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Cotton Picking
A woman working with a spade
THE ROLE OF RURAL WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE AND THEIR TRAINING NEEDS: A CASE STUDY OF DISTRICT
BAHAWALPUR, PAKISTAN
By
Naveed Iftikhar M.A. Economics
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
IN
AGRICULTURE EXTENSION
DIVISION OF EDUCATION AND EXTENSION, UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE,
FAISALABAD. 2010
To The Controller of Examinations. University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. We, the members of Supervisory Committee certify that the contents and format
of thesis submitted by Mr. Naveed Iftikhar Reg. No. 99-ag-1969 have been found
satisfactory and recommend that it be processed for evaluation by the External
Examiner(s) for the award of degree.
SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE 1- (PROF. Dr. TANVIR ALI) (CHAIRMAN) _________________
2- (Dr. MUNIR AHMAD) (MEMBER) ________________
3- (PROF. Dr. ASHFAQ AHMAD MAANN) (MEMBER) _______________
I
Dedicated
To
My Loving Parents &
Family
II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our knowledge is too little to express the bounties and blessings of Allah Almighty, the benevolent and the sovereign, whose munificence invariably nurtured my thoughts and thrived my ambitions.
Eternal peace and blessings be upon the Holy Prophet Muhammad whose teachings and noble traditions are the source of guidance and enlightenment for the entire mankind.
Every single statement generated and put together in this manuscript could only get its present shape under the august and accomplished supervision of Prof. Dr. Tanvir Ali, Director Division of Education and Extension, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. I pay my heartfelt regards and gratefulness to him for accepting me as a graduate student and granting me the privilege of availing his generous advice whenever it was needed
I derive an immense pleasure in expressing my cordial gratitude to Dr. Munir Ahmed Associate Professor/ Chairman, Department of Agricultural Education and Prof. Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad Maann, Chairman, Department of Rural Sociology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad for morale boosting and encouragement at times when I was overwhelmed.
I owe special thanks to Dr. Sarfraz Hassan, Chairman, Department of Environmental and Resource Economics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, a noble personality indeed, for giving me untiring help and consistent cooperation throughout the course of this study.
My cordial regards and thanks to late Dr. Qamar-ul-Haq (may Allah Almighty bless his soul! Amen), Dr. Ishtiaq (EDO Agriculture), Dr. Khuda Bukhsh (Assistant Professor), Mr. Tariq Mehmood (Data Analyst) for their much valued suggestions, encouragement and affectionate guidance. I am especially thankful to my friends Shahid Shah, Imran Haider Tipu, Sohail Azam, Yasir, Ahsan, Sabir, Asghar, Bilal, Farooq Gill, Dr. Iftikhar Gujjar, Dr. Shahbaz Bajwa, Dr. Farhana, & Madiha. My thanks are due to Mr. Manzoom, Prof Javed Kahloon, Mr. Farooq Kahloon, Dr. Javed (UAF Campus TT Singh) for guidance and immense moral support.
Last but not least I would like to express my love and affection for my daughters; Iman, Hadia and son Ahmad, and my Nephews Umer, Saad, Shani, A.D. Bajwa, Hassan, Kaami and nieces Mena, Iqra and Hira, who never complained of being ignored during challenging times when I could hardy give them company.
In the end I very humbly raise my hands praying for the health and life of my parents and my brother (Javed Iftikhar) & sisters whose continued encouragement and prayers kept me on the right track during turbulent times. May Allah bless them all! Amen.
Naveed Iftikhar Aulikh
III
ABSTRACT
Pakistan is a third world country with more than 162 million population. It has varied strata of life with multidimensional livelihood strategies. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. It has employed 44.8% of the work force. More than 51% of the country’s population comprises of women. Rural women play a significant role in various arenas of life. Ordinary farm women are the main players in sustaining life activities both at home and farm. They are active participants in agriculture, livestock management and poultry husbandry, also their participation in community development and social relations are recognizable. Whereas in livestock production they look after animals and do primary veterinary care. They also have to perform the domestic chores of cooking, cleaning the house, washing clothes, foster the kids and getting water and fuel supplies for domestic usage. Although they perform all of the above mentioned tasks, however, due to lack of resources, information, and technical guidance, they have to face difficulties to meet the challenges of the time. On account of their diverse preoccupations they lose their life time opportunity of education, nutrition, medicare and security. Due to lack of skill enhancement training, they are lagging behind in crop production, livestock management and post harvest operations resulting low yield of the crops and poor quality of the produce. To probe into the matter, a study was designed. The target area was District Bahawalpur which consists of five Tehsils namely Hasilpur, Bahawalpur, Khairpur Tamewali, Ahmadpur East and Yazman. Out of which two Tehsils were selected randomly and five union councils from each Tehsil were also randomly selected. From each selected union council 2 villages were selected randomly. From each selected village 20 women, who were engaged in agricultural activities, were selected through random sampling, thus making a total of 400 respondents. The data collection were effected under a pre-tested interview schedule designed for this purpose. The data thus collected, were analyzed and interpreted to draw the conclusions and to suggest measures for improvement. The results revealed that the majority of the women were involved in crop production activities such as cotton picking, wheat harvesting and drying of agriculture produce at the ordering of 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively. In livestock sector, activities like whey making, milking, milk storage are the top three activities performed by women. The study also depicted an encouraging response against gender bias in fields like education and training. Most of the women (i.e., 375) selected daily training format for their skill enhancement. Instead of sociological constraints of the area, the dire need of the women is training and education in crop production activities, livestock management, poultry production and drying of fruits and vegetables.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page #
Dedication I
Acknowledgements II
Abstract III
Table of contents IV
List of tables VII
List of figures X
Acronyms XI
Chapter # 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Rural Women in Pakistan 1
1.2 Conceptual and Theoretical Framework 2
1.3 Rationale of the study 5
1.4 Objectives 7
1.5 Assumptions 8
1.6 Limitations 8
1.7 Definitions of terms 9
Chapter # 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 11
2.1 Women and Crop Sector 11
2.2 Women and Livestock Sector 17
2.3 Women: Post Harvest and Food Storage Sector 27
2.4 Women and Home Management Sector 30
2.5 Women and Child Care 34
2.6 Women and Education 37
2.7 Women and Information Sources 43
2.8 Women and Agricultural Extension 46
2.9 Women and Training Needs 50
2.10 Women and Income Generation Activities 54
V
2.11 Constraints faced by Women 57
Chapter # 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 67
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 The Study Area (An Overview) 67
3.3 Punjab Province 67
3.4 Bahawalpur District 68
3.4.1 History 68
3.4.2 Education 69
3.4.3 Environmental condition and Natural Resources 69
3.4.4 Economic condition 70
3.4.5 Agriculture 70
3.4.6 Agricultural Extension 70
3.4.7 Tehsil Yazman 71
3.5 Tehsil Bahawalpur Saddar 71
3.6 Selection of study area 71
3.7 The Population of the study 71
3.8 The Sample 72
3.9 Research Instrument 72
3.9.1 Preparation of interview schedule 72
3.9.2 Validation of Interview Schedule 73
3.10 Data collection 73
3.10.1 Pre-testing of interview schedule 73
3.10.2 Interviewing the respondents 73
3.10.3 Analysis of Data 75
3.11 Difficulties Faced by the Researcher during Data Collection 77
Chapter # 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 78
4.1 Uni-variate Analysis 79
4.2 Bi-variate Analysis 132
VI
Chapter # 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
138
5.1 Summary 138
5.2 Conclusions 142
5.3 Recommendations 143
LITERATURE CITED 145
APPENDICES 167
VII
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE # TITLE PAGE #
1 BREAK UP OF INTERVIEWEES IN TERMS OF THEIR AGE
79
2 DIVISION OF THE INTERVIEWEES BASED ON THEIR LITERACY LEVELS
80
3 INTERVIEWEES IN TERMS OF THEIR MARITAL STATUS
83
4 BREAK UP OF INTERVIEWED INDIVIDUALS BASED ON THEIR FAMILY SIZES.
84
5 A QUICK LOOK AT STUDY SUBJECTS BASED ON THE NUMBER OF THEIR MALE OFF SPRING
84
6 INTERVIEWEES AND NUMBER OF THEIR FEMALE KIDS
85
7 FAMILY-TYPE WISE PRESENTATION OF STUDY SUBJECTS
86
8 DIVISION OF INERVIEWED INDIVIDUALS ACCORDING TO THEIR OCCUPATION TYPES
88
9 HOUSE TYPES OF THE INTERVIEWED FOLKS 89
10 A PRESENTATION OF INTERVIEWEES WHEN LOOKED AT THEIR SOCIAL CADRES
91
11 DIVIDING THE INDIVIDUALS UNDER STUDY IN ACCORDANCE WITH THEIR LAND OWNERSHIPS
91
12 BREAK UP OF INTERVIEWED SUBJECTS WHEN VIEWED THROUGH THEIR TYPES OF POSSESSION
93
13 INCOME BASED SPLIT UP OF THE INDIVIDUALS UNDER STUDY
93
14 CATAGORISING THE INTERVIEWEES AS THEY GROW VARIOUS CROPS.
95
15 CROP RELATED ACTIVITIES ADOPTED BY THE INDIVIDUALS UNDER STUADY
97
16 DIVISION OF FEMALES INTERVIEWED IN LINE WITH THEIR ROLE IN RAISING LIVESTOCK.
100
VIII
TABLE # TITLE PAGE #
17 WOMEN INTERVIEWEES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS COMMODITY PROCESSING AND STORAGE
105
18 A QUICK LOOK AT THE FEMALE ITERVIEWEES BASED ON HOME MANAGEMENT PATTERNS
108
19 TABULATED DATA DEPICTING INTERVIEWED FEMALES AS VIEWED THROUGH CHILD CARE
111
20 INTERVIEWED FEMALES AND THEIR ROLE IN CHILD EDUCATION
113
21 FEMALE STUDY SUBJECTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS HOUSE HOLD NECESSITIES
114
22 ROLE OF FEMALES IN THEIR SOCIAL SET UP 115
23 DATA SHOWING ROLE OF WOMEN IN POLITICAL ISSUES
116
24 ROLE OF THE INTERVIEWED FEMALES TOWARDS CONFLICT RESOLUTION
117
25 WOMEN INTERVIEWED AS REGARDS HANDCRAFTING
118
26 BASIC LIFE AMENITIES AS ACCESSED BY THE WOMEN INTERVIEWED.
119
27 INFORMATION SOURCES AVAILED BY THE FEMALES
121
28 LABOUR WORK AND TRAINING NEEDS OF THE WOMEN INTERVIEWEES
122
29 CROP PRODUCTION TRAININGS NEEDED BY THE INTERVIEWED FEMALES
123
30 TRAINING NEEDS OF THE FEMALE GENDER UNDER STUDY IN TERMS OF LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
125
31 POULTRY PRODUCTION TRAINING AS NEEDED BY FEMALES INTERVIEWED
126
32 TRAINING NEEDS OF THE FEMALES UNDER STUDY IN TERMS OF FOOD STORAGE
127
IX
TABLE # TITLE PAGE #
33 HEALTH AND SANITATION TRAINING NEEDS OF FEMALES INTERVIEWEES
128
34 SOCIO-ECONOMIC RESTRAINTS EXPERIENCED BY WOMEN INTERVIEWEES
129
35 BREAK-UP OF INTERVIEWED FEMALES IN THE LIGHT OF THEIR FEEDBACK
130
36 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE AGE OF STUDY SUBJECTS AND AGRICULTURE RELATED TRAININGS THEY NEEDED
132
37 LINKAGE BETWEEN EDUCATION LEVEL OF THE INTERVIEWED SUBJECTS AND AGRICULTURAL TRAININGS THEY NEEDED
134
38 INCOME OF THE INDIVIDUALS INTERVIEWED AS RELATED TO THEIR TRAINING NEEDS IN AGRICULTURE
136
X
LIST OF FIGURES
FIG. # TITLE PAGE #
1 GENDER BASED LITERACY IN RURAL AND URBAN ZONES
82
2 SPLIT UP OF STUDY SUBJECTS IN TERMS OF THEIR LITERACY
82
3 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF FAMILY SYSTEMS 87
4 OCCUPATION WISE PERCENTAGES OF THE INDIVIDUALS UNDER STUDY
89
5 A BAR DIAGRAM DEPICTING THE HOUSE TYPES 90
6 A BAR DIGRAM SHOWING LAND OWNERSHIPS 92
7 A BAR CHART DEPICTING THE ANNUAL INCOME OF THE INTERVIEWED INDIVIDUALS
94
8 A DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE CROP PATTERNS ADOPTED BY THE INTERVIEWED INDIVIDUALS
96
XI
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ADB Asian Development Bank
ADP Agricultural Development Project
AIAEE Association for International Agricultural Extension
Education
AWDF African Women Development Fund
BCCI Bahawalpur Chamber of Commerce and Industries
DCR District Census Report
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FWB First Women Bank
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GOP Government of Pakistan
GRAP Gender Reform Action Programme
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
ICTs Information and Communication Technologies
ILO International Labour Organization
IQ Intellectual Quotient
Km Kilometer
LHV Lady Health Visitor
MINFAL Ministry for Food Agriculture and Livestock, GOP, Islamabad.
MOE Ministry of Education
XII
NRM Natural Resource Management
PARC Pakistan Agricultural Research Council
PCRW Production Credit for Rural Women
PRA Part icipatory Rural Appraisal
PRSP Punjab Rural Support Programme
RRA Rapid Rural Appraisals
Rs. Rupees
SDD Sustainable Development Department
SPSS Statist ical Package for Social Sciences
T&C Texti le and Clothing
TEND Technological Education & National Development
UC Union Council
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNIFEM UN Development Fund for Women
UNICEF United Nations Children Funds
WID Women in Development
ZTBL Zarai Taraqiati Bank Limited
.
1
Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
Since independence, agriculture has played an instrumental role towards the
economic scenario of Pakistan. It still is a mainstay of Pakistan’s economy, having 21.8%
share in total GDP (Govt. of Pak., 2009). Pakistan is situated in South Asia having area of
796100 Sq. Km and a population of 162 Million people. Pakistan is a developing country,
where 67% of the population directly or indirectly belongs to agriculture sector. Of the
entire population, 51% are females.
1.1 RURAL WOMEN IN PAKISTAN
Women of rural area in Pakistan are extensively involved in production of major
crops, livestock management, poultry farming and home management. Food harvest and
its follow up mainly employ females. They also do more struggles for their survival and
economic well beings but unfortunately they are considered as unpaid or low paid labors.
Rural women of Pakistan have to face many problems during their agriculture related
activities. They suffer from different kinds of diseases e.g., women cotton pickers suffer
from blisters, skin rashes caused by chemical sprays on cotton etc (Jamali, 2009).
Rural women of Pakistan are also involved in livestock activities. Watering,
feeding, milking, cleaning and caring of animals, cleaning of sheds, product sales and
manure collection were identified as the main responsibilities of rural women (Jamali,
2009). Women are also essentially involved in post harvest and storage related activities
(Hassan, 2008). Their contribution towards food production is not only confined to
processing but also includes drying vegetables and preparation of pickles. In addition,
the countryside women in Pakistan have also shoulder an in-house function of food
preparation, nurturing the kids, house keeping and other domestic activities (Amin et al.,
2009a).
Rural women are unaware of their rights even in this century. For example, they
are involved in marketing activities but many of them do not know the marketing
strategies and tools i.e., how to sell, what should be the price etc. To enhance the skills of
rural women, there is a dire need of training and education. Training programs regarding
2
their practical problems can enhance their efficiency and competency. The training
courses like tailoring, beautician, poultry farming, card making and traditional birth
attendant courses could be fruitful in the income generation perspective (Butt, 2009).
1.2 CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Rural women in Pakistan play a multi-faceted role both at home and farm level.
They are actively involved in farm-related operations, besides fulfilling their
responsibilities as homemaker. Their participation does vary with the socio-economic
setup and local traditions (Prasad et al., 1987). For generating female-oriented skills and
techniques the women specific jobs and their perspectives have to be identified.
Samantha (1995) stated the following implications of developing technologies for
farm women:
1. Improving farm women’s productivity and working efficiency.
2. Increasing their income generating capabilities.
3. Increasing their employment opportunities.
4. Reducing the drudgery and health hazards in working for farm and home.
Aforementioned components can only be enhanced through knowledge, education
and training. Productivity, efficiency, capabilities are increasing through seeking
knowledge and learning skills i.e., modern farm technologies, tailoring, beautician,
poultry farming, card making and traditional birth attendant etc. The blending of
indigenous wisdom of farm women with the modern technologies through training of
rural women is important to improve their productivity, work efficiency and income
generation. Ray (2005) has put up the practical training as a phenomenon of gaining
relevant know how in order to undertake an assignment in a desirable manner. In a rural
community training facilitates farm women’s learning, knowledge and skills. Training as
auxiliary elements of the selected development strategies could not be inherited from the
traditional educational knowledge, whatever its level of development.
The professionals specializing in diverse human talents highlight various aspect of
didactic learning in their recommendations. While the behaviorists focus on the outer
circumstances yielding inferences and quantifiable behavioral alterations, the cognitivists
3
are more inclined towards the mind related phenomena like coding, categorizing, and
representing information in memory (FAO, 1997b). So their modified behaviour
contributes to the family, society and country’s prosperity through their competency and
progress in agriculture.
Discussing the prospective role and pre-requisites for rural women in agricultural
development Singh and Punia (1991) said that in future the employment opportunities for
farm women as wage labourers would decrease as a result of farm mechanization,
replacement of manual power and use of agro-chemicals in farm operations. They
pointed out that,
1. A pre-requisite for meeting such situation is to upgrade the existing skills of
farm women in technical operations, post harvest technologies, marketing
systems and food processing operations. Women should not be trained only for
their farm or rural areas but also for employment outside. Long term plans for
training, research, marketing and export should be taken into account in skills
training.
2. The agricultural sector would see a shift from coarse grain production to cash
crops, mushroom, flower and other commodities demanded in international
markets. Changing trends would bring changes in food habits of rural and urban
population. Fibrous foods like vegetables, mushrooms and fruits may find better
place. The increasing demands for fibrous foods create an opportunity for rural
women to allocate their resources (small land holdings) towards the particular
field. This is a great challenge for a government and to come up to this
challenge, government should engage the rural women in relevant programs.
3. The most important trend of development in agriculture is the increasing
diversification of rural economy from crops sector to animal husbandry.
However, livestock production in future would be a specialized pursuit requiring
technical skills of higher order. Training needs of farm women should be
assessed and detailed training programs for dairying, poultry farming and farm
forestry need to be developed.
4. As society develops, functional specialization increases, so does the importance
of economic institutions. Past experiences show that women’s programs failed
4
mainly because of lack of inputs or raw materials and inadequate marketing of
the produce. For meeting this challenge, rural women have to be trained for
entrepreneurship development.
In the same context rural women needs related to extension services, Randhawa
and Chandra (1993) reported that firstly it may be necessary to organize women into
functional groups to increase their access to credit, inputs and even marketing services,
they need leadership and management training to operate these self managed groups.
Secondly, extension system will be required to develop new extension training materials
that are gender-sensitive and appropriate for women farmers. Finally, two main types of
trainings may be organized for the farm women for effective and efficient utilization of
their potentials. These are: a) trainings in latest advances in agriculture and b) trainings in
leadership to motivate them to play an effective role as agents of change.
According to Oladeji et al. (2006), women participation in income generating
activities has significantly advanced their quality of life and improved their health status.
On the other hand Veerabhadraiah and Fami (1999) suggested that training and skill
development is important strategy to empower rural women.
According to National Development Plan (2001) it was noted that there were
significant gender based inequalities relating the inclusion of females and males in
agriculture and related undertakings, this hints at the urge for those assigned with
agriculture related policymaking entities and all those busy with the given tasks to pay
heed to the requirements of both genders, while synthesizing and executing their plans
and policies. Core issue that has been emphasized includes: (1) Opportunity of education
and skill development (2) low participation rate in organization and management, (3)
tourism and rural enterprise, (4) transport, (5) access to funding, (6) technology, (7) land
holding and (8) ownership of farms.
Amin et al. (2009b) concluded in her study that rural women have to work longer,
harder and more intensive in order to make agriculture economically affordable. They
undertake multi-tasking i.e., 1) Crop Production 2) Livestock production 3) Post harvest
5
activities 4) Community and society 5) Family health care 6) Politics 7) Home
management 8) Provision of household necessities 9) Child care and Education 10) Fuel
wood collection.
The function of female gender towards the uplift of agriculture is for the most part
ignored. Women are given only indirect and inferior role and are thus left with second
grade social status. Considering them weaker women are only assigned unimportant
agricultural jobs. Skills development and technology dissemination have generally
disregarded women role. The same idea was portrayed by FAO (2006a) document that
gender relations are unbalanced in most of the societies and women often contribute more
towards daily tasks as compared to men.
1.3 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY
Rural women lacked the knowledge, skill, information and decision making
powers. They have no role in important decision making; they are not consulted in any
matter of their own life and can’t opine about farm matters. They are considered as
unpaid labour, no policy addresses them, negligible numbers of organizations disburse
credit directly to rural women and no extension services are available (Chaudhry, 2004).
Mostly they remain out of the scene, busy in labour work and obey the social norms and
have a blind faith upon their male members without thinking whether they are right or
not.
Rural women are deprived of their basic rights. They have to face discrimination
in education and economic stability. When equipped well with knowledge, skill and latest
information, they can earn more to raise their life standard. Although women role in
agriculture, livestock and household is very crucial and they spend 12-15 hours a day in
different tasks but still they need perfection and expertise in order to reduce risk and time
constraints (Nosheen et al., 2008).
Rural women of Pakistan are economically active at one end and financially
dependent on the other end. Rural women posses neither ownership nor control over
6
resources and they are supposed to surrender their rights in favor of their brothers,
cousins and husbands (Haq, 2007).
This is the era of multilateral world and competition. Although women produce
between 60-80% of world’s food and their participation rate in agriculture and livestock
is 79.4% as compared to 60.8% of rural men (UNDP 1997), yet their crops have low
yields as compared to their male competitors. Their livestock yield less milk and meat.
Often their animals suddenly contract deadly diseases and die; thereby inflicting a loss of
thousands of rupees within no time. They work for long hours in domestic chores than
men but they are considered economically passive. They have few sources of income
which can be enhanced through proper training. Women need technical help in the form
of training in order to make their work up to international mark in the field of agriculture.
They would then be able to work on commercial lines.
1.3.1. Problem Statement
Women have an important function in crop production, raising livestock and
cottage industry. Women in Pakistani villages undertake these chores in addition to their
routine jobs, such as kitchen work, child minding, caring the elderly, getting fuel wood
and potable water and house keeping. They are denied their right of being educated,
owning property, getting bank credit, access health care and to be the part of technology
transfer. Women were deprived off the socio-economic opportunities in our country.
They have lesser access to education and training, extension services and technology as
compared to their male counterpart (Hassan, 2008).
1.3.2. Purpose of Study
Women are disadvantaged in almost all parts of the world. They are kept deprived
of their social, mental, educational and professional status. In rural social society they are
not enjoying their deserved socio-economic status. They face several types of violence
and have lesser educational facilities. They are discouraged to watch television in remote
rural areas, having constraints to go out of homes, talking with their male blood relations,
attending social activities etc. The access to research and extension services in agriculture
is urgently needed to restore the overall approach towards women farmers to provide
7
them with much needed facilities. Women in Pakistan contribute significantly towards
agricultural operations such as sowing, sapling transplantation, weeding, tilling, crops
harvest, winnowing and weighing, along with raising food animals for milk and meat.
They do all this on the top of their numerous in house assignments such as food
preparation, nurturing the kids, caring the elderly and getting water and fuel wood and
tidying up operations. Their participation in farm work especially in the post-harvest
operations is considerable. Post harvest activities such as baling, thrashing, winnowing,
weighing, and storage are mainly assigned to women. Extension system still remains
inefficient: top down bureaucratic, big farmer oriented ignoring the gender equality issue,
and ignoring youth as partner. For rural folks especially the women seeking education,
very little is offered in terms of agriculture extensions, because of traditional gender
biases, lower literacy rates and tough conditions for female extension agents. The present
project is planned for desertous Bahawalpur district of southern Punjab. Although the
role of rural women in several fields of life has already been studied but in desert area
such study has not been planned. Role of rural woman is enhanced through the criteria for
the selection of an appropriate training for individual respondent. In Bahawalpur district
rural females play a pivotal role. Thus the present study is designed to investigate the part
of rural women in agriculture and their technological requirements in Bahawalpur
district.
1.4 OBJECTIVES
1.4.1 General Objectives
To study the role of country side women in agriculture and their training
requirements in the selected area.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives:
1. To analyze the role of rural women in agriculture operations.
2. To identify sources of information for rural women.
3. To investigate the skill development needs of women engaged in agriculture
and home management.
8
4. To find out the socio-economic constraints faced by rural women in
agriculture sector.
1.5 ASSUMPTIONS
1. It was assumed that conclusion drawn from this study would be conducive
in synthesizing a plan for imparting training to rural women of the Punjab,
Pakistan.
2. Rural women would be willing to participate in interviews designed for this
purpose.
3. Correct information provided by rural women would be helpful to draw the
significant results from the study.
4. Analysis of the present study can be helpful in other districts to find out the
training needs of rural women of Punjab, Pakistan.
5. Responses of the respondents will be normally distributed.
1.6 LIMITATIONS
The following were the study limitations:
1. The study was limited to the rural women of the district Bahawalpur
because of limited resources and time constraints.
2. Only 400 country side females from Tehsils of Bahawalpur and Yazman
were the subjects of this study.
3. In face of the communication difficulties of the study subject, the
interview proceeding were translated in to Urdu language and interview
was conducted both in Urdu and Saraiki (local) languages.
4. Most of the women being illiterate were reluctant to talk to outsiders as it
is against their customs that is why the open ended/ qualitative data could
not be generated.
9
1.7 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
Access and Control: It is defined as components needed for the utilization of recourses.
Normally males and females have varying echelons of both availability of resources for
their jobs, and control over these resources. The requisite resources include land, credit,
employment, technology, sources of information.
Culture: It is an amalgam of discrete spiritual, mundane scholastic and sentimental
attributes that help us recognize a social entity. In addition to literacy values, culture does
include modes of life, basic human rights, values, norms and beliefs.
Employment: It means a person who is involved in public, private sector on paid or
unpaid occupation with permanent or daily wages.
Household: It is defined as group of individuals who share basic domestic and/ or
reproductive activities alongwith cooking and eating.
Productive Role: It is the amount of work executed both by females and males for
reward in terms of hard cash or commodity. It includes both commercial manufacture
carrying and exchange value and domestic production with the real utility along with
exchange value.
Reproductive Role: It includes child bearing and raising young ones along with in house
jobs needed to ensure the reproduction and availability of work force. Biological
reproduction is followed by carrying and raising the future work squad. Reproduction is
an exclusive women domain.
