designated F0 is the lowest band The bands above it

represent overtones which are all integer multiples of the fundamental For

example if the fundamental is 220 hertz (Hz or cycles per second) the series of

overtones is 440 660 880 etc These are all harmonics which follow the

pattern of the well-known harmonic series The fundamental is designated H1

H2 is an octave higher H3 a perfect fifth above that etc8

7 Miller 7-8

8 Ibid 7-8

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown

9

The term ―fundamental frequency that Dr Miller refers to is the pitch the human ear

actually hears For purposes of this treatise the fundamental frequency will be referred to as

―H1 (Harmonic 1) F0 can also be used as a label but will not be used in this document In

Figure 23 the fundamental frequency is shown as the lowest horizontal band Above it are

overtones which are labeled H2 H3 H4 etc The colors shown in the spectrogram represent

levels of intensity (amplitude)9

On the right side of Figure 22 is the power spectrum which is displayed separately in

Figure 24 Miller describes the power spectrum as follows ―The power spectrum has just two

dimensions frequency and amplitude displayed in the horizontal and vertical dimensions

9 Ibid 7-8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22

10

respectively It is best understood as a very narrow time-slice through a spectrogram10

The

power spectrum (Figure 24) represents the exact moment in time in which the cursor is placed in

the spectrogram (Figure 23) The harmonics from the spectrogram (Figure 23) are displayed

from left to right in the power spectrum (Figure 24) Miller describes this display as showing

―the series of harmonics with a precise gradation of amplitude in decibels One can thus see

which frequency components are dominant at any given moment and by how many decibels

they prevail over other components 11

10 Ibid 8-9

11

Ibid 8-9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

4

4 Giles 176

Figure 12 Peter Gileslsquo system of registration4

5

In 1994 the most recent system of registration in the countertenor voice was devised by

Peter Giles Figure 12 compares the countertenor voice with other male and female voice-types

In observing his countertenor model Giles shows a wide range of register possibilities for the

voice

Registration in the singing voice is a widely-debated subject Among singing teachers a

wide range of terminology and concepts still exist While pedagogues have devised systems and

written numerous documents and books on registration for many voice types the registers of the

countertenor voice have been addressed minimally

Donald Miller through recent technical advances has provided a means to analyze the

voice Dr Miller began his career as an opera singer and voice teacher He has sung over 25

leading roles and was a professor of voice at Syracuse University for over two decades In the

late 1970s he turned his focus toward voice science In 1987 he devoted himself to research on

the acoustics and physiology of the singing voice as an associate of the Groningen Voice

Research Lab in the Netherlands Dr Miller is responsible for the design and development of

VoceVista software first introduced in 19965

One of the main benefits of VoceVista has been the ability to identify register transitions

and the elements that are involved in these transitions The purpose of this treatise is to develop

a further understanding of registration in the countertenor voice with the use of VoceVista

5 Donald Miller Resonance in Singing Voice Building through Acoustic Feedback (Princeton NJ Inside

View Press 2008) back cover

6

CHAPTER TWO

METHOD

Eleven North American countertenors were recorded and analyzed using VoceVista-Pro

software (version 33)6 The age of the participants ranged from 23 to 55 years Because of this

range in age the experience of the singers varied At minimum all of the participants held a

bachelorlsquos degree in music All of the participants had professional performing experience

Each singer was asked to sing a standard set of vocalises encompassing nearly the

entirety of his vocal range The lowest recorded pitch was G3 This starting point was chosen to

identify the transition coming from the chest voice to the head voice Because the modal (chest)

voice has been researched and studied at length pitches below G3 were not recorded The

highest recorded pitch was C6 which only one of the eleven countertenors was capable of

producing Due to differences in vocal range each singer did not perform every vocalise

Each participant was instructed to warm up prior to the recording During the process

they were given the freedom to play their own pitches from a piano before each vocalise they

were instructed to sing No accompaniment was provided while they vocalized Because the

purpose of this study was to analyze the best examples possible each singer was given the

opportunity to record an exercise as many times as necessary to exemplify his best singing

Two signals were obtained in the process an audio signal and an electroglottograph

(EGG) waveform The equipment used to record these signals included a Dell Inspiron 1470

laptop Tascam USB audio interface an EGG module EGG neck-strap and a headset

microphone A photograph of this equipment is shown in Figure 21

6 VoceVista-Pro is voice analysis software designed and developed by Donald Miller

7

All of the signals were recorded using the laptop computer while running VoceVista-Pro

software (v 33) The EGG module was used to process the EGG and audio signal The

electrodes used to transmit the EGG signal were positioned on either side of each participantlsquos

larynx with a Velcro strap

A headset microphone was used in order to maintain a consistent distance between the

singerlsquos mouth and the microphone The headset microphone is an omnidirectional electret

microphone with a flat response in the frequency range of interest (ca 70 to 8000 Hz) The EGG

module was inserted into the Tascam interface which connected to the computerlsquos USB port

and allowed for volume control over the audio and EGG signals All of the signals were initially

recorded at a low level to prevent overloading and were later normalized to 85 with Adobereg

Auditionreg to create a consistent standard for analysis

The audio signal obtained through the microphone provided a spectrogram and power

spectrum in VoceVista Figure 22 shows an example of a spectrogram a power spectrum and a

waveform envelope This figure shows a D major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor

Anthony Roth Costanzo

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone

8

The spectrogram is extracted from Figure 22 and shown in Figure 23 In this example a

D major scale is displayed Donald Miller describes the spectrogram as reading like music ―from

left to right in the time dimension7 In this example a green vertical cursor is placed on A4 of

the scale In the lower right a time marker of 2507 milliseconds (ms) is displayed This

indicates the exact moment of the sound sample in which the green cursor is placed Miller

describes the vertical dimension of the spectrograph as follows

The vertical dimension shows frequency In the usual narrow-band display the

fundamental frequency designated F0 is the lowest band The bands above it

represent overtones which are all integer multiples of the fundamental For

example if the fundamental is 220 hertz (Hz or cycles per second) the series of

overtones is 440 660 880 etc These are all harmonics which follow the

pattern of the well-known harmonic series The fundamental is designated H1

H2 is an octave higher H3 a perfect fifth above that etc8

7 Miller 7-8

8 Ibid 7-8

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown

9

The term ―fundamental frequency that Dr Miller refers to is the pitch the human ear

actually hears For purposes of this treatise the fundamental frequency will be referred to as

―H1 (Harmonic 1) F0 can also be used as a label but will not be used in this document In

Figure 23 the fundamental frequency is shown as the lowest horizontal band Above it are

overtones which are labeled H2 H3 H4 etc The colors shown in the spectrogram represent

levels of intensity (amplitude)9

On the right side of Figure 22 is the power spectrum which is displayed separately in

Figure 24 Miller describes the power spectrum as follows ―The power spectrum has just two

dimensions frequency and amplitude displayed in the horizontal and vertical dimensions

9 Ibid 7-8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22

10

respectively It is best understood as a very narrow time-slice through a spectrogram10

The

power spectrum (Figure 24) represents the exact moment in time in which the cursor is placed in

the spectrogram (Figure 23) The harmonics from the spectrogram (Figure 23) are displayed

from left to right in the power spectrum (Figure 24) Miller describes this display as showing

―the series of harmonics with a precise gradation of amplitude in decibels One can thus see

which frequency components are dominant at any given moment and by how many decibels

they prevail over other components 11

10 Ibid 8-9

11

Ibid 8-9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

5

In 1994 the most recent system of registration in the countertenor voice was devised by

Peter Giles Figure 12 compares the countertenor voice with other male and female voice-types

In observing his countertenor model Giles shows a wide range of register possibilities for the

voice

Registration in the singing voice is a widely-debated subject Among singing teachers a

wide range of terminology and concepts still exist While pedagogues have devised systems and

written numerous documents and books on registration for many voice types the registers of the

countertenor voice have been addressed minimally

Donald Miller through recent technical advances has provided a means to analyze the

voice Dr Miller began his career as an opera singer and voice teacher He has sung over 25

leading roles and was a professor of voice at Syracuse University for over two decades In the

late 1970s he turned his focus toward voice science In 1987 he devoted himself to research on

the acoustics and physiology of the singing voice as an associate of the Groningen Voice

Research Lab in the Netherlands Dr Miller is responsible for the design and development of

VoceVista software first introduced in 19965

One of the main benefits of VoceVista has been the ability to identify register transitions

and the elements that are involved in these transitions The purpose of this treatise is to develop

a further understanding of registration in the countertenor voice with the use of VoceVista

5 Donald Miller Resonance in Singing Voice Building through Acoustic Feedback (Princeton NJ Inside

View Press 2008) back cover

6

CHAPTER TWO

METHOD

Eleven North American countertenors were recorded and analyzed using VoceVista-Pro

software (version 33)6 The age of the participants ranged from 23 to 55 years Because of this

range in age the experience of the singers varied At minimum all of the participants held a

bachelorlsquos degree in music All of the participants had professional performing experience

Each singer was asked to sing a standard set of vocalises encompassing nearly the

entirety of his vocal range The lowest recorded pitch was G3 This starting point was chosen to

identify the transition coming from the chest voice to the head voice Because the modal (chest)

voice has been researched and studied at length pitches below G3 were not recorded The

highest recorded pitch was C6 which only one of the eleven countertenors was capable of

producing Due to differences in vocal range each singer did not perform every vocalise

Each participant was instructed to warm up prior to the recording During the process

they were given the freedom to play their own pitches from a piano before each vocalise they

were instructed to sing No accompaniment was provided while they vocalized Because the

purpose of this study was to analyze the best examples possible each singer was given the

opportunity to record an exercise as many times as necessary to exemplify his best singing

Two signals were obtained in the process an audio signal and an electroglottograph

(EGG) waveform The equipment used to record these signals included a Dell Inspiron 1470

laptop Tascam USB audio interface an EGG module EGG neck-strap and a headset

microphone A photograph of this equipment is shown in Figure 21

6 VoceVista-Pro is voice analysis software designed and developed by Donald Miller

7

All of the signals were recorded using the laptop computer while running VoceVista-Pro

software (v 33) The EGG module was used to process the EGG and audio signal The

electrodes used to transmit the EGG signal were positioned on either side of each participantlsquos

larynx with a Velcro strap

A headset microphone was used in order to maintain a consistent distance between the

singerlsquos mouth and the microphone The headset microphone is an omnidirectional electret

microphone with a flat response in the frequency range of interest (ca 70 to 8000 Hz) The EGG

module was inserted into the Tascam interface which connected to the computerlsquos USB port

and allowed for volume control over the audio and EGG signals All of the signals were initially

recorded at a low level to prevent overloading and were later normalized to 85 with Adobereg

Auditionreg to create a consistent standard for analysis

The audio signal obtained through the microphone provided a spectrogram and power

spectrum in VoceVista Figure 22 shows an example of a spectrogram a power spectrum and a

waveform envelope This figure shows a D major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor

Anthony Roth Costanzo

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone

8

The spectrogram is extracted from Figure 22 and shown in Figure 23 In this example a

