costs of production ap microeconomics uhs barnett

Costs of ProductionAP MicroeconomicsUHSBarnett

Total Revenue, Total Cost, Profit• We assume that the firm’s goal is to maximize profit.

Profit = Total revenue – Total cost

the amount a firm receives from the sale of its output

the market value of the inputs a firm uses in production

Costs: Explicit vs. Implicit• Explicit costs require an outlay of money,

e.g., paying wages to workers.• Implicit costs do not require a cash outlay,

e.g., the opportunity cost of the owner’s time.• Remember one of the Ten Principles:

The cost of something is what you give up to get it.

• This is true whether the costs are implicit or explicit. Both matter for firms’ decisions.

Explicit vs. Implicit Costs: An ExampleYou need $100,000 to start your business.

The interest rate is 5%. • Case 1: borrow $100,000

• explicit cost = $5000 interest on loan

• Case 2: use $40,000 of your savings, borrow the other $60,000

• explicit cost = $3000 (5%) interest on the loan• implicit cost = $2000 (5%) foregone interest you could have earned on

your $40,000.

In both cases, total (exp + imp) costs are $5000.

Economic Profit vs. Accounting Profit

• Accounting profit

= total revenue minus total explicit costs• Economic profit

= total revenue minus total costs (including explicit and implicit costs)

• Accounting profit ignores implicit costs, so it’s higher than economic profit.

Using the information below, compute the explicit and implicit costs, the accounting and economic profits. Then explain what will happen in this industry and why.Total Revenue $600,000Cost of materials $200,000Wages to employees $250,000Foregone wage $100,000Foregone rent and interest $80,000

The explicit costs would be the out-of-pocket expenses of materials and employee wages: 200,000 + 250,000 = $450,000.

The implicit costs are the foregone opportunities, $100,000 + $80,000 = $180,000.

The accounting profit is $150,000 computed by taking the total revenue $600,000 less the explicit costs $450,000.

Subtracting the additional $180,000 of implicit costs leaves an economic profit of negative $30,000.

Thus if this loss continues, we would anticipate the owner would exit this business.

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 2

Economic profit vs. accounting profit

The equilibrium rent on office space has just increased by $500/month. Determine the effects on accounting profit and economic profit if

a. you rent your office spaceb. you own your office space

© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.


Answers

The rent on office space increases $500/month. a.You rent your office space.

Explicit costs increase $500/month. Accounting profit & economic profit each fall $500/month.

b.You own your office space.Explicit costs do not change, so accounting profit does not change. Implicit costs increase $500/month (opp. cost of using your space instead of renting it), so economic profit falls by $500/month.


• Think about an airliner like Southwest Airlines. What are their fixed costs and what are their variable costs in the short run?

• Fixed – Insurance, depreciation of equipment (capital), taxes, interest on loans, contract employees

• Variable – jet fuel, food (peanuts), wages to hourly employees

Using the information below, compute the explicit and implicit costs, the accounting and economic profits. Then explain what will happen in this industry and why.Total Revenue $600,000Cost of materials $200,000Wages to employees $250,000Foregone wage $100,000Foregone rent and interest $80,000

The explicit costs would be the out-of-pocket expenses of materials and employee wages: 200,000 + 250,000 = $450,000.

The implicit costs are the foregone opportunities, $100,000 + $80,000 = $180,000.

The accounting profit is $150,000 computed by taking the total revenue $600,000 less the explicit costs $450,000.

Subtracting the additional $180,000 of implicit costs leaves an economic profit of negative $30,000.

Thus if this loss continues, we would anticipate the owner would exit this business.

The Production Function• A production function shows the relationship between the quantity

of inputs used to produce a good and the quantity of output of that good.

• It can be represented by a table, equation, or graph. • Example 1:

• Farmer Jack grows wheat. • He has 5 acres of land. • He can hire as many workers as he wants.

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

0 1 2 3 4 5

No. of workers

Qua

ntity

of o

utpu

t

EXAMPLE 1: Farmer Jack’s Production Function

30005

28004

24003

18002

10001

00

Q (bushels of wheat)

L(no. of

workers)

Marginal Product• If Jack hires one more worker, his output rises by the marginal

product of labor. • The marginal product of any input is the increase in output arising

from an additional unit of that input, holding all other inputs constant.