Resources: These can be of varying nature such as economic like land and equipments,
political like enfranchisement, leadership and legislature, social like family planning,
child minding and education and time which is a unique and often unheeded resource.
Food Security: It is a state that a community enjoys when all of its members have an all
time access to nutritious, safe, personally acceptable and traditionally appropriate food.
Foods are produced in environmentally safer ways.
10
House hold Food Security: It is defined as the capability of a house hold unit to make
available an uninterrupted supply of adequate food.
Learning: It is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior.
Training: It is the process that aims at improving professional competence of in-service
personnel it is taken up by human recourse experts.
11
Chapter-II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Literature review helps to critically investigate the information based on facts and
figures from the past and likewise it is also conducive for determining the amount of
work carried out on the issue under question and that still needs to be undertaken to keep
abreast with the current developments of the subject.
Awan (2004) concluded form his study that women were not given equal
opportunities in any society. Although women had better opportunities of education and
health care as a result of consistent efforts, the politico-economic zone still remain a no
go area for them. Women made 70 percent of the masses living under poverty and way
less than half of the job slots in the market and were almost invariably under-paid in
contrast to their male colleagues for the same amount of work. On a global scale an
insignificant number of women was assigned cabinet portfolios and approximately 10
percent of the legislature members were females. In term of education women lagged far
behind the men across the globe which is reflected through the fact that out of 130
million elementary age school children not enrolled in the schools, 70 percent were
females. In any country females held not more than 1-2 percent of the executive slots.
They occupied 14 percent of the administrative and managerial assignments
internationally. Less than 5 percent heads of the state, governments, international bodies
and major corporations were females.
2.1 WOMEN AND CROP SECTOR
2.1.1 Global Perspectives – Worldwide Review
Crop sector comprises of all the operations relevant to management and
production of crops. Female participation in this area goes back to pre-historic times. On
the same issue Grellier (1995) cited from his study that female participation towards crop
production in the Sub-Saharan semi-arid areas of Africa was significant. Agricultural
skills of the females with particular reference to their usage of crop production tools and
12
techniques were investigated. The study also included the manners in which use of draft
animals influenced manual labor and created higher income differences at family and
community level. The literature pertaining crop production can be placed under three
heads, i.e., division of labor and timely accomplishment of the tasks, availability and
command over the agriculture resources including capital, labor, agricultural land and
information and lastly functions related to technology and production.
Mollel et al. (2000) found in their study in Morogoro (Tanzania) that males and
females equally took part in soil preparation, tillage, ploughing, sowing, transplanting,
crop harvest, along with livestock feeding and management. On the other hand, men were
actively participating in sales and marketing of livestock and crop produce.
FAO (2002) reported that out of total work done in the world, two third time was
spent by the women. In developing countries one third of total population was peasant
and women. These women mainly work in their land and produce food for their family.
Women get only one tenth of the total income of the world and were owner of less than 1
percent assets. They were lagging behind in representation of household heads, in
education and in socio-economic conditions. They were not only involved in
transplanting, weeding, application of fertilizer and harvesting but also raising and
rearing of small and large ruminants, their care and marketing. They also lagged behind
in technological innovations and worked with indigenous technology for food security
like cleaning and winnowing of food grains.
Lacroix (2006) reported the contribution of women to the important aspects of
European agriculture. About 37 percent of the agriculture labour force in the Europe was
female. In Portugal women managed an estimated 60 percent of farms less than five
hectares and in Finland nearly half of the rural work force was female.
UNDP (2006) reported that during irrigation of crops, attacks by the robbers was
one of the frequently faced problems by the women while engaged in draining water from
the Yatta irrigation project of Machakos District, Kenya. Because of severe droughts
there was an acute water shortage in the area. Most of the farmers did not have sufficient
13
water for crop irrigation. The government organized a community management setup,
comprising various user groups and water management bodies. It was also reported by
subjects of an IDRC survey that 85 percent of the women and children while fetching
potable water were harassed by delinquent males. The study also revealed that:
1. Ninety six percent of the farmers got their crops irrigated twice a week, 45
percent of the labor comprised of females while only 28 percent came from
the men side. The remaining 12 percent were the children
2. A great majority of the farmers watered their crops at night. This practice
made the females vulnerable to attacks by criminals, posed difficulties in child
care while they worked in the fields and the health issues arising out of work
at cold nights.
3. Males irrigating their crops unlawfully diverted canal water to their fields.
They won’t involve in such practice in the presence of other male farmers
working in the near by fields, obviously out of fierce reaction. They would
only indulge in this sort of activity when females were present in the
neighboring fields. The women farmers stated that such violence seriously
compromised their farming activities.
4. The women carried out domestic washings and livestock management. They
had no say in the matters relating water supply designs. Therefore there was
no provision for making these amenities available for the purpose of animal
watering troughs and water for bathing and washing.
2.1.2 Regional Perspective- South Asia
Jackson (1995) conducted a study reporting that a vast number of activities at
Indian farms such as tilling, sapling transplantation, weeding and harvesting were done
without an element of mechanized provisions. Designs for two version improved
mounted hoe, an improved shape and a lighter weight structure were submitted for
comparison with existing conventional hoes. Field experiments comprising 40 females
from 4 villages were performed. The lighter version of the hoe turned out to be the best as
assessed by the workers for the improved quality of their work.
14
Pradhan (2000) reported that only a few farming activities were exclusively meant
for men, such as plowing fields and driving a horse pulled cart. Most agriculture and
irrigation related assignments were assigned to women. From the total population 91
percent were actively engaged in agriculture and related operations. An example can be
quoted of an unpublished research work conducted by a member of the mission for
evaluation of operations showing that in Andhi-Khola irrigation system, planners
expected that more than 50 percent of the agricultural jobs would be performed by
males, 30 percent by females and remaining 18 percent be conducted jointly by both
genders. But measurement of actual labor inputs showed that percentages of work
performed by men, women and jointly by both genders were 37 percent, 39 percent, 24
percent respectively. Despite this majority of the women were unaware about the size of
their family landholdings and crop shares coming there from.
Rangnekar (2003) reported that 78 percent of India's women were involved in
agriculture, from which 35 percent were cultivators and 43 percent were laborers. He also
reported rural woman of Barani areas of India have faced more constraints in crop and
livestock sector then the irrigated areas.
2.1.3 Local Perspectives- Pakistan
Sayeed (2003) observed that women activities in rural areas included
housekeeping, livestock care, milking animals and carrying meals for male members. The
low rate of female participation as compared with the male was because of low
education, their conservative attitude towards female employment and responsibilities of
child bearing and household work. There was very low agricultural participation in age
group of 10 to 16 in all zones of the Punjab. Female agricultural participation in cotton
zone was high as compared with all zones; it was due to the fact that cotton picking was
done exclusively by females. Overall 57, 64 and 56 percent of labor was under employed
in rice, cotton, mixed, and barani zones which was very high because of relatively high
under-employment of the females (i.e., 82, 90, 82 and 84 percent) in respective zones.
15
Khushk and Hisbani (2004) reported that in Pakistan rural women crops
participation rate in agriculture was 43 percent. They helped men to mix and prepare
pesticide solution, while 2.6 million women collected cotton and approximately 25
percent of the entire family work force and 75 percent of the part timers were women.
The rural women constituted 36 percent of total population and only 7 percent of them
could read and write, while 70 percent of the women labor force was engaged in
agriculture sector.
Nazar (2004) conducted a study in District Khushab and reported that 94.2
percent of rural women were involved in activity of cotton picking, whereas 79 percent in
fodder handling, 72.5 percent in weeding, 79.2 percent in harvesting, 77.5 percent in
threshing, 82.5 percent in storage activities of post-harvested crops and 36.7 percent of
rural women were involved in selling of crops, cereals, milk and milk products.
Alam and Manzoor (2005) stated that about 70 percent of the Pakistani work
force in agriculture sector comprised of women and their job conditions were really
tough, yet their share of toils remained unheeded and unaccounted. They further said that
Millions of females were engaged in farming operations like tillage sowing, planting,
hoeing, weeding, cotton picking, cleaning fields, collecting cotton sticks, feeding and
milking the animals, sifting seeds, grading and packing the fruits and working in the
cotton ginning enterprises. They also had miscellaneous domestic jobs to perform.
Women also took care of rural poultry farming. It was also stated that about 2.6 Million
females were actively associated with cotton picking in nine districts and their
participation in ridge making was 2 percent, sowing seeds 26 percent, weeding 22
percent, cotton thinning, 16 percent manual weeding 20 percent, cotton picking 86
percent, cutting cotton sticks 8 percent, collecting cotton sticks 23 percent, and cleaning
the fields 8 percent, in addition to the help the provided in the post harvest activities.
They suggested that the earning level of women can be increased by giving them training
in the fields of vocational training, handicraft, poultry farming, sericulture, beekeeping
and other post production techniques. It was the role of state and private sector to
influence and mobilize rural women enrollment in schools and continuing education in
order to enhance literacy among them.
16
Saghir (2005) conducted a study on analysis of gender mainstreaming with
special reference of Food security in Attock District. He noted that a significant number
of respondents (97.6 percent) were involved in cleaning of wheat for milling, and 75.0,
44.2 and 54.2 percent performed sun drying of agricultural products, cleaning of store
rooms and storing of agricultural products in bags respectively. However, the
participation of rural women in transportation of wheat for milling was very rare.
Haq (2007) reported that almost 80 percent of rural women were involved in
picking of cotton as professional cotton pickers whereas 25 percent of rural women were
occasionally involved in cotton picking.
Hassan (2008) conducted a study in Muzaffargarh and reported that both husband
and wife respondents were actively participated in all the activities related to crop
production except field preparation by tractor, fertilizer application, thrashing of wheat
and packing of fruits where participation of wife respondents was zero, where as in
contrast the male contribution was zero in cotton picking.
Nosheen et al. (2008) embarked upon a study in the Chakwal District about
exploring the gender involvement in agricultural decision making. They reported that
majority of the women (60.1 percent) were engaged in livestock management activities,
while 58.5, 38.5, 28.0 and 26.5 percent were involved in crop production, animal
production, animal protection and poultry husbandry respectively. However, majority of
male respondents (51.0 percent) participated in crop production, followed by 35.0, 3.25,
22.0 and 13.5 percent in animal protection, animal production, crop protection and
marketing of crop produce, respectively.
Amin et al. (2009) performed a study in Faisalabad area reporting that a greater
number of male spouses (75.78 percent) got the land ready for sugarcane, followed by
74.22, 69.79, 65.10 and 63.28 percent involved in wheat thrashing, sugarcane sowing,
manure application, sugarcane peeling and baling, respectively. On the other hand wives’
involvement in seed cleaning and crop production was 54.95 percent.
17
2.1.4 Synthesis
Pakistan’s population, according to FAO (1999) consisted of 47.5 percent of
female and 52.5 percent male. In comparison with the 35 percent of male literacy rate,
only 16 percent of women were considered literate. Among rural women, about 79.4
percent were involved in agriculture in comparison with 60.8 percent of rural men. Their
participation was related to the production of major crops. The variation in the intensity
of their labor depended on the crop and particular crop management tasks. Women were
playing an active and exhaustive role in the production of livestock and forest husbandry.
Women had to perform the dual responsibilities concerning both the farm and household
production that were increasing day-by-day with the feminization of agriculture. The
contribution of women in household income through farm and non-farm activities is
significant especially through cottage industry. Underestimation of women work as
family labor is engrossed with non recognition, while the education of family members
was interdependent with the spouse education.
2.2 WOMEN AND LIVESTOCK SECTOR
2.2.1 Global Perspective - Worldwide Review
PARC (1988) held a survey in Nigeria, concluded in the exploration of the fact
that the cost of cattle keeping was increased with the promotion of primary school
education. The reason behind this was that the time for female children for taking care of
cattle was decreased due to education. The same fact was testified in the countries of the
Asia-Pacific region, but in future it may help to revitalize and revolutionize the changes
in production system.
Fernandez (1990) concluded that there was a division of labor between genders. He
further reported that in Peru women were responsible for cattle and other livestock
breeding.
Manuh (1998) stated that women constitute the backbone of the rural economy of
much of the Sub-Saharan Africa, where 47 percent of the total agriculture labor force
consists of women and about 80 percent of the female labor force is the economically
18
active. The major activity of rural women was the food production and their
responsibilities and labor inputs cross the limits of men in most African areas. Women
also constitute much of the labor force for the cultivation of export crops of men which is
mostly non-beneficial for women directly. FAO, the UN Food and Agriculture
organization explored in a study held in1996 in mine African countries that the difference
between women’s contribution to the production of food crops was varied from 30
percent in Sudan to 80 percent in the Republic of Congo, with the most positive approach
towards the higher end of the scale in other countries, Food production was done by 70
percent of women, domestic food storage by 50 percent, food processing by 100 percent
animal husbandry by 50 percent and agricultural marketing by 60 percent.
Gboku (1999) explained in an excerpt of a larger study of draft animal technology
in Sierra Leone. The end aim of this survey was the provision of the better understanding
of women’s access to and control over production resources in draught animal farming.
The study also exhibited the factors that affects access and control, and classified the
peculiar gender roles played by women in the use of animal technology.
Obinee et al. (2000) concluded that in Bene State women raised mostly small
animals for meat to win their husbands’ favor. The relationship between education
and herd size was positive and significant. One recommendation was that women should
be actively involved at all levels of program planning and execution.
Oyesola (2004) stated that rural woman were involved in the livestock activities
such as rearing of cattle, goat, sheep, guinea fowl, chicken, duck, pig and the production
of fresh and processed milk in Oyo-state. They were engaged in these livestock activities
in order to generate income and provide food for their household consumption.
Yisehak (2008) observed in Jimma zone of Ethopia that women spent a large
amount of time on livestock related activities. They spent 30 minutes for milking, 1.25
hours cleaning animal shed, 1.80 hours collecting and transporting dung, 2.15 hours
processing milk, and 1.30 hours fetching water. Housewife carried out simpler tasks such
as milk processing and sale of butter and cheese. The daughters-in-law undertook the
19
harder and more difficult jobs such as caring for small ruminants, milking, watering stock
and feeding the animals.
2.2.2 Regional Perspective - South Asia
Feldman et al. (1987) has exemplified a sample of districts and villages with an
objective of studying the social relations of livestock production in areas of Bangladesh.
209 households were selected for data collection for inter household comparisons. The
study projected the inter and intra household differences in household members
participation in livestock farming activities. They revealed that the size of the family or
household is the main thing to affect the participation in the different activities.
Katuwal (1991) conducted a study on the role of women in livestock
production in Nepal. He found that women devote as much as 50 to 55 percent
of their time to routine household duties and about 25 to 30 percent to livestock
production. He found that there was a significant involvement of women in other
livestock related activities such as milking and fodder collection. He further
suggested that women should be trained in general management of livestock and in
methods of increasing the production of fodder grasses.
Rangnekar (1992) in his research about women in livestock production in
rural India reported that there was variation in the extent of involvement of women
and their perception of knowledge and views for religion and socio - economic
strata. These women usually handle the activities like milking, feeding, cleaning,
care of sick and young animals. The women of rich families do not work
themselves but they hire workers. Tribal women do most of their work alone but
the decision regarding purchase and sale of animals was usually taken by the male
members. The women from poor families usually have joint decisions regarding
livestock care and management.
Rangnekar (1993) reported that livestock as a farming system was not only an
earning means but it does have a religious and cultural perspective in India. It was also
considered the traditional responsibility of women to take care of most of the work
20
concerning livestock management. The studies showed that the women are knowledge
full of livestock rearing activities including local feed resources, animal behavior, feed
preferences and production characteristics. This knowledge of women is testified through
experience by the women as they had developed the feeding practices to suit different
types of livestock. They had learnt about beneficial feed resources that range from farm
by-products to forest products. The rural men and women had also developed ways of
conservation of useful feed material for periods of scarcity.
Tewari et al. (1996) studied rural women work and their participation in
agricultural, livestock, household and income expenditure activities focusing on
Lunwas and Narnadi villages in Rajasthan, India. Data were presented from 100
farm women, chosen through a cluster sampling method. Women's participation in
livestock based activities was between 60 percent and 80 percent with a maximum
of 90 percent.
Shukla et al. (1998) studied that the women involvement was found to be
low across the three categories of farms i.e., marginal, small and medium in India.
Only seven percent of women were found to be fully involved in decisions
relating to taking credit (loans) for farm activities; 13.41 percent were fully
involved in spending money produced by livestock keeping; and 24.45 percent
were fully involved in decisions regarding taking loans for livestock management.
Dolberg (2001) found out that empowerment of poor women as resource certainly
promotes the food security. Yet the issue of reaching them awaits answer. For the
fulfillment of the need of food security, livestock projects had not been proved successful
to a great extent. The study of more than 800 projects reviewed that they had resulted in a
very little positive and substantial impact on the poor. As an exception to this general
rule, the poor Bangali were facilitated with the poultry model as a food subsidy to a path
of sustainable progress and betterment based on micro credit financing. One ultimate end
of this poultry model was that the priority should have to be given to small animals
especially poultry both by the recipients and donors alike. These could be adopted as
starters in a development process in contrast to larger animals. The probability of the
21
latter was accorded with much lesser extent, the most vulnerable and to the households
with an insecurity of food. It was calculated that fulfilling the end aims was not an
outcome of technologies but of appropriate institutional methodologies, policies and
human abilities and capabilities.
Devendra (2002) analyzed that animal keeping had engaged approximately 678
million of the rural poor with a mixed crop-animal systems claiming the largest
ownership of animals. The role and contribution of animals was observed co-related with
the household benefits, saving at current, medium-term and long-term levels, enhanced
level of productivity of mixed farm systems, the reliability of agricultural systems and the
environment and sustainability and progress of social stability. The benefits of small and
large animals were unignorable as large ruminants were beneficial for agricultural and
farm security, milk and meat, ploughing and dung production, the small animals were not
left behind including goats, sheep, chickens, pigs and ducks which were beneficial
because of their given much importance rather a strong affiliation between women and
children and small animals was considered to be implemented. It was finalized that
improved animal production systems can increasingly make a remarkable contribution to
improve human resources, rural growth and to reduce poverty. To attain this, however, a
lot of investment in agricultural research and development was required that can aim at
less-favored areas that depend only on rainfall, joined with participatory and inter
dependant approaches, effective joint venturing of public and private sector and fidelity
to the purpose.
Singal (undated) reported that the review of women work pattern on farm in India
exhibited that women played an important role in dairy as well as agricultural production
as unpaid workers. The re-defining of the concept of worker was necessary so that a
monetary status can be given to these activities. The reflection of these can be seen in
Gross National Product. Exactly opposite to each other, men’s sharing of housework
(including child care) was nil in comparison with the active share and participation of
women in livestock and farm work. Even at early stages, only the female children were
witnessed offering a helping hand to ensure their schooling and other expenditures. The
emphasis was to be laid upon the change in the traditional attitude of men to ensure a
22
more progressive outlook towards sharing of housework for the overall benefit of the
family and family members.
2.2.3 Local Perspective - Pakistan
Saeed (1966) found that women help more in operations which were not
tough or when male members were occupied in other agricultural operations. For
example, in fodder cutting during various cropping seasons 72.8 percent women
participated. As far as feeding of milk and draft animals was concerned, 83.7
percent and 42.2 percent women respectively showed their participation in
this operation. Feeding of milk animals was mainly the responsibility of females.
With regard to the milking of animals, researcher found that 86.2 percent women
did the milking of their animals. The cleaning of cattle shed was performed by
81.5 percent women, only an insignificant proportion of male members of rural
families or servants had taken this responsibility.
Chaudhry et al. (1970) revealed that the rural women played an important
role in the agricultural sector. Woman was always a partner of her husband in
several farming operations. Operations like fodder cutting, cleaning and animal care
had been accepted as females jobs in many households.
Awan and Bilqees (1975) reported that most of the women were cleaning
the animal sheds and removing the animal dung before taking meals to the fields.
They collected the dung cakes and put them on the walls for drying. A women
owning one buffalo made about 12 dung cakes a day. They further reported that a
woman contributed 48.34 percent of her 15.5 hours a day work time. towards job in
respect of caring and tending the animals.
Bajwa (1979) found that 88 percent of the women were involved in the
care of milk producing animals, while only 51 percent women actively participated
in the care of power animals.
Ashraf (1980) under took a study of two villages, Khanki and Mansooran of
Faisalabad District and took a sample of 105 households. Majority of housewives were
23
engaged in care and management of livestock. He further reported that 93 percent
added to family income by the sale of livestock and their products. During his study,
he found that 37.2 percent families in the sample supplemented their income by
selling of milk. Similarly 54.3 percent respondents told that they sold ghee. This
showed that for majority of families, milk animals were not only the source of
fats and proteins, but also an important source of income as well.
Paton (1986) enclosed that women were attached to the informal profession of
dairy production in most provinces with an exception of Baluchistan due to its
unfavorable climatic conditions of dairy cattle raising. Except a few large cities, the
consumption of fresh milk in Pakistan was managed and provided by small domestic
production carried out by women.
Hashmi (1988) found out that women’s contribution to livestock production was
considerable enough in comparison with their contribution in crop production and
farming. The diversity in spending the time in caring livestock and caring for their own
children on part of women is ridiculous as they spend 15.50 hours on livestock care in
comparison with 50 minutes of care of their own children.
Freedman and Wai (1988) investigated that Sindhi and Punjabi women consume
one fifth to a quarter of their daily work time in activities related to livestock.
Masood and Mahjabeen (1989) reported that women were fully responsible for
the management of livestock activities. Livestock farming was a labor intensive
operation handled by women where large proportion of their time went towards
collecting manure and bringing green fodder from the fields. These activities
included that 90.7 percent women cleaned cattle sheds while, 52.2 percent,
94.9 percent and 67.4 percent, brought fodder, prepared ghee and milked animals
respectively. Livestock production was the most important source of income from
the sale of milk, butter, ghee and animals.
Qamar (1990) reported that a rural woman gets up early in the morning
and worked for 16 to 18 hours a day, from dawn to dusk in the field or at home with
24
no break. She performed many tasks such as cooking food, collecting fuel woods,
bringing water from distant places, livestock management, care of animals and care of
children. She also assisted her husband in various farm operations in the field. The list of
jobs performed by her during a day was very long.
Gulfam (1991) undertook a study on the "status of rural woman and her
role in livestock and agricultural production." The sample consisted of 105 families in
village Youngpur, district Okara. She reported that 30, 31 and 41 percent women were
main contributors for fodder cutting, fodder fetching, and chaffing respectively.
Ijaz (1993) conducted a study on rural women's contribution and existing
knowledge in livestock care and management activities. Author concluded that none
of the respondents in sample area was without milk animals and reported that majority of
the respondents who kept one or two buffaloes / cows also had two or three sheep / goats.
It was also observed that female spent on an average 5.96 hours daily in livestock care
and management activities. The data revealed that respondents got on average 8 liters
milk per day; Majority of the respondents (78 percent) were fully satisfied with the yield
of milk. The study revealed that low milk yield was due to insufficient feeding and poor
health of the animals. It was also reported that 79 percent of the respondents did not
desire to keep more milk animals because of workload. An inquiry into the earning
through the sale of livestock showed that 67 percent of the sample families were
supplementing their income through the sale of milk while only 13 percent earned money
through the sale of desi ghee. On an average, daily income of sample families through the
sale of milk was Rs.24 per household.
ESCAPE (1997) notified that women’s involvement in caring and rearing of
livestock is wide spread which encompasses the multiple tasks e.g. making of feed
concentrates, feeding, provision of fodder to the animals, grazing, cleaning and washing
of animals and their sheds, making dung cakes, collection of manure for organic fertilizer
along with milking and processing for the purpose of marketing of animal products
including ghee, butter etc.
25
FAO (2003) reported that rural women participated in crop farming, livestock
husbandry and off-farm activities in Pakistan. They spent a great amount of time looking
after the livestock. Most of the work was related to rearing and protection of animals,
finding and carrying of fodder and water, milking, collection of eggs, and ensuring the
health of animals and poultry.
Akmal and Sajida (2004) reported that in comparison with the participation in crop
production activities, the rural women’s share in livestock related activities was much
higher in interior Sindh. The activities of most of the females were mainly focused on
fodder cutting, watering, cleaning animals and their sheds. Milking the animals and milk
processing had also at times been assigned to women folks permanently. The activities
exclusively meant for rural women included manure collection, preparation of dung cakes
and maintenance of animal sheds.
Yaqoob (2004) conducted a study about “women involvement in livestock care and
management” in district Faisalabad and found that 72 percent females participated in
livestock care and management. Their contribution was 70.8, 53.3, 45.0 and 42.5 percent
in making dung cakes, watering and bathing of animals, cleaning animal sheds and
fodder chopping respectively.
Zafar (2004) studied women participation in livestock care and management and
noted that no doubt livestock raising was a source of supplementing family income
and improving nutritional level of family, the rural women had poor information
about the veterinary treatment of the animals. They did not have information about
the diseases and how to feed animals and about milking processing along with
their vaccination. They usually employed conventional treatments for their sick animals.
Production of livestock could be increased by using proper scientific breeding and
feeding management practices and also by the used of modern technology. They
suggested to arrange special training programmes for rural females with the help
of trained women.
26
FAO (2005) reported that in Pakistan women were more active in watering,
feeding, collecting dung for fertilizer and fuel, caring of sick animals and making ghee
butter.
Sadaf (2005) concluded that more than 75 percent of the rural women of Tehsil
Faisalabad were involved in feeding of livestock, watering of animals and caring of
diseased animals, cleaning of animals sheds, collection of manure, making and storage of
dung cakes, milk processing, calf rearing. Further marketing of animals produce, fodder
carrying and brooding and breeding were the areas where the involvement of the women
was in the range of 20-50 percent.
UNDP (2006) surveyed in village named as Banda Golra that consists of about
120 households in areas of Pakistan. The most men in that village were day laborers
while the women played the traditional roles in the household apart from their little share
in making important decisions. In result of the women’s abandonment of using family
planning methods, most of the families were large. The men had the education till
primary while the majority of women were illiterate. Women, playing the multi folded
role, worked at home, managed livestock and fulfilled other household duties. A
recurrent problem in this area is to have access to water. The only water sources of the
village were two natural springs which were simultaneously fulfilling the needs of the
human beings, the village livestock and wild animals. The storage of drinking water was
the responsibility of women which consumed three to four hours of their working period
while another full day was for livestock and other household purpose, every week.
Hashmi (2008) conducted a study in the rural areas of the Punjab about “role of
livestock in poverty reduction” and found that most of the activities related to livestock
were performed by females. However, milking and fodder chopping were two activities
which were mainly performed by male members of the livestock farmers. Male members
only spent 2.83 hrs per day while female spent 4.71 hrs per day towards livestock
activities. As the women’s participation in various livestock related activities had
increased, the proportion of income from this source also increased and subsequently
poverty reduced.
