counselling, psychotherapy and creativity

8/10/2019 Counselling, Psychotherapy and Creativity

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Asia Pacic Journal of Counselling and PsychotherapyVol. 3, No. 2, September 2012, 130136

Counselling, psychotherapy and creativity

Rainer Matthias Holm-Hadulla a,b * and Frank Hofmann b

a Universidad Diego Portales, Santiago de Chile, Chile; b University of Heidelberg, Gartenstrasse 2, Heidelberg 69115, Germany

( Received 5 April 2012; nal version received 10 July 2012 )

Creativity, the activity to construct something new and useful, is an elementary aspect of life. This article advocates the position that creative elements are also present in coun-selling and psychotherapy. Creativity can be found in relational, behavioural, cognitive, psychodynamic, systemic and existential approaches to counselling and psychother-apy. It is shown that the shaping of the therapeutic relationship as the basis of everysuccessful counselling or psychotherapeutic process is a creative challenge. On thecognitivebehavioural level, creativity also plays an important role in developing and implementing new perspectives and behaviours. Psychodynamically, the verbalizationof emotions and unconscious wishes and conicts can also be considered as a creativetask. Finally, on an existential level, counselling and psychotherapy appear as a meansto form novel and useful constructions of reality. Recognizing and utilizing creativeresources of counselling and psychotherapy correspond to a creative attitude, whichis an effective factor in counselling and psychotherapy.

Keywords: psychotherapy; therapeutic relationship; cognitivebehavioural therapy; psychodynamic; existential psychotherapy; integrative psychotherapy; creative attitude;creativity

Introduction

The term creativity stems from the Latin word creare that contains the meaning of tomake, to construct and to shape. Creativity also has another etymological root whichis crescere. It means growing or letting grow. Since Guilfords call for research oncreativity, it became an issue in Western science (see Runco & Richards, 1997). Thefundamentals of creativity talent, knowledge, skills, motivation, personality traits and environment were identied and described (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; Simonton, 2000).

Different phases of the creative process preparation, incubation, illumination, realiza-tion and verication were investigated (Dijksterhuis & Meurs, 2006; Sio & Ormerod,2009). The concept of creativity has become very popular, and in education, employ-ment and lifestyle, creative activities are encouraged. However, when reecting on theconnections between counselling, psychotherapy and creativity, we need to consider thatthere are many different concepts of creativity. Thus, we should give a short interdis-ciplinary synthesis of current research, including ndings from neurobiology, general psychology and psychodynamic psychotherapy. Second, we shall give an outline of the

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

ISSN 2150-7686 print/ISSN 2150-7708 online 2012 Taylor & Francishttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21507686.2012.711761http://www.tandfonline.com

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Asia Pacic Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy 131

practical implications of creativity research using an integrative model of counselling and psychotherapy. Pragmatically, we differentiate counselling and psychotherapy, and clientsand patients, respectively, by the following criteria: clients are people seeking psycholog-ical assistance (counselling) without being clinically impaired, for example, measured bythe SCL90-R (Derogatis, 1992).

Current concepts of creativity

At the most elementary level, creativity can be understood as the (re-)combination of stored information in a novel way. Based on this denition, almost every cognition is creative,and additional criteria are needed to specify the meaning of creativity. The usefulness of the product or idea is often mentioned as another central feature of creativity (Amabile, 1996).As a comprehensive systemic denition of creativity, and according to Csikszentmihalyi(1997), we would suggest that a talented, knowledgeable, motivated and resilient personcan be creative if he/she can work in a promising area and receive a wider recognition for

what he/she is doing.Considering the role of creativity in counselling and psychotherapy, novelty and useful-

ness are also important: when information is combined in new ways, and new perspectivesand attitudes are developed, the question arises as to whether this is benecial for the indi-vidual and the counselling or therapeutic process in the sense that it facilitates positivechange.

When discussing creativity in the context of counselling and psychotherapy, the dif-ference between everyday and extraordinary creativity should also be briey mentioned.Extraordinary creativity leads to products that are recognized as major contributions toa specic eld, whereas the results of everyday creativity are only of importance to the

creative person himself/herself and to his/her immediate social environment (Beghetto &Kaufman, 2007). Therefore, in counselling and psychotherapy, we most certainly encounter creativity only in the form of everyday creativity.

In successful counselling and psychotherapy, two or more people come together and construct a new reality which in itself is a creative act. A developmental process is initiated in which experiences, behavioural patterns, meanings and beliefs and psychodynamic and existential conicts are combined in novel and hopefully useful ways. They may atrst seem to be of no importance for someone other than the individual himself/herself.However, the individual change is closely related to relationships and the social system, sothat changes also have effects beyond the single client or patient.