• Notation: ∆ (delta) = “change in…”Examples: ∆Q = change in output, ∆L = change in labor

• Marginal product of labor (MPL) =

∆Q∆L

30005

28004

24003

18002

10001

00

Q (bushels

of wheat)

L(no. of

workers)

EXAMPLE 1: Total & Marginal Product

200

400

600

800

1000

MPL

∆Q = 1000∆L = 1

∆Q = 800∆L = 1

∆Q = 600∆L = 1

∆Q = 400∆L = 1

∆Q = 200∆L = 1

MPL equals the slope of the production function.

Notice that MPL diminishes as L increases.

This explains why the production function gets flatter as L increases.

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

0 1 2 3 4 5

No. of workers

Qua

ntity

of o

utpu

t

EXAMPLE 1: MPL = Slope of Prod Function

30005200

28004400

24003600

18002800

100011000

00

MPLQ

(bushels of wheat)

L(no. of

workers)

Why MPL Is Important• Recall one of the Ten Principles:

Rational people think at the margin.• When Farmer Jack hires an extra worker,

• his costs rise by the wage he pays the worker• his output rises by MPL

• Comparing them helps Jack decide whether he should hire the worker.

Why MPL Diminishes• Farmer Jack’s output rises by a smaller and smaller amount for each

additional worker. Why? • As Jack adds workers, the average worker has less land to work with

and will be less productive. • In general, MPL diminishes as L rises

whether the fixed input is land or capital (equipment, machines, etc.). • Diminishing marginal product:

the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases (other things equa)

EXAMPLE 1: Farmer Jack’s Costs

• Farmer Jack must pay $1000 per month for the land, regardless of how much wheat he grows.

• The market wage for a farm worker is $2000 per month. • So Farmer Jack’s costs are related to how much wheat he

produces….

EXAMPLE 1: Farmer Jack’s Costs

$11,000

$9,000

$7,000

$5,000

$3,000

$1,000

Total Cost

30005

28004

24003

18002

10001

$10,000

$8,000

$6,000

$4,000

$2,000

$0

$1,000

$1,000

$1,000

$1,000

$1,000

$1,00000

Cost of labor

Cost of land

Q(bushels of wheat)

L(no. of

workers)

EXAMPLE 1: Farmer Jack’s Total Cost Curve

Q (bushels of wheat)

Total Cost

0 $1,000

1000 $3,000

1800 $5,000

2400 $7,000

2800 $9,000

3000 $11,000

$0

$2,000

$4,000

$6,000

$8,000

$10,000

$12,000

0 1000 2000 3000

Quantity of wheat

To

tal c

ost

Marginal Cost• Marginal Cost (MC)

is the increase in Total Cost from producing one more unit:

∆TC∆Q

MC =

EXAMPLE 1: Total and Marginal Cost

$10.00

$5.00

$3.33

$2.50

$2.00

Marginal Cost (MC)

$11,000

$9,000

$7,000

$5,000

$3,000

$1,000

Total Cost

3000

2800

2400

1800

1000

0

Q(bushels of wheat)

∆Q = 1000 ∆TC = $2000

∆Q = 800 ∆TC = $2000

∆Q = 600 ∆TC = $2000

∆Q = 400 ∆TC = $2000

∆Q = 200 ∆TC = $2000

MC usually rises as Q rises, as in this example.

EXAMPLE 1: The Marginal Cost Curve

$11,000

$9,000

$7,000

$5,000

$3,000

$1,000

TC

$10.00

$5.00

$3.33

$2.50

$2.00

MC

3000

2800

2400

1800

1000

0

Q(bushels of wheat)

$0

$2

$4

$6

$8

$10

$12

0 1,000 2,000 3,000Q

Mar

gin

al C

ost

($)

Why MC Is Important

• Farmer Jack is rational and wants to maximize his profit. To increase profit, should he produce more or less wheat?

• To find the answer, Farmer Jack needs to “think at the margin.”

• If the cost of additional wheat (MC) is less than the revenue he would get from selling it, then Jack’s profits rise if he produces more.

Fixed and Variable Costs

• Fixed costs (FC) do not vary with the quantity of output produced. • For Farmer Jack, FC = $1000 for his land• Other examples:

cost of equipment, loan payments, rent

• Variable costs (VC) vary with the quantity produced. • For Farmer Jack, VC = wages he pays workers• Other example: cost of materials

• Total cost (TC) = FC + VC

EXAMPLE 2• Our second example is more general,

applies to any type of firm producing any good with any types of inputs.

EXAMPLE 2: Costs

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

620

480

380

310

260

220

170

$100

520

380

280

210

160

120

70

$0

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

$1000

TCVCFCQ

$0

$100

$200

$300

$400

$500

$600

$700

$800

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q

Cost

s

FC

VCTC

Recall, Marginal Cost (MC) is the change in total cost from producing one more unit:

Usually, MC rises as Q rises, due to diminishing marginal product.