27
Hassan (2008) conducted a study in district Muzaffargarh and reported that
livestock management activities were undertaken by husband and wife respondents
except making of dung cake which was never done by husband respondents. Husband
respondents prioritized fodder cutting and ranked 1st with mean 1.463 hours, with least
involvement in poultry raising was ranked 1st with 1.463 hours mean by wife
respondents, followed by watering the animals, churning and making ghee. The overall
mean showed that wife respondents were more involved in livestock management with
1.20 hours as compare to their husbands who had 1.142 hours meant.
Taj et al. (2009) held a survey in the district of Attock and found that women
were hundred percent responsible for daily household activities. Males generally did not
contribute to these daily routine household chores. Fuels collection, fetching water and
wheat cleaning for domestic use were also the main responsibilities of women. However,
marketing of vegetables output was male dominated as more that 90 percent of male were
involved in marketing of these commodities. Women had more involvement in milk,
ghee and poultry sale. Main reason for this distribution was that milk, ghee and poultry
were usually sold at village level while other commodities were usually sold to adjacent
areas/markets or out of village markets for which women did not participate.
Arshad (2009) conducted a study about “role of rural women in decision –making
regarding livestock management in Tehsil Jhang” and found that 100 percent female
participated in milk processing. Their contribution was 90, 87.5, 82.5, 77.5, 75.8, 72.5,
68.3 and 67.5 percent in making and storage of dung cakes, collection of manures, caring
of diseased animals, watering of animals, making feed concentrates and feeding of
livestock, cleaning of animal sheds, fodder chopping and calf rearing respectively.
2.3 WOMEN: POST HARVEST AND FOOD STORAGE SECTOR
2.3.1 Global Perspective - Worldwide Review
FAO (1996a) concluded that rural women owe the responsibility of half of the
world’s food production and in most of the developing countries, of 60-80 percent of
food. The staple crops including rice, wheat and maize were mainly produced by them.
These women were also having an involvement in sowing, weeding, fertilizer and
28
pesticide application, harvesting of crops along with thrashing and post harvest activities
such as storing, handling, stocking, processing and marketing to a greater extent.
In a report presented by CIDA (2004), it is informed that in Vietnam, the storing,
handling, stocking, processing and marketing of the crops were the responsibilities of the
rural women. The food is being prepared by the women for their families when the
women come back to their homes from the fields. The key role of women, in the
improvement of nutrition, increase of production, distribution of food and enhancement
of living conditions of rural people cannot be neglected. Women constitute sixty percent
of the world’s 1.2 billion poor. Women were becoming poorer day by day as the
percentage of women increased greatly below the poverty line by half since the 1970s, in
comparison with which the figure for men increased only by thirty percent.
2.3.2 Regional Perspective - South Asia
Michel and Satheesh (undated) reported that the farmers had been choosing and
preserving different varieties of seeds suited to their local environments since thousands
of years. Indian gene bank had recognized the recent threats to this important biodiversity
and had started working with the local farmers to produce indigenous varieties of seeds
with this strategy, the scientists from ICRISAT and women farmers from Andhra
Pradesh, jointly, started a research project to test multiple varieties of pigeon peas which
is considered the basic source of protein in this region of the world. With the recognition
of the fact that research stations could not reproduce local growing conditions, the
research was widened to the certification of new varieties along with the traditional
varieties. The equal participation and sharing by the locals in these tests show that the
local knowledge was also beneficial for the researchers. At the time of the harvesting of
crops, the farmers in groups were interviewed with an objective look of finding the
positive and negative aspects of each variety regarding pest resistance, plant growth, pod
production and pea flavor. Almost all participants seemed conscious of the need to plant
a number of different species in accordance to their relative resistance and production
characteristics. The insistence of female farmers was on the need of the maintenance of a
broad genetic diversity that can have a long term sustainability rather than short term
production of crops.
29
2.3.3 Local Perspective - Pakistan
Zaman and Khan (1987) concluded that women’s involvement in post harvest
operation was extensive as they took active part in thrashing, winnowing, drying,
grinding, husking and storage. They were equally participating in food storage in shape
of pickle and jam making at domestic level.
Panhwar (1998) reported that women in Pakistan agriculture can perform the
transplanting of vegetables, rice, and bare root plants, intercultivation of vegetables,
removal of weeds, picking of cotton, small fruits, vegetables, berries of all types,
harvesting of wheat, rice and other crops as good as their male counterparts. They
however excel men in all those operations which require squatting to carryout operations
near the ground and keep moving simultaneously. This was because the pelvic bone of
females has different angle with thigh bone and it makes women's movements easy in
that posture.
Saghir (2005) conducted a study about in Attock District and found that 96.7
percent female participated in seed cleaning. It was found that about 70.8, 70.0, 65.0,
63.3, 62.5, 60.0, and 58.3 percent female had contribution in wheat harvesting, wheat
baling, wheat thrashing, and vegetable production for domestic use, vegetable picking,
irrigating the vegetable, vegetable pest management and applying fertilizer to vegetables
respectively.
Haq (2007) conducted a study in district Multan and concluded that top frequently
performed roles by the cotton growers were; wheat storage for domestic consumption
(2.50) followed by spreading of wheat/paddy under sun (2.30) and wheat/paddy storage
in bins (2.19). While the least frequently performed roles by the cotton growers were;
drying and storage of vegetables (1.19), pulses storage (1.23); making earth bins (1.24)
and making pickles/marmalades (1.50). In case of cotton pickers the top frequently
performed roles were; spreading wheat/paddy under sun (2.40) making pickles/
marmalades (2.40); wheat cleaning (2.35) and taking cotton out of dead cotton balls
(2.30), while the least interested activities of cotton pickers were; making earth bins
(1.20), preparation of seed for different crops (1.21), and storage of pesticides.
30
Hassan (2008) conducted a study in district Muzaffargarh and reported that
husband and wife respondents were involved in all the activities related to post harvest
technology and food security. The main activity was wheat storage for home
consumption as ranked 1st by both husband and wife respondents with mean 1.534 hours
and 1.674 hours respectively. However, wives were much more interested as compared to
their husbands because they were responsible for household food security.
2.4 WOMEN AND HOME MANAGEMENT SECTOR
2.4.1 Global Perspective -Worldwide Review
Cloud (1985) stated while studying American women in the domestic setup that
although the individual living under the same roof had common interests, their objectives
could also be entirely different or even in some instances in the opposite directions. The
economic generalization of taking up a domestic utility function in which a family cares
for its own interests may not be best suited to certain members. It was also noted that
resource allocation within the families and decision making were not given due attention.
Bolabola (1988) noted that economic betterment and availability of newer
kitchen facilities had further burdened the Fijian women. They also had to assume some
of conventional male responsibilities like fishing and gathering wood for fuel purposes.
The uncaring work setup and the problems that rural women faced were attributed to the
entire absence of appropriate work tools and time efficient equipment. It was also
reasoned that suitable technical skill were required to reduce the physical labor and
hardships and for having a better economic status and quality of life for rural women.
Technical facilities provided under some public sector projects had certainly helped
reduce the physical burden of males instead of females. Thus it was proposed that the
women be given control of technical facilities right from the initial decision making
phase of the projects and of course provision of financial resources. Some proposals for
technology dissemination among countryside females were also made.
Kaul (1992) stated that it was well known the world over those women was
assigned diverse responsibilities. Such responsibilities like kitchen work, getting water,
31
milking the animals, milk processing and crop thrashing were selected for study in two
Nigerian states. Sampling surveys through Rapid Rural Appraisals were undertaken to
determine the magnitude of technical bottlenecks and other difficulties experienced by
women. The development of more efficient equipment was the major aim in order to
minimize female labor and there by gain more production along with leisure time made
available to the female workers for healthy activities of their choice. More emphasis was
laid on the modification of prevalent techniques using current infrastructure. Females
were involved individually or in groups during the project phase meant for development
of improved tools and techniques. Other cash generating activities such as preparation of
raw sugar and use of solar driers were introduced to create additional revenue during the
time saved by the use of efficient equipments. Possible care was observed to make sure
that newer technologies would not affect the traditional role of women.
2.4.2 Regional Perspective - South Asia
Indira (1998) stated that the women were increasingly moving from subsistence
farming to cash cropping, with greater participation in the market economy in Nepal. In
relative terms, it was the men who were controlling and spending more time in cash crop
farming and less in food crops production, resulting in a greater work burden and
vulnerability among women. Economic and social indicators describe greater incidence
of household poverty leading to absolute poverty victimizing and marginalizing women
the most. Gender division of labor and time use pattern shows women’s time allocation
and contribution to overall household income was much higher than that of men.
Singal (undated) reported that study of rural women activities with special focus
on the kitchen work in India, disclosed that there was an increasing trend of in house
labor because of no awareness about useful work simplifying skills. Their approach
towards the work was more costly in terms of efforts and time spent. Informal education
highlighting the simplified job, effort, stress and energy management can significantly
lower the physical labor cost and thus spare ample time and energy for additional
productive activities. In this regard, professionals specializing in family resource
management could help a lot via their extension wing. Study of the work environment
32
also came up with another disturbing disclosure. Kitchen chores were carried out in a
very unproductive setup with a complete lack of all basic facilities at the work place. The
useful work center idea regarding the setup of simple devices, cooking stove and storage
facility were totally absent. The use of garbage bin, provision of water near the food
preparation center which could save unnecessary strain on the kitchen worker were also
absent. Mass education plans in such areas could be made a part of rural programmes
affected through television and radio.
Prakash (2003) observed that women carry out almost all the domestic work on
the top of their role in out door productive activities. This implies that women for the
most part worked a double day. This all happened in an environment where women
performed a work that was although important but at the same time remained invisible,
under valued, unrecognized and unfortunately unpaid.
2.4.3 Local Perspective - Pakistan
Sustainable Development Department of FAO (2001) reported that rural
economies were heterogeneous and complex. Household members carry out numerous
activities with a view to satisfy their needs and safeguard subsistence. Males and females
performed different jobs and differ in terms of the roles assumed, making decisions and
availability of productive resources along with agricultural facilities. It suggests that
technology which was suitable for males could also have same utility for females. As
regards the reproductive sphere, the division of labour tends to be somewhat rigid.
Women were responsible for carrying out the greater part of such tasks as tending the
kitchen, garden, hauling fuel wood, supplying water, educating children and feeding the
family. In the productive sphere, however, there was greater flexibility in the distribution
of labour between men and women. In general, women work alone or alongside men in
sowing, fertilizing, weeding, harvesting, processing, selling etc.
Sultana et al. (1994) studied the time spent by employed and unemployed rural
females in Pakistan. They observed that working women shouldered a greater
responsibility of household jobs. On an average working females spent 19 hours a week
in market related jobs and 28 hours a week in domestic chores. In contrast unemployed
33
females put 16 hours a week in domestic activities. The females staying at home were
more prosperous and they could afford leisure hours.
Haq (2007) indicated that cotton growers (male) were found to be engaged in jobs
like assisting in the in house assignments with mean value (1.63); brining water for
domestic/home consumption (1.29); washing of clothes (1.08); preparing /cooking and
serving of meal (1.06); sweeping the house (1.00); washing the utensils (0.96) and
making /cooking and serving the breakfast to family members (0.94). While in case of
cotton pickers (female) were involved in all the activities mentioned above with mean
values ranging from 2.99 to 2.00 on the given scale (NA/Never = 0; Very occasionally =
1; Occasionally = 2; Frequently = 3).
Hassan (2008) carried out a study in Muzaffargarh District suggesting that
involvement of wife respondents in household chores was too much higher than husband
respondents. Husband respondents were ranked 1st (mean 0.355) for taking poultry birds
in and out of the shed and heating an oven was ranked 2nd with mean value (0.310). The
responses of wife respondents were ranked making and serving meal to the family
members in whole day 1st and 2nd with 1.814 and 1.798 mean, respectively.
2.4.4 Synthesis
World Bank (2003) reported that eighty-nine percent of poor and non-poor
households were satisfied with water quantity, as were 90 and 88 percent of male and
female respondents respectively. Regarding water quality, poor and non-poor households
were about equally satisfied (85 percent and 84 percent respectively); however, female
respondents were more satisfied than male respondents (90 versus 81 percent). Similarly,
both poor and non-poor were satisfied with arrangements for fetching water (89 versus 87
percent), while female respondents were less satisfied than males (82 versus 92 percent).
These differences could reflect the more direct involvement of women in water
collection, and thus the bigger role they play in their daily routine. As they, with their
children, were the ones who spent time in collecting water every day, they might be more
aware of its quality and more affected by inconveniences related to location and fetching
arrangements. Fifty-five percent of non-poor households versus 43 percent of poor
34
households said they used separate cups for scooping water from containers and for
drinking (and 50 percent of poor women versus 38 percent of poor men). Eighty-five
percent of non-poor versus 77 percent of poor households indicated that they washed
hands before cooking, along with 87 percent of women and 77 percent of men.
UNDP (2006) stated that all human being daily needed water for drinking, food
preparation, bathing, sanitizing, washing cloths, and living spaces. To ensure supply of
requisite water for everyone in the family women world vide have a major role to play.
Generally, they managed domestic water sources and in certain instances had to bring
water from far off locations. Since they carry out most of the domestic jobs, it is quite
understandable that they utilize more water in and outside the house. In terms of finding
solutions women could only suggest something suitable and sustainable when they had
been given a decision making role. Benefiting from the females’ skills and capabilities in
household water management could also help address the gender inequities in a society.
Traditional plans for water supply sector were normally gender-insensitive and under
estimated the women requirements and their contributions to this discipline. The
awareness of women regarding water resources and multiple water usage were often over
looked. When given access to water resources the females would have more time at their
disposal for child minding and economic pursuits that would invariably upgrade the lives
of their families in addition to their own health and safer existence. The area of potable
water supply was the only one that paid some heed towards the females since they had to
carry potable water walking long distances in several countries. The struggle aimed at
improving the water supply mechanism helped the gender based plan that took into
consideration changing social setup and its effect upon the way the both genders utilize
and manage water resources.
2.5 WOMEN AND CHILD CARE
2.5.1 Global Perspective - Worldwide Review
Helen (1984) reported that in developing countries there was no clear evidence of
differentials in child survival rates associated with the education of mothers. Data from
Latin America, Africa and Asia all divulged an inverse relationship between the mothers’
education and child mortality; although the amount of education required producing a
35
significant reduction in mortality varies from culture to culture. He also mentioned that
the evidence of a relationship between women role and the mortality of their children was
much harder to obtain and to interpret and to study such relationship one should ideally
had the data for each child extending from birth to age five, or to death where that came
first.
Alice (1994) reported that in USA limited information was available concerning
rural families selection and used of child care. He also reported that while some
dimensions of the problems in rural child care were known, little information was
available to help professionals develop services that fit the needs of rural families.
Variables of race, ethnicity, family income, mothers’ income, and children’s ages had
been shown to influence the child care in general, but information about the influence of
these variables on rural families was limited, with even less data available to compare
rural and urban families. He also reported that maternal employment was major reason
for using supplemental child care.
2.5.2 Regional Perspective- South Asia
Mencher (l988) concluded that most useful aspect of women employment was the
enhanced availability of resources for child care. The data from rural areas of Tamil Nadu
and Kerala were graphically represented. It was not an issue of extra money added to the
family revenues but in reality what mattered was the person who generated the income.
While the household income obviously improved, a larger chunk of woman’s income
would go for child welfare. Therefore, female earnings had a more likelihood of being
used for child benefits than the similar income generated by the male subjects.
Basu and Basu (1991) pointed out the down side of female employment in India
revealing that the despite its material benefits, a higher level of child mortality was
recorded among working women than the ones who did not have a job. They investigated
various underlying mechanisms for this phenomenon and inferred that insufficient time
was one of the main factors for this negative relationship between women employment
and survival of the kids. However, even within the child survival there was a zone that
36
was more affected by female jobs. It was the survival of female infants particularly
characteristics of South Asia. This was incompatible with the effect of mother education
which often had no relationship to the child mortality sex ratio despite the fact that the
child mortality figures were lower among the educated women. It was also suggested in
this study that the kinds of employment needed to be investigated in order to minimize
this negative relationship between women jobs and child survival.
Prakash (2003) disclosed that women were consistently outnumbering the males
in terms of global illiteracy with a ratio of 3:2, although an ongoing increase in school
enrollments was closing the gap and thus reversing the trend.
2.5.3 Local Perspective - Pakistan
Ali (2001) pointed out that despite lower Pakistani female participation in the
work force the incidence of kids’ mortality was greater for the working women in
contrast to the unemployed females. Quite understandably the issue of child mortality
was graver in rural females instead of the employed urban females. It could possibly be
attributed to the fact that women hailing from rural areas are given a helping role in the
fields receiving no cash to render the needed health care for their ailing offspring. The
availability of clean drinking water also significantly contributed towards the infant life
expectancy.
Perveen (2001) stated that around 52 percent of the study subjects had number of
male kids ranging from 1 to 2, whereas 30 percent, 10.8 percent and 7.5 percent
respondents had 3-4, no male and 5-6 numbers of children respectively. Whereas in case
of female children she found that 46.6 percent of the respondents had 1-2 female
children, while 27.5 percent of the respondents had 3-4 female children, whereas 14.1
percent of the respondents had 5-6 female children. Only 11.6 percent of the respondents
had no female children.
Haq (2007) revealed that cotton growers (male) took their children to the doctor
for medical check up or any health problem or vaccination against communicable
diseases with a mean value (1.89); nursing of sick children (1.79); giving medicine to
37
sick children (1.60); hair cutting/dressing of children from barber (1.57); making bath of
their children (1.31) and doing massage to their children (1.05). The cotton pickers
(female) were maximum 2.85 to a involved in the same activities with mean values
ranging from a minimum of 1.94 to a maximum of 2.85.
2.5.4 Synthesis
Cagatay (1998) stated that measures aimed at redirecting the responsibility of
reproductive labor towards the males within the family setup of sharing the price of child
care or other types of care provision were badly needed in order to fight the poverty
among women and simultaneously help them partake in the labor more effectively.
2.6 WOMEN AND EDUCATION 2.6.1 Global Perspective - Worldwide Review
Calamat et al. (2000) came up with the conclusion that women could assume an
important role in improving the societies they lived in. For this end, they should be given
equal opportunities in areas like education, jobs, decision making roles and health care in
order to have them more useful citizens, mothers and spouses.
Lugalambi and George (1992) reported that with increasing share of women in
agricultural operations, there was a demand enhances their role in women organizations
in order to address their concerns effectively.
Manuh (1998) reported that insufficient education and technical skills were
pointed as major restrictions in the way of female employment and progress in a
community. It was cited that in year 1996 illiteracy among African females was more
than 60 percent, while the figure for their male counter parts was 41 percent. The
Scenario in other African countries is even worse; Guinea 86.6 percent Chad 82 percent
Sierra Leone 89 percent and Burkina Faso 91 percent. Literacy measures for women
generated trivial output, while projects related to the income generating activities had
better success rate. In several African communities parents still prefer educating their
male kids, while considering little importance of education for their female offspring.
38
Further more, issues like early marriage and pregnancy coupled with excessive in house
labor obstructed their opportunity to education.
Nashif (2000) reported that the technological education was more effective than
general education in improving social mobility in Middle East Countries. Remarkable
gender disparities currently exist in overall enrollment as more women enroll in
technological education, it would lead to higher percentage of women in higher paying
jobs, with the consequences of enhanced social status, security and mobility.
AUC (2004) while studying the difficulties hindering female education
discovered that within and outside the school, the problems existed were of socio-cultural
and economic nature. Poverty was identified as the root cause of most of the problems.
The economic side of the problem included school fees, uniforms and limited slots. Long
home to school distances accompanied by water and sanitation problems further impeded
the female education.
2.6.2 Regional Perspective - South Asia
Rajput et al. (2001) conducted a study on the landless labor, and various
categories of farmers like marginal, small and large, on the basis of their age, family
members, dependent members, size of arable holdings and of course education. The
result showed that family size did not have significant variation and a percentage of
farmer types within the category were evenly distributed. Majority of the farmers were
educated (92.5 percent) and the highest illiteracy was recorded in the landless individuals,
while the large farmers had lowest figures in terms of illiteracy. No significant variation
existed regarding the assets of landless individuals and small and marginal farmers.
Licuanan (2004) observed that the importance of female education has been
recognized during past two decades world over. The women training and education was a
critical issue. Governments committed their resources in an effort to ensure equal
opportunities of education alleviating women illiteracy, providing them vocational
trainings along with technical and adult education, fighting discriminations, earmarking
ample resources for evaluation of education reforms and furthering life time training for
39
women and girls. The importance of higher education for women was not recognized at
most of the global development echelon for decades. The female graduates must be taken
as an integral part of the human resource of a country. These discriminatory traditions in
education and career were unfair and waste of a valuable resource. Higher education in
women gains substantial economic output through higher productivity and family
income. Although the merits of educating females for the benefit of societies and families
were well recognized, the role of education in removing gender prejudice and directly
benefiting the women was yet to be established. It was of course accepted that the
education improves female well being, their role in decision making, more opportunities
for participation in community affairs and work force along with greater freedom to re-
assess the state of their lives.
The Hindu (2004) reported that education and women's empowerment go hand in
hand. Educational tools and programmes should include a human element specifically
aimed at empowering women. Though noticeable results had been achieved, gender
disparities continued to persist, more so in rural areas and among disadvantaged
communities. He reported that women should be enabled to exercise their rights. He
observed that despite implementing women education programmes in the country, men
accounted for 75.85 per cent of the total educated manpower, followed by women at
54.16 per cent, which was an indicator of gender discrimination.
2.6.3 Local Perspective-Pakistan
Hina and Hamid (undated) stated that in Pakistan, women were absolutely
subordinate to their spouses and their role was mainly limited to child care and
miscellaneous household jobs. They were rarely given an access to potential resources
and had a limited or no role in important family decision making. Important issues
pertaining the life of a woman such as education, job, spouse selection and marriage,
purchases, having kids and their numbers were all male discretions. Their insignificance
in the family setup was clearly visible through their higher illiteracy, poor school
enrollment, fewer skill enhancement opportunities and low participation in politico-
economic affairs.
40
Naz (1997) concluded that 54.0 percent of the respondents were illiterate with no
history to attend school, followed by 22.7 percent who had completed primary school
education, 7.3 percent middle and 10 percent who were matric (10th grade education).
She further reported that 35.5 percent of the respondent’s husband had matric school
education, 29.3 percent had higher education, 11.3 percent had middle school education,
and 7.3 percent had some primary school education. The remaining 16.7 percent of the
respondents’ husbands were illiterate with no history of attending the school.
Burki (2000) claimed that relationship between social development and education
might not be as clear as the one between economic up-gradation and education. He
opined that this relationship was quite valuable. The economic growth of Pakistan can be
attributed to its political backwardness and the sluggish political growth of the country
resulted from miserably low literacy levels, particularly in rural areas and among the
female populations.
Hussain (2000) said that education was an essential element in human
development and that was why children went to school. He concluded about the general
perception that education and work were mutually exclusive, and was fallacious and
misleading, but this was particularly true of the situation prevalent in poor countries like
Pakistan, child labor was a common phenomenon of developing societies. Work and
education has a parallel relation in poor countries, where a substantial number of children
had been forced in labour out of sheer necessity.
Irfan (2000) found that husband’s education/occupation was often regarded as an
indicator of household income. Participation rate of the wives of professional
administrative and clerical staff was less than 5 percent. In contract, more than 13 percent
of the wives of agricultures, service men, artisans and production workers were reported
to be in the labour force. Most of these females were also engaged as self-employed in
the occupations of their husband. On the other hand, the wives of professional were
employed predominantly in white-collar occupation, because of their easier access to
these jobs due to their husband’s social contacts. Bivariate relationship between females
employed and some of the major explanatory variables such as age, education and
41
husband’s education, land income and occupation imply that self employment has a
dominant mode of employment which differs in terms of household characteristics. In
order to test that self employed females constitute a statistically different class, a number
of discriminating variables were used to assess their nature of associations with different
categories.
Khan (2002) stated that female education was more important than the male.
Female had an active participation in every field especially in several income generating
activities like agriculture, livestock, medicine, education and handicrafts making. They
contributed greatly toward family and country’s income. They need proper training to
bring up of coming generations. It was extremely discouraging that 90 million girls
across the world had never gone to school.
Ghayur (2003) observed that education has a positive impact on the female job
opportunities. Universal female education combined with training programmes in
activities like sewing, embroidery, knitting, carpet-making and other vocational skills
were strongly recommended. Increased female education should be considered a social
asset, as it plays an important role in developing character. Moreover, their education will
help to make them aware of the current and future problems of the country.
Rizvi (2003) quoted the criticism on the Govt. of Pakistan on denying the
commitment from spending 50 percent of total allocations on female education that
adversely affect the vigorous effort of elimination of discrimination against women at
family, community and social levels. The low literacy rate of women was one of the main
causes of gender disparities that perpetuate from tribal, feudal and patriarchal structures.
Sandhu et al. (2005) conducted a study on “effect of socio-economic factors on
the female education in rural areas of Faisalabad”. Majority of the respondents belonged
to medium income group (Rs.12000 to 24000). Majority of respondents (91 percent) had
a favorable attitude towards sending their male children to school, while 63 percent of the
respondents were in favor of school education for their daughters. About 59 to 78 percent
of the respondents strongly disagreed to female education as it was against our family
42
traditions and there was no difference between a son and daughter if they were educated.
Parents must be made aware of the benefits of higher education through mass media, so
that they may be able to motivate their daughters for higher education. Different technical
training programs like knitting and sewing i.e., vocational teaching centers, poultry
farming and kitchen gardening etc. should be started in rural areas in order to acquaint the
rural females with the importance and utility of the education.
Haq (2007) reported that the literacy rate among cotton growers was almost 76
percent which indicated a sign of development, but situation was much frustrating
regarding literacy rate among cotton pickers, which was approximately 27 percent. It
indicates an alarming situation for the government and the Pakistani community.
Practical need based action programme was required to improve the literacy rate among
rural women such as cotton pickers.
Nosheen et al. (2008) conducted a study in district Chakwal and found that
females were more illiterate as compare to the males. They further reported that majority
of the wife respondents (72.0 percent) were illiterate. Among the literate most of (16.0
percent) the respondents were up to primary-middle, 10.5 percent were up to matriculate
and only 1.5 percent was above matriculate.
Afzal et al. (2009) conducted a study in District Okara and found that majority of
the respondents (79.58 percent) were illiterate. Among the rest of respondents 11.25
percent, 6.88 percent and 2.29 percent fell in the category of primary middle and
matriculate respectively.
Arshad (2009) conducted a study in Tehsil Jhang and found that half (50 percent)
of the respondents were illiterate and the remaining 50 percent were literate/educated.
Among the literates, most (31.7 percent) of the respondents were up to primary, 14.2
percent were primary to middle and only 4.2 percent were middle to matriculate.
