Keeping Healthy.In a diet you need Carbohydrates, fat and

protein to help your body release energy and

build cells.

You need vitamins and minerals to keep your body healthy.

Malnourished = A person with an unbalance diet.

Metabolic Rate = chemical reactions in your cells work faster when you exercise.

Long term obesity can lead you to type 2 diabetes which is high blood sugar. You can stop this by eating less carbohydrates and do more exercise.

Your metabolic rate can be

inherited by your parents.

There are two types of cholesterol:• Bad cholesterol can lead to heart disease.• Good cholesterol is good for your cell membranes.• Saturated fat increases your blood cholesterol levels.

Pathogens= Infectious disease.

Pathogens are tiny microorganisms such

as bacteria and viruses.

Bacteria and Viruses produce toxins rapidly in your body which makes you ill.

Viruses reproduce inside your cell.

Semmelweissis a Doctor who realised that infections are transferred by people to people in a hospital and told Doctors to wash their hands before curing someone. No one believed his theory.

White blood cells are a part of the immune system and they do 3 things to cure your body:1. Ingest pathogens. (Destroys them).2. Produces antibodies (Destroy certain pathogens).3. Produce antitoxins (Counteracts with the toxins

which are produced by the pathogens.

Antibiotics ONLY kill Bacteria's.

Painkillers relieve the symptoms of a disease but do not cure the disease. Growing Cultures:

1. Sterilise the loop by heating it. (This kills the microorganisms on them).

2. Dig the sterilised loop in bacteria and make a zigzag streak on the agar.

3. Place the lid on top on the dish quickly.

4. Seal the lid with tape to stop microorganisms going in from the air. (Do not seal all the way so oxygen can get in.)

5. Then put it in a incubator. (At school 25*C and in the industry 35*C.)

Epidemic= Disease that spread in country. Pandemic= Disease that spread across countries.

Vaccine contain a dead pathogen which is injected

in the body. Then the white blood cell react by

producing antibodies which makes the person

immune. So if the person was to get infected by

the disease again the body will react quicker to

stop further infections. This happens as antibody

realises the antigen.

Coordination and Control.

5 Receptors:Eyes= Light.Nose= Smell.Ears= Sound.Tongue= Chemicals.Skin= Touch.

Reflex action:Stimulus Receptor Sensory Neuron Relay Neuron Motor Neuron Muscle/Gland Action.

Stimulus = Object. Receptor= Detects stimulus.

Sensory Neuron= Transmit impulses to the CNS.CNS= Central Nervous System.

Relay Neuron= Passes impulses on.Action= Response.

Motor Neuron= Carries impulses

which are passed to the muscle.

FSH is made in the pituitary gland which causes the egg to mature and oestrogen is produced.

Oestrogen is produced in the ovaries which stops the

further production of FSH. It produces LH which

develops the fertilised egg. Contraceptive pills contain oestrogen and progesterone which stops FSH which means that the egg doesn’t mature.

Internal Environment:• Water Content.• Ion Content.• Temperature.• Blood sugar Level.

We loose water by:

• Urine.• Sweat.• Breathing.

We must keep our temperature constant otherwise our enzymes wont work.

Phototropism= Plant shoots

grow towards light.

Gravitropism= Plants grow down towards gravity.

Auxin is a hormone in a plant

which controls Phototropism and

Gravitropism.

Medicines and drugs.

Developing new medicines:1. Tested on cells and tissue organs.2. Tested on animals.3. Tested on healthy people.4. Tested on patients.

Placebo= Medicine that does

not contain drugs.

Sometimes in a trial half the patients get the actual drug and the other half get a placebo. This is to see if the drug actually

affects the patients.

Double-Blind Trial= Doctor and patients do not know who has the drug.

Thalidomide:This was a drug which was made for sleeping

pills but pregnant women started to take them

as it stopped morning sickness but when the

babies where born they had limb abnormalities

and when the doctors found this out it was

banned for pregnant women. It helps other

diseases such as Leprosy.

Withdrawal Symptoms= Affects you get after you stop taking addictive drugs.

Recreational Drugs are used for

pleasure only and affect the brain

and nervous system.

