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BIOCHEMISTRY


•  Chemistry•  Structural Biology•  Basic Components of Life•  The Periodic Table•  Ions and Chemical Bonds•  Minerals and PH Levels•  Basic Metabolism

WHAT WE WILL COVER IN THIS MODULE


CHEMISTRY




WHAT WE WILL COVER IN THIS SECTION

•  What is Chemistry?•  Major areas of Chemistry•  Chemistry terms


WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?

•  Chemistry - the study of matter and the changes it undergoes


MAJOR AREAS OF CHEMISTRY

•  Biochemistry–  The study of life at the molecular level as well as the processes

associated with life, including reproduction, growth, and respiration

•  Inorganic chemistry–  The study of matter consisting of all the elements (except for carbon

and hydrogen) and their combinations




MAJOR AREAS OF CHEMISTRY

•  Analytical chemistry –  The analysis of matter in order to determine its composition and the

quality of each type of matter that is present

•  Physical chemistry –  The study in which matter behaves


IMPORTANT TERMS IN CHEMISTRY

•  Matter –  Anything that has mass and takes up space

•  Energy –  The capacity to do work or to put matter into motion


STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY





•  Cell structure•  Membrane transport•  Biomolecules

–  Carbohydrates–  Protein–  Lipids–  Enzymes



CELL STRUCTURE•  Cells perform a variety of chemical reactions

–  All metabolic reactions are performed by cells –  Some cell properties include:

•  Cells can move, respond to stimuli, and regulate activities such as controlling DNA synthesis and cell division, make specific proteins only when needed, and turn on and off metabolic pathways

•  All cells contain–  Plasma membrane - separates cells from their external environment –  Cytoplasm - fluid-filled cell interior –  Nuclear material - genetic information stored as DNA




CELL STRUCTURE

•  Nucleus–  A small, dense, positively charged area located in the center of a cell;

the cell’s “control system” that is responsible for all actions •  Nucleolus

–  A structure located within the nucleus that is responsible for transcribing RNA and processing and assembling ribosomes

•  Endoplasmic Reticulum–  An organelle located within a cell that synthesizes lipids and proteins


CELL STRUCTURE

•  Secretory Granules–  An organelle located within a cell that is responsible for storing

hormones and secreting them at a later time •  Microfilaments

–  Stringy, rod-like proteins located within a cell that allows the cell to hold its shape, move itself, and move organelles around

•  Microtubules –  Another form of protein located within a cell that is designed to help a

cell hold its shape; unlike microfilaments, microtubules are thick and strong


CELL STRUCTURE

•  Mitochondria–  A football shaped organelle located within a cell that is responsible for

generating energy by breaking down carbohydrates and fat–  Structure located within the nucleus that is responsible for transcribing

RNA and processing and assembling ribosomes




MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

•  The movement of particles through a cell’s membrane, or outer layer

•  The membrane, or outer layer of a cell, is made up of two layers of lipids

•  These layers are referred to as the phospholipid bilayer •  The main functions of these layers are:

–  To give the cell it’s structure–  Regulate what passes through or connects to the cell wall



BIOMOLECULES

•  Organic compounds are compounds that are found in living things•  All organic compounds contains the element carbon•  Some of the most important biomolecules include:

–  Water–  Carbohydrates–  Proteins–  Lipids–  Nucleic acids–  Enzymes




CARBOHYDRATES

•  Macronutrients that are made by plants •  The body’s preferred source of fuel •  Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen •  Can be categorized as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and

polysaccharides


CARBOHYDRATES


PROTEIN

•  Protein is present in all living things•  A macronutrient that is made up of amino acids•  Contains the elements hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon•  Made up of a long chain of amino acids known as peptide bonds




PROTEIN


LIPIDS

•  Macronutrients that are made up of saturated and unsaturated fatty acid chains

•  Classified as saturated, unsaturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated

•  Required in nearly every metabolic process within our body•  Excess fat is stored in adipose tissue, or fatty tissue, in the form of

fuel


EXAMPLE OF FATTY ACID CHAINS




ENZYMES

•  Complex proteins that act as catalysts, or messengers, to speed up the rate of chemical reactions that take place in the body