43
2.7 WOMEN AND INFORMATION SOURCES
2.7.1 Global Perspective-Worldwide Review
Real (1996) examined the interaction between popular culture and the mass
media. He investigated the cultural role of media and contents as a means of helping the
public to become more skilled ‘reader’ of media.
Wougnet (2002) stated that entertainment, mass communication and information
were as crucial for rural people as for the ones from urban areas. As a matter of fact there
was a growing demand for communication and information equipment and services in
rural Uganda. Communication and information techniques can be categorized as either
conventional (e.g., television, radio, and print media) or modern (e.g., internet and
electronic mail). It was generally appreciated that communication and information
techniques could help opening up the channels of communication for the dissemination of
existing and new information and knowledge in the rural communities. However the
major obstacles faced were in the areas of access to information and skill transfer along
with equipment operation.
Adeokun et al. (2003) examined the information means accessible by women
engaged in fisheries regarding the newer techniques and innovations in Lagos, Nigeria.
Multi stage random sampling was used to select 350 individuals. Data was collected
through in person interviews. The results manifested that 42 percent of the females got
information from women associations. It was further revealed that media tools were
inefficient in terms of information spread among the females working in the fish industry
across the Lagos state.
Raad and Agahi (2003) conducted a study in 11 provinces of Iran and reported the
preferences given by rural women for different sources of information. The important
information sources recognized by these women were; women resource center 44 percent
acquaintances and neighbors (46 percent) and magazines and journals (51 percent). The
agricultural literature turned out to be an insignificant source of information (23 percent)
44
2.7.2 Regional Perspective - South Asia
Pezeshki-Raad et al. (2003) stated that respondents (rural women in Iran) were
inquired about the reliable information sources other than extension and response was;
women resource center (44 percent), neighbors and acquaintances (46 percent) and
journals and magazines (51 percent). However, scientific literature was considered
insignificant source of information (23 percent). In case of audio-visuals, rural females
considered video films as most useful (59 percent), followed by real demonstrations (30
percent), multimedia projector (17 percent) and conventional slide projector (14 percent).
Siva and Trikha (2002) concluded that the percentage of the respondents
subscribing to newspapers/magazines/books was only 37.14 percent. As regards media
tools a great number of respondents opted for television (97.14 percent) followed by
video films (88.57 percent) and print media (57.14 percent).
2.7.3 Local Perspective - Pakistan
Rahim (1963) pointed out that printed material was an effective channel of
communication as substantial number of farmers came in contact with the extension wing
of Agriculture Department, Punjab through distribution of such material.
Ayaz (1993) reported that mass media (print and electronic) were effective tools
for introducing new ideas, concepts and technology to the farm families and motivating
them to seek further information from their peers or from extension workers.
Hussain (1993) highlighted the role of mass media particularly for women in
diffusion and adoption of modern cropping techniques. However, he identified the dearth
of research on the diffusion process in socio-cultural setting of Pakistan. He suggested for
a reliable body of research on the diffusion process to formulate policies for an effective
mass communication programme.
Rafiq (1997) identified the role of mass media as source of information in every
sphere of life, particularly in the farming sector to enhance productivity.
45
Jamshad (1998) found that about half of the respondents were of the view that
broadcast media presented introductory type agricultural programme. One fourth of the
respondents watched TV, where as 12.3 percent and 10 percent read newspapers and
agricultural magazines respectively.
Malik (2000) concluded that the fellow farmers, shopkeepers, television and radio
were the main sources of information for the adoption of improved agricultural
technology. He found that majority of the respondents were satisfied to some extent with
agricultural information diffused through mass media (Radio, T.V, Magazines), which
were perceived useful in increasing agricultural production to great extent by 17.5
percent and to some extent by 48.36 percent of the respondents.
Nazam (2000) found that 60.8 percent of the respondents became aware of
modern agricultural technology through their fellow farmers, 21.6 percent were informed
through radio/TV, while extension workers, newspapers and agricultural magazines
served as sources of information for 23.3, 13.3 and 3.3 percent of the respondents
respectively.
Mahmood and Sheikh (2005) in their newspaper article “Crop yields from new
technologies” stated that for the creation of awareness and motivation for the adoption of
new technologies, personal contacts played a vital role, but this was impossible to reach
each and every farmer at crucial stages of crop production and at that time mass media
was seen as the best solution of the problem. Each source of mass media was beneficial
for specific target groups. Educated farmers benefited from print and electronic media
like newspaper, books, radio, TV and Internet, which took very short time in the
dissemination of information. Currently radio and TV were widely used but having a
problem of broadcasting of agricultural information at inappropriate time of the day.
Haq (2007) conducted a study in district Multan and indicated that majority of the
cotton farmers (with a mean value 2.48) relied upon plant pesticide dealers as information
source pertaining the cotton pests, followed by individuals using television (with a mean
value 1.42) as a source of awareness. Cotton growers (with the mean value of 1.19)
46
consulted extension workers/agriculture officials for pest management and pesticide
related hazards. As regards the cotton pickers (women) most of them (with a mean value
of 2.37) used their female’s friendships for gaining awareness about pesticides and
related issues. They also benefited from neighborhoods (1.45) and various relations
(1.39) for the same purpose.
Hassan (2008) conducted a study in District Muzaffargarh and reported that none
of the wife respondents utilized Agriculture Department (Extension Wing), private
agencies and pesticides dealer as a source of information. Husband respondents ranked
“friends” 1st (with a mean value of 1.173), where as wife respondents ranked “relatives”
1st (with a mean value of 0.741) respectively.
2.8 WOMEN AND AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
2.8.1 Global Perspective - Worldwide Review
Hashem (1997) based on his study conducted in Yemen recommended that
committed workers were needed for provision of successful extension services to women.
Local women once trained didn’t face many problems. Most of the time a revised
Training and Visit (T and V) procedure was adopted in the following manner: The
extension worker first approached the community Shaykh to let him know the activity
plans and sought his permission to conduct the extension process with in the village. The
Shaykh then made arrangements for the first session with the rural females and in some
instances at the home place of trainees.
Katrine et al. (1999) affirmed that use of media tools like radio, and
videocassettes were helpful during face-to-face extension. They produced inexpensive
and cost effective way of disseminating agriculture related info among the farming
communities and in particular useful when the training subjects were illiterate. It was
suggested that native accent be used and radio message be preceded by extension worker
visits.
Qammar (2000) stated that contribution of male and female farmers towards the
extension programs was not very encouraging since majority of the countries in the
47
region followed the top-down models for agriculture extension since long time. He
proposed the requisite training material and modules be synthesized for extension
officials and other stakeholders. Likewise situation specific participatory extension
techniques should be prepared keeping in view the socio-religious and cultural traditions.
The extension workers should have the ability to assemble specified interest groups of
female and male farmers aiming at their empowerment so that they could utilize their
group strength while applying for bank credit, getting the needed inputs, creating an
environment for extension services and to garner farming and marketing support
whenever required.
Budak et al. (2001) derived from their study that on time transfer of information
in the scattered mountainous villages was quite a tough task as the governmental
enterprises carried very little resources at their disposal. Extension and veterinary
services tried to reach a wide variety of farmers in order to offer free of cost training
courses and field demonstrations of useful techniques. Another extension related issue
experienced was the socio-cultural barrier facing the women. The extension workers’
gender mattered a lot in the rural communities. The female farmers won’t get comfortable
with the male extension staff and around 45 percent of them would prefer receiving
training from the women extension workers. It was also realized that extension materials
and events should be prepared keeping in view the training recipients’ education and
Intellectual Quotient (IQ) level in addition to their specific requirements. It was noticed
that 70 percent of the women folks lacked education thus relatively more field
demonstrations extension sessions, audiovisual events accompanied by television and
radio programs be organized.
Goldey et al. (2001) found in their study that considering the agriculture
extension services offered to the Turkish women, it was clearly visible that females were
not taken by both public and private organizations as main contributor towards national
development. It was also observed that females were taken as secondary elements for the
community development. Women’s role was often confined to helping the spouse even if
he was and absentee farmer.
48
Othman and Martin (2001) emphasized that despite the fact that women farmers
were numerically way more than their male counterparts and undertook several important
farm operations; they got very little if any agriculture extension service in the Egypt. The
reasons for this untoward scenario included: (1) Cultural limitations hindering the contact
between two genders. (2) Gender discrimination in the usage of agricultural techniques.
(3) Lower yields from the women owned farms and (4) Fewer women professionals in
the agriculture extension.
SAGE and Doi Moi (2006) reported that public sector reforms in Vietnam have
opened up opportunities but the beneficiaries did not include equal numbers of males and
females. They investigated various cases where men and women were involved in the
resource usage and management, access and control over the mangroves and the conflicts
between the haves and have nots resulting from the coastal aquaculture resources in a
North Vietnamese village.
World Bank (undated) disclosed that women contributed up to 60-80 percent of
the Nigerian agriculture work force varying with regions and generated around two third
of the food commodities. Despite this factual position, a general notion prevailed that
males instead of the females conducted major farming operations. Consequently the
agriculture extension services in Nigeria like other African countries were mainly
focused on males while the females were neglected for the most part. Most the extension
packages meant for women were aimed at their in-house role like family nutrition and
child care.
2.8.2 Regional Perspective - South Asia
Rahman (1998) reported that there was an acute shortage of information on the
effects of modern agricultural technology on rural women in Bangladesh. An analysis of
the behavior determining the adoption of modern technology indicated lack of women's
participation in technology adoption decisions. An examination of the determinants of
labor demand indicated that an increased labor demand was met with more female family
labor, thereby increasing the women's workload. A decentralized crop diversification
policy coupled with a policy of equal minimum wage for men and women could promote
49
women's employment opportunities. Also, gender-sensitive educational programs through
collaborations between government and NGOs could work towards a balanced
development in the long run.
Rahman (2003) reported that extension and education sessions were instrumental
in improving awareness. The awareness and understanding were obviously better among
farmers from the developed areas, fertile lands and the folks with off-farm incomes.
Strengthening the extension services and promotion of education would improve
environmental awareness among the farmers. Measures aimed at replenishing the steadily
exhausting soil fertility along with infrastructure development would certainly have a
positive role in boosting an overall know how.
2.8.3 Local Perspective - Pakistan
World Bank (2003) reported that Pakistan had a male dominated agricultural
extension system, which did not cater to the needs of the women who constituted bulk of
the country’s farming population. Neither did the extension service employ female
extension agents, nor it had any women focused extension programs. This pointed to one
of the principal issues, which imperils the extension systems efficiency. Due to cultural
limitation, the male extension agents’ communication with women was not considered
desirable.
Sadaf (2005) reported that majority of rural women were in favor of agricultural
extension services for them. With regard to crop production, high assistance was needed
in the areas like storage, plant protection and sowing. Transplanting, intercultural
operations, drying and picking of cotton were the areas where medium assistance was
required by the respondents, while harvesting, manure/fertilizer application, winnowing,
thrashing, husking and land preparation/tilling were the areas where respondents needed
relatively low assistance. In livestock sector, rural women needed high assistance in
caring of diseased animals, feeding, calf rearing and making feed concentrate as
compared to proper use of manure, watering of animals and milking where medium
assistance was needed by the respondents. Milk processing, cleaning animal sheds,
making animal sheds, fodder cutting, breeding and fodder chopping were the areas in
50
which relatively less assistance was required from the extension agencies. In poultry
production caring of diseased birds, feeding and brooding were the most important areas
in which rural women needed high assistance, hatching and watering were the areas
where medium assistance was needed, while management of poultry boxes, making
poultry boxes and egg collection/storage were the areas where relatively low assistance
was needed from extension organizations for better poultry production.
Nosheen et al. (2008) concluding her study in Chakwal District, recommend that
rural home economics extension service in the district for the education and uplift of rural
women should be established. Female graduates in agriculture should be encouraged to
work as extension workers (Agriculture Officers) in Agriculture Department (Extension
& Adaptive Research) by providing additional pay benefits. The trained women
professionals should be encouraged to serve as trainers and managers in agricultural
development.
Afzal et al. (2009) conducted a study in Okara and reported that extension
services in Pakistan were limited to men than women because of different reasons. First
insufficient agricultural advice or the benefits, such as seeds and credit. Second extension
staff professionals were male, third our customs and norms of segregation, fourth
domestic responsibilities and lack of mobility and ignorance of actual contribution of
women.
Amin et al. (2009) conducted a study in Tehsil Faisalabad and viewed that women
farmers received very limited services from extension. The major reasons were: lack of
extension services for women, local cultural values, prohibiting women to attend
extension meetings, and heavy involvement in household chores.
2.9 WOMEN AND TRAINING NEEDS
2.9.1 Global Perspective - Worldwide Review
FAO (1997a) reported that the training about agriculture production in Rome
consisted of five to eight days in the classroom to introduce the theoretical and
methodological aspects of PRA and Gender Analysis, and eight to ten days in the field
51
with practical exercise and application of the chosen tools in selected village
communities. The location of the field exercise was selected jointly by regional and
district staff. Village leaders and residents were responsible for selecting the villages
where the PRA clinic was to be concentrated. Field exercises included community
meetings between villagers and the visiting PRA team, determination of the preferred
location, wealth ranking and household interviews, focus group interviews, problem
identification, and designing of community action plans. The project has proven that the
field of agricultural development has a strong need for training in gender-sensitive
participatory rural appraisal methods such as PRA and Gender Analysis. This training
should raise awareness of the importance of participatory and gender-sensitive needs
assessment and agricultural planning.
FAO (1997b) A study conducted by FAO recommended that:
1. Target extension and other services to various social groups, especially
female headed households.
2. Develop a menu of extension modules for women farmers to choose from,
and gear extension activities to suit their timing and needs.
3. Give priority to technology development for women’s time saving
4. Deliver extension messages that match the varied activities of women, and
collaborate with other agencies as needed.
5. Facilitate women’s access to agricultural support services provided by
NGOs and others.
6. Increase access to inputs by encouraging village boutiques run by women
to stock inputs and tools. Other strategies that had proved to be successful
for fostering gender equity in the delivery of extension services in the
Sahel.
7. Free standing, multi-sect rural women in development projects. For
example, the Gambia project which enabled units under the Agricultural
Ministry to increase their focus on women farmers.
8. WID coordinators and women’s units that address the needs of women
farmers and livestock producers.
52
9. Training of extension agents to raise gender awareness and emphasize
gender issues in their work
10. Training of rural minorities and women as agricultural agents.
Kurwijila (1990) re-assessed the women’s share towards agricultural output in
Africa and particularly in Tanzania, emphasizing the reality that women produced food
commodities by using manual tools like hand-hoe. A study regarding the use of suitable
technical devices in the rural Tanzania, divulged that women were either ignorant of the
available technologies or deemed it too costly for their requirements. The establishment
of rural centers for women training was recommended along with enhanced role of
female professionals in the design and dissemination of suitable technologies aiming at
improved agricultural outputs.
Rollins and Scalon (1992) described the members’ background information in
their article “The learning styles of youth in non-formal agricultural education programs”.
The sample (539) comprised 238 males (44 percent) and 301 females (56 percent). About
half of the females choose animal sciences as their putative project while one third would
go for projects such as plant sciences.
Ajayi (2003) performed a study inquiring about the training needs of women
farmers in Oyo state Nigeria along with promotion of suitable extension plans for women
empowerment and poverty alleviation. Multi stage random sampling was used for
selection of 171 women farmers who were later interviewed using 31 Proforma.
Inferences based on analyzed data revealed that on the average women farmers were
about 38 year of age. Around 72 percent of them were educated with varying levels of
literacy. An over all farming experience was about 11.24 years. The average farm size of
the respondents was about 3.82 hectares and annual income of N.9701.75 from
agriculture and N.5830.41 from miscellaneous sources. It was also observed that women
engaged in farming activities had little knowledge and skill level required for carrying
out farming maneuvers, use of herbicides and pest management, use of organic fertilizer,
breed selections for poultry and livestock and construction of animal sheds.
53
2.9.2 Regional Perspective - South Asia
Lugalambi & George (1992) emphasized that dairy farming was an important
development avenue for fighting poverty among rural masses. In this regard interview
results from communication with female dairy farmers of Tamil Nadu Bihar and Gujrat,
India were presented. For women cash income was only one of the several factors
recognized as the value of dairy cattle farming. Dung provided much needed organic
fertilizer for farm lands. Income generated from dairy farming was consistent unlike the
one from agricultural commodities. The health status of entire family improved through
the continuous milk availability. The calf sales were also an important income source.
Women also spoke about the improvement of their social standing in the rural
community. They were taken as someone having made success stories and were often
requested for advice. They liked helping others and often pushed the ones seeking their
assistance to apply for livestock purchase credit. Self dependence increased as they
abandoned their reliance on moneylenders. Their training needs in terms of animal health,
breeding, nutrition and recordkeeping were also noted.
Prakash (2003) conducted a study to identify the training needs of farmers with
regard to sugarcane production technology using data collected from 60 sugarcane
growers from Barabanki district of Utter Pradesh (India). The results showed that 61
percentage of the farmers perceived training needs in all recommended practices of
sugarcane cultivation. Further, about 82 percent of farmers perceived training needs in
the identification of insects and their control followed by identification of diseases and
their control (79 percent), time and method of planting (76 percent) , proper use of
implement/ machinery (71 percent), recommended doses and application of fertilizers (68
percent) and treatment of seed (67 percent). This kind of training for sugarcane producing
female farmer community could be imparted either “on campus” and/ or “off campus” by
utilizing various training and extension methods to increase the production of sugarcane.
2.9.3 Local Perspective - Pakistan
Farooq et al. (2000) studied the effect of training imparted to female farmers
regarding the backyard poultry keeping by extension workers in Mardan areas. These
54
trainings included skill enhancement about breeding, production of high value stocks,
caring the chicks, feeding, housing, hygienic practices and disease control. They noticed
that as a result of such trainings, backyard chicken keeping by the female farmers has
significantly improved. Over all utilization of the recommended techniques was also
found encouraging.
A subsidiary of FAO known as Sustainable Development Department (2000)
prepared a report on rural women from developing countries. In Pakistan it was noted
that most of the UN funded projects on agriculture mainly focused at the skill
development among women in areas like potato seeds preparation, preservation, and
storage related expertise. Income producing activities included training the women folks
in poultry farming, goat farming and production of vegetables. At the same time FAO
was busy training the rural women in agriculture related income generating activities and
enhanced availability of improved seeds to the women farmer, fruit-drying skills and
information and techniques needed to control plant diseases. Several donor agencies
working under UNIFEM have strengthened organized efforts to carry out gender
sensitization through a national team of trainers having suitable knowledge of gender
awareness and analysis. The Dutch Embassy in Islamabad funded a project for training
female extension workers in Pakistan.
Ghayur (2003) observed that the level of education had a positive effect on female
labour employment. Universal female education combined with training programs in
activities like sewing, embroidery, knitting, carpet-making and other vocational skills
were strongly recommended. Moreover, their education will help to make them aware of
the current and future problems of the country.
2.10 WOMEN AND INCOME GENERATION ACTIVITIES
Women have involved themselves in various activities and have been generating
some income since old times. In this modern age it has become more important that they
must be involved in income generating activities so that they may be able to improve
55
their standard of living. Women participation in all fields of life has become a reality of
the time in this global village.
2.10.1 Global Perspective - Worldwide Review
IFAD (1995) in China found that in the past fifty years structural reforms
enhanced the productive role of rural women and their share towards household revenue.
The women produced about one fourth of the agricultural commodities in rural
communities around mid fifties which increased up to fifty to sixty percent by nineties
most of the female gender took part in livestock management and forty to seventy percent
were engaged in crop husbandry. An over all twenty percent share by the women towards
family revenues has now increased up to forty percent.
Manuh (1998) claimed that according to a UNDP report, females were sixty six
percent less likely to have salaried jobs as compared to their male counterparts. In sub-
Saharan Africa only thirty percent women in the work force had paid employment. As of
1990, approximately 5 percent of female work force was engaged in the industrial sector,
20 percent in services, 23 percent in marketing and only 6 percent had jobs in managerial,
technological, professional and administrative categories.
2.10.2 Regional Perspective - South Asia
Sailaja and Reddy (2003) reported that farm women preferred cottage industry
making with a total score 75 and rank order 1, followed by agro-forestry, horticulture,
poultry farming, goat farming, home sciences, apiculture, vermiculture, pisciculture,
sericulture and mushroom culture respectively, in Rajendranagar, Hydereabad, India.
Pulley et al. (2005) reported that women and girls were encouraged to shop in the
market to ensure women vendors having sufficient customers in Bangladesh.
Furthermore, motivational campaigns were targeted to men as they often feel jealous
when women get possession of nice shops without investing big amounts of money.
However, as men begin to benefit from dual incomes in their households and as male
shop owners realize that women sellers bring out more women buyers to markets. The
56
increase in female participation in markets, both as consumers and producers, has
increased women's demand for more separate market corners.
2.10.3 Local Perspective - Pakistan
Shah (2003) asserted that female contribution had risen in terms of spending
decisions regarding aviaries and livestock rising. It was suggested that women should
stay away from the vicious cycle of poultry farming and try making up the resulting
losses through livestock farming. Countryside women got 50 percent of their income
from livestock relative activities.
Sadaf (2005) conducted a study in order to figure out need of agricultural
extension services for rural women in Tehsil Faisalabad and found that among
agricultural sources of income, a large majority (75.2 percent) of the respondents
mentioned livestock as its source of income. Other major source was crops as indicated
by a simple majority (56.8 percent) of the respondents. Among non-agricultural sources
of income, 25.6 percent of the respondents were private servants, 23.2 percent were
engaged in business and 12.8 percent were government servants respectively.
Haq (2007) found that approximately 71 percent of cotton growing farmers were
having only one source of income i.e., agriculture or zamindara; almost 17 percent of the
respondents has also their jobs along with zamindara e.g., school teacher, side business,
government jobs etc and almost 8 percent were working as laborers for daily wages and
livestock raising while approximately 4 percent of the respondents were involved in some
sort of trading i.e., cotton, milk and milk products, cereals and cattle in addition to
farming. In case of cotton picking females, 80 percent of respondents were “Chonies”
i.e., professional cotton pickers, almost 13 percent having “zamindara” or agriculture
farming and 6 percent were also doing some job i.e., employees of landlords and ginning
factory.
Hassan (2008) reported that Livestock production was the most important income
generating activity for women in an agricultural household. A sample survey of barani
areas found that returns from the sale of animal products by women constitute on an
57
average 13 percent of total household income. The more income a woman earns, the
better decision making authority she wields in the household. For example, 80 to 90
percent of the women who earn income from livestock products control the disposition of
this income too. Rough estimates show that over 60 percent of women’s income goes to
meet family food needs and another 20 percent goes to savings. Hence one could
logically argue that, increased access to resources, training and credit to women for
livestock production should significantly increase household income as well as women’s
authority within the household.
Nosheen et al. (2008) reported that male members were contributing more into
their household income. They further reported that 49.0 percent males were contributing
75 to 100 percent share into household monthly income and 55 percent females were
contributing less than 25 percent share of monthly household income. Although, they
were equally putting their efforts and consuming energies to agriculture farming activities
but their efforts were not considered as paid ones.
Arshad (2009) conducted a study in Tehsil Jhang indicating that nearly half (49.2
percent) of the respondents regarded crop sector as a major source of income. Livestock
sector was the main source of income of 32.5 percent of the respondents while only 18.3
percent were mainly getting their income from labor work.
2.11 CONSTRAINTS FACED BY WOMEN
2.11.1 Global Perspective-Worldwide Review
Saito and Spurling (1992) noted that lack of land ownership rights, insufficient
technical awareness, unavailability of extension services, restricted transfer of
agricultural sills, limited access to bank credit, no mobility, illiteracy, insufficient
motivation, and no role in important decision making were some of the political and
socio-economic conditions prevalent among women of near east region in Washington.
These circumstances resulted in restricted female participation, poor work environment
and lower productivity. It was further described that females hailing from large land
holding families assumed supervisory role in farms.
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FAO (1997b) concluded that the percentage of women headed households in the
region (Rome) was underestimated in official records, and that it was a major reason for
not placing enough emphasis on women farmers in the delivery of extension services. It
also recognized women’s long working hours as the main constraining factor in their
participation in extension activities and in receiving extension support in their diverse
activities. Women’s low productivity resulted from lack of access to productive
resources, lack of demand for their produce in local markets, poor marketing strategy and
infrastructure, and low levels of functional literacy.
World Church Service (1995) in collaboration with Cambodian government
launched new income-generating projects which needed a crucial change in the on job
training procedures. According to the revised setup, vegetable related training would be
imparted on paid basis to staff and field work force employed by global entities like
UNICEF (United Nations Children Emergency Fund) along with those working for local
and international NGOs. Training demand rose because of expanded family food
production project and rising number of rural NGOs. In 1995, two-weeks of trainings
were offered at Kbal Koh center. These sessions were designed to cater for the needs of
each client and consisted of class instruction and field trips. Issues addressed were soil
fertility, sowing and transplantation, and pest management. Trainings were imparted to
287 individuals in 1995 with 29 percent female participation. Government employees,
NGOs workers and farmers were among the trainees.
ICAD (2004) studied that nature of difficulties faced was different for men and
women in Africa. Most of the time females experienced more constraints. It also
indicated that state of poverty was grave in women. Even within low school enrollments,
female students were way fewer than males. After completing education, the females got
low paid jobs.
A case study undertaken by Ruth (1995) described a project, “helping women
with food provision and income generation in Mozambique green zones through
agriculture trainings, health care and child support”. Cooperative societies numbering 182
were formed by the general cooperatives union with a 95 percent female membership.
Funding was made available by Peoples Development Back. A typical example was
59
quoted of Maputo. With not many success stories around, author summarizes the factors
that helped make Maputo a success.
Ruth (1995) noted that tobacco crop was mainly successful because of women
despite the fact that ownerships lied with men. This study also talks of female work
conditions in Arua District of Uganda and the socio-cultural barriers that hindered
women from getting into the controlling position. Low education among females was
identified as the main factor. Women were assigned with field preparation, irrigating the
crops, harvest, transportation and processing of tobacco leaves. The last activity was
quite harmful since the worker got exposure to nicotine rich dust. Training and protective
gear were rarely provided. The economic gain by the work force was quite trivial.
Baryeh et al. (1999) studied fish smoking in Ghana. The conventional mud ovens
have several demerits. A new technology termed as Chorkor Fish Smoker was developed
by intermediate technology transfer project. The technology thus designed was
disseminated among females engaged in fish smoking. The effectiveness of technology
transfer was investigated among 50 fish smoker in central Ghana. Although the process
was found to be successful, the visible bottlenecks were bank credit, inputs scarcity and
their rising prices. The benefits recorded were improved yield, better shelf life and
product quality. The entire exercise was welcomed by the recipients.