Cannabis can lead to mental illnesses.

People who take cannabis take

stronger drugs after this such as

heroin as cannabis isn’t as affective

for them as before so they crave for

something more stronger.

Steroid is a drug which builds up mass and muscles.

Strong Painkillers are banned as when athletes get injured they may ignore it and this will cause further damage.

Adaptation and Survival.Plants need:• Light.• Water.• Carbon Dioxide.• Oxygen.• Nutrients/ion.

Animals need:

• Food.

• Water.

• Oxygen.

Adaptation= Special Features of an Organism.

Adaptations allows animals to survive in a particular habitat and conditions.

Plants make food by photosynthesis. Most organisms can survive in the

temperature below 40 degrees which

allows their enzymes to work.

Extremophiles= Microorganisms which

are adapted to live in conditions where

enzymes don’t work. Bigger animals have smaller surface area compared to their volume. This means that they can contain more energy more easily but is difficult to cool down.

Stomata: Holes through the leaves which makes plants lose water.

Water collect water by:

• Extensive root system.

• Small waxy leaves.

Competition= Fight for water, food, habitat

and mates. Predators and Preys may be camouflaged so they cant see each other.

Plants such as cacti have become adapted

to conserve water.Some plants will spread their seeds over a wide area so they do not compete with themselves such as:• By animals.• Wind.• Mini explosions.

Non living Factors:• Temperature.• Rainfall.• Light.• Oxygen.

Living Factors:• New predator.• New disease.• New plants.• New food.• New habitats.

Energy in biomass.

Biomass= Mass of living materials in plants

and animals.

Green plants pass solar energy to

chemical energy which is passed

through the food chain.

Some energy is wasted between

each stage of the food chain by:

• Faeces.• Urine.• Respiration.

Detritus Feeders=Animals that eat dead animals and plants and produce waste materials.

Decomposers= Decayed organisms that are microorganisms.

Sewage Treatment Plants and Compost Heaps are the way

humans recycle waste.

Variation, Reproduction and New Technology.

Chromosomes= Contained in the cell of a nucleus.

Genes= Carried by the chromosomes thread. Gametes =Nuclei sex cells.

Genetic information is passed from both

parents the offspring during reproduction. They

contain 2 genes which are inherited by both

parents.

Different genes control different

characteristics.

Asexual Reproduction= All information comes from one parents as it does not involve fusion of gametes. As both parents have identical genes.

Sexual Reproduction= Mixing of information from both parents as there is fusion of gametes.

Clones= Individuals who are genetically identical to their parents.Plants can be cloned by taking cuttings and growing them.

Tissue Culture is a way to clone a plant. You take the plant and grow them under special conditions. This was is expensive.

Embryo Transplants are used to clone animals. You take embryo with unspecialised cell and split into smaller group cells and each group has identical cells which is then transplanted.

Adult cell cloning is another way of cloning people. You get the nucleus and remove the unfertilised egg. Then the nucleus is removed from the skin and is placed in the empty egg. The new cell is given an electric shock and this allows it to divide and becomes into and embryo. Then this is inserted in the womb of the mother.

Genetic Engineering= Changing the genetic

make-up of an organism.

Fundamental Ideas of Chemistry.Elements=Substances in the periodic table.

Atom=Element is made up of it.

Compounds= 2 or more elements combined together.

Charges:• Protons= +1• Neutron= 0• Electron= -1

Atomic Number=Protons.(Top

number)

Mass number= (Bottom Number).

Number of neutrons= Mass- Protons.

Covalent Bonding =Non mental.

Ionic Bonding = Mental.

Rocks and Building materials.Cement=Limestone+

Calcium Carbonate.

Concrete= Cement+ Sand+

Aggregate + Water.

Calcium Carbonate Calcium Oxide+ Carbon dioxide CaCO3 CaO + CO2

Advantages of limestone quarries:• Job for the local.• More customers.• Trade for local

businesses.• Improved roads.

Disadvantages of limestone quarries:• Dust.• Noise.• More traffic.• Loss habitats/wild life.

Motar= Cement +sand+ water.

Metals and their uses.