Sometimes (as here), MC falls before rising.

(In other examples, MC may be constant.)

EXAMPLE 2: Marginal Cost

6207

4806

3805

3104

2603

2202

1701

$1000

MCTCQ

140

100

70

50

40

50

$70∆TC∆Q

MC =

$0

$25

$50

$75

$100

$125

$150

$175

$200

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q

Co

sts

EXAMPLE 2: Average Fixed Cost

1007

1006

1005

1004

1003

1002

1001

14.29

16.67

20

25

33.33

50

$100

n/a$1000

AFCFCQ Average fixed cost (AFC) is fixed cost divided by the quantity of output:

AFC = FC/Q

Notice that AFC falls as Q rises: The firm is spreading its fixed costs over a larger and larger number of units.

$0

$25

$50

$75

$100

$125

$150

$175

$200

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q

Co

sts

EXAMPLE 2: Average Variable Cost

5207

3806

2805

2104

1603

1202

701

74.29

63.33

56.00

52.50

53.33

60

$70

n/a$00

AVCVCQ Average variable cost (AVC) is variable cost divided by the quantity of output:

AVC = VC/Q

As Q rises, AVC may fall initially. In most cases, AVC will eventually rise as output rises.

$0

$25

$50

$75

$100

$125

$150

$175

$200

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7Q

Co

sts

EXAMPLE 2: Average Total Cost

88.57

80

76

77.50

86.67

110

$170

n/a

ATC

6207

4806

3805

3104

2603

2202

1701

$1000

74.2914.29

63.3316.67

56.0020

52.5025

53.3333.33

6050

$70$100

n/an/a

AVCAFCTCQ Average total cost (ATC) equals total cost divided by the quantity of output:

ATC = TC/Q

Also,

ATC = AFC + AVC

Usually, as in this example, the ATC curve is U-shaped.

$0

$25

$50

$75

$100

$125

$150

$175

$200

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q

Cost

s

EXAMPLE 2: Average Total Cost

88.57

80

76

77.50

86.67

110

$170

n/a

ATC

6207

4806

3805

3104

2603

2202

1701

$1000

TCQ

EXAMPLE 2: The Various Cost Curves Together

AFCAVCATC

MC

$0

$25

$50

$75

$100

$125

$150

$175

$200

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q

Cost

s


Calculating costs


Fill in the blank spaces of this table.

210

150

100

30

10

VC

43.33358.332606

305

37.5012.501504

36.672016.673

802

$60.00$101

n/an/an/a$500

MCATCAVCAFCTCQ

60

30

$10


Answers


Use AFC = FC/QUse AVC = VC/QUse relationship between MC and TCUse ATC = TC/QFirst, deduce FC = $50 and use FC + VC = TC.

210

150

100

60

30

10

$0

VC

43.33358.332606

40.003010.002005

37.502512.501504

36.672016.671103

40.001525.00802

$60.00$10$50.00601

n/an/an/a$500

MCATCAVCAFCTCQ

60

50

40

30

20

$10

EXAMPLE 2: The Various Cost Curves Together

AFCAVCATC

MC

$0

$25

$50

$75

$100

$125

$150

$175

$200

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q

Cost

s

$0

$25

$50

$75

$100

$125

$150

$175

$200

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q

Cost

s

EXAMPLE 2: Why ATC Is Usually U-Shaped

As Q rises:

Initially, falling AFC pulls ATC down.

Eventually, rising AVC pulls ATC up.

Efficient scale:The quantity that minimizes ATC.

EXAMPLE 2: ATC and MC

ATCMC

$0

$25

$50

$75

$100

$125

$150

$175

$200

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Q

Cost

s

When MC < ATC,ATC is falling.

When MC > ATC,ATC is rising.

The MC curve crosses the ATC curve at the ATC curve’s minimum.

Total Cost = ATC*Q = $15*10 = $150Total Variable Cost = AVC*Q = $8*10 = $80The vertical distance between ATC and AVC is AFC, so TFC = AFC*Q = $7*10 = $70If the total fixed cost is $70 then at 20 units of output, the vertical distance between ATC and AVC which is the AFC would be $3.50.

Similar mirror-image relationship between AP & AVC

Costs in the Short Run & Long Run• Short run:

Some inputs are fixed (e.g., factories, land). The costs of these inputs are FC.

• Long run: All inputs are variable (e.g., firms can build more factories, or sell existing ones).