Mudukuti (2003) studied main restrictions to participation in extension faced by
rural females of Zimbabwe. The study subjects were 377 countryside females and in
person interviews were conducted. The information thus gathered were placed under two
categories viz., (i) demographic issues and (ii) limitations identified in the way of female
partaking. The critical barriers faced by rural females in terms of extension participation
were transport, time issues and insufficient requisite information.
Oyesola (2004) described livestock husbandry by Yoruba and Fulani rural women
in Oyo state. He noted that women faced problems like insufficient bank credit,
landlessness, scanty feeds and vaccines and poor extension services. It was suggested that
extension service be improved for rural women and the measures undertaken should be
locality and gender targeted. .
60
SAGE and Doi Moi (2006) showed that in Vietnam, excessive changes in lease
allocations in coastal areas and nationalization of private businesses devastated many
households that earned their livelihood from mangroves. Especially the family units
headed by females suffered more. The changed macro economy did not yield
improvements in all the segments of life. The immediate result was the splitting up of
people on the bases of gender and age within the same village.
2.11.2 Regional Perspective - South Asia
Uperty (1990) stated that women traditionally played a significant role in
subsistence farming in Nepal, and contributed more to household income than men.
However, women lacked access to banks and other formal institutions, and were,
therefore, disadvantaged as compared to their male counterparts. In the light of such a
situation, the Production Credit for Rural Women (PCRW) programme was launched in
1982 and by 1990 covered 44 of Nepal's 75 districts. PCRW placed dual emphasis on
income generation and community development. At a household level, the credit
programme directly addressed women's need for economic self reliance. At the
community level, the programme addressed locally identified social concerns. An
evaluation study had shown that in spite of a few limitations, such as the emphasis on
livestock production, and a lack of marketing facilities, the programme had generally
been successful.
Majumdar and Mita (1991) disagreed with the notion that abandoning native
skills and adoption of modern techniques yields more production and profits. Newer
techniques were often found complicating under the environment in which they were
implemented. In addition higher costs made imported technologies out of poor folks’
reach, pushing them further out of business. The effect of such exotic technologies was
assessed particularly in tribal countryside women from India. These women were often
refused access to machines that were brought into the agriculture related enterprises.
Consequently they lost their conventional jobs or were assigned menial labours. Modern
technology is aimed at making worker’s job smoother, but in this scenario little or no
research was conducted in order to make female workers’ life easier. Diverse activities of
rural females were studied including effect of imported technologies upon them.
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Schuler and Hashemi (1994) noted that in Bangladesh higher income helped
rural females invest more in the household items along with human resource
improvement. This gave more food goods, education opportunities, child health care and
safe water and sanitation for the entire family.
Debowski et al. (1996) concluded that the correlation between farmers’ needs for
marketing advice and their existing level of qualification was markedly greater than that
with land quality, farm size, or labor force per 100 hectares. Demand for marketing
training was greater in regions where farmers’ educational level and farm productivity
were lower. It was often linked to demand for advice on economic matters, farm
organization, and information technology, processing of farm produce, additional income
sources, and the legal questions. In general, the findings of this project suggest that active
provisions of marketing training to the rural community had significant potential for
promoting rural enterprise and multi-functional development of the rural areas.
Manuh (1998) described that out of most of the rural and low income urban
inhabitants, females had to do most domestic chores and in several instances they also
had to partake in the farming and business related activities. They were also held the
responsible for child care helping the sick and old on the top of social assignments
relating their societies. While they try to cope with their assigned function, their struggle
often leads to environmental losses through activities like collection of fuel wood. In
several instances urban and rural females come from exclusive women mutual help
organizations, church groups and market women associations. Some of these entities
permit women to pool up their resources in order to lessen their work loads and to utilize
it in cooperative societies and other ventures.
Devendra (2002) reported that in India poverty was mainly a rural issue and
continues to be a consistent multi faceted dilemma. It was frequently observed in
association with poor farmers, small scale enterprises, landlessness, socio-economic setup
and extrinsic factors. More than 75 percent of the poor folks live and work in
countryside, often victim of low life expectancy and have a consistent aspiration for self
dependence and a life full of comforts in the days to come. As agricultural growth is
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instrumental to better life quality, plans that aim at furthering such improvement are
crucial. Enhanced efficiency in natural resource management which includes animals as
an integral component can significantly improve the productivity and thus help in poverty
alleviation.
Hossain and Mishra (2002) described that among Indian masses lower literacy
and insufficient knowledge pertaining various agriculture related technologies and
relevant skills were the significant limitations experienced by highest number (87.3
percent) of the respondents. It was followed by other problems such as weaker financial
position of women (82.4 percent) and traditional approach of our community towards
women within (81.3 percent).
Sheikh (2003) revealed that women in Bangladesh did not have a fair access to
requisite resources and were generally regarded as of a poor social status and
consequently their earning were way less than those of their male colleagues. This state
of resourcelessness among women resulted from a complicated syndrome. Uneven
powers availed by two genders could be the main reason for the human beings placed in a
second grade position.
2.11.3 Local Perspective - Pakistan
Khalid (1990) while studying the difficulties experienced by working Pakistani
women noted that the position of women as second grade members of the society was
promoted by scanty vocational facilities made available to them. In addition the
conventional approach pertaining the status and the function of women badly influenced
the process of benefiting from their talent and skills.
Kazi (1995) presented a review summary regarding the utility of few extension
and credit projects designed and launched by government of Pakistan with a main focus
on rural females and aiming to devise better plans for future undertakings in this
discipline. The main focus of this write up was public sector ventures. The topics
highlighted were credit availability to rural females (ZTBL, FWB, Cooperative Societies
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and Financial Institutions) plans to promote credit for rural women, extension education,
skill development plans and livestock husbandry ventures.
Sustainable Development Department of FAO (2000) suggested that despite the
fact that all universal agricultural skill development programmes invariably contain a
rural women component, very little if any utility has resulted for the reasons such as
insufficient funding, misuse of funds earmarked for women , unavailability of credit from
cooperative banks, ignoring female agriculture graduates job opportunities in rural areas,
paying no attention to research results, absence of basic utilities such as clean drinking
water, natural gas supply for cooking and heating and no cooperative societies to sell
handicrafts and other cottage products.
Muhammad (2003) stated that knowledge is power. It should be shared with
women, not only with men. Despite the general observation that females are mainly
assigned an in house role, they should also be imparted skills and know how regarding
crop husbandry such as raising seedlings, pest management, fertilizer dosages, etc. When
women were asked why they want to help their husbands in their fields, their response
was “we told our husband that we should directly help them in cultivation of crops so that
collective hands to reap home harvests. Of course, still we need credit, but perhaps not so
much as we need knowledge.
Nizamani (2003) said in her presentation on “Women’s Poverty” that lectures,
talks, presentations, walks and other such events organized for the urban women rights
failed to produce any significant result for the so far ignored gender. She noted that while
urban females were financially weaker, the state of rural women was pitiable.
IFOAP (2005) disclosed the hindrances in the way of countryside women’s access
to the public sector financial setup. To start with they had very little chances to gain
information pertaining different financial institutions. These fiscal enterprises were
reluctant to disburse credit to women, under the notion that these usually trivial landings
won’t generate massive returns for the institutions. There did exist so many procedural
formalities and need for personal sureties. And on the top of all this, real difficulty was to
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overcome the socio-cultural barriers. Cumbersome loaning procedure for the rural
women compromised their motivation and retarded their socio-economic up lift resulting
into a state of their all time weaker financial position
Jamal (2005) conducted a study in District Faisalabad and found that lack of
education, lack of technical skills, lack of capital, unawareness, lack of technical
assistance, lack of interest, lack of marketing facilities, high cost of feed and lack of
transportation facilities were the main constraints faced by the rural women for the
adoption of recommended livestock production practices.
Mumtaz (2005) reported that women had little access or control over productive
resources due to customary practices that got reinforced by social structures and restricted
women’s mobility and pushed lack of autonomy and dependence on male members of
family.
Perveen (2005) revealed that woman as a life partner invariably gets an inferior
role against her spouse, in terms of having an opportunity of getting educated, safe food,
health care, choosing a life partner, having kids and other amenities.
Sadia (2007) inferred from her study spanning over two previous decades that
Pakistani women engaged in cotton picking survived in miseries on account of poor
wages and compromised health. Each year these women would abandon cotton picking
and move to sugarcane fields in order to have better wages and reduced health threats. As
a matter of fact the important industrial setup of textile and stitching relies mainly upon
the women. Thousands of female workers pick cotton under hot and humid weather in the
fields of Sindh and southern Punjab, collecting the raw cotton for onward yarn
production. Apart from poor wages and sexual offences the work conditions of cotton
picking females were littered with life threatening pesticides.
Afzal et al. (2009) carried out a study in Okara District and found that poor
economic conditions were the main constraints in agricultural operations with mean value
(3.95), followed by lack of social interactions and social conflicts (3.79), and
transportation difficulties of women and low payment of work for women at 3rd position
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with mean value (3.78). However, lack of media information has been analyzed as 4th,
followed by women work not being recognized, low literacy level among women and
lack of legal, economic and political literacy as 5th, with means values of 3.76 and 3.75,
respectively.
Summary: About 70 percent of the female labor force is engaged in agriculture and its
task is one of the harshest taken up by our women and yet their contribution goes
disregarded and undocumented. Women contribute more percentage of work than males
in crop production sector. According to local perspective, females participate more in
cotton zone than other zones. Women are involved much in agricultural activities but
their contribution is ignored or goes unnoticed. Rural women are also involved in post-
harvest activities and storage of food. So women are main producer of staple crops. If we
see livestock sector, women are involved in livestock activities and draft animal farming.
They participate in activities like milking, fodder collection, cleaning and caring sick
animals. In India livestock are closely linked with their religion and culture. They
consider it their traditional responsibility.
They also execute diverse in house jobs such as food preparation, fostering kids,
caring elderly and specials, getting fuel wood and potable water, house keeping and
routine maintenance measures. Women are involved in on farm activities along with their
domestic work in order to generate income and provide food to their families. Child
mortality rate is higher in rural area working women because they spend more time to
animal caring than care of own children. In Pakistan, women are much more involved in
livestock sector than crop sector. Nutritional status of the family members is furthered by
regular availability of milk. Although rural women are playing a vital role in agriculture
sector but there is great need for training. The strong need for the establishment of rural
women training center is highlighted because rural female farm workers possess
insufficient know how and skills needed for farming activities. Although these workers
perform several important farm duties, they get very little agriculture extension facilities
due to cultural boundaries, gender inequality in the agricultural technology, and non
availability of female professional in agriculture extension. Agriculture extension
services have traditionally focused on men, neglecting the women. Pakistan’s agriculture
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extension system did not cater to the needs of the women which constituted bulk of the
country’s farming population.
With regard to the crop production, high assistance/training is required in the
areas like storage, plant protection and sowing, medium assistance/training is required for
transplanting, inter-cultural operations, drying, picking of cotton, harvesting, winnowing
and husking. In livestock sector rural women needed high assistance/training in handling
animal disease control, watering of animal and vaccination.
There are many constraints which are being faced by the females, like no land
ownership rights, lack of technical skills for female farmers, poor financial services,
insufficient education, nonexistent motivation, limited knowledge, no decision making
role and long work hours hindering their participation in agricultural activities.
Rural women are contributing substantially in a wide variety of productive
activities, such as crop production, livestock management, cottage industry and domestic
responsibilities. However, they are mostly ignored in terms of facilities, especially in
backward and remote areas and Bahawalpur district represents one such area. The present
study has been designed to investigate role of rural women in agricultural related
activities and inadequacies in trainings, if any. The results of this study will provide
guidance to policy makers for empowering rural women in the remote areas, thereby
making them more productive and resourceful workers in the agrarian economy.
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Chapter-III
METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The word research originated from the old french word “recerchier” that meant to search
again. In practice, the term refers to the systematic approach towards intellectually answering
questions related to the knowable universe. Social research is concerned with exploring,
describing and explaining social phenomena involving human behavior (Sufian,1998).
According to Nachmaise and Nachmaise (1992) “the scientific methodology is a system of
explicit rules and procedures upon which research is based and against which the claims for
knowledge are evaluated”. Regarding research methodology it is a guideline embodying those
principles, plans and procedures, which determine the scope of study, techniques to collect data
and its analysis to establish relationship between variables of the study. It also provides a code
book for future researchers to evaluate any study and verify its results (Matin, 1989).
3.2 THE STUDY AREA (AN OVERVIEW)
The present study is titled as the role of rural women in agriculture and their training
needs: A case study of Bahawalpur district”. It is essential to have an overview of the study area
along with its demography, culture and socio-economic conditions. Bahawalpur is one of the
distinct areas of the province because of the link between rural women and agriculture sector.
3.3 PUNJAB PROVINCE
Pakistan came into existence in 1947, when north west areas of India along with east
Bengal got independence. The Punjab province was divided into two parts i.e., Indian or east
Punjab and Pakistani or west Punjab (World Atlas, 2006). The Punjab (land of five rivers) is the
most thickly populated province of Pakistan and is inhabited by Punjabis along with other ethnic
communities. It has an area of 205,344 km² with population of 85,650 thousands (55% of the total
population.). Topographically it has 31.33° N 74.21° E from the equator (Siddique, 2006).
The province of Punjab shares its boundaries with the sindh in the south, balochistan and
khyber pakhtunkhwa in the north west, Azad kashmir and indian held kashmir in the north east.
Eastern side is adjacent to the indian punjab and the Rajisthan. Main languages spoken here are
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punjabi, Urdu, saraikis and hindkoh (Govt. of Punjab, 2004). The provincial capital is Lahore.
There are 35 Districts and 8 administrative Divisions. The Divisional hierarchy was abolished
and revived in years 2000 and 2009 respectively.
3.4 BAHAWALPUR DISTRICT
Bahawalpur is situated towards the south of the Sutlej river and is a part of the cholistan
region. In terms of distance it is 90 Km for Multan. About 420 Km form Lahore and 700 Km
from Islamabad. It used to be the capital city of former princely state of Bahawalpur. It is well
known for its inhabitants who speak a culturally rich language i.e., saraiki. The district is
bounded on north by Lodhran District, on the eastern side lies Bahawalnagar District and India,
southern boundary touches India and the Western side is occupied by Rahimyarkhan and
Muzafar Garh Districts. Saraiki is native language of the area. In addition Urdu, Punjabi and
English are frequently used by the people. Bahawalpur is a relatively larger district of the Punjab
province and is comprised of 24830 Sq. Km. It possesses distinct topo-geographic attributes and
unique demographic pattern. Bahawalpur lies almost in the middle of the country with an altitude
of 152 meters above the sea level. (DCR, Bahawalpur 1998).
3.4.1 HISTORY
The city of Bahawalpur was established in 1748 by Nawab Muhammad Bahawal Khan
Abbasi I, whose descendants governed it until its merger in to Pakistan. Over years the
Bahawalpur state has been ruled by General H.H. Jalalat-ul-Mulk, Rukn-ud-Daula, Saif-ud-
Daula, Hafiz-ul-Mulk, Mukhlis-ud-Daula, Muin-ud-Daula, Al-Haj Nawab Sir Sadiq Muhammad
Khan Abbasi V Bahadur, Who decided to merge with Pakistan in 1947. The state maintained its
sovereign status till 1955 (Encarta, 2006).
The accession of the Bahawalpur state to Pakistan was effected on October the 7th, 1947
and the final merger took place on October the 14th, 1955 (Dar, 1983).
3.4.2 EDUCATION
Bahawalpur is home to famous educational institutions like Islamia University, and
Quaid-e-Azam Medical College. Sadiq Public School is an elite school in the entire area. As
regards the literacy among masses in the district of Bahawalpur it is 63.21%. Separate figures for
urban and rural areas are 79.5% and 47.6% respectively. Skill development among the masses is
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furthered by 13 vocational institutions (3 for females and 10 for males) offering various trades
like mechanical, electrical, automobile, welding, woodwork and business education. Vocational
Institutes for females offer training in stitching, embroidery, dress designing and knitting. As
regards elementary education, there are 895 female and 1267 male schools catering 65,000
students (District Govt. Bahawalpur, 1998).
3.4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION AND NATURAL RESOURCES
The weather of district Bahawalpur is sub tropical hot and dry. Summer temperatures
hover around 40° Celsius. There is very little rainfall. The rural masses of this area have a
relatively low per capita income, face acute unemployment and lack access to basic
infrastructure and social services. The eventual result is poverty, the most pernicious of social
evils. The rural poor largely comprise small farmers, tenants, and the landless laborers. Rohi is a
native term for cholisthan desert. It is about 30 Km away from Bahawalpur and is comprised of
16000 sq km, further extending to Thar Desert up to sindh. The term cholisthan is derived from
‘Cholna’ meaning mobile. The inhabitants of cholisthan area enjoy nomadic life, moving from
place to place in search of fodder and water ponds for their animals. Making of delicate and
decorated earthenware is one of the traditional crafts of the district. These earthenware display
the skill of the artisans who are mainly concentrated in the Tehsil of Ahmadpur East. Decorated
lampshades and flower-vases are also made from camel skin in some parts of the district. Hand
embroidery work on shirts is yet another specialty of the area. Other crafts include basket
making, cotton and woolen durries, patch work, etc. The families engaged in these professions
are spread all over the district.
With poor agricultural productivity and scanty human resources, the economic profile is
not very colorful. On top of this, about 2/3 of the cholisthan, i.e., 16314 Sq. Km has no water for
human beings and livestock. Around half of the District population lives below poverty line.
Utilities like potable water, sewerage and roads in rural as well as urban areas are in bad shape
and need extensive overhaul and renovations. The city zoo houses a wide variety of animals like
lion, tiger, leopard, deer, peacock and swan. Lal Sohanra National Park is one of the few safaris
in Pakistan carrying large animals like elephants, rhinoceros, lions etc.
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3.4.4 ECONOMIC CONDITION
Bahawalpur is also connected to the national rail network. After diversion within India
not much water flows in river Sutlej. The periphery is mainly agricultural, having variety of
orchards like mango, dates alongwith wheat, sugarcane and cotton fields. Industrial base that
cannot be termed great by any means, includes units like soap making, cotton spinning along
with carpets and pottery. There is a sugar mill in the city outskirts. More then 1650 cooperative
societies are functional in the District. There are a total of 107 union councils comprising 29
urban and 78 rural (BCCI, 2007).
3.4.5 AGRICULTURE
The economy of Bahawalpur district is fully agro based. Agriculture provides, livelihood
for 78% of the entire rural population. It has an agricultural land of 667000 hectares and the
arable figure is 429000 hectares. Currently the area under crops is 378000 hectares while 51000
hectares lie fallow. (Govt. of Punjab, 2004). It is known for cotton and wheat crop, producing
14% and 4% of the total provincial yield respectively. Industrial activities are for the most part
limited to processing of basic raw materials (DCR Bahawalpur, 1998).
3.4.6 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
Department of Agricultural Extension, Punjab has been working in Bahawalpur district.
It has played a key role in on farm water management, improvement of water courses and
training of (male) farmers. Extension consultancy currently available to 206 farmers, aims at
provision of quality agricultural inputs, purchase of stores and capital goods for the district and
livestock & dairy development. But still rural women are being neglected by the department of
Agriculture Extension like other departments; neither services nor trainings are provided to them
(DCR Bahawalpur, 1998).
3.4.7 TEHSIL YAZMAN
It has an area of 18491 Sq. Km in which 65% of total desert area of District Bahawalpur
is included in tehsil Yazman known as Cholistan. Total population of the tehsil is 405,787,
comprising 28% urban and 72% rural people. It has 3 police stations, 2 degree colleges and 31
high schools in 18 union councils of the tehsil. Literacy percentage is 34.6 with only 4505
matriculate females, clearly depicting low educational level of rural women. Most of people
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inhabit mud houses with no facility of clean drinking water and electricity (DCR Bahawalpur,
1998).
3.5 TEHSIL BAHAWALPUR SADDAR
It has an area of 2372 Sq. Km, comprised mainly of rural union councils with a
population of 357,051. Literacy is relatively low i.e., 27.8% which is clearly depicted by women
educational level, only 2.75% matriculates out of 79,918 women among which 58,583 were
married. Majority lived in mud houses. Almost 50% households had an access to electricity but
only 8.2% of them had access to potable water (DCR, 1998).
3.6 SELECTION OF STUDY AREA
This study was effected in the district of Bahawalpur. The Yazman and Bahawalpur
(Sadar) Tehsils were randomly picked out of five Tehsils. In the past there was not a single
program executed for rural women of district Bahawalpur on such a modern lines. In district
Bahawalpur rural women participation in agriculture is significant. So present study is designed
to study the role of rural women and their training needs in district Bahawalpur.
3.7 THE POPULATION OF THE STUDY
Population defined as “A unit from which the survey results are to be obtained.” is called
universe (Moser and Kalton, 1992). A group of objects or individuals bearing common
observable attributes makes a population or universe (Dixon and Marry, 1995). This study was
undertaken in Bahawalpur district. It is a Developing area and its agro based economy is pushed
by the both genders
3.8 THE SAMPLE
Empirically supported generalizations frequently result from incomplete information.
This is mainly because of financial impediments that make first hand data collection from
potential subjects a herculean task. Thus sampling appears to be the only way to overcome this
problem. It involves selection of a small number of respondents from the entire population in
such a way that they could represent the whole population. For the sampling of present study, a
complete list of rural women of both tehsils i.e., Yazman and Bahawalpur were selected from the
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office of union council. These two tehsils were randomly selected out of five rural tehsils of
Bahawalpur district. Five union councils were randomly selected from each Tehsil. Then, from
each union council, two villages and from each village 20 women were chosen randomly.
Therefore, the total sample of the study comprised of 400 rural women.
3.9 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
In view of the study needs, the interview schedules were used as a research tool. The
study was based on purely socio-economic characters with qualitative mode of variables. The
data were collected in the form of complex qualitative information. So the interview schedule
turned out to be the best tool for this study. During the pre-testing of the questionnaire it was
noted that most of the study subjects were illiterate or only primary passed. They were reluctant
to talk to outsiders and were not taking part in the discussions as it was against their customs that
is why open ended/qualitative data could not be generated. However efforts were made to have
limited participant observations and key informant discussions
3.9.1 PREPARATION OF INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
While adhering to the study goals an optimally designed interview format comprising
both open and closed end questions was adopted to collect information from the respondents.
This format provided an opportunity to gather a lot of information relating diverse dimensions of
the lives of both husband and wife (Moe, 2004). The interview schedule included socio-
economic characteristics, gender roles, access to education, health, sanitation, and sources of
information to achieve the study objectives.
3.9.2 VALIDATION OF INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
The well-prepared interview schedule was validated by an Associate Professor of the
agriculture extension department in addition to one professor from the same discipline of the
University of Agriculture Faisalabad. Its authenticity was also ascertained by SPSS for the purpose of
data analysis. In order to confirm the socio-economic aspects of the study, the interview schedule
was verified by one professor of Rural Sociology in the rural sociology department of the same
university. Interview schedule comprised of many types of questions and answers with available
options of options of yes and no and with 1 to 5 intensities of yes category. The social status and
perceptions of the farmers are generally analyzed in the form of yes and no and on likert scale of 1 to
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5. The mean and weighted mean score has a great importance in the social science research. The
mean is a central represented data of a variable, whereas, the weighted mean score is the scale of
degree of like and dislike. There are various other methods of data presentations but likert scale
method best suited for our study.
3.10 DATA COLLECTION
3.10.1 PRE-TESTING OF INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
The interview schedule was pre-tested on 15 respondents from each selected tehsil of the
research area. The schedule was finalized after making necessary amendments in light of the pre-
testing results. These amendments were mainly due to limitations faced by the interviewer from
respondents. The interview schedule was translated from English into Urdu language while
aiming at facilitation of data collection process and thus gaining the much needed desirable
communication for correct information.
3.10.2 INTERVIEWING THE RESPONDENTS
The respondents were interviewed by the researcher along with a trained ten member
team considering the cultural norms. Female members of the team were asked to
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Cotton picking females interviewed by the researcher
A quick discussion with cotton pickers
75
interview the rural women. The interview schedule was administered to each respondent
individually and separately to ensure unbiased and uninfluenced response. The study subjects
were briefed regarding the goals prior to proceeding for interviews so that they may provide
correct information based on reality and the results of this study be as correct as possible.
3.10.3 ANALYSIS OF DATA
The data thus collected were coded and entered into the computer for analysis. The data
analysis was accomplished by employing SPSS software (i.e., 12.0 version of statistical package
for social sciences). Descriptive statistics were uses to calculate, interpret and discuss results and
formulate the recommendation. The data were summarized and presented in the form of tables
and figures. Three types of indicators were used in the tables.
1. Percentage 2. Arithmetic mean 3. Standard deviation
Percentages
Percentages were calculated in simple and cross tables for the purpose of comparisons.
The formula used for computing percentages is:
F / N × 100
Where F represents the class frequency and N stands for total respondents.
Arithmetic Mean
Arithmetic mean or average can also be used for tabulated presentation of data. It is true
representation of the whole data.
A.M or Average = ∑ xn ⁄ n
Where ∑ = Total or Sum
Xn = Variables Used in Analysis.
n = No. of Observations.
Standard Deviation
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Deviation of a data from its mean is called the standard deviation. If a deviation of its
mean is squared then the resulting deviation is called standard deviation.
S.D = √ [ (∑x – X* ) / n ] Where x = Value of Observations X* = Mean of a Variable n= no. of Observations √ = Square Root ∑ = Summation Chi-square test statistics
It is meant for determining the independence and summarizes how closely the expected
frequencies lie to the recorded frequencies. Chi-squared test is represented by χ2. It was
introduced by Karl Pearson in year 1900. He determined the degree of independence in
sociological studies. Following formula is used for chi-square test.
( )∑
−=fe
fefoX
22
Where fo stands for observed frequency of certain cell and fe represents expected
frequency value. Capital sigma ∑ implies computation of fraction for each cell and then sum up
all the cells. To obtain χ2. The following steps are involved to compute Chi-square:
The Chi-square test of independence has certain assumption. First, it is assumed that data
is random sample of the population, second, the observations are independent and third that no
expected frequency in the contingency table being analyzed is less than 5. Chi-square sampling
distribution does not adequately represent the distribution of the test statistic.
Gamma statistics
It is often employed to determine the association between two variables and tabulated in
bivariate format. Gamma is frequently symmetric determination of association so that calculated
value stayes same and is uninfluenced by type of variable. We can rephrase it by saying that
flipping of columns and rows around the table does not affect the value of gamma. Letter γ
represents gamma. The formula used for determining gamma manifests the difference between
concordant and non-concordant pairs as proportion of total concordant and non concordant pairs.
DC
DC
+−=γ
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C represents the total number of concordant pairs of observations and D stands for number of
discordant pairs. A positive value for C - D results where C > D hints at a positive relationship
whereas C < D hints at a negative association. The value of gamma is higher when variable is
measured using fewer categories. Possible value of Gamma ranges between -1 and 1. Negative
and positive association is indicated by -1 and 1 respectively.