D major scale is displayed Donald Miller describes the spectrogram as reading like music ―from

left to right in the time dimension7 In this example a green vertical cursor is placed on A4 of

the scale In the lower right a time marker of 2507 milliseconds (ms) is displayed This

indicates the exact moment of the sound sample in which the green cursor is placed Miller

describes the vertical dimension of the spectrograph as follows

The vertical dimension shows frequency In the usual narrow-band display the

fundamental frequency designated F0 is the lowest band The bands above it

represent overtones which are all integer multiples of the fundamental For

example if the fundamental is 220 hertz (Hz or cycles per second) the series of

overtones is 440 660 880 etc These are all harmonics which follow the

pattern of the well-known harmonic series The fundamental is designated H1

H2 is an octave higher H3 a perfect fifth above that etc8

7 Miller 7-8

8 Ibid 7-8

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown

9

The term ―fundamental frequency that Dr Miller refers to is the pitch the human ear

actually hears For purposes of this treatise the fundamental frequency will be referred to as

―H1 (Harmonic 1) F0 can also be used as a label but will not be used in this document In

Figure 23 the fundamental frequency is shown as the lowest horizontal band Above it are

overtones which are labeled H2 H3 H4 etc The colors shown in the spectrogram represent

levels of intensity (amplitude)9

On the right side of Figure 22 is the power spectrum which is displayed separately in

Figure 24 Miller describes the power spectrum as follows ―The power spectrum has just two

dimensions frequency and amplitude displayed in the horizontal and vertical dimensions

9 Ibid 7-8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22

10

respectively It is best understood as a very narrow time-slice through a spectrogram10

The

power spectrum (Figure 24) represents the exact moment in time in which the cursor is placed in

the spectrogram (Figure 23) The harmonics from the spectrogram (Figure 23) are displayed

from left to right in the power spectrum (Figure 24) Miller describes this display as showing

―the series of harmonics with a precise gradation of amplitude in decibels One can thus see

which frequency components are dominant at any given moment and by how many decibels

they prevail over other components 11

10 Ibid 8-9

11

Ibid 8-9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

6

CHAPTER TWO

METHOD

Eleven North American countertenors were recorded and analyzed using VoceVista-Pro

software (version 33)6 The age of the participants ranged from 23 to 55 years Because of this

range in age the experience of the singers varied At minimum all of the participants held a

bachelorlsquos degree in music All of the participants had professional performing experience

Each singer was asked to sing a standard set of vocalises encompassing nearly the

entirety of his vocal range The lowest recorded pitch was G3 This starting point was chosen to

identify the transition coming from the chest voice to the head voice Because the modal (chest)

voice has been researched and studied at length pitches below G3 were not recorded The

highest recorded pitch was C6 which only one of the eleven countertenors was capable of

producing Due to differences in vocal range each singer did not perform every vocalise

Each participant was instructed to warm up prior to the recording During the process

they were given the freedom to play their own pitches from a piano before each vocalise they

were instructed to sing No accompaniment was provided while they vocalized Because the

purpose of this study was to analyze the best examples possible each singer was given the

opportunity to record an exercise as many times as necessary to exemplify his best singing

Two signals were obtained in the process an audio signal and an electroglottograph

(EGG) waveform The equipment used to record these signals included a Dell Inspiron 1470

laptop Tascam USB audio interface an EGG module EGG neck-strap and a headset

microphone A photograph of this equipment is shown in Figure 21

6 VoceVista-Pro is voice analysis software designed and developed by Donald Miller

7

All of the signals were recorded using the laptop computer while running VoceVista-Pro

software (v 33) The EGG module was used to process the EGG and audio signal The

electrodes used to transmit the EGG signal were positioned on either side of each participantlsquos

larynx with a Velcro strap

A headset microphone was used in order to maintain a consistent distance between the

singerlsquos mouth and the microphone The headset microphone is an omnidirectional electret

microphone with a flat response in the frequency range of interest (ca 70 to 8000 Hz) The EGG

module was inserted into the Tascam interface which connected to the computerlsquos USB port

and allowed for volume control over the audio and EGG signals All of the signals were initially

recorded at a low level to prevent overloading and were later normalized to 85 with Adobereg

Auditionreg to create a consistent standard for analysis

The audio signal obtained through the microphone provided a spectrogram and power

spectrum in VoceVista Figure 22 shows an example of a spectrogram a power spectrum and a

waveform envelope This figure shows a D major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor

Anthony Roth Costanzo

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone

8

The spectrogram is extracted from Figure 22 and shown in Figure 23 In this example a

D major scale is displayed Donald Miller describes the spectrogram as reading like music ―from

left to right in the time dimension7 In this example a green vertical cursor is placed on A4 of

the scale In the lower right a time marker of 2507 milliseconds (ms) is displayed This

indicates the exact moment of the sound sample in which the green cursor is placed Miller

describes the vertical dimension of the spectrograph as follows

The vertical dimension shows frequency In the usual narrow-band display the

fundamental frequency designated F0 is the lowest band The bands above it

represent overtones which are all integer multiples of the fundamental For

example if the fundamental is 220 hertz (Hz or cycles per second) the series of

overtones is 440 660 880 etc These are all harmonics which follow the

pattern of the well-known harmonic series The fundamental is designated H1

H2 is an octave higher H3 a perfect fifth above that etc8

7 Miller 7-8

8 Ibid 7-8

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown

9

The term ―fundamental frequency that Dr Miller refers to is the pitch the human ear

actually hears For purposes of this treatise the fundamental frequency will be referred to as

―H1 (Harmonic 1) F0 can also be used as a label but will not be used in this document In

Figure 23 the fundamental frequency is shown as the lowest horizontal band Above it are

overtones which are labeled H2 H3 H4 etc The colors shown in the spectrogram represent

levels of intensity (amplitude)9

On the right side of Figure 22 is the power spectrum which is displayed separately in

Figure 24 Miller describes the power spectrum as follows ―The power spectrum has just two

dimensions frequency and amplitude displayed in the horizontal and vertical dimensions

9 Ibid 7-8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22

10

respectively It is best understood as a very narrow time-slice through a spectrogram10

The

power spectrum (Figure 24) represents the exact moment in time in which the cursor is placed in

the spectrogram (Figure 23) The harmonics from the spectrogram (Figure 23) are displayed

from left to right in the power spectrum (Figure 24) Miller describes this display as showing

―the series of harmonics with a precise gradation of amplitude in decibels One can thus see

which frequency components are dominant at any given moment and by how many decibels

they prevail over other components 11

10 Ibid 8-9

11

Ibid 8-9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

7

All of the signals were recorded using the laptop computer while running VoceVista-Pro

software (v 33) The EGG module was used to process the EGG and audio signal The

electrodes used to transmit the EGG signal were positioned on either side of each participantlsquos

larynx with a Velcro strap

A headset microphone was used in order to maintain a consistent distance between the

singerlsquos mouth and the microphone The headset microphone is an omnidirectional electret

microphone with a flat response in the frequency range of interest (ca 70 to 8000 Hz) The EGG

module was inserted into the Tascam interface which connected to the computerlsquos USB port

and allowed for volume control over the audio and EGG signals All of the signals were initially

recorded at a low level to prevent overloading and were later normalized to 85 with Adobereg

Auditionreg to create a consistent standard for analysis

The audio signal obtained through the microphone provided a spectrogram and power

spectrum in VoceVista Figure 22 shows an example of a spectrogram a power spectrum and a

waveform envelope This figure shows a D major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor

Anthony Roth Costanzo

Figure 21 Author shown wearing EGG module EGG neck-strap and headset microphone

8

The spectrogram is extracted from Figure 22 and shown in Figure 23 In this example a

D major scale is displayed Donald Miller describes the spectrogram as reading like music ―from

left to right in the time dimension7 In this example a green vertical cursor is placed on A4 of

the scale In the lower right a time marker of 2507 milliseconds (ms) is displayed This

indicates the exact moment of the sound sample in which the green cursor is placed Miller

describes the vertical dimension of the spectrograph as follows

The vertical dimension shows frequency In the usual narrow-band display the

fundamental frequency designated F0 is the lowest band The bands above it

represent overtones which are all integer multiples of the fundamental For

example if the fundamental is 220 hertz (Hz or cycles per second) the series of

overtones is 440 660 880 etc These are all harmonics which follow the

pattern of the well-known harmonic series The fundamental is designated H1

H2 is an octave higher H3 a perfect fifth above that etc8

7 Miller 7-8

8 Ibid 7-8

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown

9

The term ―fundamental frequency that Dr Miller refers to is the pitch the human ear

actually hears For purposes of this treatise the fundamental frequency will be referred to as

―H1 (Harmonic 1) F0 can also be used as a label but will not be used in this document In

Figure 23 the fundamental frequency is shown as the lowest horizontal band Above it are

overtones which are labeled H2 H3 H4 etc The colors shown in the spectrogram represent

levels of intensity (amplitude)9

On the right side of Figure 22 is the power spectrum which is displayed separately in

Figure 24 Miller describes the power spectrum as follows ―The power spectrum has just two

dimensions frequency and amplitude displayed in the horizontal and vertical dimensions

9 Ibid 7-8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22

10

respectively It is best understood as a very narrow time-slice through a spectrogram10

The

power spectrum (Figure 24) represents the exact moment in time in which the cursor is placed in

the spectrogram (Figure 23) The harmonics from the spectrogram (Figure 23) are displayed

from left to right in the power spectrum (Figure 24) Miller describes this display as showing

―the series of harmonics with a precise gradation of amplitude in decibels One can thus see

which frequency components are dominant at any given moment and by how many decibels

they prevail over other components 11

10 Ibid 8-9

11

Ibid 8-9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

8

The spectrogram is extracted from Figure 22 and shown in Figure 23 In this example a

D major scale is displayed Donald Miller describes the spectrogram as reading like music ―from

left to right in the time dimension7 In this example a green vertical cursor is placed on A4 of

the scale In the lower right a time marker of 2507 milliseconds (ms) is displayed This

indicates the exact moment of the sound sample in which the green cursor is placed Miller

describes the vertical dimension of the spectrograph as follows

The vertical dimension shows frequency In the usual narrow-band display the

fundamental frequency designated F0 is the lowest band The bands above it

represent overtones which are all integer multiples of the fundamental For

example if the fundamental is 220 hertz (Hz or cycles per second) the series of

overtones is 440 660 880 etc These are all harmonics which follow the

pattern of the well-known harmonic series The fundamental is designated H1

H2 is an octave higher H3 a perfect fifth above that etc8

7 Miller 7-8

8 Ibid 7-8

Figure 22 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo displayed in

VoceVista View of spectrogram power spectrum and waveform envelope shown

9

The term ―fundamental frequency that Dr Miller refers to is the pitch the human ear

actually hears For purposes of this treatise the fundamental frequency will be referred to as

―H1 (Harmonic 1) F0 can also be used as a label but will not be used in this document In

Figure 23 the fundamental frequency is shown as the lowest horizontal band Above it are

overtones which are labeled H2 H3 H4 etc The colors shown in the spectrogram represent

levels of intensity (amplitude)9

On the right side of Figure 22 is the power spectrum which is displayed separately in

Figure 24 Miller describes the power spectrum as follows ―The power spectrum has just two

dimensions frequency and amplitude displayed in the horizontal and vertical dimensions

9 Ibid 7-8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22

10

respectively It is best understood as a very narrow time-slice through a spectrogram10

The

power spectrum (Figure 24) represents the exact moment in time in which the cursor is placed in

the spectrogram (Figure 23) The harmonics from the spectrogram (Figure 23) are displayed

from left to right in the power spectrum (Figure 24) Miller describes this display as showing

―the series of harmonics with a precise gradation of amplitude in decibels One can thus see

which frequency components are dominant at any given moment and by how many decibels

they prevail over other components 11

10 Ibid 8-9

11

Ibid 8-9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

9

The term ―fundamental frequency that Dr Miller refers to is the pitch the human ear

actually hears For purposes of this treatise the fundamental frequency will be referred to as

