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Chronology of Events*Central America follows the example of Agustm Iturbide in Mexico

and declares independence from Spain.1822—Central America joins Iturbide's Mexican Empire.1823 Iturbide is overthrown and Central America declares itself independent as the United Provinces of Central America.1823 President James Monroe, fearing an attempt by Spain to restore itsauthority over its rebellious New World colonies, declares that the Unitedtates will tolerate no further European intervention in the affairs of the

nations of Central and South America.J833—The first major peasant rebellion in El Salvador occurs. It is led bythe Indian Anastasio Aquino.1838 The United Provinces of Central America collapses, and conservativecaudillos come to power.1846—California is seized by the United States, starting talk of an inter-oceanic passageway through Nicaragua as a way to shorten the journeyfrom New York to the West Coast.1848—Cornelius Vanderbilt establishes the Atlantic and Pacific Steam Co.,which transports passengers across Nicaragua.1854—The U.S. military destroys the Nicaraguan city of San Juan del Nortein retaliation for an insult to the American Minister to Nicaragua.

1855—North American adventurer William Walker invades Nicaragua, withthe aim of establishing a slave state there, and declares himself President.1857—The U.S. military, with help from Vanderbilt, invades Nicaragua inan attempt to overthrow Walker. Walker is ultimately defeated by a forceof Costa Ricans at Rivas.

1880-1910—The feudal hacienda system of El Salvador usurps large tractsof communal peasant land for coffee-growing. Peasants evicted from theselands are forced to become sharecroppers and bondservants.

*Sources from which this chronology was taken include the following: EI Salvador:Background to the Crisis (Central American Information OfRce, 1982); Arnon Hadar,The United States and EI Salvador: Political and Military Involvement (U.S.-El SalvadorResearch and Information Center, 1981); San Francisco Examiner, "The Tortured Land:Key Dates in the History of Central America," July 25, 1982; and the articles appearingi n t h i s v o l u m e .

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1894-1899—A series of four U.S. military interventions in Nicaragua toprotect U.S. interests.1899—Mino r Ke i th , a No r th Amer i can , f ounds the Un i ted F ru i t Companyi n H o n d u r a s .

1903—U.S. military intervention in Honduras to protect U.S. interests.1903—The United States sponsors a revolt in Panama resulting in Panama'sindependence from Colombia, which clears the way for the construction oft h e P a n a m a C a n a l .

1903-04—A series of U.S. military interventions in Panama during andfollowing the revolt against Colombia.1904—President Theodore Roosevelt adds the Roosevelt Corollary to theMonroe Doctrine. Under the Corollary, the U.S. takes on the role of an"international police force" in Central America.1907—U.S. military intervention in Honduras during a war between Honduras and Nicaragua.

1909—Conservative revolt supported by U.S. marines in Nicaragua overthrows Liberal government of Jose Santos Zelaya.1914—Panama Canal opens.

1912-25—Presence of U.S. Marines maintains Conservatives in power inface of cont inued Liberal rebel l ion in Nicaragua.

1920—U.S. military intervention in Guatemala during a period of fightingbetween trade unionists and the government.1921—Unrest in San Salvador. Women strikers are killed and a shoemakers'strike is brutally crushed.1924—Regional Federation of Workers of El Salvador is established with80,000 members; it affiliates with the Central American Workers Federation.1925—Strikes and rent riots in Panama lead to the landing of about 600U.S. t roops.

1928-34—Augusto Sandino leads a guerrilla war against U.S. forces inNicaragua. The U.S. forces leave in 1934, but Sandino is killed by theU.S.-trained National Guard of Anastasio Somoza Garcia after having beentricked into disbanding his guerrilla army. Somoza initiates a dynastywhich rules Nicaragua for the next 45 years.1931—The Communist Party of El Salvador wins a number of municipalelections. General Martinez, the military dictator, refuses to accept thee l e c t o r a l r e s u l t s .