Anything below carbon can be extracted with carbon as it is more reactive. The ones above carbon can also extract the compounds below. But carbon cannot extract the compounds above as they are more reactive.

Ore=Rock that contains enough metal to make it worth extracting.

Iron oxide is heated at a high temperature in a

blast furnace using carbon. 96% of the iron is

left and it makes it brittle and hard as it has few

uses as a cast iron. When you remove the

carbon it makes pure iron but it will be too soft.

Steels are an alloy as it is a mixture of iron, carbon and other elements.

Low Carbon Steel= Easily shaped.

High Carbon Steel= Hard.

Aluminium are low density.

Aluminium has to be extracted by a process called electrolysis as it is more reactive that carbon in the reactivity series. It has to be extracted at a very high temperature and lots of electricity. This is why aluminium is expensive to extract.

Titanium is resistant to corrosion and

strong. It has low density. Titanium

oxide is reduced by carbon but when

it reacts it makes titanium brittle. It

has many stages when it is extracted

and a lot of energy is used which

makes it expensive.

Extracting copper is done by a

process called smelting. It extracts

copper with copper rich ores.

Smelting= Heating the ore strongly in a furnace.

Phytomining= Plants absorb copper compounds from the ground. This happens when the plants are burnt and ash is produced from which the copper can be extracted with.

Bioleaching= Using bacteria to produce solution containing copper compounds.

Crude Oils and Fuels.We can separate

mixtures of liquids

by distillation.

Alkanes General Formula= CnH2n+2

Crude oil has hydrocarbons which is a molecule of hydrogen and carbon. They are called alkanes.

• Hydrocarbons with the smallest molecules have the lowest boiling point and are collected at the top.

• Hydrocarbons with the largest molecules have the highest boiling point and are collected at the top.

Fractions with low boiling points have low viscosity and are flammable.

When hydrocarbons are burnt they are oxidised to carbon and water.

Incomplete Combustion produces carbon monoxide.

Fossil Fuels contain sulphur compounds. When it is burnt it produces sulphur dioxide which causes acid rain.

When fuels burn oxygen and nitrogen in the air combine and form nitrogen oxide which also causes acid rain.

Burning fuels produces carbon dioxide which causes global warming and carbon monoxide is also produced which causes global dimming.

Biofuels= Plants and animals products

which are renewable. Biodiesel = Made from vegetable oil.

Products from oil.

Large Hydrocarbons broken into smaller molecules is done by a process called cracking.

2 ways in cracking hydrocarbons:1. Heating the mixture of hydrocarbon vapour and

steaming it at a high temperature.2. Passing hydrocarbons vapour over a hot catalyst.

Alkenes formula: CnH2n

800*C +CatalystC10 C5H12 + C3H6 + C2H4 Decane Pentane + Propane + Ethane

Alkenes have a double bond between the 2 carbon atoms which makes it more reactive than alkanes. Alkenes react with bromine water which turns from orange to colourless.

Plastic= Made from large molecules called polymers.

Polymers= Made up from small molecules called monomers.

Polymerisation= Reaction to make polymers.

Ethene Poly(Ethene)

Propene Poly(Propene)

Shape memory polymers change back to their shape when the temperature or condition are changed.

Biodegradable= Materials that can be broken down microorganisms.

Plastics made from non-biodegradable polymers can have corn starch mixed with them which means the microorganisms can break down the corn starch so the plastic can break down into small pieces which are then mixed in soil/compost.

Ethanol Formula= C2H60

Ethanol is made from plants sugar called yeast this process is called fermentation.

Ethanol can be made by the hydration of Ethene which is reacted with steam at a high temperature in a process called catalyst.

Plant oils. Vegetable oils = Are made by seeds, nuts and fruits.

2 methods on extracting oils are:1. Crushing and pressing the plant materials and then remove the

water and other impurities.2. Distil the plants materials mixed with water and the produce a

mixture of water and oil which would be separated.

When oil is burnt in the air it can be used as fuels which are made to make biofuels such as biodiesels.

Vegetable oils have a carbon carbon double bond(C=C) as they are unsaturated. Unsaturated oils react with bromine water to make it from orange to colourless.