―H1 (Harmonic 1) F0 can also be used as a label but will not be used in this document In

Figure 23 the fundamental frequency is shown as the lowest horizontal band Above it are

overtones which are labeled H2 H3 H4 etc The colors shown in the spectrogram represent

levels of intensity (amplitude)9

On the right side of Figure 22 is the power spectrum which is displayed separately in

Figure 24 Miller describes the power spectrum as follows ―The power spectrum has just two

dimensions frequency and amplitude displayed in the horizontal and vertical dimensions

9 Ibid 7-8

Figure 23 Spectrogram extracted from Figure 22

10

respectively It is best understood as a very narrow time-slice through a spectrogram10

The

power spectrum (Figure 24) represents the exact moment in time in which the cursor is placed in

the spectrogram (Figure 23) The harmonics from the spectrogram (Figure 23) are displayed

from left to right in the power spectrum (Figure 24) Miller describes this display as showing

―the series of harmonics with a precise gradation of amplitude in decibels One can thus see

which frequency components are dominant at any given moment and by how many decibels

they prevail over other components 11

10 Ibid 8-9

11

Ibid 8-9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

10

respectively It is best understood as a very narrow time-slice through a spectrogram10

The

power spectrum (Figure 24) represents the exact moment in time in which the cursor is placed in

the spectrogram (Figure 23) The harmonics from the spectrogram (Figure 23) are displayed

from left to right in the power spectrum (Figure 24) Miller describes this display as showing

―the series of harmonics with a precise gradation of amplitude in decibels One can thus see

which frequency components are dominant at any given moment and by how many decibels

they prevail over other components 11

10 Ibid 8-9

11

Ibid 8-9

Figure 24 Power spectrum extracted from Figure 22

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

11

Throughout this document a long time average spectrum (LTAS) will be used which

Miller describes as follows

In addition to the narrow time-slice the program can calculate a long time

average spectrum (LTAS) for segments up to 10 seconds By setting the

averaging time at 200 ms (milliseconds) the display of sound in real time will

average approximately one complete vibrato cycle (based on a vibrato rate of 5

Hz) giving a more realistic impression of the balance of frequency components

that the ear is hearing in real time12

The other signal analyzed in this treatise is the electroglottograph waveform (EGG)

which is described by Miller as follows

The EGG is the second of the two non-invasive signals processed by VoceVista

It is a physiological signal allowing us to follow the vibrations of the vocal folds

that produce the primary sound at the glottis A minute high-frequency current

runs between electrodes that are held in place on either side of the larynx The

resistance between electrodes decreases by a small amount when the vocal folds

make contact initiating the closed phase of the glottis The resistance rises again

as the glottis opens These modulations in resistance give us the EGG signal

useful as a measure of contact between the vocal folds13

12

Ibid 8-9

13

Ibid 9

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

12

Figure 25 is a different display of VoceVista which shows a G major scale sung on an

[a] vowel by countertenor Steven Rickards This figure shows a spectrogram electroglottograph

waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (labeled EGG CQ) and audio waveform

The electroglottograph waveform (EGG) is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in

Figure 26 This signal can be used to calculate closed quotient (CQ) which is described by

Miller as ―the percentage of the glottal period where the glottis is (presumably) closed to the

passage of air14

Three vertical cursors are displayed in this window The first vertical cursor is

placed at the estimated moment in which the glottis closes and the middle cursor is placed at the

estimated moment in which the glottis opens The horizontal cursor is adjusted by the user to

align these vertical cursors and is referred to as the criterion level (CL)15

This process of

adjustment is aided by the audio waveform which will be described later In this example the

horizontal cursor is placed at the estimated moment of glottal opening (CL=26) and the closed

quotient (CQ) is measured at 44

14

Ibid 9

15

Ibid 9

Figure 25 Octave scale from G4 to G5 on [a] by Steven Rickards displayed in VoceVista View

of spectrogram electroglottograph waveform (EGG) closed quotient history (EGG CQ) and

audio waveform shown

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

13

Above the EGG signal in Figure 25 is the audio waveform which shows the microphone

signal This is the same signal that provides the spectrogram and power spectrum The audio

waveform is extracted from Figure 25 and shown in Figure 27 This signal is useful in aligning

the EGG signal directly below it as shown in Figure 25 Miller describes this process as

follows

Care must be taken to precisely align the EGG and audio signals in the time

domain Each closing of the glottis creates an impulse that acoustically excites

the vocal tract There is a time delay between this closure which is registered

immediately by the EGG and the moment of arrival at the microphone of the

corresponding acoustic impulse At the relatively low frequencies and intensities

of speech the sound tends to die out between glottal impulses making these easy

to identify in the audio waveform particularly if the microphone is close to the

speakerlsquos mouth In the case of a head-mounted microphone the distance the

sound travels is kept constant and thus the delay as well

Having the audio and EGG waveforms aligned enables one to see the

effects of the sound created by glottal closing and opening as well as by different

magnitudes of closed quotient It also makes clearer the difference between low-

intensity speech where the sound tends to die out in the open phase and resonant

singing characterized by standing waves that maintain their energy through the

open phase and into the next closing16

16

Ibid 10-11

Figure 26 Electroglottograph waveform (EGG) extracted from Figure 25

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

14

The signals described above were used to determine where the register transitions

occurred in the countertenor voice and the characteristics that defined these transitions These

determinations were made by studying adjustments in CQ and changes in the relative strength of

the harmonics displayed in the spectrogram and power spectrum

Changes in the CQ are measured through analysis of the EGG signal An increase or

decrease in the CQ indicates an adjustment being made by the singer at the voice source (the

vocal folds) consciously or subconsciously Changes displayed in the spectrogram reflect the

adjustments made in the vocal tract after the harmonics have emerged from the glottis

Within the vocal tract are naturally occurring formants which are variable resonances of

the vocal tract17

When considering the source spectrum of a sound before it is filtered by the

vocal tract the amplitude of the harmonics theoretically decreases uniformly with increasing

frequency18

In other words Miller is theorizing that Figure 28 represents the overtone series

emitted by the vocal folds prior to the filtering performed by the vocal tract

17

Ibid 113

18

Ibid 24-25

Figure 27 Audio waveform extracted from Figure 25

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

15

Through adjustments in the vocal tract the formants can be tuned to the harmonics

emerging from the glottis which create distinctive peaks in the spectrogram20

Miller explains the importance of the first two formants as follows

When we speak of formant tuning in the singing voice we are nearly always

talking about one or both of the two lowest formants F1 and F2 There are two

evident reasons for this The first is that these two formants are in the frequency

region where the harmonics emerging from the glottal source are strong

resonating a harmonic that is intrinsically strong will have a relatively large effect

on the sound pressure levelhellipThe second reason is that our vocal tracts are well

equipped to make rapid changes both large and subtle in the first two formants21

Through glottal fry a visual representation of the formant frequencies of a singer can be

obtained Figure 29 shows the power spectrum of an A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel

The formant structure is shown in the lower portion which was produced by a glottal fry The

19

Ibid figure 43

20

Ibid 24-25

21

Ibid 24-25

Figure 28 Theoretical drawing of the overtone series emitted by the vocal folds prior to

filtering by the vocal tract19

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

16

upper portion shows the sung pitch When aligning the two images it is evident how the

formants amplify the harmonics to which they are tuned22

The first formant (F1) is affiliated with the back cavity and the second formant (F2) is

affiliated with the front24

Miller lists three general rules regarding the adjustments of these two

formants

Lip rounding lowers all formant frequencies but especially F2 lip spreading has the opposite effect

Larynx lowering lowers all formant frequencies but especially F1 larynx raising has the opposite effect

22

Ibid 23

23

Ibid figure 41

24

Ibid 29

Figure 29 Power spectra of A4 sung by a soprano on an [i] vowel (signal A) and vocal fry

(signal B)23

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

17

Moving the tongue constriction forward raises F2 and lowers F1 moving it backward has the opposite effect

25

By adjusting the formant frequencies with the articulators vowels are shaped Figure

210 shows a vowel diagram which displays the first and second formant frequency ranges of

eight vowels during speech The open and closed dimension of a vowel is dependent on the first

formant while the front and back dimension is dependent on the second formant The variance

for each vowel accounts for different individuals whose vocal tracts are different sizes

Generally children have the smallest vocal tracts and therefore the highest formant frequencies

Adult men typically have the largest vocal tracts and the lowest formant frequencies26

25

Ibid 31

26

Ibid 26-28

27

Ibid figure 44

Figure 210 First and second formant frequency ranges of eight vowels during speech27

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

18

For the purpose of this treatise I have chosen to focus on the [a] vowel The work of Dr

Miller shows how this vowel can be used successfully to identify register transitions in the voice

due to the close proximity of the first two formants (F1 and F2) The [a] vowel has been the

primary focus of Dr Millerlsquos research regarding the registers of the voice As a result the data

collected in this treatise can be compared to his research and cross-referenced with his findings

in the female voice For these reasons analyzing vocalises on [a] was the most useful means of

researching the registers of the countertenor voice

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

19

CHAPTER THREE

UPPER REGISTER

To date the analysis of the upper register of the countertenor voice has remained largely

unexplored Like female singers countertenors also make an upper register transition Through

the examination of the power spectrum and the EGG waveform of an E Major scale beginning on

E4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify this transition

Figure 31 shows an E major scale sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader

In signal A the cursor is placed on C5 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D

5 In the case

of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange

cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval

(length of time the vocal folds are presumably in the closed phase) by the Period (length of the

glottal cycle) (128184=70 and 122163=75) The increase of 5 in the CQ also

Figure 31 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

C5 (A) and D

5 (B)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

20

corresponds with a shift in harmonic dominance from H2 to H1 shown in the power spectrum of

Figure 32 and 33 at the same 6172 and 6528 ms marks

Figure 32 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

21

The cursor is placed on H1 in Figure 32 and on H2 in Figure 33 In both figures the

C5 is shown in signal A and the D

5 is shown in signal B In examining the C

5 at the 6172 ms

mark H2 is -9 dB and H1 is -18 dB This means that H2 is dominant over H1 by 9 dB This

harmonic dominance changes on the D5 when H1 becomes dominant over H2 by 4 dB

Because the strength of the harmonics fluctuates with vibrato a long time average spectrum

(LTAS) was also used

Figure 33 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

D5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

22

Figure 34 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 35 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

23

Figures 34 and 35 show the same E Major scale sung by Andrew Rader displayed using

an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C5 and E5 Using the LTAS H2 is dominant

over H1 on C5 by 4 dB and H1 is dominant over H2 by 13 dB on E5 This creates a variance of

17 dB between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 The change from H1 to H2 dominance shows a

change in resonance strategy from F2H2 to F1H1 which indicates a register transition

In this particular example the register transition taking place is comparable to the

transition in the female voice by which the singer tunes F2 to H2 in the middle register and then

tunes F1 to H1 as she moves into the upper register28

The examples primarily observed in

Resonance in Singing reference the soprano voice in which this transition does not take place

until F5 with E5 being a transitional note in which H1 and H2 are relatively equal29

The

transition was observed at a lower pitch in the countertenor voice

The majority of the participants did not maintain a dominant H2 through the middle

register like Andrew Rader Instead they maintained a slightly dominant H1 The upper register

transition is still visible however through the sudden change in amplitude between H1 and H2