1931-44—Martinez rules El Salvador for 13 years, his policies preventingi n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n .

1932—Brutal suppression of a peasant uprising in El Salvador results in themassacre of up to 30,000 men, women and children. The vast majority ofthe victims are killed after the uprising has been stamped out. Indians arethe target of especially brutal repression, and the massacre has the effectof wiping out indigenous culture. The massacre has become known as ia

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Chronology 4 9 3

matanza, the slaughter. Agustm Farabundo Marti, a leader of the peasantswas arrested by the government a few days before the massacre.ig44-NoTYons about popular unrest in El Salvador, the United Statesadvises General Martinez to resign. Military rule continues.1948—The Partido Revolucionario de Unificacion Democratica (Revolutionary Party of Democratic Unification—PRUD) is founded in El Salvador Itsleader, Oscar Osorio, is president from 1950 to 1956. This is the beginningof a period of industrialization.1954—The democratically elected, progressive government of President Ar-benz in Guatemala is overthrown in a U.S.-sponsored coup carried out bythe CIA, initiating a string of-military governments that has continued upto the present.1961—Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional (Sandinista National Liberation Front) is founded in Nicaragua.1961—The right-wing anti-communist group ORDEN is founded in El Salvador by General Jose Alberto Medrano.1 9 6 1 — T h e C e n t r a l A m e r i c a n C o m m o n M a r k e t i s f o r m e d .

1 9 6 9 — T h e S o c c e r Wa r b r e a k s o u t b e t w e e n E l S a l v a d o r a n d H o n d u r a s . T h eCentral American Common Market collapses.

1970-present—Period of increasing violence and civil war throughout theregion. Civil wars in Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador. Intensified ^^4repression by government forces and right-wing death squads. Growth of ip o p u l a r m o v e m e n t s a n d g u e r r i l l a o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I1977—Carter Administration cuts oil military aid to Guatemala because of sw .continuing human rights violations there.Jan. 10, 1978—Managua newspaper editor Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, leading critic of the Somoza regime, is assassinated, presumably at the ordersof dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle. The death of the widely respectededitor sparks rioting and serves as a catalyst in bringing together anti-S o m o z a f o r c e s .

Aug. 22, 1978—A group of 25 Sandinistas led by Commander Zero—EdenPastora—takes the National Palace in Managua, holding 1,500 hostages,including 49 deputies of the national assembly. The two-day occupationfocuses world attention on Nicaragua and the Sandinistas.

May 19, 1979—Sandinista forces begin their final offensive from Costa Rica.June 20, 1979—ABC correspondent Bill Stewart is murdered by a NationalGuardsman in Managua in full view of U.S. television cameras.

July 17, 1979—Somoza resigns and goes into exile in Miami. His NationalGuard surrenders to the Sandinistas two days later.

Oct. 15, 1979—Reform-minded officers in El Salvador overthrow the dictatorship of General Carlos Humberto Romero.Jan. 3, 1980—Mass resignations from the Salvadorean government, including the three civilians in the junta.

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Jan. 10, 1980—A second junta is formed in El Salvador; two prominentChr i s t i an Democra ts fi l l vacanc ies in the jun ta .

March 6, 1980—The Salvadorean junta announces plans for agrarian reform.This is followed by an upsurge in government repression.March 9, 1980—A third Salvadorean junta is formed. Jose Napoleon Duarteof the PDC joins the junta. Mass PDC defections by members unwilling tobe associated with the government follow.March 24, 1980—Salvadorean Archbishop Oscar Arnulfo Romero, an outspoken opponent of government repression and spokesman for the needs ofthe poor of El Salvador, is assassinated by a sniper while celebrating mass.March 27, 1980—USAID grants 13 million dollars in aid to El Salvador.