•  Play an important role in digestion, metabolism, and absorption•  Bodily functions that would normally take days or weeks or require

high temperatures are completed almost instantly with the help of enzymes

•  Example: Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down sucrose to glucose and fructose


ENZYMES


BASIC COMPONENTS OF LIFE





•  Atoms •  Elements•  Compounds•  Molecules•  Periodic Law•  The Periodic Table


ATOMS

•  The smallest parts or building blocks of all matter•  Parts of an atom are called subatomic particles. These include:

–  Proton: Has a positive electrical charge–  Neutron: Has a neutral electrical charge–  Electron: Has a negative electrical


•  The protons and neutrons are clustered together in the center to form the nucleus

•  The electrons orbit the nucleus and are responsible for initiating many of the chemical reactions we see on a daily basis

ATOMS




•  The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called its electron configuration

•  Electron configuration determines the type of atom it is

•  There are many different types of atoms (1 for each element)

•  Their differences are what give elements unique chemical properties

ATOMS


ELEMENTS

•  A pure substance that cannot be changed into a simpler form by any chemical reaction

•  Made up completely by one type of atom•  Designated by a one or two letter chemical shorthand called an

atomic symbol •  For example:

–  C = Carbon–  Na = Sodium (Latin name natrium)


ELEMENTS

•  The six most important elements are: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur

•  These elements are also known as the acronym CHNOPS




COMPOUNDS

•  Compounds are substances that result from the combination of two or more elements

•  Example: The elements Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl) combine to form the compound sodium chloride, or NaCl


MOLECULES

•  A combination of two or more atoms held together by a chemical bond

•  Example: Two hydrogen atoms combine with one oxygen atom to form the compound water (H20)


PERIODIC LAW

•  The arrangement of elements according to their atomic mass expressed as “amu”

•  Atomic mass can be located underneath the element’s letter symbol on the periodic table

•  Atomic number is listed above each element’s letter symbol in the periodic table

•  For example, Carbon has an atomic mass (or weight) of 12.01 amu




PERIODIC LAW


PERIODIC TABLE

•  A visual representation of the periodic law•  Formatted by columns of groups

–  Groups: families of elements that share many of the same qualities, such as how their electrons are arranged in an atom

•  The periodic table consists of six periods–  Period: A horizontal row of elements in the periodic table


PERIODIC TABLE




IONS AND CHEMICAL BONDING



•  Ions•  Chemical bonds

–  Ionic bonds–  Covalent bonds–  Hydrogen bonds


IONS

•  Ions are electrically charged atoms or molecules•  Result from a gain or a loss of one or more electrons •  This results in either a negative or positive charge•  Ions of opposite charges attract each other

–  Atoms have a desire to be stable so unstable atoms (ions) tend to bond with each other to become stable

–  This attraction is the essence of an ionic bond, which is a type of chemical bond




CHEMICAL BONDS

•  Chemical bonds occur when there is an attraction between two atoms in a compound

•  Two main types of chemical bonds–  Ionic bonds–  Covalent bonds

•  A third type of chemical bond is the hydrogen bond


IONIC BONDS

•  The transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another •  This forms a bond of charged ions held together by electric force•  This bond is often broken through the addition of water (hydrolysis)


COVALENT BOND

•  Occurs when two atoms share electrons in order to become stable




COVALENT BOND

•  Example:–  A Hydrogen atom is not stable on its own–  When combined with another hydrogen atom, a covalent bond is

formed using the equation below:


HYDROGEN BOND

•  More of an attraction than a true bond

•  Forms when a hydrogen atom that is already linked to one electronegative atom, such as nitrogen or oxygen, links with another electron-hungry atom so that a “bridge” is formed between the two atoms


MINERALS & PH LEVELS





•  Minerals•  pH levels•  The pH Scale•  Homeostasis & Acidosis


MINERALS

•  Minerals are ions or elements that have either a positive or negative charge

•  This instability makes it easy for them to bind with water, which allows them to be absorbed by the body

•  Without the absorption of minerals, many basic metabolic functions, such as metabolism and muscle contraction, would not be possible