An example of this possibility is shown in Figures 36 and 37 which use an LTAS of 300 ms

28

Ibid 70-72

29

Ibid 70-71

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

24

Figure 36 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H1

Figure 37 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show C5 (A) and

E5 (B) with cursors placed on H2

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

25

Figures 36 and 37 show an E Major scale sung on an [a] vowel by Dan Bubeck On C5

H1 is dominant over H2 by 5 dB While H1 remains dominant on E5 it is dominant over H2 by

a large difference of 17 dB In this example there is a change in amplitude of 12 dB between H1

and H2 when comparing C5 and E5 This change in amplitude is an indication that the transition

to the upper register has taken place

A comparable example to Danlsquos scale is shown in Resonance in Singing in which a

mezzo-soprano also has a slightly dominant H1 in the middle register Miller states that this is a

result of darkening the vowel which lowers F1 and F2 30

However the formant frequencies found in natural speech differ in male and female

voices The formants are typically lower in the male voice and higher in the female voice This

is the result of differences in vocal tract size 31

It is possible that a larger vocal tract in some

countertenors may make it difficult to tune F2 to H2 resulting in a darker quality

Like Andrew Dan also had an increase in CQ when transitioning from C5 to D

5 which

is shown in Figure 38 This is further evidence that a register transition has taken place In

Danlsquos case the CQ increased from 37 (69188) on the C

5 to 51 (80158) on the D5 This

large change can also be observed in the CQ history shown above the spectrograph where there

is a sudden spike Though the CQ history does not show completely accurate measurements due

to a constant CL it can provide a worthwhile overview of an entire passage

30

Ibid 74

31

Ibid 26-27

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

26

The increase in CQ at the transition into the upper register is a phenomenon which is not

present in the female voice Donald Miller maintains that in the female voice this transition is

primarily related to adjustments in resonance rather than an adjustment at the voice source32

In

the countertenor voice both adjustments appear to be paramount to the negotiation of this

register transition

In the case of ten of the eleven participants there was a noticeable shift toward clear F1

dominance after ascending past C5 While the majority of the participants maintained a slightly

dominant H1 through the middle voice there was a significant change in amplitude between H1

and H2 from C5 to E5

One participant however decreased the amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5

which did not align with the results from the other singers A similar example is shown in

Resonance in Singing when a soprano continues to maintain the F2H2 strategy to A5 Miller

32

Ibid 73

Figure 38 Octave scale from E4 to E5 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of C5

(A) and D5 (B)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

27

refers to this as a ―register violation33

As a result the data from this singer has not been

included in the following calculations

The difference in amplitude between H1 and H2 from C5 to E5 was measured in each

singer through the use of an LTAS of 300ms These changes in amplitude ranged from 7 to 23

dB The average was 141 dB among the 10 countertenors included in this calculation While

the majority of the participants did not maintain a complete F2H2 resonance strategy in the

middle register the movement toward a strong F1H1 strategy indicates a resonance adjustment

The evidence of a change in CQ and a shift to a dominant F1H1 resonance strategy

provides strong evidence of an upper register transition taking place in the countertenor voice

after C5 In the case of all the participants the middle register to upper register transition was

complete by E5 This area of transition seems to coincide with the mezzo-soprano voice

The majority of the participants in this study had an upper range that extended to G5 at

the top Observations showed that the CQ remained steady following the transition into the

upper register Figure 39 shows an ascending fifth from C5 to G5 sung on an [a] vowel by

Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example a manual measurement of the EGG waveform was

taken on E5 (signal A) and G5 (signal B) The measurement revealed a consistent CQ of 42

(65153) and 43 (57132) respectively

33

Ibid 72-73

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

28

One participant had a rare range that extended to C6 Figure 310 shows an ascending

fifth from F5 to C6 sung on an [a] vowel by Todd Doering In this example the CQ remains at a

consistent level with a measurement of 48 on G5 (signal A) and 51 (54105) on B5 (signal

B) The consistency of the CQ in the upper limits of the countertenor voice represented in Figure

38 and Figure 39 provide further justification of a registration event taking place between C

5

and E5 when there is an observable increase in CQ

Figure 39 Ascending 5th

from C5 to G5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of E5 (A) and G5 (B)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

29

Evidence from this study suggests that most countertenors have a top note of G5 Some

rare voices extend to C6 and possibly higher It was observed that as the participants reached the

limits of their range they began to lose laryngeal stability An example of this is shown in

Figure 311 where movement in the EGG waveform signal provides an indication of an unstable

larynx as the singer reaches the top of his range

Figure 310 Ascending 5th

from F5 to C6 on [a] by Todd Doering EGG waveforms are shown of

G5 (A) and B5 (B)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

30

Figure 311 EGG waveform indicating an unstable larynx

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

31

CHAPTER FOUR

MIDDLE REGISTERS

When considering the range of most countertenor repertoire the majority of singing

takes place in the middle registers Through the examination of the power spectrum and the

EGG waveform of a D major scale beginning on D4 on an [a] vowel it is possible to identify the

middle register transitions in the countertenor voice

Figures 41 and 42 show a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 41 and on H3 in Figure 42

In both figures G4 is displayed in signal A and A4 is displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS

of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed between the two pitches

Figure 41 shows an increase in H2 from -16dB to -14dB as Andrew ascends from G4 to

A4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 dramatically decreases from -24dB

to -38dB Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 16 dB when moving

between the two pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that

H3 has moved out of the range of the second formant

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

32

Figure 41 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 42 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show G4 (A) and

A4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

33

In eight of the eleven the participants the transition from the lower-middle to the upper-

middle register took place between G4 and A4 The change in amplitude between H2 and H3

from G4 to A4 was measured in each of the 8 singers through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms

These changes ranged between 5 dB and 29 dB The average was 159 dB among the 8

countertenors included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a

necessary resonance adjustment in this area of the voice

In three of the participants however the transition was slightly lower and was observed

between F4 and G4 An example is shown in Figures 43 and 44 which show a D major scale

beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Brennan Hall The cursor is placed on H2

in Figure 43 and on H3 in Figure 44 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G4 is

displayed in signal B Utilizing an LTAS of 300ms a harmonic shift is clearly displayed

between the two pitches

Figure 43 shows an increase in H2 from -27dB to -26dB as Brennan ascends from F4 to

G4 While this is a small increase Figure 42 shows how H3 decreases from -27dB to -42dB

Between the two harmonics there is an overall change of 15 dB when moving between the two

pitches The change in amplitude between H2 and H3 is a clear indication that H3 has moved

out of the range of the second formant

In the three singers who negotiated this resonance shift from F4 to G4 the change in

amplitude between H2 and H3 was measured through the use of an LTAS of 300 ms These

changes ranged between 12 dB and 16 dB The average was 137 dB among the 3 countertenors

included in this calculation The dramatic drop in the strength of H3 indicates a resonance

adjustment made by these three singers

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

34

Figure 43 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H2

Figure 44 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show F4 (A) and

G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

35

These examples present evidence that the countertenor makes a resonance adjustment as

he ascends from the lower middle register to the upper middle register In the female voice a

similar register transition takes place An example is shown in Figure 45 extracted from

Resonance in Singing This example is an excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by

Maria Callas Signal A shows a D5 with the cursor placed on H2 Signal B shows a G4 with the

cursor placed on H3 The example shows a clearly dominant H3 on the G4 and a dominant H2

on D5 Between these two pitches the transition from the lower-middle to the upper middle

register has taken place

Another example from Resonance in Singing is shown in Figure 46 This example

compares two different recordings of ―Un bel di from Madama Butterfly Signal A displays an

Ab4 sung by Reacutegine Crespin and signal B shows the same pitch sung by Yoko Watanabe

Reacutegine Crespinlsquos sample shows a dominant H3 while Watanabelsquos shows a dominant H2 The

34

Ibid figure 114

Figure 45 Excerpt from ―Ebbenhellipne andro lontano sung by Maria Callas Power spectra are

shown of D5 (A) with cursor placed on H2 and G4 (B) with cursor placed on H334

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

36

two different resonance strategies employed by these singers provide evidence that the transition

from the lower-middle to upper-middle register takes place in this part of the female voice

While similar the harmonic characteristics of this transition are unique in the

countertenor voice Through the examples examined H3 is not shown to be dominant over H2

prior to the transition to the upper middle Instead H3 remains slightly subdominant to H2 until

H3 drops significantly in decibel level This may be a resonance characteristic unique to the

countertenor voice due to lower natural formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

One example however shows the possibility of H3 to be dominant over H2 in the lower

middle register Figures 47 and 48 show an A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a]

vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader The cursor is placed on H2 in Figure 47 and on H3 in

Figure 48 In both figures F4 is displayed in signal A and G

4 is displayed in signal B

Utilizing an LTAS of 300 ms a dominant H3 is clearly shown on F4 H2 becomes dominant on

35

Ibid figure 115

Figure 46 Excerpts from ―Un bel di sung by Reacutegine Crespin (A) and Yoko Watanabe (B)

Power spectra of Ab4 are shown with cursors placed on H3 (A) and H2 (B) 35

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

37

G4 In this instance the singer has maintained a dominant H3 when ascending on an octave

scale beginning on A3 This did not correlate with data from any of the other participants

Figure 47 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

38

In the majority of the participants there was also a rise in CQ associated with the shift

from the lower middle to the upper middle register An example is shown in Figure 49 which

shows a D major scale beginning on D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In

signal A the cursor is placed on G4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on A5 In the case of

both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor

at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the

Period (159258=62 and 156230=68)

Figure 48 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show F4 (A)

and G4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

39

A gradual rise in CQ through the upper middle register was a trend found in the majority

of participants and typically began at the moment of resonance change or shortly after Figure

410 shows the same D major scale sung by Andrew Rader In this example the cursor is placed

on G4 in signal A and on D5 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual

CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase

The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (157260=60 and

125174=72) This measurement shows the gradual rise in CQ encompassing pitches from

G4 to D5 While this trend was common among the participants this particular countertenor had

displayed an unusually high overall CQ throughout his range This high level of CQ was not

common among the participants

Figure 49 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and A4 (B)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

40

Another example is displayed in Figure 411 which shows a D major scale beginning on

D4 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Anthony Roth Costanzo In this example the same rise

in CQ is shown as he ascends through the upper-middle register In signal A the cursor is placed

on G4 and on D5 in signal B Over the range of these two pitches the CQ increased from 36 to

45

Anthonylsquos overall CQ levels are representative of the majority of the countertenors who

took part in this study Generally the levels remained in the 30s in the lower-middle register and

increased into the 40s in the upper-middle register Andrewlsquos CQ levels were significantly

higher than all of the countertenors in this study

Figure 410 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG waveforms are shown of

G4 (A) and D4 (B)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

41

Figure 411 Octave scale from D4 to D5 on [a] by Anthony Roth Costanzo EGG waveforms are

shown of G4 (A) and D4 (B)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

42

CHAPTER FIVE

CHEST REGISTER

Negotiating the transition from the chest voice source to the head voice source is one of

the greatest technical challenges a singer faces Donald Miller refers to this transition as the

primary register transition (PRT) which is also known as the primo passaggio36

He describes

this transition in the female voice and the difficulty in the male voice as follows