Vegetable oils properties for food: • They are cooked at high temperature.• Changes the colour.• Changes the smell.• Changes the taste.• More energy.

Unsaturated oils react with hydrogen to make the (C=C) bounds into single bonds. This is done by hydrogenation which is done at 60 degrees with a nickel catalyst.

Hydrogenated oils have a higher melting points as they are saturated. This reaction is called hardening.

When oil and water are added together they are separated into 2 layers. When you mix it together they have tiny droplets which are slow to separate. This mixture is called emulsifier.

Emulsifiers= Substances that stops oil and water from separating in to 2 layers.

Emulsifiers molecules have a small hydrophilic and a long hydrophobic part. The hydrophilic (head) is attracted to water and hydrophobic (tail) is attracted to oil. Hydrophobic parts get into every small molecules in the oil and this makes it surrounded by the hydrophilic parts. This stops the water and oil from joining and separating.

Our changing planet.

Tectonic Plates= Huge slabs of rock made up on the Earths Crust and top part of the mantle.

Convection Currents= Circular motion of matter caused by heating in fluids.

Earths atmosphere in the past:• 4 billion years ago the Earth was full of volcanoes

which released carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour.

• As the Earth cooled down the water vapour condensed which formed oceans and the atmosphere mostly had carbon dioxide and water vapour.

• 2 billions years later algae and plants evolved which they used carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and released oxygen in the air.

• More plants increased, carbon dioxide decreased, oxygen increased.

Miller and Urey are scientists who both done an experiment together to see what scientists at that time thought was in the early atmosphere. They done this by using a mixture of water, ammonia, methane and hydrogen. They used a high voltage spark to stimulate a lightening. After a week they found amino acid and building blocks for protein which was produced by the experiment.

Fractional Distillation= Process to separate different boiling points from a liquid.

Fractional distillation of liquid air is done to produce pure oxygen and liquid nitrogen. They are cooled at -200 degrees and fed into a fractional distillation column. Nitrogen is separated from oxygen and argon further distillation is used to produce pure oxygen and argon.

Energy Transfer by heating. Infrared Radiation= Electromagnetic waves between visible light and microwaves in the electromagnetic spectrum.

Emit= Gives off.

Infrared radiation can travel through a vacuum. This is how we get energy from the Sun.

Dark, matt surfaces are good emitters of infrared radiation. If an object is painted a black, dull colour will transfer energy and cool down quickly compared to a white shiny object.

Dark, matt surfaces are good absorbers of infrared radiation. If an object is painted a black, dull colour will become hotter compared to a white shiny object.

Light shiny colours are good reflectors.

Conduction= Transfer of energy from particles to particles in matter. (Solid are good conductors)

When solids are heated particles a the end gain kinetic energy and vibrate more and this makes energy to be passed to the next particles. In this way energy is transferred.

Insulators= Material/Object which is a poor conductor. (Liquids and gases are poor conductors)

Convection=Transfer of energy by the bulk of movement of a heated fluid. (Liquids)

When a liquid is heated it expands and it becomes less dense and rises. Convection currents transfer energy through out.

Evaporation= Turning liquid into vapour.

Evaporation increases the:• Surface area.• Temperature.• Draught of air near the liquids surface.

Condensation= Turning solids to liquids.

Condensation increases:• Surface area.• Temperature.

Maximise Energy Transfer to keep things cool:• Good conductor.• Painted dull black.• Air flowed around maximised.

Minimise Energy Transfer to keep things warm:• Good insulators.• White and shiny.• Convection currents by trapping air

in small pockets.

Specific Heat Capacity= Energy needed by 1kg of the substance to raise its temperature by 1*C.

Heat Transfer.Infrared Radiation:• Heat.• All objects.• Hotter objects More.• Electromagnetic Wave. (Speed of

light).• Different coloured surfaces emit

differently.• Different coloured surfaces absorb

differently.• Can detect with your skin but not your

eyes.• Can detect with a special camera

called theromgram.• No particles required.• All objects emit and absorb.

Conduction:• In metals they have atoms which are

arranged in columns and rows. They also have electrons which are free to move called delocalised.