3.11. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED DURING DATA COLLECTION.
The researcher experienced certain obstacles whi le col lect ing the data.
Some of the females lived in interior areas which were not connected with metalled roads. Thus
the access to these subjects was quite challenging. At some places like 84 DB union council,
most of the individuals were unavailable on the first visit. Therefore, the researcher had to make
more than one attempts to interview them. Time was also a limiting factor for the respondents.
Therefore, it proved quite cumbersome to collect relevant information from them. All the
expenses during research period were borne by researcher himself. Researcher has faced the
language problem too. At some of places, local people speak the Saraiki language with which the
researcher was unfamiliar.
Despite all the bottle necks the researcher did his utmost effort to obtain accurate
information / data.
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Chapter-IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The main objective of the study was to analyze the role of rural women and their
training needs in Bahawalpur District. For this purpose an elaborate interview format was
synthesized for respondents and data were gathered and processed. This chapter deals
with analysis and tabulation, interpretation, discussion and synthesis of various types of
data acquired during the field interviews. The data analysis was based on two scales.
SCALE
Analysis of some of the tabulated information was based on the intensities
ranging from 1 to 5. The responses obtained were evaluated by weighted mean scores and
simple frequency counts in selective cases. The conclusions drawn were used to
recognize and categorize the role and skill development needs of rural women in the
areas selected. Five point likert-type scale was employed for grading each of the
operations and respondents’ weighted mean scores were determined. As regards the
scores rating, three and more points ranked high while low ranking was allocated to less
than three points. This categorization was used to determine the significance of training
for respondents.
The respondents were interviewed to identify the level they agreed or disagreed to
the given statements on a Likert scale as given below:
Strongly disagree------1
Disagree----------------2
Undecided--------------3
Agree-------------------4
Strongly agree---------5
The data thus generated were computerized and the analysis was pursued with the
help of statistical software known as SPSS and Excel. Standard deviation and mean were
determined for the opinions of interviewees.
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4.1 UNIVARIATE ANLAYSIS
DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
Behavior and attitude of community members are believed to be influenced by
socio-economic conditions. Keeping in mind the importance of these factors, information
regarding age, education, job status, and main family occupation of the respondents’ etc.
the data were collected and presented below.
AGE
Age has a great impact on the sociological behavior of the individual. Age has
either been a positive or a negative impact on learning behaviour of the individual. Age
of the interviewees was recorded and the resulting data are tabulated below.
TABLE 1: BREAK UP OF INTERVIEWEES IN TERMS OF THEIR AGE.
Age Categories Mean No. of
Respondents Std. Deviation
% of Total No.
of Respondents
Up to 30 22.39 81 4.7976 20.3%
Between 31-50 41.22 286 5.0333 71.5%
Above 50 57.96 33 5.5084 8.3%
Total 38.79 400 10.6955 100.0%
Mean age = 38.73 Std. Dev. = 10.69
Table 1 reveals that about one-fifth i.e., 20.3 percent of interviewees were aged up
to 30 years, while most of the study subjects i.e., 71.5 percent fell in 31-50 years range
and just 8.3 percent hailed from above 50 years age group. The average age of the
interviewees turned out to be 38.73 years with a standard deviation of 10.69, showing that
the study targeted the exact age of respondents. The table shows that major proportion of
respondents belonged to working age categories; fulfilling the main objectives of study.
Above mentioned results are supported by Nazly (2003). Similar results were obtained by
Haq (2007). He found that individuals of all age groups were involved in this activity.
80
EDUCATION
Education is the process, which brings desired changes in the behavior of an
individual. There are number of studies which have shown the changes in attitude and
character through education. Educated women are more aware of their training needs and
its components as compared to uneducated ones (CIDA, 2004). The educational status of
the interviewees was recorded and the resultant data are presented in the following table.
TABLE 2: DIVISION OF THE INTERVIEWEES BASED ON THEI R LITERACY LEVELS
Education Categories No. of Respondents (n)
Percentage (%)
Illiterate 216 54.0%
Primary 164 41.0%
Middle 9 2.3%
Matric 8 2.0%
Intermediate and Above 3 0.8%
Total 400 100.0%
Scale: 1=Illiterate, 2=Primary, 3=Middle, 4=Matric, 5=Intermediate and above Mean = 1.54, Std. = 0.71
The above data depicts that majority of interviewees i.e., 54.0 percent having no
formal education, followed by 41.0 percent of the respondents with primary education
only, whereas 2.3 percent of them were grade 8 and 2.0 percent of the respondents
completed secondary school certificate. A minute fraction i.e., 0.80 percent of the folks,
interviewed possessed intermediate or higher level of education. The overall situation of
formal education in the targeted area endorses the notion “why respondents are involved
in uneducated work of farming”. This situation is worth taking into immediate
consideration by our government. Illiteracy leads toward ignorance and ignorance leads
to poverty. The results of the study necessitate designing plans for the enhancement of
literacy in the area. The findings of Rasheed (2004) in her M.Sc.thesis under the title of
“women participation in decision making process regarding agricultural business and
81
family matters in tehsil Gojra” partially coincide with the findings under discussion about
education level as she found that 66.7 percent of the interviewed individuals had no
formal education, whereas 20.0 percent were of elementary and 10.0 percent matriculate
level.
Education sector of Pakistan doesn’t have great success stories. Female gender in
particular has miserably low literacy rate. National census of 1981 showed an overall
mass literacy of 26.2 percent. But the figure for females was 16% in contrast to 35 % for
males. In terms of rural urban splits, only 17.3% of rural folks were literate. This rural
urban split was even more pronounced in case of female gender. The literacy among rural
males 26.2% was almost half of that prevailed among the urban males (55.3%). The
countryside women when compared with the urban females had a bleak literacy figure
i.e., (7.3%) as against 37.3 % (ESCAP, 1997).
82
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Rural Urban Pakistan
Female
Male
Both
Fig. 1: GENDER BASED LITERACY IN RURAL AND URBAN Z ONES
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Illiterate Primary Middle Matric IntermediateAnd Above
Educational level
Per
cen
tag
e
Fig. 2: SPLIT UP OF STUDY SUBJECTS IN TERMS OF THEIR LITERACY.
83
MARITAL STATUS
Considering whether or not the interviewees were married, the marital status of
interviewed subjects was recorded and is tabulated as follows.
TABLE 3. INTERVIEWEES IN TERMS OF THEIR MARITAL ST ATUS
Marital status No. of Respondents (n)
Percentage (%)
Unmarried 20 10.0%
Married 357 89.2%
Widow 13 3.3%
Divorced 10 2.5%
Total 400 100.0%
Table 3 shows that a huge majority (i.e., 89.2 percent) of the respondents were
married, while 10.0 percent were unmarried on account of various reasons such as
underage, overage etc, followed by 5.8 percent widowed and divorced.
FAMILY SIZE
Respondents were asked about the size of family, number of children and sex of
their children either male or female. The size of family is an indicator for economic
growth and orientation of respondents for family planning adoption to keep the
population growth in control and to improve their socioeconomic status, focusing quality
rather quantity. Information received by researcher was recorded in Tables 4 to 6.
84
TABLE 4: BREAK UP OF INTERVIEWED INDIVIDUALS BASED ON THEIR FAMILY SIZES.
Family size (No. of persons)
No. of
Respondents
% of Total
Respondents Mean Std. Deviation
1-5 186 46.5% 4.06 .96
6-10 191 47.8% 6.77 .95
Above 10 23 5.8% 11.70 1.22
Total 400 100.0% 5.79 2.19
Table 4 reflects that a major proportion (47.8 percent) of the respondents had 6-10
family members. Whereas, 46.5 percent of the respondents had 1-5 family members and
only 5.8 percent of them had above 10 family members.
TABLE 5: A QUICK LOOK AT STUDY SUBJECTS BASED ON T HE
NUMBER OF THEIR MALE OFF SPRING.
No. of male children No. of Respondents (n)
Percentage (%)
No male child (0) 10 2.6% 1 131 34.5% 2 139 36.6% 3 48 12.6% 4 26 6.8% 5 20 5.3% 7 2 0.5% 8 4 1.1%
Total 380* 100.0% * 20 respondents were unmarried (see table 3). Mean = 2.11 Std. dev. = 1.35
Table 5 reflects that only 2.6 respondents had no male child, while slightly more
than one-third i.e., 34.5 percent of the respondents had one male child and most of the
respondents i.e., 36.6 percent had two male children and 12.6 percent of them had three
male children. About 6.8 percent of the respondents had four male children and 5.3
percent had five male children. Only two respondents had seven male children and 1.1
85
percent of them had eight male children. In our society male children contribute towards
family’s economic worth so they are more desired and admired than the female children
by the parents.
Similar results were reached by Haq (2007). He found almost 53 percent and 45
percent of cotton pickers (females) had (1-2 and 3-4) sons and/or daughters respectively.
TABLE 6: INTERVIEWEES AND NUMBER OF THEIR FEMALE K IDS.
Female children No. of Respondents (n)
Percentage (%)
No female child (0) 15 3.9% 1 156 41.1% 2 124 32.6% 3 46 12.1% 4 35 9.2% 5 2 0.5% 6 1 0.3% 8 1 0.3%
Total 380* 100.0% * 20 respondents were unmarried (see table 3). Mean = 1.8 Std. dev. = 1.15
Table 6 shows that only 3.9 percent of the respondents had no female child, while
most of the respondents i.e., 41.2 percent had one female child, while about one-third i.e.,
32.6 percent of them had two female children and 12.1 percent of them had three female
children. About 9.2 percent of the respondents had four female children, two respondents
had five female children, one respondent had 6 and another 1 respondent had eight female
children.
The above study is similar to the research findings of Perveen (2001) under the
title of “The sociological study of female participation in decision making process in
various family matters in selected urban areas of Faisalabad District” who found that
more than half (51.67 percent) of the respondents had 1-2 female children, whereas 30
percent, 10.83 percent and 7.5 percent respondents had 3-4, no female and 5-6 female
children respectively.
86
FAMILY SYSTEM
The respondents were further asked to identify their family type i.e., nuclear or
joint. Nuclear family system means the family where only husband, wife, and children
live together. The joint family means where in addition to the children, wife, and
husband, or wife and husband’s parents, sisters or brothers of husband or wife also live
there. Family system reflects the nature of family bond help to calculate their economic
condition. The data regarding this aspect is presented in Table 7.
TABLE 7: FAMILY-TYPE WISE PRESENTATION OF STUDY SUB JECTS.
Categories No. of Respondents (n)
Percentage (%)
Nuclear 182 45.5%
Joint 218 54.5%
Total 400 100.0%
Table 7 reflects that 54.5 percent of the respondents had joint family system while
45.5 percent lived the nuclear way. The findings of present study negate the results of
Safdar (2004) who found that majority i.e., 65.0 percent of the respondents had nuclear
family type, while 35.0 percent lived under joint system.
87
45.5
54.5
NuclearJoint
FIG 3: GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF FAMILY SYSTEMS.
88
FAMILY HEAD’S OCCUPATION
Respondents were also asked regarding their main family occupation being
practiced by their forefathers or the majority of the persons of their household. Data in
this regard are presented in Table 8.
TABLE 8: DIVISION OF INERVIEWED INDIVIDUALS ACCORDI NG TO THEIR OCCUPATION TYPES.
Occupation No. of Respondents (n)
Percentage (%)
Farming 202 50.5%
Service 5 1.3%
Laborer 192 48.0%
Business 1 0.3%
Total 400 100.0%
Table 8 shows that about half i.e., 50.5 percent of the respondents had farming as
their family head’s occupation, whereas, 48.0 percent of the respondents were laborers.
On the other hand 1.6 percent of the respondents had service and business as their family
head’s occupation. The above results showed that majority of the respondents belonged to
farming category. Approximately same proportion belonged to labor group, showing less
strength in business and service sectors. The above results coincide with those of Kokab
(2001) who found that 25.8 percent of the respondents’ family heads’ occupation was
agriculture, whereas 18.5 and 17.9 percent had labor and business as their family heads’
occupation. Only 9.3 percent of the respondents had government jobs as their family
heads’ occupation.
89
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Farming Service Laborer Business
FIG. 4: OCCUPATION WISE PERCENTAGES OF THE INDIVIDU ALS UNDER STUDY.
HOUSING CONDITIONS
Condition of house depicts the life style of the respondents. It helps to estimate
either the respondents living in pacca houses (bricks) desiring more training or vice versa.
The data regarding this aspect are presented in Table 9.
TABLE 9. HOUSE TYPES OF THE INTERVIEWED FOLKS.
House condition No. of Respondents (n)
Percentage (%)
Kacha House 136 34.0%
Pacca House 166 41.5%
Kacha-cum-Pacca House 98 24.5%
Total 400 100.0%
Note: Kacha house = Made of mud Pacca house = Made of bricks Kacha-cum-pacca house = Mix mud and bricks
90
Table 9 reveals that 41.5 percent of the respondents lived in pacca houses. On
the other hand 34.0 and 24.5 percent of the respondents were living in kaccha or kaccha-
cum-pacca housing conditions, respectively. The results show that approximately 58
percent of the respondents lived in kacha conditions. These results coincide with those of
Atta (2000) who found that 52.8 percent of the respondents had kacha houses, whereas
28.5 and 17.5 percent had semi-pacca and pacca houses, respectively.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Per
cen
tag
e
Kacha House Pacca House Kacha-cum-PaccaHouse
Type of house
FIG. 5: A BAR DIAGRAM DEPICTING THE HOUSE TYPES . SOCIAL STATUS
Social status of the women counts for the family’s strength in terms of economic
strength and access to various resources. Higher the social status of the women of a
society more will be the training needs and better will be the development of a nation.
Respondents were also inquired regarding this aspect and the results are presented in
Table 10.
91
TABLE 10: A PRESENTATION OF INTERVIEWEES WHEN LOOK ED AT THEIR SOCIAL CADRES.
Social Status No. of Respondents (n)
Percentage (%)
Teacher 25 6.2%
Labourer 302 75.5%
House wife 73 18.3%
Total 400 100%
Table 10 reveals that majority (75.5 percent) of the respondents were laborers
(working in farms), 18.3 percent housewives and 6.2 percent were teachers. Socially,
75.5 percent of respondents belonged to labor category showing strong relationship to
this study.
SIZE OF LAND HOLDING
Size of land holding refers to the piece of land cultivated by a farmer or his family
(Sadaf, 2005). It is generally thought that the farmers having big holding can take risk
and generally they need more training for usage of recent technologies. Chaudhary (2004)
argued that larger the size of land holding greater the needs of agricultural technologies.
TABLE 11. DIVIDING THE INDIVIDUALS UNDER STUDY IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THEIR LAND OWNERSHIPS.
Land Holding No. of Respondents (n)
Percentage (%)
Small Farmers
(Below 12.5 Acres) 49 24.1%
Medium Farmers
(12.5-25 Acres) 137 67.4%
Large Farmers
(Above 25 Acres) 17 8.3%
Total 203* 100.0%
* 197 respondents had no own land and they were tenant farmers.
92
Table 11 reflects that majority i.e., 67.4 percent of the respondents had medium
land holdings (12.5-25 acres), whereas 24.1 percent of the respondents had small land
holdings (below 12.5 acres), on the other hand 8.3 percent of the respondents had large
land holdings (above 25 acres). Results in this particular table showed that respondents
mainly belonged to medium farmer’s categories. Similar results were found by Haq
(2007). He found that a major proportion of the respondents had medium size of land
holding (12.5-25 acres).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Per
cen
tag
e
Small Farmer (Below12.5 acres)
Medium Farmer(12.5-25 acres)
Large Farmer (Above25 acres)
Farmers category
FIG. 6: A BAR DIGRAM SHOWING LAND OWNERSHIPS. TENURESHIP STATUS
The land tenure status is the manners and conditions of land holding and property
rights of the individual to the land (Munir, 1988). In Pakistan the common types of land
tenureship are owners, owner-cum tenants, and tenants. It is assumed that owner
cultivators are better than tenants and owner-cum tenants with regard to production and
usage of latest technologies as well as social status. Data regarding tenancy status of the
respondents are presented in Table 12.
93
TABLE 12: BREAK UP OF INTERVIEWED SUBJECTS WHEN VIE WED THROUGH THEIR TYPES OF POSSESSION.
Tenure ship status No. of Respondents
(n) Percentage
(%) Owner 57 14.2%
Owner-cum- Tenants 146 36.5%
Tenants 197 49.2%
Total 400 100.0%
Table 12 shows that 49.2 percent of the respondents were tenants and 36.5 percent
were owner-cum-tenants. It was clear from the data that only 14.2 percent of the
respondents enjoyed the status of land owner. These results are more or less similar to
those of Ali (2004) who revealed that 52.7 percent of the respondents were tenants
followed by 25.3 and 23.0 percent of the respondents who were owner-cum-tenants and
owners.
ANNUAL INCOME
Different respondents have different sources of income. The overall income of the
respondents during one year earned from all sources of income is called annual income. It
reflects the economic condition of the respondents and calculates the living style. The
data regarding this aspect are presented in Table 13.
TABLE 13. INCOME BASED SPLIT UP OF THE INDIVIDUALS UNDER
STUDY.
Annual income (Rs.) No. of Respondents (n)
Percentage (%)
Below 50,000 (Below $ 833) 203 50.8%
50,000-100,000 ($833-$1666) 161 40.3%
More than 100,000 (More than
$1666) 36 9.0%
Total 400 100.0%
94
The data in Table 13 show that about half i.e., 50.8 percent of the respondents had
income below 50,000 rupees (below $ 833) and 40.3 percent fell in the category of
50,000-100,000 rupees ($833-$1666). On the other hand only 9.0 percent of the
respondents had annual income more than 100,000 rupees (more than $1666). It is clear
from the above data that the study population is below poverty line. This is due to low
education rate and less livelihood strategies emphasize to generate more income sources
at their doorstep with minimum cost in order to uplift their standard of living.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Per
cen
tag
e
Below 50,000 (Below$ 833)
50,000-100,000($833-$1666)
More than 100,000(More than $1666)
Annual Income
FIG. 7: A BAR CHART DEPICTING THE ANNUAL INCOME OF THE INTERVIEWED INDIVIDUALS.
95
CROPS SOWN
In the study area, the trend of crops sown is determined by the overall climatic
condition and economic worth attributed to the crops by the respondents. Moreover, it is
also clear that culture and tradition of the area are important too. In the present study
questions were also asked about these aspects and findings are presented below.
TABLE 14. CATAGORISING THE INTERVIEWEES AS THEY GR OW
VARIOUS CROPS.
Crops sown No. of Respondents (n)
Percentage (%)
Cotton 394 98.5% Wheat 394 98.5% Rice 175 43.8% Sugarcane 139 34.8% Fodder 129 32.3% Pulses 101 25.3%
Table 14 shows that a huge majority i.e., 98.5 percent of the respondents had
sown cotton and another 98.5 percent had sown wheat. On the other hand 43.8 and 34.8
percent had sown rice and sugarcane, respectively. However, 32.3 percent had sown
fodder and 25.3 percent of them had sown pulses. Similarly, Khan (2005) reveals that
majority of the respondents were sowing sugarcane and wheat. Among the rest of
respondents 55.6 percent, 51.9 percent, 29.4 percent fall in the category of maize, fodder
and cotton crops, respectively.
96
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100P
erce
ntag
e
Cotton Wheat Rice Sugarcane Fodder Pulses
Crops
FIG.8: A DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE CROP PAT TERNS
ADOPTED BY THE INTERVIEWED INDIVIDUALS.
97
PARTICIPATION OF RURAL WOMEN IN CROP PRODUCTION REL ATED ACTIVITIES
There are 21 activities related to different crops such as seed cleaning, wheat harvesting,
baling, and thrashing etc. in which women are involved round the year. The data were
collected and presented in Table 15.
TABLE 15. CROP RELATED ACTIVITIES ADOPTED BY THE
INDIVIDUALS UNDER STUADY.
Activities of Crop Production
Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Cotton Picking 297 74.3% 103 25.8% Wheat Harvesting 280 70.0% 120 30.0% Cotton Sticks Binding 234 58.5% 166 41.5% Drying the Products 191 47.8% 209 52.3% Thrashing of Wheat 190 47.5% 210 52.5% Weeding 152 38.0% 248 62.0% Thinning 96 24.0% 304 76.0% Transplantation Of Paddy 73 18.3% 327 81.8% Seed Bed Preparation 35 8.8% 365 91.3% Plantation of Sugarcane 33 8.3% 367 91.8% Collection of farm yard manure For farm application. 32 8.0% 368 92.0% Packaging of Rice 30 7.5% 370 92.5% Crushing of Sugarcane 30 7.5% 370 92.5% Irrigation of Vegetables 27 6.8% 373 93.3% Pest Management of Vegetables 25 6.3% 375 93.8% Vegetable Production 24 6.0% 376 94.0% Application of Fertilizer 23 5.8% 377 94.3% Gur Making 21 5.3% 379 94.8% Picking and Packaging of Fruits 21 5.3% 379 94.8% Harvesting of Vegetables 20 5.0% 380 95.0% Preparation of Land 4 1.0% 396 99.0%
Table 15 depicts that individuals in first three statements have shown a very
positive signs. Table indicates that majorities i.e., 74.3 percent, 70.0 percent and 58.5
percent of the respondents participated in cotton picking, wheat harvesting and cotton
sticks binding activities, respectively. While 47.8 percent of the respondents participated
in the product drying activity, 47.5 percent participated in thrashing of wheat and 38.0
percent of them undertook weeding. About one-fourth i.e., 24.0 percent of the
98
respondents carried out thinning, 18.3 percent performed transplantation of paddy, 8.8
percent did seed bed preparation, and 8.3 percent planted sugarcane. About 8.0 percent
of the respondents collected farm yard manure for farm application, 7.5 percent
participated in packing of rice and 7.5 percent crushed sugarcane. About seven percent
irrigated vegetables, 6.3 percent carried out vegetable pest management, 6.0 percent of
the respondents were engaged in vegetable production and 5.8 percent applied fertilizer.
About 5.3 percent conducted gur making, 5.3 percent picked and packed fruits, 5 percent
harvested vegetables and 1.0 percent of the respondents prepared land. The above
findings reflect that major proportion of the respondents was engaged in cotton picking,
wheat harvesting and cotton sticks collection. While slightly less than half of the
respondents participated in produce drying and thrashing of wheat. And very few of the
respondents performed transplantation of paddy, seed bed preparation, plantation of
sugarcane, collection of farm yard manure for farm application, packaging of rice and
crushingshing of sugarcane.
This study is endorsed by Alam and Manzoor (2005), who reported that 2.6
million females are associated with cotton crop in nine provincial districts. Their
proportion in ridge making is two percent; seed sowing at ridges is done by twenty six
percent. weeding is effected by twenty two percent, manual weeding by twenty percent,
sixteen percent undertake thinning, picking is taken up by eighty six percent, stick cutting
practiced by eight percent, stick collection by twenty three percent, field cleaning
engages eight percent females while they also assist in the post harvest set up. (Khushak
and Hisbani, 2004).
99
Cotton picking
Cotton pick in full gear
100
Table 16. DIVISION OF FEMALES INTERVIEWED IN LINE WITH THEIR ROLE IN RAISING LIVESTOCK.
n = 400
Activities of Livestock Management
Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Farm Cleaning 269 67.3% 131 32.8% Milking 256 64.0% 144 36.0% Dung Collection 249 62.3% 151 37.8% Poultry Farming 248 62.0% 152 38.0% Fodder Cutting 242 60.5% 158 39.5% Whey Making 242 60.5% 158 39.5% Bathing Animals 240 60.0% 160 40.0% Caring Sick animals 239 59.8% 161 40.3% Calf Rearing 235 58.8% 165 41.3% Watering Animals 227 56.8% 173 43.3% Milk Storage 226 56.5% 174 43.5% Shifting of Animals 222 55.5% 178 44.5% Dung Cake Making 223 55.8% 177 44.3% Wanda Mixing 222 55.5% 178 44.5% Treatment of Sick Animals 220 55.0% 180 45.0% Grazing 214 53.5% 186 46.5% Offering Fodder 211 52.8% 189 47.3% Dung Manure Making 185 46.3% 215 53.8% Fodder Collection 170 42.5% 230 57.5% Ghee and Egg Sales 127 31.8% 273 68.3% Table 16 indicates very strong participation of rural women in livestock sector.
Above result shows that majority i.e., 67.3 percent, 64.0 percent, 62.3 percent, 62.0
percent, 60.5 percent, another 60.5 percent and 60.0 percent of the respondents
participated in farm cleaning, milking, dung collection, poultry farming, fodder cutting,
whey making and bathing animals respectively. While 59.8 percent, 58.8 percent, 56.8
percent 56.5 percent and 55.5 percent of the respondents participated in care of sick
animals, calf caring, watering animals, milk storage and shifting the animals respectively.
Furthermore considerable numbers i.e., 55.8 percent, 55.5 percent, 53.5 percent and 52.8
percent of the respondents participated in dung cake making, wanda mixing, treatment of
sick animals, grazing and offering fodder activities, respectively. While less than half i.e.,
46.3 percent, 42.5 percent and 31.8 percent of the respondents were involved in dung
manure making, fodder collection and ghee and egg sales.
101
A woman cleansing the animal shed
Feeding goats
102
Fodder cutting at home
Livestock caring activities
103
Tidying up under and around the goats
104
In-house goat feeding
105
Similar findings presented by Masood and Mahjabeen (1989). They mentioned in their
reports that rural women were actively involved in the management of livestock
activities. Livestock farming was a tough job, intensive operations were performed by
women, where enough segment of their time was spent in collecting manure and bringing
green fodder from the fields for their cattle. These activities indicated that 90.7 percent
women were involved in cleaning cattle sheds, while 52.2 percent, 100 percent and 67.4
percent brought fodder, prepared yoghurt, ghee and milk respectively.
TABLE 17: WOMEN INTERVIEWEES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIO N
TOWARDS COMMODITY PROCESSING AND STORAGE. n = 400
Activities Mean S.D Rankings
Cotton Cleaning 3.71 1.25 1st
Spreading of wheat/ rice in sun light 3.68 1.30 2nd
Cotton storage 3.66 1.16 3rd
Cotton collection from dead bolls 3.63 1.34 4th
Wheat Cleaning 3.59 1.28 5th
Rice Cleaning 3.58 1.33 6th
Store Cleaning 3.56 1.34 7th
Wheat storage 3.52 1.26 8th
Rice storage for home use 3.42 1.39 9th
Rice storage 3.41 1.39 10th
Seed Preparation For sowing 3.36 1.47 11th
Earthen store making 3.35 1.28 12th
Storage of pulses 3.14 1.47 13th
Pickle making 2.61 1.60 14th
Sitta collection 2.47 1.55 15th
Drying of vegetable and pulses 1.87 1.41 16th
Pesticide spray on cotton 1.40 1.05 17th Scale: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree, 5 = St. Agree
Table 17 displays the data on the basis of scale (score 1 to 5). The data showed
the scale of disagree/agree of rural woman participated in food storage activities. The
measurement of participation was through scores as follows: 3 points and above ranked
high and less than 3 points rated low. In this study table 17 shows significant
participation of rural woman of Bahawalpur district in food storage activities. The
106
Sorting raw cotton
Managing paddy in the courtyard
107
A pile of raw cotton in the courtyard
Cotton collection from dead bolls
108
activities titled “Cotton cleaning, Spreading of wheat/ rice in sun light, Cotton storage,
cotton collection from dead balls, wheat cleaning, rice cleaning, store cleaning, wheat
storage, rice storage for home use, rice storage, seed preparation for sowing and earthen
store making” have mean value above 3.00, showing strong and significant participation
of rural women in food storage and processing activities. Whereas the activities titled
“pickle making, sitta collection, drying of vegetables and pulses and pesticide spray on
cotton” have mean value below 3.00 showing weak participation of rural women in these
areas possibly due to of lack of training in such skills, showing last rankings in the table.