The one place on our map of the singing voice where the chasm dividing the

natural registers confronts us directly is in the lower portion of the (classical)

female singing range In the unschooled voice the primary register transition

(PRT) tends to occur within the same pitch range in both male and female voices

the range where F1 of an open vowel encounters difficulty in reaching as high as

the second harmonic The classical solution for the male voice as we have seen

is to maintain the lsquochestrsquo voice source but avoid the register violation by

sacrificing F1H2 resonance and embracing a different resonance strategy for the

relatively short upper extension

The full pitch range of the female voice is distributed quite differently

around the primary register transition The greater part of the total range can be

accessed with the lsquoheadrsquo voice source making that the default mode so to speak

and giving the chestlsquo mode as the exception the task of adaptation A further

reason why womenlsquos voices generally work both sides of the PRT is that the gap

that separates the natural registers is in general less prominent in the female voice

than the male37

Finally the fact that the transition occurs relatively low in the

range means that lower subglottal pressure and loudness make the register

transition less obtrusive than a comparable male transition in the same F0 range

In fact most classical women singers keep the transition intentionally low in the

range even lower than the male passaggio point in spite of the fact that the

marginally higher formant frequencies of the female vocal tract are more

accommodating to upward adjustment of the PRT38

The data collected in this study revealed that the participants managed this difficult

transition in different ways Due to these variances it was most beneficial to study several

36

Ibid 88

37

DG Miller JG Švec and HK Schutte ―Measurement of Characteristic Leap Interval Between Chest

and Falsetto Registers Journal of Voice 16 (2002) 8-19

38

Miller 88

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

43

different countertenors individually and provide a comprehensive analysis on their individual

methods of negotiating this transition

Figure 51 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by

countertenor Steven Rickards In signal A the cursor is placed on D4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on E4 In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was

taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then

calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period (150351=43 and 104307=34) The

change in CQ by 9 represents the moment in which Steven has transitioned from the chest

register to the lower-middle register

Figures 52 and 53 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Steven

Rickards displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at D4 and E4 A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on D4 by 16 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 46 dB on E4 This measurement

reveals a change in amplitude of 30 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 This change in

Figure 51 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards EGG Waveforms are shown

of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

44

amplitude indicates that F2 has moved away from H4 toward H3 creating a resonance change

In this particular singer the resonance change occurs at the same moment in which the CQ

declines

Figure 52 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

45

In the next example we observe a singer who manages this transition in a lower part of

his range Figure 54 shows an ascending A major scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel

by countertenor Brennan Hall In signal A the cursor is placed on B4 and in signal B the cursor

is placed on C4 The transition from the chest voice to the lower-middle voice is evident in the

change in CQ from 39 to 33

Figure 53 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Steven Rickards Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

46

Figures 55 and 56 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Brennan

Hall displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at B4 and C4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on B4 by 5 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 8 dB on C4 This measurement reveals

a change in amplitude of 3 dB between H3 and H4 from D4 to E4 In this instance the singer has

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition However it is worth noting

the decrease in decibel level of H3 and H4 as the singer moves from the chest register to the

lower-middle register

Figure 54 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall EGG Waveforms are shown of

B4 (A) and C4 (B)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

47

Figure 55 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 56 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Brennan Hall Power spectra show B4 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

48

Another singer provides an example of the transition which takes place in the range

between the transitions of Steven and Brennan Figure 57 shows an ascending A major scale

beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel by countertenor Andrew Rader In signal A the cursor is

placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on D4 In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(197357=55 and 143339=42) The transition from chest voice to the lower middle voice

is shown through a change in CQ of 13

Figures 58 and 59 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Andrew

Rader displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms with measurements taken at C4 and D4 A slight

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 Using the LTAS H3 is dominant

over H4 on C4 by 13 dB and H3 is dominant over H4 by 18 dB on E4 This creates a change in

amplitude of 5 dB between H3 and H4 from C4 to D4 In this instance the singer has

Figure 57 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader EGG Waveforms are shown of

C4 (A) and D4 (B)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

49

maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition with a very small decrease in

the decibel levels of H2 and H3

Figure 58 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

50

Countertenor Reginald Mobley manages a nearly imperceptible transition from the chest

register to the lower-middle register Figures 510 511 and 512 show an ascending A major

scale beginning on A3 sung on an [a] vowel These figures display a series of EGG waveform

signals which show a gradual decline in CQ as the singer ascends in pitch through the transition

Figure 510 displays the first instance in which the CQ begins its gradual decline The

cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and C4 in signal B In the case of both EGG waveform

signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the orange cursor at the beginning of

the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the Interval by the Period

(210395=53 and 174353=49) Between these two pitches the CQ has decreased by 4

Figure 59 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Andrew Rader Power spectra show C4 (A)

and D4 (B) with cursors placed on

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

51

In Figure 511 another decline in CQ is observed from C4 (signal A) to D4 (signal B) In

the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by placing the

orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by dividing the

Interval by the Period (174353=49 and 150331=45) Between these two pitches the CQ

has declined by 4

The final descent in CQ is shown in Figure 512 which displays D4 (signal A) to E4

(signal B) In the case of both EGG waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by

placing the orange cursor at the beginning of the closed phase The CQ was then calculated by

dividing the Interval by the Period (150331=45 and 125289=43) Between these two

pitches the CQ declined by a modest 2

Figure 510 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of B3 (A) and C4 (B)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

52

Figure 511 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of C4 (A) and D4 (B)

Figure 512 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley EGG Waveforms are

shown of D4 (A) and E4 (B)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

53

This example shows how the singer was able to manage a seamless transition by

gradually decreasing his CQ through a series of pitches The exact moment in which he switches

from chest voice to head voice is difficult to identify aurally It is possible that he has managed

this transition by employing a mixed voice or voix mixte

Figures 513 and 514 show a different vocalise in which the singer was asked to switch

between the chest voice and head voice on C4 In Figure 513 the EGG waveform is compared

between the two productions Signal A shows the chest voice in which the singer produces a

CQ of 56 Signal B shows the head voice in which the singer produces a CQ of 33

Through observing the CQ history in the upper left quadrant a drop-off and rise can be

observed as the singer repeatedly switches between chest voice and head voice In Figure 514

the two transitional areas are explored In signal A the cursor is placed during the downward

slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the chest voice to the head voice In signal B the

cursor is placed during the upward slope in the CQ as the singer transitions from the head voice

to the chest voice The CQ is measured at 41 and 42 in these two transitional areas which is

nearly in the center of the two measurements shown in Figure 513 at 56 and 33 This

gradual change in CQ allows the singer to transition smoothly between the two productions

Figure 513 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Chest voice is shown in signal

A head voice is shown in signal B

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

54

Figures 515-520 show a power spectrum of the same A major scale sung by Reginald

Mobley displayed using an LTAS of 300 ms These figures show the resonance strategy used in

his transition from the chest register to the lower middle register from pitches B3 through E4

Figures 515 and 516 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C

4 (signal B) These

are the first two pitches in which the singer begins to decrease his CQ as he transitions A

resonance adjustment can be observed between H3 and H4 when comparing these two pitches

Using the LTAS H3 is dominant over H4 on B3 by 17 dB and H3 is equal to H4 at -28 dB on

C4 It is evident that the singer has adjusted F2 toward H4 as he moves to the C

4 creating a

balance between H3 and H4

Figure 514 EGG waveform of a C4 sung by Reginald Mobley Transition from chest voice to

head voice is shown in signal A head voice to chest voice is shown in signal B

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

55

Figure 515 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

Figure 516 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show B3 (A)

and C4 (B) with cursors placed on

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

56

The balance between H3 and H4 is maintained as the singer moves from C4 (signal A) to

D4 (signal B) shown in Figures 517 and 518 On C4 H3 and H4 are equal at -26 dB On D4

these harmonics remain stable at -24 dB and -28 dB respectively

Figure 517 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

57

In Figures 519 and 520 the singer makes a resonance adjustment between D4 (signal A)

and E4 (signal B) On D4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 4 dB On E4 H3 is dominant over H4 by

22 dB The distance between H3 and H4 has increased in amplitude by 18 dB between D4 and

E4 This indicates that H4 has moved out of the range of the second formant Though aurally

imperceptible it is possible the singer has made a full transition to head voice when he reaches

E4

Figure 518 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show C4

(A) and D4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

58

Figure 519 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 520 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Reginald Mobley Power spectra show D4 (A)

and E4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

59

A comparison with the female voice reveals some similar characteristics with respect to

the chest voice to head voice transition observed in the above examples Figure 521 shows an

example of an Ab major scale beginning on A

b3 sung on [a] by a mezzo-soprano In signal A the

cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this example the CQ

changes from 40 to 25 as the female singer makes a transition from the chest voice to the

head voice

The power spectrum of the same Ab scale sung by the mezzo-soprano is shown in Figure

522 In signal A the cursor is placed on C4 and in signal B the cursor is placed on Db4 In this

example we see a different resonance strategy from the countertenor examples observed above

On C4 F2 is tuned to H5 On Db4 F2 moves to H4 None of the countertenors demonstrated a

dominant H5 This is possibly the result of lower formant frequencies in the male vocal tract

39

Ibid figure 112

Figure 521 Octave scale from Ab3 to A

b4 on [a] by mezzo-soprano EGG waveforms are shown

of C4 (A) and Db4 (B)

39

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

60

The last example is from countertenor Dan Bubeck who begins an A major scale starting

on A3 on an [a] vowel In this example the singer avoids the chest voice and begins the vocalise

in head voice from the start In this instance he creates a convincing sound with this method In

Figure 523 the cursor is placed on B3 in signal A and A3 in signal B In the case of both EGG

waveform signals a manual CQ measurement was taken by using the orange cursors The CQ is

27 on the A3 and 30 on the B3 The lower CQ on A3 is evidence that the singer began this

vocalise without implementing chest voice

40

Ibid figure 113

Figure 522 Power spectra of C4 (A) and Db4 (B) from A

b scale on [a] by mezzo-soprano

40

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

61

A resonance adjustment can be observed low in the scale however Figures 524 and

525 show a power spectrum of B3 (signal A) and C4 (signal B) On B3 H3 is dominant over H4

by 5 dB On C4 H3 is dominant over H4 by 16 dB This is an overall change in amplitude of

11 dB In this instance the singer has made a resonance adjustment without making an

adjustment at the vocal folds

Figure 523 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck EGG waveforms are shown of

B3 (A) and A3 (B)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

62

Figure 524 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H3

Figure 525 Octave scale from A3 to A4 on [a] by Dan Bubeck Power spectra show B3 (A) and

C4 (B) with cursors placed on H4

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of the data collected revealed a number of registration commonalities among

the participants What follows is a general overview of the registers of the countertenor voice

based on signals recorded and analyzed in VoceVista

Upper Register

The transition from the upper-middle register to the upper register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H1 and H2 with H1 gaining in dominance In all

of the participants this change took place in the range between C5 and E5 This was the

uppermost register transition identified

In regard to upper range the majority of the participants had a top note of G5 Two of the

participants had a top note of E5 One participant exhibited a rare upper range which extended

to C6

Middle Registers

The transition from the lower-middle to the upper-middle register was characterized by

an increase in closed quotient (CQ) and a resonance change The power spectrum showed a

characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H2 and H3 with H2 gaining in dominance In

every participant this change took place in the range between F4 and A4

A unique characteristic of the upper-middle register was the continuous rise in CQ that

took place with each rising pitch This pattern continued until the singers transitioned to the

upper register

Chest Register

The transition from the chest register to the lower-middle register was the most diverse

among the participants This transition was primarily characterized by a decrease in closed

quotient (CQ) The area of transition ranged from B3 to E4 It was observed that an audibly