(Neuro-)biological aspects of creativity

For the understanding of creativity, it is highly interesting that the brain as the physiological basis of creativity forms coherent structures out of the chaos of disordered emotions and perceptions and then dissolves them again (Toomey & Ecker, 2007). There is a constantinterplay between synchronization and de-synchronization of neural activity that is likelyto be subject to a principle of coherence (Singer, 1990). Intellectual results and new mentalrepresentations are formed when a variety of information receives a new and coherentform. The brain seems to be able to distinguish between inconsistent (chaotic) and consis-tent (ordered) states. New insights correspond to an enhanced coherence and activate thereward systems in the brain (Andreasen, 2005). It is puzzling, however, that the cognitivestates of coherence and emotional satisfaction are often very short and unstable and tend toget replaced by new problems that are connected with aversive feelings. These unpleasant

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132 R.M. Holm-Hadulla and F. Hofmann

phases of the problem-solving process demand activity to restore coherence. A constantdynamic shift seems to exist in the brain between states of coherence and incoherence, of construction and deconstruction and of stability and instability (Holm-Hadulla, in press).

As on the cognitive level, the principle of coherence also plays a major role on the emo-tional level. There is neurobiological evidence that psychological conicts are associated with a low degree of coherence (Carhart-Harris & Friston, 2010), and a high degree of neu-ral connectivity seems to be associated with psychological well-being (Meyer-Lindenberg,2010). This is consistent with the ndings from psychotherapy research showing thatsense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1987) and mentalization (Fonagy, Gergely, Jurist, &Target, 2005) of affects and cognitions are important for mental health. In these theories,fundamental signicance is attributed to the cognitiveemotional structuring of chaoticanxieties. It can be demonstrated neurobiologically that pathogenic stimuli emanating fromthe corpora amygdala and associated with fear are reduced when neuronal connections aremade in the appropriate memory systems. Free-oating anxieties and unorganized affectslose their pathogenic effects when they are connected with meaningful neural systems

(Meyer-Lindenberg, 2010). However, some degree of incoherence seems to favour cog-nitive and emotional activity. This corresponds to psychological and phenomenologicalstudies, showing that some degree of anxiety and depressed mood may enhance creative performances (Holm-Hadulla, Roussel, & Hofmann, 2010).

The psychology of creativity

A prerequisite of creativity is general intelligence, which can be divided into crystallineand uid intelligence (Cattell, 1971). Crystalline intelligence consists of well-learned skillsand knowledge, whereas uid intelligence is of importance for solving problems for which

already established solutions are not successful. Guilford (1950) made the important dis-tinction between convergent and divergent thinking. While the former is concentrated and focused, the latter is associative and less focused and includes background properties. Thecapacity for divergent thinking may to some extent be regarded as the potential for cre-ativity (Runco, 2008), as divergent thinking can generate different and potentially novelalternatives. The creative process can be characterized by the interplay of convergent and divergent thinking and by the interplay of crystalline and uid intelligence. The genera-tion of new insights, behavioural options or ideas (divergent / uid component) has to becomplemented by evaluation and selection (convergent / crystalline component) in order toallow for the development and elaboration of ideas and thoughts as well as their practicalapplication (Holm-Hadulla, in press). Psychological distress and severe mental disordersnot only impair divergent thinking but also convergent thinking so that the elaboration of new ideas becomes difcult (Hofmann, 2010). In this case, the counsellor / psychotherapistcan support the clients / patients in choosing between generated ideas and making themusable. On the other hand, counsellors and psychotherapists may recognize divergentaspects and possibilities and bring them into play.

The creative spark can ignite only the existing, and even artists can only re-combinewhat they have seen, heard or experienced before. In counselling and psychotherapy,the narrative shaping of present and past experiences is a basic principle regardless of the specic theoretical background (Holm-Hadulla, 2004). Narratives are creative forms,which lend coherence to diffuse cognitions and emotions (Carhart-Harris & Friston, 2010).There is a connection between creativity and affect control: recent studies conrmed thatcounselling and psychotherapy can help, as can other creative activities, to overcomeanxiety and mental disorganization by constructing coherent narratives (Clarkin, Levy,

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Lenzenweger, & Kernberg, 2007). Similarly, Fonagy et al. (2005) showed that incoher-ent emotions, cognitions and representations of relationships lose their pathogenic natureif they can be coherently mentalized.

The realization of the creative potential in the form of new ideas, insights or perspec-tives is facilitated by the desire to shape ones inner and outer reality in a creative way.This desire is so important that Sternberg (2002) named the decision to be creative asthe starting point and central component for all creative endeavours. Intrinsic interest, themotivation to immerse oneself into an activity and playful curiosity are other key factors tokindle creativity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997).

A supportive socio-cultural context also plays an important role in the developmentof creative potentials. An outstanding scientic talent, for example, cannot unfold with-out proper training structures and subsequent inclusion in a productive research institution.The environmental conditions that favour or hamper creativity deserve special attention because they can be actively designed. Sternberg (2003) points out that the ability to seek out supportive environments and to change less conducive environments is an essential

aspect of practical intelligence. In addition, benevolent support from third parties is essen-tial. Counselling and psychotherapy can establish such a supportive, stable but also exiblecontext in which creative resources can be stimulated and used.