The study is also in agreement with the findings of CIDA (2004) which cite that during
harvest and post-harvest period, rural females take up a function of processing, handling,
storage and marketing of crops. After returning home, these females cooked food for their
families. Thus the women can be instrumental in boosting the production and distribution
of food stuffs, improving the nutritional status of their families and the uplift of rural
people in general. Study by Zaman and Khan (1987) have shown that women were fully
involved in food storage at domestic level such as making pickles and jams.
TABLE 18. A QUICK LOOK AT THE FEMALE ITERVIEWEES B ASED ON HOME MANAGEMENT PATTERNS.
n = 400 Activities MEAN S.D RANKING Preparation of Breakfast 4.06 1.07 1st Preparation of Lunch 4.04 1.00 2nd Cleaning the House 3.99 1.01 3rd Helping in Farm Work 3.97 1.08 4th Dish Washing 3.88 1.14 5th Washing the Clothes 3.84 1.17 6th Fodder Collection 3.48 1.55 7th Water Fetching 3.12 1.68 8th Scale: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree
In Table 18 data was interpreted on the basis of scale (score 1 to 5). The mean
value is weighted score of respondent’s perceptions. The data reflect that the activities
titled “ preparation of breakfast and cleaning the house has weighted mean score well
above 3.00, showing very strong participation of rural woman in home management
activities. All the activities have weighted mean score above 3.00 but the lunch and
breakfast preparation have ranking orders 1st and 2nd respectively. Water fetching and
109
A female brings drinking water
Food preparation
110
Cleaning of house
A woman working with a hoe
111
fodder collection have occupied last position due to lethargic work situation. The present
study is partially in line with those of Kaul (1992) who described a factual scenario
showing that women universally undertake a wide variety of chores. Such undertakings
include food preparation for sale and domestic consumption, getting potable water,
milking the animals, milk processing, thrashing crops and sifting grains. The above study
is in line with findings of Qureshi (1996) who concluded that women in developing world
as a whole, worked for 14 to 17 hours a day in the field and at home for domestic chores
of work like cooking, storing and distribution of food without compensation for the
welfare of their families and communities.
TABLE 19. TABULATED DATA DEPICTING INTERVIEWED FEM ALES AS
VIEWED THROUGH CHILD CARE. n = 400 Activities Mean S.D Ranking Sleeplessness During Child Care 3.89 1.10 1st Massaging the Children 3.73 1.35 2nd Bathing Children 3.67 1.18 3rd Giving Medicine to Infants 3.35 1.41 4th Hair Cutting of Children 1.96 1.49 5th Visiting Physician 1.57 1.20 6th Scale: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree
Table 19 shows the results about the participation of rural woman in childcare and
protection. The results represented on the basis of scale (1 to 5 score). In scale weighted
mean score, when above 3.00 was agreed and below 3.00 disagreed. The table shows that
activities regarding child care titled “sleeplessness during child care, massaging the
children, bathing of children and giving medicine to infants” have weighted mean score
above 3, showing strong participation of rural woman of district Bahawalpur in child care
activities. The ranking of these activities were 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th respectively. Whereas,
activities titled “hair cutting of children and visit to doctor” have weighted mean score
less than 3 showing weak participation of rural woman in these activities. The findings of
present study are similar to those of Ahmed and Ali,(1992) but the child mortality values
are higher among the working mothers than in case of house wives. Interestingly, kid
mortality is significantly higher among working rural females than in their urban
counterparts. The possible explanation for this pattern is that in most of the cases rural
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A baby accompanies mom during cotton picking
Kids with their mother a work
113
women while working in fields do not get paid cash and are thus unable to provide a
tender health care to their ailing children. The supply of clean drinking water does help
increase the infant life expectancy.
TABLE 20. INTERVIEWED FEMALES AND THEIR ROLE IN CHILD EDUCATION.
Activities Mean S.D Rankings Teaching of Conversation Etiquettes 3.86 2.82 1st Respecting Elders 3.82 1.22 2nd Teaching Children about Dressing 3.77 2.38 3rd Religious Education 3.73 1.16 4th Formal Education 3.69 1.18 5th Handicrafts Education to Female Children 3.64 1.22 6th Home Management To Female Children 3.55 1.15 7th Taking Interest In Child Education. 3.47 1.34 8th Scale: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree
Table 20 depicts the results on the scale (1 to 5) which has given a data shape of
mean from 1 to 5. The table shows that the activities related to child education had high
rate of participation of rural women. The weighted mean score of all activities titled
“teaching of conversation etiquettes, respecting elders, teaching children about dressing,
religious education, formal education, handicrafts education to female children, home
management to female children and taking interest in child education was above 3.00
showing strong participation in child education, ranking 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th
respectively. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd ranked activities approaching nearly 4.00.
The current study is supported by finding of Hina and Hamid (n.d) who described
that in general Pakistani females are dominated by males and their main role in limited to
child care and diverse household chores. They rarely get access to productive resources
and have limited or no participation in critical household decision making. Even
important personal decisions of woman’s life such as access to education, job, spouse
selection and marriage, number of kids, investments and purchases and schooling of
children are made by male family members. Their unimportant status in the family setup
is visible through poor literacy, lower educational status, fewer skill up-gradation
chances, and poor participation in politico-economic activities. Likewise Prakash (2003)
concluded from his studies relating rural women, food security and agricultural
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cooperatives that female to male ratio of illiterates across the globe is 3:2. But the current
school enrollments are reversing this trend swiftly.
Table 21. FEMALE STUDY SUBJECTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION
TOWARDS HOUSE HOLD NECESSITIES. n = 400 Activities Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Cloth purchase for family 224 56.0% 176 44.0%
Spices purchase 164 41.0% 236 59.0%
Vegetable/ Meat Purchase 144 36.0% 256 64.0%
Purchase of Food Grains 92 23.0% 308 77.0%
The activities analyzed in this table were related to provision of basic household
necessities. Table 21 shows the participation of rural women in district Bahawalpur.
These results indicate that majority of the respondents i.e., 56 percent were allowed to
purchase clothes for family; while 44 percent of them had no such privilege. Thus above
findings show strong participation of the respondents in the said discussed activities.
About 41 percent of the respondents had permission of spices purchase, 36
percent purchase vegetable/ meat and 23.0 percent purchased food grains. The results
showing weak participation are due husbands’ greater role in general purchases.
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TABLE 22. ROLE OF FEMALES IN THEIR SOCIAL SET UP. n = 400 Activities Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Visiting the ill 356 89.0% 44 11.0% Visiting relatives on different occasions
348 87.0% 52 13.0%
Attending the Funerals 344 86.0% 56 14.0% Attending marriage Ceremonies
340 85.0% 60 15.0%
Do men and women gather for solution of their problems?
180 45.0% 220 55.0%
Going to carnivals 184 44.0% 216 56.0% Helping poor 144 36.0% 264 64.0% Do they make outsider friends?
1 0.3% 399 99.7%
Do they have local organization of men and women?
1 0.3% 399 99.7%
Table 22 shows the respondents participation in social relations. Results indicate
that a large number of the respondents i.e., 89.0 percent, 87.0 percent, 86.0 percent and
85.0 percent had participation in activities titled “visiting the ill, visiting relatives on
different occasions, attending the funerals and attending the marriages”, respectively.
These findings showing the high and significant participation of rural women, occupying
1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th place in the list, respectively. Whereas, other four activities titled “do
men and women gathered for solution of their problems, going to carnivals, making
outsider friends and having any local organization of men and women” showed relatively
weak participation of rural women, standing 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th in the list. The nil
participation of rural women has been shown in the activities titled “do they make
outsider friends and do they have local organization of men and women, standing last in
the list.
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TABLE 23. DATA SHOWING ROLE OF WOMEN IN POLITICAL ISSUES. Statement Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Should women participate in Politics?
284 71.0% 116 29%
Do you vote out of your free will?
164 41.0% 236 59%
Do you work for a political party?
1 0.3% 399 99.7%
Table 23 shows the participation of rural women in the political activities. The
table shows that statement titled “should women of rural Bahawalpur participate in
politics” had high value (71.0 percent). This very strong signal for future perspective
stands 1st in the list. But at the same time they did not have rights of casting the vote out
of their free will. The statement titled “do you vote out of your own will”, 41.0 percent of
rural women cast a vote with their will. Whereas, for future concerns statement titled “do
you work for a political party” have negligible value (0.3 percent), showing very weak
participation in political process of decision making, standing last in the table.
In our culture especially in rural areas women vote casting is not a norm and also
their participation in politics is not appreciated by the community.
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TABLE 24. ROLE OF THE INTERVIEWED FEMALES TOWARDS CONFLICT RESOLUTION.
Activities Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Have you got any husband / wife conflict?
296 74.0% 104 26.0%
Your conflict outside the home
1 0.3% 399 99.7%
Resolution on your own 1 0.3% 399 99.7%
Resolution through the Local Leaders
1 0.3% 399 99.7%
Resolution through Court 0 0.00% 399 99.7%
Table 24 reflects the situation of conflict management in rural areas of Bahawalpur
district. Rural women were directly involved in these conflicts, showing very high
participation in conflict management. As we know, our society is male dominated,
showing great respect for male decisions. In this table, statement titled “have you got any
husband/ wife conflict” stands first with high percentage value (74 percent), showing
strong participation in conflicts. Whereas, statements titled “your conflict outside the
home, resolution from your side, resolution through the local leaders, resolution through
court” have very less percentage (0.3 percent), showing weak participation in these
activities. Also court resolution had nil value, showing negligible court access to rural
women.
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TABLE 25: WOMEN INTERVIEWED AS REGARDS HANDCRAFTIN G. Activities Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Stitching 340 85.0% 60 15.0%
Basket Making 164 41.0% 236 59.0%
Handicrafts making 86 24.0% 314 76.0%
Azarbund and Pranda Making
84 21.0% 318 79.0%
Crushea Making 80 20.0% 320 80.0%
The data presented in Table 25 show the role of rural women in handicraft making.
The rural women of Bahawalpur district are very much aware of handcraft making,
especially the activity titled “stitching” has high percentage (85.0) showing a strong
participation of rural women. Whereas, the activities titled “basket making, handicrafts
making, azarbund & paranda making and crushea making” had less than half percentages
i.e., 41, 24, 21, and 20 respectively, showing relatively weak participation. These activities
were the strong point of rural women in district Bahawalpur. They were very talented in
this type of handicraft making, striving with in the limits of their home and culture. Also
there was in fact a great need for training in this particular field along with their education.
The handicraft making is now well established industry in Pakistan, showing great potential
in the near future. But unfortunately this field was also occupied by middleman exploiters,
who does not pay enough to the women artisans according to amount of work.
Underpayment to women is a problem consistently faced by Pakistani rural women.
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TABLE 26: BASIC LIFE AMENITIES AS ACCESSED BY THE WOMEN INTERVIEWED.
Activities Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Are there Paved Roads in Your Village? 396 99.0% 4 1.0% Have you any Girl School in your village? 352 88.0% 48 12.0% Do any lady health visitors visit you? 332 83.0% 68 17.0% Do women check up their children to LHV? 304 76.0% 96 24.0% Have you worked for the welfare of the village 252 63.0% 148 37.0% Do you have electricity in your village 228 57.0% 172 43.0% Is there trend of girl education? 224 56.0% 176 44.0% Have you a clean drinking water facility? 164 41.0% 236 59.0% Are there electric bulbs and street lights in your village? 124 31.0% 276 69.0% Have you a sewage system? 100 25.0% 4 1.0% Has any girl taken admission in the college? 68 17.0% 332 83.0% Have you any medical facilities? 24 6.0% 376 94.0% Is any girl working after education? 24 6.0% 376 94.0% Do you participate in poor help schemes? 24 6.0% 376 94.0% Do you participate in the vocational centre? 16 4.0% 384 96.0% Is there any maternity care facility? 12 3.0% 388 97.0% Is there any dispensary/ hospital in your village? 8 2.0% 392 98.0%
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Table 26 shows the role of rural women in terms of access to basic necessities of
life. The table shows also reveals that the aspect related to statements titled “are there
paved roads in your village?” has amazingly high percentage (99.0 percent). The
statements related to the education and health of district Bahawalpur titled “have you
girls school in your village, do lady health visitors visit you, do women check up their
children to LHV, have you worked for the welfare of the village, do you have
electrification in your village and trend of girl education have percentage values of 88.0,
83.0, 76.0, 63.0, 57.0 and 56.0 respectively, showing the availability of basic necessities.
Whereas, statements titled “have you clean drinking water, are there electric bulbs and
street lights in your village, have you got sewerage system and have you got any girl who
has taken admission in the college” have percentages 41.0, 31.0 and 25.0, respectively,
showing less availability of these amenities in the villages. Also necessities like medical
centre, vocational centre, maternity centre and dispensary have very low percentages,
showing unavailability of these basic necessities. Due to extreme poverty people have
least access to basic facilities of life especially in far flung rural areas like the desert of
Bahawalpur. People don’t have sufficient access to education, medicine, electricity and
clean drinking water. There is lack of awareness about the basic women rights in the
strata that give marginal importance to the use of these facilities if available.
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TABLE 27: INFORMATION SOURCES AVAILED BY THE FEMALE S Activities Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Friends 340 85.0% 60 15.0% Relatives 316 79.0% 84 21.0% Television 136 34.0% 264 66.0% Radio 120 30.0% 280 70.0% Magazines/ Journals 16 4.0% 384 96.0% Newspapers 12 3.0% 388 97.0% Department. of Agriculture Extension
4 1.0% 396 99.0%
The data presented in Table 27 show the distribution of the respondents according
to sources of information they avail. The information sources “friends and relatives” have
very high percentages 85.0 and 79.0, showing mostly information could be obtained by
friends and relatives. Also some part of information could be availed from Television and
Radio, showing percentage values 34 and 30. It is clear from data that magazines/
journals, newspapers and Department. of Agriculture had very little percentages, showing
negligible part in having information through these resources. They fell in the bottom of
the table depicting the harsh reality that the governmental machinery is not working up to
mark. In this respect Hussain (1993) highlighted the role of mass media particularly for
women in diffusion and adoption of modern cropping techniques. Furthermore it is
elaborated by Jamshad (1998) that about half of the respondents were of the view that
broadcast media presented introductory type agricultural programs. One-fourth of the
respondents watched TV, where as 12.3 percent and 10 percent read newspapers and
agricultural magazines respectively.
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TABLE 28. LABOUR WORK AND TRAINING NEEDS OF THE WO MEN INTERVIEWEES.
Activities Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Do you need training for gaining expertise in your work? 324 81.0% 76 19.0% Do you spend major part of your income on household? 312 78.0% 88 22.0% Are the women training opportunities unavailable? 308 77.0% 92 23.0% Are there lower income jobs meant for available for women? 188 47.0% 212 53.0% Are you promoted through training? 180 45.0% 220 55.0% Do you spend your income yourself? 84 21.0% 316 79.0% Do your family members like working woman? 68 17.0% 332 83.0% Do you have control over household income? 56 14.0% 344 86.0% Are you satisfied with the distance of the work place? 48 12.0% 352 88.0% Are you satisfied with your work hours? 44 11.0% 356 89.0% Do you have labor opportunities? 36 9.0% 364 91.0% Do you perform labor work? 4 1.0% 396 99.0%
Table 28 shows that the distribution of the respondents according to their labour
work and training needs. The statement related to training titled “do you need training' for
gaining expertise in your work” had a very high percentage (81), showing a dire need for
training to achieve efficiency and productivity. The prime objective of any woman is to
get income through every possible means. The question saying “do you spend major part
of your income on household” had a percentage value of 78, showing that the high
proportion of income was spent on households. The scarcity of training opportunities was
shown by the statement titled “are there women training opportunities unavailable” had
percentage value 77.0, showing high proportion of respondents agreed to unavailability of
training facilities. Also the statement related to lower income titled “are there lower
income jobs for women” had percentage value of 47, showing relatively fewer women
agreed to the statement and 45 percent endorsed the statement “do you promote through
training”. The statements regarding women work and their income titled “do your family
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members like working of the women, do you have control of your household income, are
you satisfied with the distance of work place, are you satisfied with work hours and do
you perform labour work” had very low percentages i.e., 17, 14, 12 and 11 respectively,
showing very low proportion of women agreed to these statements. The statements
regarding labor work titled “do you have labor opportunities and do you conduct labor
work” had little proportion of respondents who agreed to the statements, and thereby had
fewer percentages. In the same context Khushak and Hisbani (2004), stated that in rural
areas, 87 percent of females were illiterate. They suggested that the earning level of
women can increase by giving them training in the field of vocational training, handicraft,
poultry farming, sericulture, beekeeping and other post production techniques. It is duty
of the government and private associations to motivate and influence rural women to
ensure their admissions to schools and increased literacy levels. On the other side Zafar
(2004) viewed that women' s participation in livestock care and management. No
doubt livestock raising is a source of supplementing family income and improving
nutritional level of family. They suggested to arrange special training programmes
for rural females with the help of these trained women, the standard of livestock
production along with care.
TABLE 29. CROP PRODUCTION TRAININGS NEEDED BY THE
INTERVIEWED FEMALES.
Activities
Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Seed selection 360 90.0% 40 10.0% Marketing 164 41.0% 236 59.0% Harvesting and post harvesting techniques
120 30.0% 280 70.0%
Land preparation 12 3.0% 388 97.0% Pest management 8 2.0% 392 98.0% Planting method 8 2.0% 392 98.0% Seed treatment 8 2.0% 392 98.0% Crop management 8 2.0% 392 98.0%
Table 29 reveals the training needs in crop production.. In this table the training
needs in the areas of crop production titled “seed selection” had high percentage i.e., 90,
showing a great need for this particular training. Whereas, the second area titled
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“marketing and harvesting techniques” had a percentage value of less than half i.e., 41,
showing training needs in the area of marketing and harvesting and the third area titled
“harvesting and post harvesting technique” had a percentage value less than one-third i.e.,
30. All other processes of crop production having very few percentages showed less
training needs. These areas generally belonged to males such as “land preparation, pest
management, planting method, seed treatment and crop management” where men needed
training. The above data clearly show that women need trainings in later stages of crop
production. In the same aspect Mashkoor (1995) concluded that in crop production
activities the domains of different operations were divided into men and women. For
female, seed preparation 93.5 percent, getting fodder 50%, drying 51.5%, preparing
storage 73% and storing food for home 66.2 were the activities. Whereas for males,
collecting farm yard manure for on farm application 88.9%, weeding 47.8%, harvesting
53.9%, baling (wheat) 67.1, husking maize 55.4%, thrashing 50.1 percent%, on-farm
transport 80.7%, off-farm transport 90.4% and storing fodder 76.1% were the crop
production operations.
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TABLE 30. TRAINING NEEDS OF THE FEMALE GENDER UNDE R STUDY IN TERMS OF LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT.
Activities
Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Precautionary Measures of Diseases
252 63.0% 148 37.0%
Information about Animal Diseases
240 60.0% 160 40.0%
Safeguard/Care Animals from Diseases
228 57.0% 172 43.0%
Taking care of Diseased Animals
220 55.0% 180 45.0%
Fodder Production 208 52.0% 192 48.0% Milking 184 46.0% 216 54.0% Artificial Insemination 176 44.0% 224 56.0%
Table 30 shows training needs in livestock management. In this table, rural
women shown are in great need of training in livestock managements processes. Training
needs in “precautionary measures of diseases” were high due to high percentage value
i.e., 63, showing satisfactory proportion of rural women. High proportion of rural women
got “information about animal diseases” with a high value i.e., 60. There were also good
proportion of rural women, suggesting the training needs in “safeguard/ protecting
animals from diseases”, which had a percentage of 57, “taking care of diseased animals
55 and “fodder production” 52. Also rural women showed less interest in the training
needs for “milking and artificial insemination have less than half percentage values 46
and 44. The basic reason for less interest was that rural women are already well familiar
with milk production. They are not allowed by men to be involved in artificial
insemination. In the same context Mashkoor (1995) found that in livestock management
females dominated operations were cleaning sheds (90.7%), cleaning animals (50%),
bringing fodder (52.5%), milking (67.4%), egg collection (87), manure collection
(92.9%) and selling products to the villagers (94.1%).
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TABLE 31: POULTRY PRODUCTION TRAINING AS NEEDED BY FEMALES INTERVIEWED.
Activities Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Meat production 268 67.0% 132 33.0% Egg Storage 264 66.0% 136 34.0% Poultry Diseases 264 66.0% 136 34.0% Feed Preservation 252 63.0% 148 37.0%
Table 31 depicts that high proportion of rural woman needs training in activities
titled “meat production, egg storage, poultry diseases and poultry feed preservation due to
high percentage values i.e., 67, 66, 66 and 63 respectively. Rural women had a significant
role in backyard poultry production for years in different parts of the country. This is also
a potential area for income generation from which rural women of Bahawalpur district
can benefited. In the same perspective Shukla, et al., (1998) found that 96, 94.66, 85.33,
84.66, 66.84 and 36.66 percent of the respondents participated in livestock, poultry
production activities like preparing ghee, egg collection, watering animals, cleaning sheds
of animals, milking animals, and selling produce, respectively. It was thus concluded that
they could improve their family nutritional status by incorporating nutritious diets; on the
other hand they could earn some household income through sale of eggs.
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TABLE 32. TRAINING NEEDS OF THE FEMALES UNDER STUD Y IN TERMS OF FOOD STORAGE.
Activities Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Food Storage 348 87.0% 52 13.0% Pickles Making 348 87.0% 52 13.0% Selection and Grading of Fruits and Vegetables
344 86.0% 56 14.0%
Fruit and vegetable storage 340 85.0% 60 15.0% Rodentifying Grains 336 84.0% 64 16.0% Seed Storage 336 84.0% 64 16.0% Preparation of Earthen Store Room
316 79.0% 84 21.0%
Drying Fruits and Vegetables 300 75.0% 100 25.0% Wheat cleaning 296 74.0% 104 26.0%
In this table training needs in the activities like “food storage, pickles making,
selection and grading of fruits and vegetables, fruit and vegetable storage, rodentification
of grains and seed storage were high due to high percentage values i.e., 87, 87, 86, 85, 84,
and 84 percent respectively. The training needs in the activities like “preparation of
earthen store room, drying of fruits and vegetables and wheat cleaning also had large
percentage values i.e., 79, 75 and 74, showing overall high proportion of training needs in
food storage activities. Although the basic responsibility of food storage lies with the
rural women, the training remains compulsory for long term storage. As it is clear from
the study of AWDF (2003) that women contributed to food storage not only through
processing and preparation of food but also via indigenous practice of storing.
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TABLE 33. HEALTH AND SANITATION TRAINING NEEDS OF F EMALES INTERVIEWEES.
Activities Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Drainage 396 99.0% 4 1.0% Information about contagious diseases 392 98.0% 8 2.0% Precautionary measures of contagious diseases 392 98.0% 8 2.0% General health care measures 388 97.0% 12 3.0% Child care 380 95.0% 20 5.0% First aid 364 91.0% 36 9.0%
Table 33 shows training needs in health and sanitation. There were a high
proportion of rural women who required training in drainage activity, with an extremely
percent value (i.e., 99). As we know, health is directly influences work hours and income
of rural women. Thus percentages of “information about contagious diseases,
precautionary measures against contagious diseases, general health care measures, child
care and first aid were also very high i.e., 98, 98, 97, 95 and 91, showing high
percentages of women who needed training in the fields of health and sanitation.
Rural women should have a general awareness about health and nutrition to
maintain the health status of their family and to control emergencies. Government should
plan special training courses for rural women with the collaboration of health department
to combat various unhealthy situations.
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TABLE 34. SOCIO-ECONOMIC RESTRAINTS EXPERIENCED BY WOMEN INTERVIEWEES.
Socio-Economic Constraints Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Do you have Less Sources of Income? 392 98.0% 8 2.0% Do you think if you were more Educated then you could earn more?
388 97.0% 12 3.0%
Do you think if more health facilities are provided they can work more?
380 95.0% 20 5.0%
Do you face deficiency of information? 380 95.0% 20 5.0% Do you face deficiency of technical competencies?
380 95.0% 20 5.0%
Do you think male persons don’t permit women training?
372 93.0% 28 7.0%
Do you think if women had the decision power she would attend training or not?
368 92.0% 32 8.0%
Do you have TV in your home? 168 42.0% 232 58.0% Do women watch TV? 160 40.0% 240 60.0% Do you have radio in your home? 116 29.0% 284 71.0% Do women listen to radio? 104 26.0% 296 74.0% Do you have facility of daily news paper? 20 5.0% 380 95.0% Do women read news papers? 8 2.0% 392 98.0% Does any social welfare organization work in your village?
4 1.0% 396 99.0%
Do you consult the posters and pamphlets distributed by department. of agriculture extension?
4 1.0% 396 99.0%
The data presented in Table 34 reveal the hindrances faced by rural women in
performance of their role in various activities of agriculture and other income generating
activities like provision of health facilities etc. Constraints faced by rural woman were
less sources of income, low education, less health facilities, lack of information, lack of
technical competencies, lack of permission from men and lack of decision power to
attend the training programs had percentages of 98, 97, 95, 95, 95, 93 and 92
respectively. Also facilities like TV, radio and newspaper were not abundantly available
to rural women, having percentage values of less than 50 i.e., 42, 40, 29 and 26 percent,
respectively, showing lesser participation. The percentage values of a question “does any
social welfare organization work in your village and does you consult the posters and
130
pamphlets distributed by department of agriculture extension” was almost negligible,
showing no role of welfare organizations and Department of Agriculture Extension in the
life of rural women of Bahawalpur district. It reflects that rural women had no access to
various resources as compared to male members of the community.