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

64

smooth transition seemed to correspond with a gradual and slight adjustment in CQ rather than a

drastic change

Some of the participants adjusted their resonance strategy during this transition The

power spectrum showed a characteristic shift in the relative amplitudes of H3 and H4 with H3

gaining in dominance Others maintained a consistent resonance strategy through the transition

delaying the resonance adjustment to a higher part of their range One of the participants did not

utilize his chest register in the vocalises used

Registration Model

A registration model for the countertenor voice based on the research is shown in Figure

61 This model represents the register adjustments made by the countertenors who participated

in this study which examined 11 countertenors ranging in age from 23 to 55 years of age In

these findings it can be concluded that the registers are similar between the countertenor and

mezzo-soprano voices These observations should be helpful to the voice teacher in the studio

and to both the teacher and student in their journey to find appropriate literature for the voice

Chest G3

(and lower)

D4

Lower

Middle A3 G

4

Upper

Middle G4 D5

Upper C

5 C6

(

Figure 61 Registration model for the countertenor voice Overlapping indicates different

singers and their adjustments

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

65

GLOSSARY

The following terms have been quoted and adapted from Donald Millerlsquos Resonance in

Singing41

amplitude A quantitative measure of the strength of a signal as in the decibel amount of a

sound or of one of its frequency components

articulators The movable parts of the vocal tract ndash tongue lips jaw velum etc ndash which

determine the (adjustable) formant frequencies as well as breath stream dynamics are

collectively called articulators

back vowel Back vowels are those with relatively low second formants and a tendency to lip

rounding principally the series (from close to open) [u] [U] [o] [ɔ] [a]

closed vowel Close (closed) vowels are those with low F1s such as [i] [u] and [y]

bandwidth A formant or resonance responds to a limited range (band) of frequencies The

wider the bandwidth that it responds to the more rapidly the sound will damp or decay As a

resonator the vocal tract has a narrower bandwidth and thus a higher quality when the glottis is

closed explaining one of the advantages of a large closed quotient

decibel Decibel is a unit used for measuring relative sound pressure level (SPL) or physical

intensity Most decibel measurements state the difference in intensity between two sounds (or

between frequency components of the same sound as is the case with the power spectrum)

(Relative) decibel measurements are given as negative quantities in a display where the reference

amount is the top of the display (zero decibels) Absolute decibel measurements are in relation

to a designated minimum amount typically set at the threshold of perception Decibel units are

logarithmic like the frequencies of the piano keyboard where every octave is a doubling

electroglottograph (EGG) The EGG is a non-invasive device for measuring relative contact

between the vocal folds In singing voice investigations it can reveal not only the frequency of

the glottal cycle but usually the closed quotient as well

formant A formant is a variable resonance of the vocal tract The first (lowest in frequency)

five formants make important contributions to a sung sound The frequencies of the first two

(designated F1 and F2 called the vowel formants) determine the vowel and are also principal

varying factors in formant tuning

frequency Frequency is the repetition rate of a periodic signal expressed in hertz (Hz) or

cycles per second The fundamental frequency (F0) determines what is perceived as pitch the

41

Ibid 110-124

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

66

psychoacoustic counterpart of F0 Frequency is the reciprocal of period the time duration of one

cycle

frequency component Natural sounds although heard as single tones are made up of

components of varying amplitudes at various frequencies which collectively constitute the sound

quality The frequency components of harmonic sounds are whole-number multiples of the

fundamental

front vowel Front vowels are those characterized by a fronted tongue causing a relatively high

second formant They include the series (from close to open) [i] [I] [e] [ɛ] [aelig] as well as the

―mixed vowels (fronted tongue and rounded lips) [y] [Y] [oslash] [œ]

glottal cycle The glottal cycle consisted of single iteration of the repeated opening and closing

of the glottis

glottis The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds

harmonic A harmonic is one of the frequency components of a periodic sound which include

H1 the fundamental frequency (note that F0 = H1) and whole-number multiples of H1 H2 H3

H4 etc Harmonic sound is periodic as distinguished from non-periodic noise

harmonic series A harmonic series for a given F0 is generated by successively adding F0 to the

previous member F0 2F0 3F0 4F0 etc The musical interval between members of the series

decreases with each higher step

H1-H2 octave

H2-H3 perfect fifth

H3-H4 perfect fourth

H4-H5 major third

H5-H6 minor third etc

hertz (Hz) Cycles per second a unit of frequency

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The IPA is a set of symbols for the sounds of speech

that transcends the use of the alphabet in any particular language IPA symbols in this treatise

are always given in square brackets eg [i]

long time average spectrum (LTAS) LTAS accumulates spectral measurements over specified

duration displaying them lumped together in a single power spectrum

non-invasive A procedure is considered non-invasive when it does not hinder normal use of a

function For the singing voice the EGG is non-invasive while laryngoscopy with a rigid

endoscope requiring a certain tongue position is invasive

normalized A signal is said to be normalized when one of its dimensions ndash usually amplitude ndash

is automatically adjusted to conform to a desired norm In VoceVista the audio and the EGG

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

67

signals are normalized in order to fill the waveform display and thus cannot be relied upon for

information concerning absolute amplitude of the signal

open phase The open phase of the glottal cycle is that portion where the vocal folds have come

apart permitting air to flow through the glottis

open vowel Vowels with high first formants such as [a] and [aelig] are considered phonetically

open

overtone Overtones are harmonic frequency components of a complex sound (such as voice)

all whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency (F0) Confusion in the numbering can

arise because the first overtone is the second harmonic (H2) In overtone singing F0 is

suppressed and individual harmonics are emphasized usually by means of second formant

tuning so that one hears the higher harmonic as a separate pitch

power spectrum see spectrum

primary register transition (PRT) The PRT is the (movable) point in the F0 range of a voice

where the vibration pattern of the glottal voice source shifts from chestlsquo to headlsquo

register Register is a term used to designate a perceived segment of the total frequency and

intensity range of a voice which differs in sound or mechanical principle from other segments

Singing voice practitioners recognize registers based on both vibration patterns of the voice

source and on shifts in resonance Classical singing training typically aims to smooth the abrupt

transitions between the ―natural registers the chestlsquo and headlsquo vibration patterns in their

isolatedlsquo (unblended) state

registration event A registration event is a move from one register to another The yodel is an

intentionally obvious example but singers can also disguise registration events for the sake of

constructing the ―even scale

resonance strategy As pitch rises and the distance between harmonics increases classical

singers seek to find formant patterns that make optimal use of the available harmonics at a given

fundamental frequency (F0) these patterns whether conscious or not are designated resonance

strategies in this book which encourages adopting conscious strategies informed by spectral

feedback

source spectrum The source spectrum is a theoretical construction of the sound that emerges

from the glottis without the ―filtering effect of the vocal tract It is presumed to have a spectral

slope of -6 to -12 dB per octave

spectrum power spectrum spectrogram The (narrow-band) spectrum of a sound displays the

relative strength of each of its frequency components A power spectrum has two dimensions

frequency (in hertz) and amplitude (in decibels) The spectrogram adds a third dimension of

time with intensity then shown in color or shades of gray

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

68

standing wave In the audio signal one speaks of a standing wave when a prominent harmonic

frequency component continues its periodic path through the open phase with relatively little loss

of energy and is timed well for reinforcement from the next glottal closing The spectrum of

such a sound is usually characterized by a dominant harmonic at the frequency of the standing

wave

vibrato In singing vibrato is a relatively small quasi periodic modulation of the fundamental

frequency (F0) usually at rates between 45 and 7 hertz

vocal fry Vocal fry is the popping sound of air bubbling slowly through an otherwise closed

glottis so that individual ticks at a rate of about 15 to 50 Hz can be heard The non-periodic

succession of ticks produces a continuous spectrum revealing especially the frequencies of the

first two formants of the vocal tract

vocal tract The vocal tract is the complex air space between the glottis at one end and the

opening of the lips (andor nostrils) at the other All the resonances that shape the glottal airflow

(the voice source) and the audible radiated sound are properties of this space and the walls that

contain it

VoceVista VoceVista is a feedback and analysis system for the singing voice processing

signals of the (non-invasive) microphone and electroglottograph (see wwwvocevistacom)

voice source The voice source is the volume velocity waveform (plotting volume displacement

of air against time) that passes through the vibrating vocal folds typically as a series of discrete

puffs of air Voice source is also used to refer to the vibrating vocal folds which are relatively

independent of the vocal tract

voix mixte Voix mixte is a term that is often used by singers to indicate a register that is not

clearly chest or headfalsetto but something in between It has a long history having been in

common use by pedagogues in the Parisian school going back to the first half of the 19th

century

vowel formants The lowest two formantsresonances of the vocal tract F1 and F2 are

responsible for ―forming the vowel At the same time they are the resonances that are

employed in formant tuning

vowel modification Vowel modification is a concept from voice pedagogy predating the notion

of formant tuning but dealing essentially with the same process that is adjusting the vowel

(formants) to accommodate changes in F0

vowel space The vowel space is a term we use to refer to a two-dimensional plot of F1 vs F2 in

which the various regions identified by their F1-F2 combinations represent the several vowels

and their shadings

waveform A waveform displayed as amplitude vs time is the shape of a single cycle of a

repeated signal Of particular interest here are waveforms of sound pressure (microphone) and

vocal fold contact (EGG)

69

APPENDIX A

HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE APPROVAL LETTER

Office of the Vice President For Research

Human Subjects Committee

Tallahassee Florida 32306-2742

(850) 644-8673 middot FAX (850) 644-4392

APPROVAL MEMORANDUM

Date 5142010

To Raymond Chenez

Address

Dept MUSIC SCHOOL

From Thomas L Jacobson Chair

Re Use of Human Subjects in Research

Vocal Registers in the Countertenor Voice

The application that you submitted to this office in regard to the use of human subjects in the

research proposal referenced above has been reviewed by the Human Subjects Committee at its

meeting on 05122010 Your project was approved by the Committee

The Human Subjects Committee has not evaluated your proposal for scientific merit except to

weigh the risk to the human participants and the aspects of the proposal related to potential risk

and benefit This approval does not replace any departmental or other approvals which may be

required

If you submitted a proposed consent form with your application the approved stamped consent

form is attached to this approval notice Only the stamped version of the consent form may be

used in recruiting research subjects

If the project has not been completed by 5112011 you must request a renewal of approval for

continuation of the project As a courtesy a renewal notice will be sent to you prior to your

expiration date however it is your responsibility as the Principal Investigator to timely request

renewal of your approval from the Committee

You are advised that any change in protocol for this project must be reviewed and approved by

70

the Committee prior to implementation of the proposed change in the protocol A protocol

changeamendment form is required to be submitted for approval by the Committee In addition

federal regulations require that the Principal Investigator promptly report in writing any

unanticipated problems or adverse events involving risks to research subjects or others

By copy of this memorandum the Chair of your department andor your major professor is

reminded that heshe is responsible for being informed concerning research projects involving

human subjects in the department and should review protocols as often as needed to insure that

the project is being conducted in compliance with our institution and with DHHS regulations

This institution has an Assurance on file with the Office for Human Research Protection The

Assurance Number is IRB00000446

Cc Wanda Brister-Rachwal Advisor

HSC No 20104412

71

APPENDIX B

INFORMED CONSENT LETTER

FSU Consent Form

Vocal Registers of the Countertenor Voice

You are invited to be in a research study regarding the vocal registers of the countertenor voice