• When you heat one end of the metal the atoms inside start to vibrate vigorously and this causes the heat energy to pass on to the next atoms.

• The electrons also vibrate and pass heat energy on.

• This makes metals a good conductor.

Convection (Convection Current):• Gain energy.• Liquid Expands.• Less denser.• Lighter.• Liquid rises.• Liquid cools.• Liquid contracts.• More denser.• Falls.

Evaporation:• The particles absorb heat energy.• They move faster.• Some escape from the surface

and from the force of attraction (keeps the particles together in liquids.)

• Remaining liquid is cool.

Condensation:• Particles lose heat energy.• Particles move more slowly.• Particles then move closer

together.• The gas condenses into a liquid

Heat Transfer

Infrared Radiation.

Conduction.

Evaporation.Condensation.

Convection.

Electrical Energy.

Electrical Appliance= Machine powered by electricity.

PET

P= Power in Watts (W)E=Energy in Joules (J)T=Time taken in seconds (S)

Electrical energy supplied:Total cost= Number of kWh X Cost per kWh

Cost Effectiveness:• Buying the appliance.• Installing the appliance.• Running.• Maintenance. • Environmental. • Interest charged on a loan to buy the appliance.

Payback time= Time taken for something to produce savings to match how much it costs.

Kinetic Energy= Energy of a moving object.

Gravitational Potential Energy=

Energy of an object due to its

gravitational field.

Conservation energy= The total

amount of energy is always the same.

Electrical Energy= Energy transferred by the movement of electrical charge.

Machine= A device which is forced to

apply at a point to produce another

force at another point.

Machine= A device which is forced

to apply at a point to produce

another force at another point.

A energy we get out of a machine is either useful (energy transferred) or wasteful energy (energy not fully transferred).

Useful EnergyEfficiency= -------------------- X 100% Wasted Energy

Generating Electricity.

1)Geothermal:You build these near volcanic areas and you pump cold water underground where the rocks heat the water and turns it into steam causing the turbine to turn. This makes no pollution and is reliable.

2)Solar Cells:This converts the light into electricity. This is not that reliable as there is no light at night or on a cloudy day so this stops electricity being produced. It also makes no polluting gases.

3)Wind Turbines:The wind is used to turn the turbines to produce electricity. This is not reliable as if there is no wind then it will not will also it does not make pollution but makes a lot of noise and visual pollution which people do not like to see.

4)Hydroelectric Scheme:You have a dam which separates the water and at the top the water is high and at the bottom it is low. This is reliable and only produces visible pollution.

5)Tidal Waves:When the tide comes it drives the turbine which generates electricity. This is reliable and produces no pollution but does harm the environment.

6)Wave Energy:The wave moves up and down which drives air to the turbine which causes it to spin. This is not reliable as you have to wait for the wave to come and it produces no pollution.

• The step up transformer increases the voltage but decreases the current (flow) of electricity. This is because the heating has a heating affect. This will make the heat go through the wires and into the air which will be wasted.

• The step down transformer will decrease the voltage.

4 3

6

U values:High U values= Bad.Low U values= Good.

Waves.Transverse Waves= Vibrate the particles in a

perpendicular direction in which the wave travels. Longitudinal Waves= Vibrates the particles in a parallel direction on where the wave travels.

Electromagnetic waves: Electric and magnetic disturbance that travels energy from one place to another. Mechanical waves= Vibration that travels through substances.

Amplitude= Height of the wave crest.Wavelength= Distance from 1 crest to the next.Frequency= Number of waves passing each seconds (Hz)

V= Wave speed in metres per seconds. (m/s)F= Frequency in hertz (Hz)H= wavelength in metres (m)

Speed of wave= v= F X H

Refle

ction

. Diffraction.

Refr

actio

n.

Sound is caused by vibration in a substance which is travelled is wave.

Musical sounds change depending on the pitch.

Electromagnetic Waves.

• Visible light is used to see the different wave lengths of the different colours.

• Microwaves to send signals to satellites and within the mobile phone network.

The Doppler effect is the source which is moving closer to an observer the wavelength and frequency of the wave is detected by the observer which has shifted from the original place.