Creative processes in integrative counselling and psychotherapy

Regarding individual development and the construction of a social world as creative chal-lenges, psychological problems or disorders can be understood as inhibited creativity. Fromthis perspective, counselling and psychotherapy should help to re-enable the client or the patient to use his/her creative potential to overcome obstacles hindering a productive shap-

ing of life. In this sense, the restoration of creativity is a working mechanism and a goal of counselling and psychotherapy. Creativity plays an important role in counselling and psy-chotherapy in at least three ways: it takes place within the client or the patient, within thecounsellor or the therapist and in the process itself. Counselling and psychotherapy involvethe constructive shaping of experiences, motives and conicts in both participants and the process. Coherent narratives are inspired, transforming seemingly insignicant events intosignicant experiences and integrating them into the personal biography. Through this inte-gration, the creative formation of narratives in counselling and psychotherapy contributesto the human need for a certain degree of coherence. Rothenberg (2006) shows that this process is an act of self-creation, improving the clients and patients well-being. A cre-ative attitude of the counsellors or therapists allows for the construction of novel and usefulmeaning of cognitions, emotions and experiences. Understanding and interpretation resultfrom a joint shaping process between the client and the therapist (Holm-Hadulla, 2004).In this respect, authors with very different theoretical backgrounds like Bollas (1992) or Carson and Becker (2004) suggested that creativity should be an integral part of coun-selling and psychotherapy to facilitate new emotional and cognitive experiences. Everysession should be regarded as a safe space in which the clients and patients creativitycan be given free rein. Hidden capacities for creative self-actualization can be specicallyaddressed, stimulated and utilized for effective interventions. Creative self-actualization isnot opposed to social relatedness and commitment: becoming more aware of oneself and ones creative skills makes it easier to shape interpersonal relationships and to create socialcommitment.

Counselling and psychotherapy act on different levels and take place in complex sys-tems (Orlinsky & Howard, 1987). Holm-Hadulla, Hofmann, and Sperth (2011) proposed

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an integrative model that starts with the helping alliance between clients / patients and counsellors / therapists as the key factor of process and outcome of counselling and psy-chotherapy. Behaviour refers to behavioural strategies and interventions. Cognitionsinclude dysfunctional meanings and beliefs as well as their testing and subsequent modi-cation. The psychodynamic dimension refers to unconscious intrapsychic and systemicconicts. Existential elements include basic themes of human existence such as individ-ual growth and social commitment. In line with the purpose of this article, creative aspectsof each component of the integrative model of counselling and psychotherapy are outlined as follows:

Alliance. Within a condent and supportive relationship, the playful exploration of problems and conicts can be reinforced. This often leads to new and useful insightsand emotional awareness.

Behaviour. On a behavioural level, clients and patients can be encouraged to practicecreativity-promoting behaviours. This may happen by providing instructions for the

creative behavioural transformation of dysfunctional habits as well as for the initia-tion of creative activities. It is essential to establish in counselling and psychotherapyan open space in which creativity can unfold. To promote creative resources on a behavioural level also means to encourage clients to try new and useful activities.

Cognitions. On the cognitive level, creativity can be understood as a result of the interplay of convergent and divergent thinking. Developing new attitudes, questioning beliefs and generating alternatives include a respectful understanding of traditionalknowledge.

Dynamics. The confrontation with unconscious conicts and the dissolution of inter-nal resistances can release energy that can be used to draw on creative resources in

everyday life. Creativity is also required where dreams, fantasies and experiences are put into words and for example, through the use of metaphors receive additionalmeaning. Also, the experience and interpretation of the transference situation whichis the main focus of psychodynamic approaches to counselling and psychotherapymay be seen as a creative challenge.

Existential. A frequent issue of counselling and psychotherapy is the clients or patients desire to make his/her existence more meaningful and productive. The rein-forcement of creative potentials can help to ll the existential vacuum (Keshen,2006) and help to make life more authentic. This creative process is reinforced by the acceptance that life is a neverending developmental process. As the westernstatesman, scientist and poet J.W. Goethe, deeply inuenced by eastern poetry and philosophy, resumes: And as long as you dont have it, / this die and become! /you are only a gloomy guest / on the dark earth (Holm-Hadulla et al., 2010).

Conclusion

Condence, respect and empathy are basic elements of counselling and psychotherapywhich enable clients and patients to achieve a creative transformation of their problemsand disorders. The positive alliance with the counsellor or psychotherapist can lead to thecreative verbalization of problems and conicts, which is often the rst step to improvecognitive and emotional coherence. Reinforced by the counsellors or therapists personalsupport and understanding, a creative space can be established in which a confronta-tion with personal difculties is made possible without risking immediate consequencesin private and professional life. Accompanied by the competent and creative attitude

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of counsellors and therapists, clients and patients may develop new experiences, usingtheir creative resources to bring about change. The existential challenge to create onesown life can be promoted through supportive relationships and behavioural, cognitiveand psychodynamic interventions, as well as by means of existential understanding and communication. Finally, the construction and deconstruction of individual and socialcoherence is a dynamic and systemic process that has to be creatively designed in anycounselling and psychotherapy.

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