You were selected as a possible participant because of your vocal abilities and credentials We

ask that you read this form and ask any questions you may have before agreeing to be in the

study

This study is being conducted by Raymond Chenez College of Music Florida State University

Background Information

The purpose of this study is to discover more about the vocal registers of the countertenor voice

Through spectrographic and electroglottographic analysis the areas of the voice in which

registration events occur will be determined The final treatise will serve as a reference for

teachers and countertenors

Procedures

If you agree to be in this study we would ask you to do the following things

Sing a series of vocalises into a microphone with an electroglottograph fastened around the

outside of the neck The (EGG) will be fastened snugly but will not restrict the airway It is a

non-invasive signal in which a minute high-frequency current runs between electrodes that are

held in place on either side of the larynx The vocalises you will be asked to sing are consistent

with everyday professional singing activity Audio recordings and (EGG) readings will be

retained The duration of the recording process will be approximately an hour

Risks and benefits of being in the Study

The risks are consistent with those encountered in everyday singing

The benefit to participation is the contribution to the technical knowledge of the countertenor

voice

Compensation

You will not receive compensation

72

Confidentiality

The data from this study will be printed in the final treatise Audio recordings as well as visual

representations of the data collected will appear in the document With your permission your

name may also appear in connection with the audio recordings and data Any additional

information will be kept private and confidential to the extent permitted by law

Voluntary Nature of the Study

Participation in this study is voluntary Your decision whether or not to participate will not

affect your current or future relations with the University If you decide to participate you are

free to withdraw at any time without affecting those relationships

Contacts and Questions

The researcher conducting this study is Raymond Chenez You may ask any question you have

now If you have a question later you are encouraged to contact him at (XXX) XXX-XXXX

The faculty advisor for this study is Wanda Brister-Rachwal (850) 644-5073

wbristerrachwalfsuedu

If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study and would like to talk to someone

other than the researcher(s) you are encouraged to contact the FSU IRB at 2010 Levy Street

Research Building B Suite 276 Tallahassee FL 32306-2742 or 850-644-8633 or by email at

humansubjectsmagnetfsuedu

You will be given a copy of this information to keep for your records

Statement of Consent

I have read the above information I have asked questions and have received answers I consent

to participate in the study

I agree to the use of my name in association with the research conducted

Yes______ No______

________________ _________________

Signature Date

________________ _________________

Signature of Investigator Date

70

the Committee prior to implementation of the proposed change in the protocol A protocol

changeamendment form is required to be submitted for approval by the Committee In addition

federal regulations require that the Principal Investigator promptly report in writing any

unanticipated problems or adverse events involving risks to research subjects or others

By copy of this memorandum the Chair of your department andor your major professor is

reminded that heshe is responsible for being informed concerning research projects involving

human subjects in the department and should review protocols as often as needed to insure that

the project is being conducted in compliance with our institution and with DHHS regulations

This institution has an Assurance on file with the Office for Human Research Protection The

Assurance Number is IRB00000446

Cc Wanda Brister-Rachwal Advisor

HSC No 20104412

71

APPENDIX B

INFORMED CONSENT LETTER

FSU Consent Form

Vocal Registers of the Countertenor Voice

You are invited to be in a research study regarding the vocal registers of the countertenor voice

You were selected as a possible participant because of your vocal abilities and credentials We

ask that you read this form and ask any questions you may have before agreeing to be in the

study

This study is being conducted by Raymond Chenez College of Music Florida State University

Background Information

The purpose of this study is to discover more about the vocal registers of the countertenor voice

Through spectrographic and electroglottographic analysis the areas of the voice in which

registration events occur will be determined The final treatise will serve as a reference for

teachers and countertenors

Procedures

If you agree to be in this study we would ask you to do the following things

Sing a series of vocalises into a microphone with an electroglottograph fastened around the

outside of the neck The (EGG) will be fastened snugly but will not restrict the airway It is a

non-invasive signal in which a minute high-frequency current runs between electrodes that are

held in place on either side of the larynx The vocalises you will be asked to sing are consistent

with everyday professional singing activity Audio recordings and (EGG) readings will be

retained The duration of the recording process will be approximately an hour

Risks and benefits of being in the Study

The risks are consistent with those encountered in everyday singing

The benefit to participation is the contribution to the technical knowledge of the countertenor

voice

Compensation

You will not receive compensation

72

Confidentiality

The data from this study will be printed in the final treatise Audio recordings as well as visual

representations of the data collected will appear in the document With your permission your

name may also appear in connection with the audio recordings and data Any additional

information will be kept private and confidential to the extent permitted by law

Voluntary Nature of the Study

Participation in this study is voluntary Your decision whether or not to participate will not

affect your current or future relations with the University If you decide to participate you are

free to withdraw at any time without affecting those relationships

Contacts and Questions

The researcher conducting this study is Raymond Chenez You may ask any question you have

now If you have a question later you are encouraged to contact him at (XXX) XXX-XXXX

The faculty advisor for this study is Wanda Brister-Rachwal (850) 644-5073

wbristerrachwalfsuedu

If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study and would like to talk to someone

other than the researcher(s) you are encouraged to contact the FSU IRB at 2010 Levy Street

Research Building B Suite 276 Tallahassee FL 32306-2742 or 850-644-8633 or by email at

humansubjectsmagnetfsuedu

You will be given a copy of this information to keep for your records

Statement of Consent

I have read the above information I have asked questions and have received answers I consent

to participate in the study

I agree to the use of my name in association with the research conducted

Yes______ No______

________________ _________________

Signature Date

________________ _________________

Signature of Investigator Date

71

APPENDIX B

INFORMED CONSENT LETTER

FSU Consent Form

Vocal Registers of the Countertenor Voice

You are invited to be in a research study regarding the vocal registers of the countertenor voice

You were selected as a possible participant because of your vocal abilities and credentials We

ask that you read this form and ask any questions you may have before agreeing to be in the

study

This study is being conducted by Raymond Chenez College of Music Florida State University

Background Information

The purpose of this study is to discover more about the vocal registers of the countertenor voice

Through spectrographic and electroglottographic analysis the areas of the voice in which

registration events occur will be determined The final treatise will serve as a reference for

teachers and countertenors

Procedures

If you agree to be in this study we would ask you to do the following things

Sing a series of vocalises into a microphone with an electroglottograph fastened around the

outside of the neck The (EGG) will be fastened snugly but will not restrict the airway It is a

non-invasive signal in which a minute high-frequency current runs between electrodes that are

held in place on either side of the larynx The vocalises you will be asked to sing are consistent

with everyday professional singing activity Audio recordings and (EGG) readings will be

retained The duration of the recording process will be approximately an hour

Risks and benefits of being in the Study

The risks are consistent with those encountered in everyday singing

The benefit to participation is the contribution to the technical knowledge of the countertenor

voice

Compensation

You will not receive compensation

72

Confidentiality

The data from this study will be printed in the final treatise Audio recordings as well as visual

representations of the data collected will appear in the document With your permission your

name may also appear in connection with the audio recordings and data Any additional

information will be kept private and confidential to the extent permitted by law

Voluntary Nature of the Study

Participation in this study is voluntary Your decision whether or not to participate will not

affect your current or future relations with the University If you decide to participate you are

free to withdraw at any time without affecting those relationships

Contacts and Questions

The researcher conducting this study is Raymond Chenez You may ask any question you have

now If you have a question later you are encouraged to contact him at (XXX) XXX-XXXX

The faculty advisor for this study is Wanda Brister-Rachwal (850) 644-5073

wbristerrachwalfsuedu

If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study and would like to talk to someone

other than the researcher(s) you are encouraged to contact the FSU IRB at 2010 Levy Street

Research Building B Suite 276 Tallahassee FL 32306-2742 or 850-644-8633 or by email at

humansubjectsmagnetfsuedu

You will be given a copy of this information to keep for your records

Statement of Consent

I have read the above information I have asked questions and have received answers I consent

to participate in the study

I agree to the use of my name in association with the research conducted

Yes______ No______

________________ _________________

Signature Date

________________ _________________

Signature of Investigator Date

72

Confidentiality

The data from this study will be printed in the final treatise Audio recordings as well as visual

representations of the data collected will appear in the document With your permission your

name may also appear in connection with the audio recordings and data Any additional

information will be kept private and confidential to the extent permitted by law

Voluntary Nature of the Study

Participation in this study is voluntary Your decision whether or not to participate will not

affect your current or future relations with the University If you decide to participate you are

free to withdraw at any time without affecting those relationships

Contacts and Questions

The researcher conducting this study is Raymond Chenez You may ask any question you have

now If you have a question later you are encouraged to contact him at (XXX) XXX-XXXX

The faculty advisor for this study is Wanda Brister-Rachwal (850) 644-5073

wbristerrachwalfsuedu

If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study and would like to talk to someone

other than the researcher(s) you are encouraged to contact the FSU IRB at 2010 Levy Street

Research Building B Suite 276 Tallahassee FL 32306-2742 or 850-644-8633 or by email at

humansubjectsmagnetfsuedu

You will be given a copy of this information to keep for your records

Statement of Consent

I have read the above information I have asked questions and have received answers I consent

to participate in the study

I agree to the use of my name in association with the research conducted

Yes______ No______

________________ _________________

Signature Date

________________ _________________

Signature of Investigator Date

73

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ardran GM and David Wulstan ―The Alto or Countertenor Voice Music amp Letters

48 no 1 (January 1967) 17-22

Baldwin Olive and Thelma Wilson ―Alfred Deller John Freeman and Mr Pate Music

amp Letters 50 no 1 (January 1969) 103-10

Dearnley Christopher English Church Music 1650-1750 London Oxford University

Press 1970

Garcia II Manuel A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing Part One New York Da Capo

Press 1984

Giles Peter A Basic Countertenor Method London Kahn amp Averill 2005

mdashmdashmdash The History and Technique of the Counter-Tenor Cambridge University Press

1994

Hodgson Frederic ―The Contemporary Alto Musical Times 106 no 1466 (April

1965) 293-94

Hough John ―The Historical Significance of the Counter-Tenor Proceedings of the

Musical Association 64th

Sess (November 1937) 1-24

Miller Donald Resonance in Singing Voice Building through Acoustic Feedback Princeton

NJ Inside View Press 2008

Miller Richard The Structure of Singing System and Art in Vocal Technique

Belmont CA Schirmer 1996

Stubbs G Edward The Adult Male Alto or Counter-tenor Voice New York The H W

Gray Co 1908

Sundberg Johan The Science of the Singing Voice DeKalb Northern Illinois University Press

1987

Vennard William Singing The Mechanism and the Technic New York C Fisher 1967

Ware Clifton Basics of Vocal Pedagogy The Foundations and Process of Singing McGraw-

Hill 1998

Welch GF DC Sergeant and F MacCurtain ―Some Physical Characteristics of the

Male Falsetto Voice Journal of Voice 2 no 2 (1988) 151-63

74

―Xeroradiographic-Electrolaryngographic Analysis of Male Vocal Registers Journal of

Voice 3 no 3 (September 1989) 244-56

Woodfill Walter L Musicians in English Society Princeton Princeton University Press

1953

Wright FB ―The Alto and Countertenor Voices The Musical Times 100 no 1401

(November 1959) 593-94

Zaslaw Neal ―The Enigma of the Haute-Contre The Musical Times 115 no 1581

(November 1974) 939-41

75

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Education

Florida State University College of Music Tallahassee 2008-2011 Doctor of Music in Vocal Performance