• In the long run, ATC at any Q is cost per unit using the most efficient mix of inputs for that Q (e.g., the factory size with the lowest ATC).

EXAMPLE 3: LRATC with 3 factory sizes

ATCSATCM ATCL

Q

AvgTotalCost

Firm can choose from three factory sizes: S, M, L.

Each size has its own SRATC curve.

The firm can change to a different factory size in the long run, but not in the short run.

EXAMPLE 3: LRATC with 3 factory sizes

ATCSATCM ATCL

Q

AvgTotalCost

QA QB

LRATC

To produce less than QA, firm will choose size S in the long run. To produce between QA and QB, firm will choose size M in the long run. To produce more than QB, firm will choose size L in the long run.

Long run average cost curve (LRATC) shows the minimum average cost of producing any given level of output

A Typical LRATC Curve

Q

ATCIn the real world, factories come in many sizes, each with its own SRATC curve.

So a typical LRATC curve looks like this:

Different industries have different shaped LRATC’s

LRATC

How ATC Changes as the Scale of Production Changes

Economies of scale: ATC falls as Q increases.

Constant returns to scale: ATC stays the same as Q increases.

Diseconomies of scale: ATC rises as Q increases.

LRATC

Q

ATC

The AC curve is broken into three areas

Increasing Returns to Scale (economies of scale) - For instance doubling the inputs leads to a more than doubling of output

Constant Returns to Scale - Doubling of inputs leads to a doubling of output

Decreasing Returns to Scale (diseconomies of scale) - Doubling of inputs leads to less than doubling of output.


• Economies of scale occur when increasing production allows greater specialization: workers more efficient when focusing on a narrow task.• More common when Q is low. • Spreading out of design and development costs (Movie Industry)• Purchasing inputs in bulk – lower per unit cost (railway industry)• more intensive use of highly skilled personnel• more intensive use of capital (for instance, with shifts)• ability to utilize by-products rather than discard them.


• Diseconomies of scale are due to coordination problems in large organizations. E.g., management becomes stretched, can’t control costs. • More common when Q is high.• - difficulties in control and supervision,

- slow decision making due to excessive size of administration,- lack of employee motivation.

The minimum efficient scale: is the smallest output that a plant (or firm) can produce such that its long run average costs are minimized.

Beyond this level of production, as this firm continues to grow, it will see no further cost benefits

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_run_average_cost

The minimum efficient scale: is smallest output that a plant (or firm) can produce such that its long run average costs are minimized.

Beyond this level of production, as this firm continues to grow, it will see no further cost benefits

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_run_average_cost

Difference between short-run ATC & LRATC curves

Economies of Scope: Lower the per unit cost as the range of products produced increases

Discussion Questions:1. What does it mean that a firm can become “too big for its own good”? Can you think of any other organizations (economic or otherwise) that have gotten so big that they’ve failed?

2. Why does your hometown have only one electricity company? Why aren’t utility industries such as water, natural gas, and garbage collection more competitive? How does the concept of economies of scale lead to certain industries being “natural monopolies”?

3. Why don’t more companies make jumbo jets?

http://welkerswikinomics.com/blog/glossary/utility/

S U M M A R Y

• Implicit costs do not involve a cash outlay, yet are just as important as explicit costs to firms’ decisions.

• Accounting profit is revenue minus explicit costs. Economic profit is revenue minus total (explicit + implicit) costs.

• The production function shows the relationship between output and inputs.


S U M M A R Y

• The marginal product of labor is the increase in output from a one-unit increase in labor, holding other inputs constant. The marginal products of other inputs are defined similarly.

• Marginal product usually diminishes as the input increases. Thus, as output rises, the production function becomes flatter, and the total cost curve becomes steeper.

• Variable costs vary with output; fixed costs do not.


S U M M A R Y

• Marginal cost is the increase in total cost from an extra unit of production. The MC curve is usually upward-sloping.

• Average variable cost is variable cost divided by output. • Average fixed cost is fixed cost divided by output. AFC always falls

as output increases. • Average total cost (sometimes called “cost per unit”) is total cost

divided by the quantity of output. The ATC curve is usually U-shaped.


S U M M A R Y

• The MC curve intersects the ATC curve at minimum average total cost. When MC < ATC, ATC falls as Q rises. When MC > ATC, ATC rises as Q rises.

• In the long run, all costs are variable. • Economies of scale: ATC falls as Q rises. Diseconomies of scale:

ATC rises as Q rises. Constant returns to scale: ATC remains constant as Q rises.


costs of production ap microeconomics uhs barnett

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