•  Minerals are also responsible for maintaining pH balance


pH LEVELS

•  pH balance is the measure of acidity or alkalinity •  Minerals can be either acidic or alkaline•  Electrolytes are minerals that carry an electric charge and can be

broken down into acids, bases (alkalis), or salts•  The presence of acids or bases determine the pH level in a solution

–  Acids - Substances that release hydrogen ions–  Bases - Substances that collect hydrogen ions

•  Together, the body needs a healthy amount of each in order to achieve balance




THE PH SCALE


HOMEOSTASIS & ACIDOSIS

•  Homeostasis is the ability of a system to stay in balance by way of self-regulation

•  An example of homeostasis is the body’s ability to maintain pH balance

•  This balance can be achieved by having the right amount of acids and bases in the blood

•  Neutral blood pH is roughly 7 on the pH scale


HOMEOSTASIS & ACIDOSIS

•  Acidosis occurs when the blood becomes acidic, due to a saturation of hydrogen ions

•  Mineral deficiency leads to acidosis in the body•  May result in the increased risk of developing chronic diseases•  Caused by improper diet, lack of sleep, stress, and poor lifestyle

choices




HOW ACIDOSIS CAN MAKE US SICK

•  Interference of enzyme function •  Too many acids cause inflammation and hardening of tissues •  Depletion of alkaline minerals


BASIC METABOLISM



•  Metabolism of Macronutrients•  Measuring metabolism•  Basic Metabolic Rate•  Body Mass Index




METABOLISM

•  Metabolism can be classified as…–  All of the chemical reactions that take place inside an organism that

involve the breakdown of molecules to produce energy–  That energy is then used to produce other molecules that are

necessary for basic bodily function•  There are two types of metabolic reactions

–  Catabolic: Molecules broken down to release energy–  Anabolic: Energy is used to build up molecules


METABOLISM

•  The process of metabolism can be easily demonstrated by following the path of a nutrient as is goes through the body

•  Nutrient metabolism is required for health, vitality, and growth of an organism

•  The major nutrients that contribute to metabolism are carbohydrates, fats, and proteins


CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

•  The process an organism goes through to convert carbs into energy•  Through digestion and absorption, carbohydrates are broken down

into simple sugars (ex. glucose) in the digestive system then released into the bloodstream

•  They follow the metabolic pathway of Glycolysis•  From there, glucose can be oxidized for energy, stored as glycogen

or fat, or synthesized into other compounds




FAT METABOLISM

•  Fat metabolism requires the liver and adipose tissue (fatty tissue)•  Through digestion and absorption, fats are broken down into fatty

acids and glycerol•  They follow the metabolic pathway of Beta-Oxidation•  From there, they can be oxidized for energy, stored as triglycerides

in fat cells, or synthesized into cellular membranes•  In a state of starvation:

–  Fatty acids can be used to create ketone bodies for fuel–  Glycerol can be used to create glucose for brain/blood cells


PROTEIN METABOLISM

•  Protein metabolism has two functions in the body –  Anabolism - Tissue building –  Catabolism - Tissue breakdown

•  Through digestion and absorption, proteins are broken down into amino acids

•  They follow the metabolic pathway of Transamination•  From there they can be oxidized for energy, stored as glycogen or

fat, or made into new protein compounds


MEASURING METABOLISM

•  There are several ways to measure our body’s efficiency in breaking down the macronutrients

•  Metabolism and body composition are measured in order to classify an individual’s health based on their height to weight ratio

•  This can be done by measuring a person’s basal metabolic rate and body mass index




BASIC METABOLIC RATE

•  Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is used to determine a person’s energy needs at rest

•  The sum of all the chemical reactions going on in the body•  BMR is the largest need of energy for most people, accounting for

60-70 percent of total calories •  Can be measured using medical equipment


BODY MASS INDEX

•  Body mass index (BMI) is a medical standard used to define obesity by calculating body weight and height

•  BMI is calculated by dividing a person’s weight in kilograms by their height in meters squared.


BODY MASS INDEX•  These are the ranges to determine BMI classification:

BMI Classifica,on

< 18.5 Underweight

18.5 – 24.9 Normal

25 – 29.9 Overweight

> 30.0 Obesity




END OF BIOCHEMISTRY MODULE

Please submit your test questions by the due date on your Session Calendar.

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