Treatise ―Vocal Registers in the Countertenor Voice Based on Signals Recorded

and Analyzed in VoceVista

Major Professor Wanda Brister

Florida State University College of Music Tallahassee 2006-2008 Master of Arts in Arts Administration

Major Professor Anne Hodges

State University of New York at Fredonia

2002-2006 Bachelor of Music in Vocal Performance

Major Professor Delia Wallis

Academic Honors and Awards

2010 Dissertation Research Grant Department of Graduate Studies

2008-2011 Graduate Assistantship Florida State University

Tuition waiver and stipend

2008 Pi Kappa Lambda Music Honor Society Florida State University

2006-2008 Graduate Assistantship Florida State University

Tuition waiver and stipend

Artistic Honors and Awards

2011 MONC Florida District Encouragement Award

2010 Birmingham (Alabama) Opera Competition (National) 4th

place

Bethlehem (Pennsylvania) Bach Competition (National) Finalist

2009 Louisville (Kentucky) Bach Society Competition (National) Honorable Mention

2008 Suncoast Opera Guild Competition (St Petersburg FL) (State) 3rd

place

Orpheus Vocal Competition (Murfreesboro TN) (National) 3rd

place

2007 Southeast Regional NATS Auditions Tallahassee FL 2nd

place

2006 Vincent Morette Music Award SUNY Fredonia

2005 David Evans Vocal Performance Award SUNY Fredonia

76

Performances

Opera Roles

Britten A Midsummer Nightrsquos Dream Oberon

Handel Serse Arsamene

Purcell Dioclesian Countertenor

Anon The Play of Herod Shepherd

Opera Scenes

Handel Ariodante Ariodante

Giulio Cesare Giulio Cesare

Monteverdi LrsquoIncoronazione di Poppea Nerone

Sondheim A Little Night Music Mrs Segstrom (Mr)

Concert Repertoire Bach Cantata 62

Cantata 133

Cantata 153

Bernstein Chichester Psalms

Missa Brevis

Handel Cantata 132c

Judas Maccabaeus Israelitish Man

Messiah

Saul David

Monteverdi Vespers of 1610

Professional Organizations

Amherst Early Music Festival St Paullsquos Cathedral Buffalo NY

Florida State Opera Seraphic Fire Miami FL

Master Chorale of Tampa Bay SUNY Fredonia College Choir (Guest Artist)

Opera Sacra Buffalo NY Tallahassee Community Chorus

St Johnlsquos Episcopal Church Tallahassee

Conductors Directors CoachesMaster Classes Voice Teachers

Andrew Cantrill Matthew Lata Julianne Baird Wanda Brister

Douglas Fisher Drew Minter David Daniels Michael Dean

Gerald Gray Douglas Fisher Roy Delp

Patrick Dupreacute Quigly Timothy Hoekman Delia Wallis

Anthony Rooley Graham Johnson

Jonathan Scarozza Jan Kobow

Andreacute Thomas Stephan MacLeod

Richard Zielinski Kenneth Merrill

1. 2011-09-20T111354-0400
2. Preflight Ticket Signature

74

―Xeroradiographic-Electrolaryngographic Analysis of Male Vocal Registers Journal of

Voice 3 no 3 (September 1989) 244-56

Woodfill Walter L Musicians in English Society Princeton Princeton University Press

1953

Wright FB ―The Alto and Countertenor Voices The Musical Times 100 no 1401

(November 1959) 593-94

Zaslaw Neal ―The Enigma of the Haute-Contre The Musical Times 115 no 1581

(November 1974) 939-41

75

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Education

Florida State University College of Music Tallahassee 2008-2011 Doctor of Music in Vocal Performance

Treatise ―Vocal Registers in the Countertenor Voice Based on Signals Recorded

and Analyzed in VoceVista

Major Professor Wanda Brister

Florida State University College of Music Tallahassee 2006-2008 Master of Arts in Arts Administration

Major Professor Anne Hodges

State University of New York at Fredonia

2002-2006 Bachelor of Music in Vocal Performance

Major Professor Delia Wallis

Academic Honors and Awards

2010 Dissertation Research Grant Department of Graduate Studies

2008-2011 Graduate Assistantship Florida State University

Tuition waiver and stipend

2008 Pi Kappa Lambda Music Honor Society Florida State University

2006-2008 Graduate Assistantship Florida State University

Tuition waiver and stipend

Artistic Honors and Awards

2011 MONC Florida District Encouragement Award

2010 Birmingham (Alabama) Opera Competition (National) 4th

place

Bethlehem (Pennsylvania) Bach Competition (National) Finalist

2009 Louisville (Kentucky) Bach Society Competition (National) Honorable Mention

2008 Suncoast Opera Guild Competition (St Petersburg FL) (State) 3rd

place

Orpheus Vocal Competition (Murfreesboro TN) (National) 3rd

place

2007 Southeast Regional NATS Auditions Tallahassee FL 2nd

place

2006 Vincent Morette Music Award SUNY Fredonia

2005 David Evans Vocal Performance Award SUNY Fredonia

76

Performances

Opera Roles

Britten A Midsummer Nightrsquos Dream Oberon

Handel Serse Arsamene

Purcell Dioclesian Countertenor

Anon The Play of Herod Shepherd

Opera Scenes

Handel Ariodante Ariodante

Giulio Cesare Giulio Cesare

Monteverdi LrsquoIncoronazione di Poppea Nerone

Sondheim A Little Night Music Mrs Segstrom (Mr)

Concert Repertoire Bach Cantata 62

Cantata 133

Cantata 153

Bernstein Chichester Psalms

Missa Brevis

Handel Cantata 132c

Judas Maccabaeus Israelitish Man

Messiah

Saul David

Monteverdi Vespers of 1610

Professional Organizations

Amherst Early Music Festival St Paullsquos Cathedral Buffalo NY

Florida State Opera Seraphic Fire Miami FL

Master Chorale of Tampa Bay SUNY Fredonia College Choir (Guest Artist)

Opera Sacra Buffalo NY Tallahassee Community Chorus

St Johnlsquos Episcopal Church Tallahassee

Conductors Directors CoachesMaster Classes Voice Teachers

Andrew Cantrill Matthew Lata Julianne Baird Wanda Brister

Douglas Fisher Drew Minter David Daniels Michael Dean

Gerald Gray Douglas Fisher Roy Delp

Patrick Dupreacute Quigly Timothy Hoekman Delia Wallis

Anthony Rooley Graham Johnson

Jonathan Scarozza Jan Kobow

Andreacute Thomas Stephan MacLeod

Richard Zielinski Kenneth Merrill

1. 2011-09-20T111354-0400
2. Preflight Ticket Signature

75

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Education

Florida State University College of Music Tallahassee 2008-2011 Doctor of Music in Vocal Performance

Treatise ―Vocal Registers in the Countertenor Voice Based on Signals Recorded

and Analyzed in VoceVista

Major Professor Wanda Brister

Florida State University College of Music Tallahassee 2006-2008 Master of Arts in Arts Administration

Major Professor Anne Hodges

State University of New York at Fredonia

2002-2006 Bachelor of Music in Vocal Performance

Major Professor Delia Wallis

Academic Honors and Awards

2010 Dissertation Research Grant Department of Graduate Studies

2008-2011 Graduate Assistantship Florida State University

Tuition waiver and stipend

2008 Pi Kappa Lambda Music Honor Society Florida State University

2006-2008 Graduate Assistantship Florida State University

Tuition waiver and stipend

Artistic Honors and Awards

2011 MONC Florida District Encouragement Award

2010 Birmingham (Alabama) Opera Competition (National) 4th

place

Bethlehem (Pennsylvania) Bach Competition (National) Finalist

2009 Louisville (Kentucky) Bach Society Competition (National) Honorable Mention

2008 Suncoast Opera Guild Competition (St Petersburg FL) (State) 3rd

place

Orpheus Vocal Competition (Murfreesboro TN) (National) 3rd

place

2007 Southeast Regional NATS Auditions Tallahassee FL 2nd

place

2006 Vincent Morette Music Award SUNY Fredonia

2005 David Evans Vocal Performance Award SUNY Fredonia

76

Performances

Opera Roles

Britten A Midsummer Nightrsquos Dream Oberon

Handel Serse Arsamene

Purcell Dioclesian Countertenor

Anon The Play of Herod Shepherd

Opera Scenes

Handel Ariodante Ariodante

Giulio Cesare Giulio Cesare

Monteverdi LrsquoIncoronazione di Poppea Nerone

Sondheim A Little Night Music Mrs Segstrom (Mr)

Concert Repertoire Bach Cantata 62

Cantata 133

Cantata 153

Bernstein Chichester Psalms

Missa Brevis

Handel Cantata 132c

Judas Maccabaeus Israelitish Man

Messiah

Saul David

Monteverdi Vespers of 1610

Professional Organizations

Amherst Early Music Festival St Paullsquos Cathedral Buffalo NY

Florida State Opera Seraphic Fire Miami FL

Master Chorale of Tampa Bay SUNY Fredonia College Choir (Guest Artist)

Opera Sacra Buffalo NY Tallahassee Community Chorus

St Johnlsquos Episcopal Church Tallahassee

Conductors Directors CoachesMaster Classes Voice Teachers

Andrew Cantrill Matthew Lata Julianne Baird Wanda Brister

Douglas Fisher Drew Minter David Daniels Michael Dean

Gerald Gray Douglas Fisher Roy Delp

Patrick Dupreacute Quigly Timothy Hoekman Delia Wallis

Anthony Rooley Graham Johnson

Jonathan Scarozza Jan Kobow

Andreacute Thomas Stephan MacLeod

Richard Zielinski Kenneth Merrill

1. 2011-09-20T111354-0400
2. Preflight Ticket Signature

76

Performances

Opera Roles

Britten A Midsummer Nightrsquos Dream Oberon

Handel Serse Arsamene

Purcell Dioclesian Countertenor

Anon The Play of Herod Shepherd

Opera Scenes

Handel Ariodante Ariodante

Giulio Cesare Giulio Cesare

Monteverdi LrsquoIncoronazione di Poppea Nerone

Sondheim A Little Night Music Mrs Segstrom (Mr)

Concert Repertoire Bach Cantata 62

Cantata 133

Cantata 153

Bernstein Chichester Psalms

Missa Brevis

Handel Cantata 132c

Judas Maccabaeus Israelitish Man

Messiah

Saul David

Monteverdi Vespers of 1610

Professional Organizations

Amherst Early Music Festival St Paullsquos Cathedral Buffalo NY

Florida State Opera Seraphic Fire Miami FL

Master Chorale of Tampa Bay SUNY Fredonia College Choir (Guest Artist)

Opera Sacra Buffalo NY Tallahassee Community Chorus

St Johnlsquos Episcopal Church Tallahassee

Conductors Directors CoachesMaster Classes Voice Teachers

Andrew Cantrill Matthew Lata Julianne Baird Wanda Brister

Douglas Fisher Drew Minter David Daniels Michael Dean

Gerald Gray Douglas Fisher Roy Delp

Patrick Dupreacute Quigly Timothy Hoekman Delia Wallis

Anthony Rooley Graham Johnson

Jonathan Scarozza Jan Kobow

Andreacute Thomas Stephan MacLeod

Richard Zielinski Kenneth Merrill

1. 2011-09-20T111354-0400
2. Preflight Ticket Signature