TABLE 35. BREAK-UP OF INTERVIEWED FEMALES IN THE L IGHT OF
THEIR FEEDBACK. Suggestions Yes No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Should women trainer be appointed for women training? 380 95.0% 20 5.0% In your opinion, can agriculture be an income generating occupation? 380 95.0% 20 5.0% Should Department. of Agri. Extension arrange women’s training? 376 94.0% 24 6.0% Do you think male persons don’t permit of women training? 372 93.0% 28 7.0% Should women Agri. Extension agent be appointed? 368 92.0% 32 8.0% Should Government be provided small scale credit to rural women for their welfare? 300 75.0% 100 25.0% Should women role be highlighted through TV, radio and newspapers? 200 50.0% 200 50.0% Should women be awarded modern agricultural technologies through informal education? 8 2.0% 392 98.0%
Table 35 shows the suggestions presented by the respondents. The question titled
“should women trainers be appointed for women training?” had high percentage value
i.e., 95, showing strong need of women trainers in Bahawalpur district who impart
training in crop production, livestock production, poultry production and storage related
skills to rural women. Also the same proportion of women suggested the need for
agriculture extension training for females. The statement saying “should female Agri.
Extension agent be appointed?” also had a very high percentage of about 92, showing a
positive response of rural women to this question. The question “should the government
provide small scale credit to rural women for their welfare?” again had a large percentage
131
value of 75, showing a positive response to this suggestion. The response to the question
“should women’s role be highlighted through TV, radio and newspapers?” had a response
equaling half, hinting at an undecided situation. Also the question “should women be
aware of modern agricultural technologies through non-formal education system?” had a
negligible response i.e., 2.0 percent, most likely due to a lack of understanding of the
question.
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4.2 BIVARIATE ANALYSIS
TABLE 36: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE AGE OF STUDY SUB JECTS AND AGRICULTURE RELATED TRAININGS THEY NEEDED.
Variables Chi-square D.F. Significance Gamma 1. Association between age of
respondents and their training needs in crops production
58.41 4 .00** -0.714
2. Association between age of respondents and the training needed in livestock management.
91.00 4 .00** -0.642
3. Association between age of respondents and their training requirements in poultry husbandry.
62.29 4 .00** -0.515
4. Association between age of respondents and their training needs in food storage.
92.01 4 .00** -0.580
5. Association between age of respondents and training needed in health care.
9.78 4 .01* -0.414
* Indicates significant at 5% ** Indicates significant at 1%
Table 36 indicates the association between age of the respondents and their
training needs in different agricultural activities.
1. It was noted the chi-square value (58.41) shows a highly significant (P = .00)
association between age of the respondents and their training needs in crops
production. The gamma value (-0.714) shows a strong negative relationship
between the variables.
2. Chi-square value (91.00) shows a highly significant (P = .00) association
between age of the respondents and their training requirements in livestock
management. The gamma value (-0.642) shows a strong negative relationship
between the variables. Thus the results imply that that higher the age of the
respondents lower would be their training needs in animal care.
3. Chi-square value (62.29) shows a highly significant (P = .00) association
between age of the respondents and their training needs in poultry husbandry.
133
The gamma value (-0.515) shows a strong negative relationship between the
variables. So these findings indicate that higher the age of the respondents
lower would be their training needs in poultry keeping.
4. Chi-square value (92.01) shows a highly significant (P = .00) association
between age of the respondents and their training needs in terms of food
storage. The gamma value (-0.580) shows a strong negative relationship
between the variables.
5. Chi-square value (9.78) shows a highly significant (P = .00) association
between age of the respondents and their training needs in health care
activities. The gamma value (-0.414) shows a strong negative relationship
between the variables. It hints that young respondents were required more
training in health care.
The above findings suggest that younger people need more agriculture related
trainings in areas like poultry farming, crop husbandry, raising livestock, food
processing and storage and health care.
134
TABLE 37: LINKAGE BETWEEN EDUCATION LEVEL OF THE INTERVIEWED SUBJECTS AND AGRICULTURAL TRAININGS THEY NEEDED.
Variables Chi-square D.F. Significance Gamma 1. Association between education
of the respondents and their training needs in crop production
81.96 8 .00** 0.162
2. Association between education of the respondents and their training requirements in livestock management.
48.75 8 .00** 0.375
3. Association between education of the respondents and their training needs in poultry husbandry.
45.26 8 .00** 0.880
4. Association between education of the respondents and training they needed in food storage.
65.51 8 .00** 0.202
5. Association between education of the respondents and training they needed in health care activities.
12.29 8 .01* 0.033
* Indicates significant at 5% ** Indicates significant at 1%
Table 37 reveals the association between education of the respondents and their
training needs in different agricultural activities.
1. The chi-square value (81.96) show a highly significant (P = .00) association
between education of the respondents and their training needs in crops. The
gamma value (0.162) shows a positive relationship between the variables.
2. Chi-square value (48.75) shows a highly significant (P = .00) association
between education of the respondents and their training needs in livestock
management. The gamma value (0.375) shows a positive relationship between
the variables. It means that educated study subjects required more training in
livestock management.
135
3. Chi-square value (45.26) shows a highly significant (P = .00) association
between education of the respondents and their training needs in poultry
husbandry. The gamma value (0.88) shows a positive relationship between the
variables. So these findings indicate that educated respondents needed more
training in poultry keeping.
4. Chi-square value (65.51) shows a highly significant (P = .00) association
between education of the respondents and their training needs in food storage.
The gamma value (0.202) shows a positive relationship between the variables.
These data indicate that educated respondents required more training in food
storage.
5. Chi-square value (12.29) shows a significant (P = .01) association between
education of the respondents and their training needs in health care activities.
The gamma value (0.033) shows a positive relationship between the variables.
So educated respondents required more training needs in health care activities.
The above inferences suggest that literate study subjects need more training in
agricultural operations. Since educated folks are well aware of their weaknesses and
strengths they obviously want to have more know-how in respective areas.
136
TABLE 38: INCOME OF THE INDIVIDUALS INTERVIEWED AS RELATED TO THEIR TRAINING NEEDS IN AGRICULTURE.
Variables Chi-square D.F. Significance Gamma 1. Association between income of
the respondents and training need in crop production
172.6 4 .00** 0.851
2. Association between income of the respondents and training need in livestock management.
33.19 4 .00** 0.302
3. Association between income of the respondents and training need in poultry husbandry.
51.88 4 .00** 0.380
4. Association between income of the respondents and training need in food storage.
9.77 4 .00** 0.239
5. Association between income of the respondents and training need in health care activities.
2.13 4 .344NS 0.097
* Indicates significant at 5% ** Indicates significant at 1% NS Non-significant
The information presented in table 38 indicates that:
1. The chi-square value (172.6) shows a highly significant (P = .00) association
between income of the respondents and their training needs in crop
production. The gamma value (0.851) shows a strong positive relationship
between the variables.
2. The Chi-square value (33.19) shows a highly significant (P = .00) association
between the income of the respondents and their training needs in livestock
management. The gamma value (0.302) shows a positive relationship between
the variables. So high income respondents needed more training in animal
care.
3. The Chi-square value (51.88) shows a highly significant (P = .00) association
between income of the respondents and their training needs in poultry
husbandry. The gamma value (0.380) shows a positive relationship between
the variables. It means high income respondents required more training in
poultry keeping.
137
4. The Chi-square value (9.77) shows a significant (P = .04) association between
income of the respondents and their training needs in food storage. The
gamma value (0.239) shows a positive relationship between the variables.
Results indicate that high income respondents in need of more training in food
storage.
5. The Chi-square value (2.13) shows a non-significant (P = .344) association
between income of the respondents and their training needs in health care
activities. The gamma value (0.097) shows no relationship between the
variables suggesting that individuals from all income groups needed training
in health care skills.
The above conclusions further imply that high income individuals under this study
needed relatively more trainings in agriculture related activities. In addition it is quite
pertinent to note here that as regards health care trainings, individuals across all the
income categories needed this vital exposure.
138
Chapter-V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
Rural women play a significant role in different walks of life. They are the main
players to sustain life activities both at home and farm. They actively participate in
agriculture, livestock management and poultry husbandry. Their involvement in
community development and social relations is also recognizable. The major activities of
women focusing crop production include tilling, planting, sapling transplantation, crop
harvest, thrashing, sifting, and dehusking. As regards livestock production they look after
animals and manage primary animal healthcare. They also have to perform domestic
chores of cooking, house keeping, washing clothes, child minding and getting fuel wood
and water. Although they perform all of the above mentioned tasks, however because of
scanty resources and lack of information and technical guidance, women are facing
difficulties to meet the challenges of the time. On the other hand they are deprived of
education, nutrition, medicare and security. Due to the lack of training for rural women
they are lagging behind men on the international standards of crop production, livestock
management and post harvest operations resulting in low crop yields and poor quality of
the produce. To investigate this issue, current study was instituted. Bahawalpur district
consists of five tehsils namely Hasilpur, Bahawalpur, Khairpur Tamewali, Ahmadpur
East and Yazman, of these two tehsils were randomly selected and five union councils
from each tehsil were also again chosen randomly. From each selected union council two
villages were taken up randomly. In turn, from each selected village twenty women
engaged in agricultural activities were chosen through random sampling, thus making a
total of 400 respondents. The data were recorded using an authenticated interview format
specifically designed for this purpose. The observations thus assembled were analyzed
and presented by employing suitable statistical software in order to gain conclusions and
generalizations for devising appropriate corrective and remedial measures.
139
The results thus reached at are summarized below:
5.1.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics
a. Mean age of the respondents was 38.75 years, while majority of the respondents
(71.5%) belonged to 30 years age group. Similarly a vast majority of the
respondents (89.2%) was married which hints at their status within the family
along with responsibilities.
b. More than half (54%) of the respondents were illiterate. However (41%) of the
respondents had completed elementary schooling. However, only 2.8% of the
respondents were matriculates or above.
c. A major proportion of the respondents (47.8%) had 6-10 family members,
whereas 46.7% had 1-5 family members. Similarly, 73.8% of the respondents had
2 or less 2 male kids. The percentage of the respondents having 2 or more female
kids was 77.5.
d. A simple majority (54.5%) of the respondents had joint family system, while
45.5% of them lived under nuclear family system. Most of the respondents were
medium farmers (12.5-25 acres).
e. About half of the family heads (50.5%) were farmers, while majority of the
respondents (75.5%) worked as farm laborers.
f. Around half of the respondents (49.2%) were tenant farmers. Likewise 50.8% of
the respondents generated less than Rs.50, 000/= income per annum.
5.1.2 Role in Agriculture
a. A great majority of the respondents i.e., 98.5 % cultivated cotton and wheat. On
the other hand 43.8% and 34.8% of them grew sugarcane and fodder respectively.
b. A large number of the study subjects (74.3%) took part in cotton picking while
wheat harvest and cotton sticks collection was carried out by 70% and 58.8%
respondents respectively. This study also disclosed strong participation of women
in livestock husbandry. A significant number of the respondents took part in
activities such as cotton cleaning, spreading of wheat/ rice in the sun and cotton
storage.
140
5.1.3 Role in Household Activities
a. Among different household activities, lunch and breakfast preparation got first
preference. It was also noted that study subjects did have roles in clothing
purchases (56%) and buying food grains (77%).
b. Majority of the respondents (with a mean value of >3) experienced sleeplessness
during child care. In addition they helped elderly family members, massaged and
bathed kids and helped promote child education.
5.1.4 Social and Political Role
a. About two-third majority (71.0%) of interviewed subjects were of the view that
women must participate in political process but at the same time 41% of them
didn’t have the freedom to cast their vote on their own..
b. Most of the respondents were part of social activities but their role in any local
organization was nil.
5.1.5 Access to Infrastructure
a. Respondents having access to basic infrastructure and facilities were had
amenities like roads (99%), electricity (57%), clean drinking water (41%) and
sewerage system (25%).
b. Very few respondents could avail medical facilities (6%), maternity care (4%),
and vocational trainings (4%).
5.1.6 Socio-Economic Constraints
a. Almost all of the respondents (98%) spoke about their scanty incomes and they
also faced lack of information and technical competency. They thought that they
could earn more if they were better educated. However, their male partners won’t
permit them to take trainings. They also opined that if given the decision power
they would go for attending training programs to boost their incomes.
141
5.1.7 Training Needs
a. Quite a good number (81%) of respondents expressed their need for gaining
expertise in their work. About 77% of them responded that there were no training
opportunities for women.
b. The percentage of respondents spending their incomes on the household was 78,
while only 21% spent their earning on themselves.
c. Respondents needed training in seed selection (90%), marketing (41%) and
harvesting and post harvest techniques (30%). Sixty percent of them required
information about animal diseases. Similarly, training in preventive measures for
diseases was the need of 63% interviewees.
d. About two-third respondents required training in meat and egg production skills,
poultry diseases, feed preparation and food preservation.
e. Training needs were also high in areas like food storage (87%), making pickles
(87%), selection and grading of fruits and vegetables (86%), fruits and vegetable
processing (85%), rodentification of grains (84%), seed storage (84%),
preparation of starch (79%), drying fruits and vegetables (78%) and wheat
cleaning (74%) .
f. Almost all of the respondents (98%) showed their need for information about
contiguous diseases and training in preventive measures, first-aid and child care.
All the respondents expressed their need of having drainage facility.
g. It was found that young and educated people required more training needs in
agricultural activities such as crop production, livestock management, poultry
husbandry, food storage and health care activities. Main reason for this was the
awareness among them about their needs in agriculture. It was concluded that
high income respondents also required more trainings in agricultural activities.
142
5.2 CONCLUSIONS
The study "the role of rural women in agriculture and their training needs in
Bahawalpur district" concluded that majority of rural women from Bahawalpur district
have strong participation in activities such as crop production, livestock husbandry,
poultry keeping, food grain processing and storage, home management and handicraft
making. They also actively took part in cotton picking, wheat harvest, cotton sticks
collection, farm cleaning, milking, dung collection, spreading of wheat, cotton storage,
preparation of breakfast, preparation of lunch and house keeping. The participation of
rural females of Bahawalpur in picking and packaging of fruits, harvest of vegetables,
preparation of land, dung manure making, fodder collection, ghee and egg sales, drying
vegetables and pulses, pesticides spray on cotton, fodder collection and water fetching
was not up to mark. It is also concluded that a great majority of the respondents needed
training to gain expertise in their trade. A large of he respondents claimed that that ample
training opportunities for women weren’t available. They suggested that female trainers
and Agri. Extension Agents be appointed to address their training needs. Majority of the
respondents spent major part of their incomes on households. They also thought that
agriculture can be an income generating occupation and Agriculture Extension
Department should arrange exclusive women training programs. Training need of the
respondents was identified in seed selection, marketing, harvest and post harvest
techniques and information about animal diseases. Almost all of the respondents were
desirous of having information about contiguous diseases of livestock and their
preventive measures. It was also learnt that young and educated people had higher
training needs in agricultural operations such as crop production, livestock management,
poultry husbandry, food storage and health care. In addition, the high income study
subjects were in need of training in agriculture related skills.
143
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
5.3.1 Recommendation for Government a. Credit should be provided at government level to interested women who want to
start small business industry.
b. Government should take initiatives to promote local handicrafts. Bahawalpur is
well known for its handicrafts throughout the country. The public sector
institutions need to patronize and promote this industry by providing ample
trainings.
c. Artisans like engravers and cobbler should be promoted through holding
exhibitions and folk festivals.
d. Skill development training programs should be arranged for women focusing on
handicrafts making and interior decoration in order to enhance their earnings for
quality life.
e. Development of sound infrastructure can’t be ignored anymore. No development
can be achieved unless paved roads, hospitals and schools are built. Access to
clean drinking water sanitation and electricity is a must.
f. Government should also promote the role of women through education.
Awareness among masses must be created regarding the role of women in the
community. Gender Reforms Action Plan (GRAP) has already been initiated in
the public sector but the effectiveness of this program must be ensured to the level
of rural masses.
5.3.2 Recommendation for Government Agencies
a. Most of the interviewees wanted to develop animal farms for milk and ghee sale
in order to boost their earnings in addition to have better nutrition of their family
members. Thus the agencies like SMEDA should help facilitate such clients at
their door steps.
b. Short training programs in crop production, livestock care and management,
human health and sanitation and handicrafts making for capacity building and
skill development of the desert area women should be devised and implemented
144
in a professional manner. Vocational institutes and industries should also be
developed in order to make these training programs effective and practical.
c. A well orchestrated infrastructure of amenities like clean drinking water,
sanitation, electrification, schools and hospitals would change the fate of desert
women.
d. Women agricultural agents should be appointed with a special focus on rural
females and to bridge the information gap between applied research and rural
women.
e. The role of rural women should be strengthened through print and electronic
media.
5.3.3 Recommendation for Local Communities
a. Local communities must prepare a detailed blue print of training programs. Such
programs should be specifically tailored to meet the needs of particular areas.
b. By engaging local community boards, training programs. Should be planned in
areas such as home management, budget making, child care, Education and
saving strategies.
145
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Appendix-I INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
THE ROLE OF RURAL WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE AND THEIR TRAINING NEEDS: A CASE
STUDY OF DISTT. BAHAWALPUR, PAKISTAN The information you provide is confidential and only used for research study purpose. This will not be used elsewhere.
Tehsil _______________ Village name/number _______________
1. Household number _______________ 2. Socio-economic characteristics 3. Name of the respondent (Optional) _______________ 4. Age (years) _______________ 5. Please specify your educational level
5.1 Illiterate _______________ 5.2 Primary _______________ 5.3 Middle _______________ 5.4 Matriculation _______________ 5.5 Intermediate and above _______________
6. What is your marital status? _______________ 6.1 Unmarried _______________ 6.2 Married _______________ 6.3 Widow _______________ 6.4 Divorced _______________ 7. Number of dependants 7.1. Male children _______________ 7.2. Female children _______________ 8. Please specify your family type
8.1. Nuclear _______________ 8.2. Joint _______________ 9. What is your family income source?
9.1. Farming _______________ 9.2. Service _______________ 9.3. Labor _______________ 9.4. Business _______________ 9.5. Other (please specify) _______________
10. What is the type of your housing? 10.1. Kacha (Mud) _______________ 10.2. Pacca (Brick) _______________ 10.3. Mixed (Mud and Brick) _______________
11. What is your social status? (Farm worker, Employed, Housewife etc.) _______________ 12. Please specify your family landholding (acres)
12.1. Small (up to 12.5) _______________ 12.2. Medium (above 12.5-25) _______________ 12.3. Large (above 25) _______________
13. Please specify your family tenure ship 13.1. Owner cultivator _______________ 13.2. Rented in _______________
168
13.3. Owner-cum-tenant _______________ 14. What is your annual income? _______________ 14.1 Below 50,000 _______________ 14.2 Up to 100,000 _______________ 14.3 More than 100,000 _______________ I am presenting some statements to you. If you were involved in operations mentioned below respond in Yes or No format with and without likert scale.
15 Crops sown 15.1 Name the crops you sow. ________________ Do you have participation in following crop production related activities?
No. Activities Yes No
15.2 Cotton Picking 15.3 Wheat Harvesting 15.4 Cotton Sticks Binding 15.5 Drying the Products 15.6 Thrashing of Wheat 15.7 Weeding 15.8 Thinning 15.9 Transplantation of Paddy 15.10 Seed Bed Preparation 15.11 Plantation of Sugarcane 15.12 Collection of farm yard manure for farm application. 15.13 Packaging of Rice 15.14 Crushing of Sugarcane 15.15 Irrigation of Vegetables 15.16 Pest Management of Vegetables 15.17 Vegetable Production 15.18 Application of Fertilizer 15.18 Gur Making 15.19 Picking and Packaging of Fruits 15.20 Harvesting of Vegetables 15.21 Preparation of Land
169
16. Livestock management
No. Activities Yes No
16.1 Farm Cleaning 16.2 Milking 16.3 Dung Collection 16.4 Poultry Farming 16.5 Fodder Cutting 16.6 Whey Making 16.7 Bathing of Animals 16.8 Caring of Sick animals 16.9 Calf caring 16.10 Watering Animals 16.11 Milk Storage 16.12 Shifting of Animals 16.13 Dung Cake Making 16.14 Wanda Mixing 16.15 Treatment of Sick animals 16.16 Grazing 16.17 Offering Fodder 16.18 Dung Manure Making 16.19 Fodder Collection 16.20 Ghee and egg sales
17 Food storage/processing activities
1= Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly agree No. Activities 1 2 3 4 5
17.1 Wheat storage 17.2 Cotton storage 17.3 Wheat cleaning 17.4 Spreading of wheat/ rice in sun light 17.5 Cotton collection from dead balls 17.6 Store cleaning 17.7 Rice cleaning 17.8 Rice storage 17.9 Rice storage for home use 17.10 Earthen store making 17.11 Seed preparation for sowing 17.12 Storage of pulses 17.13 Sitta collection 17.14 Pickle making 17.15 Drying of vegetables and pulses 17.16 Pesticide spray on cotton 17.17 Cotton cleaning
170
18. Home Management 1= Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly agree
No. Activities 1 2 3 4 5
18.1 Preparation of lunch 18.2 Break fast preparation 18.3 Helping in farm work 18.4 House keeping 18.5 Dish washing 18.6 Washing clothes 18.7 Fodder collection 18.8 Water fetching
19. Child care
1= Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly agree
No. Activities 1 2 3 4 5
19.1 Sleeplessness during Child care 19.2 Bathing children 19.3 Massaging the children 19.4 Taking infants to doctors 19.5 Hair cutting of children 19.6 Giving medicine to infants
20. Child education
1= Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly agree
No. Activities 1 2 3 4 5
20.1 Teaching Home management to female children 20.2 Teaching children about dressing 20.3 Taking interest in child education. 20.4 Religious Education 20.5 Respecting elders 20.6 Teaching conversation etiquettes 20.7 Worldly formal Education 20.8 Handicrafts Education to female children
171
21. Provision of household necessities
No. Activities Yes No
21.1 Cloth purchase for family 21.2 Spices purchase 21.3 Vegetable/ Meat purchase 21.4 Purchase of food grains
22. Social Relations
No. Activities Yes No
22.1 Visiting the ill 22.2 Attending the funerals 22.3 Visiting the relatives on different occasions 22.4 Attending Marriage ceremonies 22.5 Do men and women mix up? 22.6 Do they make outsider friends? 22.7 Participation in carnivals 22.8 Helping the poor 22.9 Do you have local organization of men and
women?
23. Political matters
No. Activities Yes No
23.1 Should women participate in politics? 23.2 Do you vote out of your free will? 23.3 Do you work for a political party?
24. Conflict management
No. Activities Yes No
24.1 Have you got any husband/ wife conflicts? 24.2 Your conflicts outside the home 24.3 Resolution on you own 24.4 Resolution through court 24.5 Resolution through the local leaders
172
25. Handicraft making
No. Activities Yes No
25.1 Stitching 25.2 Basket making 25.3 Azarbund and pranda making 25.4 Handicrafts making 25.5 Croshea making
26. Access of various basic necessities of life
No. Items Yes No
26.1 Have you worked for the welfare of the village? 26.2 Have you any girl school in your village? 26.3 Is there trend of girl education? 26.4 Has any girl taken admission in the college? 26.5 Is any girl working after education? 26.6 Have you any medical facilities? 26.7 Is there any dispensary/hospital in your village? 26.8 Does any lady health visitor pay you a visit? 26.9 Do women check up their children to LHV? 26.10 Is there any maternity care facility? 26.11 Have you participated in poor help scheme? 26.12 Do you participate for vocational center? 26.13 Are there paved roads in your village? 26.14 Have you got clean drinking water facility? 26.15 Have you got sewerage facility? 26.16 Do you have electricity in your village? 26.17 Are there electric bulbs and street lights in your
village?
27. Sources of information
No. Sources Yes No
27.1 Friends 27.2 Relatives 27.3 Television 27.4 Radio 27.5 Magazine/ Journals 27.6 Newspapers 27.7 Department of Agriculture extension
173
28. Labor work and training needs
No.
Labor work and training needs Yes No
28.1 Do you perform labor work? 28.2 Do you spend major part of your income on
household?
28.3 Do you spend your income yourself? 28.4 Do your family members like working of the women? 28.5 Do you have control your income? 28.6 Do you have work opportunities? 28.7 Are you satisfied with the distance of work place? 28.8 Are you satisfied with your work hours? 28.9 Are the low income meant jobs meant for women? 28.10 Do you benefit from trainings? 28.11 Are there no training opportunities for women? 28.12 Do you need training in order to acquire expertise in
your work trade?
29. Training needs in crop production
No.
Activity Yes No
29.1 Harvesting and post harvesting techniques 29.2 Marketing 29.3 Pest management 29.4 Seed selection 29.5 Crop management 29.6 Seed treatment 29.7 Seed bed preparation 29.8 Planting method
30. Training needs in livestock management
No. Activity
Yes No
30.1 Safe guard management to care animals from diseases 30.2 Precautionary measures of diseases 30.3 Information about animal diseases 30.4 Taking care of diseased animals 30.5 Artificial Insemination 30.6 Fodder production 30.7 Milking
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31. Training needs in poultry production
No. Activity
Yes No
31.1 Chicken meat production 31.2 Egg storage 31.3 Poultry feed preparation 31.4 Poultry diseases
32. Training needs in food storage
No.
Activity Yes No
32.1 Drying of fruits and vegetables 32.2 Rodentification of grains 32.3 Selection and grading of fruits and vegetables 32.4 Pickle and jam making 32.5 Food storage 32.6 Seed storage 32.7 Fruit and vegetable storage 32.8 Preparation of Earthen store room 32.9 Wheat cleaning
33. Training needs in health and sanitation No.
Activity Yes No
33.1 General health care measures 33.2 Child care 33.3 Drainage 33.4 Information about contagious diseases 33.5 Precautionary measures of contagious diseases 33.6 First aid
34. Hindrances faced by the respondents in agriculture sector
No.
Hindrances Yes No
34.1 Do you think if more health facilities are provided they can work more?
34.2 Do you have less sources of income? 34.3 Do you think if you were more educated you could
earn more?
34.4 Do you face deficiency of technical competencies? 34.5 Do you face deficiency of information? 34.6 Do you think male persons don’t permit women
training?
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34.7 Do you think if women had the decision making powers they would attend trainings or not?
34.8 Do you have TV in the house? 34.9 Do the women watch TV? 34.10 Do you have radio in the home? 34.11 Do the women listen to Radio? 34.12 Do you consult the posters and pamphlets
distributed by Department Of Agriculture?
34.13 Do you have newspaper facility? 34.14 Do the women read news paper? 34.15 Does any social welfare organization work in your
village?
35. Suggestions made by the respondents
No. Suggestions Yes No
35.1 Should women Agriculture Extension agent be appointed? 35.2 Should Department. of Agriculture Extension arrange
trainings for women?
35.3 Should female trainers be appointed for women training? 35.4 In your opinion, can agriculture be an income generating
occupation?
35.5 Should women’s role be highlighted through TV, radio and newspapers?
35.6 Should women be aware of modern agricultural technologies through informal education?
35.7 Should Government provide small scale credit facility to rural women?
35.8 Should Department of Agriculture Extension arrange women trainings?