April 1, 1980—U.S. House of Representatives Appropriations Committeeapproves $5.7 million in military aid to El Salvador.April 18, 1980—The Frente Democratico Revolucionario (Democratic Revolutionary Front—FDR) is formed in El Salvador.May 14, 1980—Massacre of Salvadorean peasants trying to flee into Honduras at the Rio Sumpul. Six hundred killed by Salvadorean troops actingi n u n i s o n w i t h H o n d u r a n f o r c e s .

Oct. 4, 1980—The Salvadorean Army begins a military offensive in Morazan,resulting in 3000 peasants killed and over 20,000 refugees.Nov. 27, 1980—Six leaders of the FDR are kidnapped in San Salvador withthe assistance of the military; later their tortured bodies are found.Dec. 2, 1980—Four religious workers from the U.S. are killed after returningto El Salvador from a short trip. Their bodies are found in shallow gravesnear the airport. Members of El Salvador's National Guard are blamedfor their deaths. Three days later President Carter suspends all aid to ElSalvador. The women's murderers have yet to be brought to justice.Dec. 13, 1980—Jose Napoleon Duarte, a member of the junta since March,is named president.Dec. 15, 1980—U.S. economic aid to El Salvador is resumed. Total for 1980is $150 mil l ion.

Jan. 5, 1981—North Americans Michael Hammer and Mark Pearlman,working as advisers to El Salvador's agrarian reform program, together withJose Viera, head of the Salvadorean agrarian reform agency, are gunneddown in San Salvador.

Jan. 10, 1981—Guerrillas' unsuccessful "final offensive" launched in ElS a l v a d o r .

Feb. 10, 1981—The new Reagan administration gives an aid package of$64 million to El Salvador and suspends aid disbursement of $15 million toNicaragua.Feb. 23, 1981—State Department releases a white paper showing what itcalls "definitive evidence" that leftist rebels of El Salvador are receivingarms and training from communist countries, especially Cuba, with thehelp of Nicaragua.

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Chronology 4 9 5

March 3, 1981—Reagan administration announces that 20 more U.S. military advisers will be sent to El Salvador, bringing the total number tomore than 50. It also announces $25 million in additional military aid toE l S a l v a d o r .

June 1981—Credibility of State Department's white paper destroyed byseveral articles in the U.S. press which refute it on every point.Aug. 28, 1981—Mexico and France issue a joint communique recognizingthe FDR-FMLN, the umbrella organization of the Salvadorean opposition,as a "representative political force."Nov. 29, 1981—Roberto Suazo Cordova elected president of Honduras.March 15, 1982—Amid growing tension with the United States, the San-dinista government declares a state of emergency in Nicaragua.March 23, 1982—A military coup in Guatemala overthrows the lame-duckgovernment of Romeo Lucas Garcia after Garcia's candidate. Gen. AnibalGuevara, had been declared the winner in allegedly fraudulent elections. Athree-man junta takes over, led by retired General Efrain Rfos Montt, aborn-again Christian with ties to U.S. evangelical organizations.March 28, 1982—In the midst of civil war and government repression,and under a state of siege, elections are held in El Salvador. Theyresult in a victory by right-wing parties which threaten to squeeze theChristian Democrats remaining in the government out of power. RobertoD'Aubuisson, former death-squad leader, becomes head of the new Constituent Assembly.May 19, 1982—The Salvadorean Constituent Assembly, now dominated by yparties to the right of the Christian Democrats, calls a halt to the agrarianr e f o r m .

June 9, 1982—Rfos Montt drops the other members of the junta and takeso v e r a s s o l e l e a d e r o f G u a t e m a l a .

June 30, 1982—Montt announces a state of siege in Guatemala and declareswar on leftist guerrillas, whom he says will be executed upon conviction.

July 27, 1982—Reagan certifies that the human rights situation is improving in El Salvador and that reforms are proceeding there, contrary toevidence from international human rights monitoring agencies and othergroups. In the period immediately following the certification, governmentkillings of civilians soar.